UNIT - 3: GEOMETRY OF SPACE CURVES

STRUCTURE
3.0 Learning Objectives
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Vector Valued Function of a Scalar Variable
3.2.1 Limits of a Vector Function
3.2.2 Continuity of a Vector Function
3.2.3 Derivative of a Vector Function
3.3 Unit Tangent, Normal and Bi-Normal Vectors to a Space Curve
3.3.1 Arc Length along a Curve
3.3.2 The Arc Length Function
3.3.3 The Unit Tangent Function T
3.3.4 Normal and Bi-Normal Vectors
3.4 Curvature and Torsion
3.4.1 Circle of Curvature
3.4.2 Radius of Curvature
3.4.3 Expression for curvature
3.4.4 Torsion
3.4.5 Expression for torsion
3.5 Examples
3.6 Summary
3.7 Keywords
3.8 Learning Activity
3.9 Unit End Questions
3.10 References

3.0 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After studying this unit, student will be able to:

 Find out the limits of a vector function

 Calculate arc length of a curve
 Know what are Normal and Bi-Normal Vectors
  Calculate the Radius of Curvature
 Work out the expression for torsion

3.1 INTRODUCTION

Curved space often refers to a spatial geometry which is not "flat", where a flat space is
described by Euclidean geometry. Curved spaces can generally be described by Riemannian
geometry though some simple cases can be described in other ways.

According to Newton everything attracts everything else with a force inversely proportional to
the square of the distance from it, and objects respond to forces with accelerations proportional
to the forces. They are Newton’s laws of universal gravitation and of motion. As you know,
they account for the motions of balls, planets, satellites, galaxies, and so forth.

Einstein had a different interpretation of the law of gravitation. According to him, space and
time—which must be put together as space-time—are curved near heavy masses. And it is the
attempt of things to go along “straight lines” in this curved space-time which makes them move
the way they do. Now that is a complex idea—very complex. It is the idea we want to explain
in this chapter.

Our subject has three parts. One involves the effects of gravitation. Another involves the ideas
of space-time which we already studied. The third involves the idea of curved space-time. We
will simplify our subject in the beginning by not worrying about gravity and by leaving out the
time—discussing just curved space. We will talk later about the other parts, but we will
concentrate now on the idea of curved space—what is meant by curved space, and, more
specifically, what is meant by curved space in this application of Einstein. Now even that much
turns out to be somewhat difficult in three dimensions. So we will first reduce the problem still
further and talk about what is meant by the words “curved space” in two dimensions.

In order to understand this idea of curved space in two dimensions you really have to appreciate
the limited point of view of the character who lives in such a space. Suppose we imagine a bug
with no eyes who lives on a plane,. He can move only on the plane, and he has no way of
knowing that there is any way to discover any “outside world.” We are, of course, going to
argue by analogy. We live in a three-dimensional world, and we don’t have any imagination
about going off our three-dimensional world in a new direction; so we have to think the thing
out by analogy. It is as though we were bugs living on a plane, and there was a space in another
direction. That’s why we will first work with the bug, remembering that he must live on his
surface and can’t get out.

As another example of a bug living in two dimensions, let’s imagine one who lives on a sphere.
We imagine that he can walk around on the surface of the sphere, but that he can’t look “up,”
or “down,” or “out.”

Now we want to consider still a third kind of creature. He is also a bug like the others, and also
lives on a plane, as our first bug did, but this time the plane is peculiar. The temperature is
different at different places. Also, the bug and any rulers he uses are all made of the same
material which expands when it is heated. Whenever he puts a ruler somewhere to measure
something the ruler expands immediately to the proper length for the temperature at that place.
Wherever he puts any object—himself, a ruler, a triangle, or anything—the thing stretches itself
because of the thermal expansion. Everything is longer in the hot places than it is in the cold
places, and everything has the same coefficient of expansion. We will call the home of our
third bug a “hot plate,” although we will particularly want to think of a special kind of hot plate
that is cold in the center and gets hotter as we go out toward the edges

Now we are going to imagine that our bugs begin to study geometry. Although we imagine that
they are blind so that they can’t see any “outside” world, they can do a lot with their legs and
feelers. They can draw lines, and they can make rulers, and measure off lengths. First, let’s
suppose that they start with the simplest idea in geometry. They learn how to make a straight
line—defined as the shortest line between two points. Our first bug learns to make very good
lines. But what happens to the bug on the sphere? He draws his straight line as the shortest
distance—for him—between two points. It may look like a curve to us, but he has no way of
getting off the sphere and finding out that there is “really” a shorter line. He just knows that if
he tries any other path in his world it is always longer than his straight line. So we will let him
have his straight line as the shortest arc between two points. (It is, of course an arc of a great
circle.)

Finally, our third bug—the one in will also draw “straight lines” that look like curves to us. For
instance, the shortest distance between A and B would be on a curve like the one shown. Why?
Because when his line curves out toward the warmer parts of his hot plate, the rulers get longer
(from our omniscient point of view) and it takes fewer “yardsticks” laid end-to-end to get
from A to B. So for him the line is straight—he has no way of knowing that there could be
someone out in a strange three-dimensional world who would call a different line “straight.”
We think you get the idea now that all the rest of the analysis will always be from the point of
view of the creatures on the particular surfaces and not from our point of view. With that in
mind let’s see what the rest of their geometries looks like. Let’s assume that the bugs have all
learned how to make two lines intersect at right angles. (You can figure out how they could do
it.) Then our first bug (the one on the normal plane) finds an interesting fact. If he starts at the
point A and makes a line 100 inches long, then makes a right angle and marks off
another 100 inches, then makes another right angle and goes another 100 inches, then makes a
third right angle and a fourth line 100 inches long, he ends up right at the starting point. It is a
property of his world—one of the facts of his “geometry.”

Then he discovers another interesting thing. If he makes a triangle—a figure with three straight
lines—the sum of the angles is equal to 180∘, that is, to the sum of two right angles.

Then he invents the circle. What’s a circle? A circle is made this way: You rush off on straight
lines in many directions from a single point, and lay out a lot of dots that are all the same
distance from that point. Of course, its equivalent to the curve you can make by swinging a
ruler around a point. Anyway, our bug learns how to make circles. Then one day he thinks of
measuring the distance around a circle. He measures several circles and finds a neat
relationship: The distance around is always the same number times the radius r (which is, of
course, the distance from the center out to the curve). The circumference and the radius always
have the same ratio—approximately 6.283—independent of the size of the circle.

Now let’s see what our other bugs have been finding out about their geometries. First, what
happens to the bug on the sphere when he tries to make a “square”? If he follows the
prescription we gave above, he would probably think that the result was hardly worth the
trouble. He gets a figure. His endpoint B isn’t on top of the starting point A. It doesn’t work
out to a closed figure at all. Get a sphere and try it. A similar thing would happen to our friend
on the hot plate. If he lays out four straight lines of equal length—as measured with his
expanding rulers—joined by right angles he gets a picture.

Now suppose that our bugs had each had their own Euclid who had told them what geometry
“should” be like, and that they had checked him out roughly by making crude measurements
on a small scale. Then as they tried to make accurate squares on a larger scale they would
discover that something was wrong. The point is, that just by geometrical measurements they
would discover that something was the matter with their space. We define a curved space to be
a space in which the geometry is not what we expect for a plane. The geometry of the bugs on
the sphere or on the hot plate is the geometry of a curved space. The rules of Euclidean
geometry fail. And it isn’t necessary to be able to lift yourself out of the plane in order to find
out that the world that you live in is curved. It isn’t necessary to circumnavigate the globe in
order to find out that it is a ball. You can find out that you live on a ball by laying out a square.
If the square is very small you will need a lot of accuracy, but if the square is large the
measurement can be done more crudely.

Let’s take the case of a triangle on a plane. The sum of the angles is 180 degrees. Our friend
on the sphere can find triangles that are very peculiar. He can, for example, find triangles which
have three right angles. Suppose our bug starts at the north pole and makes a straight line all
the way down to the equator. Then he makes a right angle and another perfect straight line the
same length. Then he does it again. For the very special length he has chosen he gets right back
to his starting point, and also meets the first line with a right angle. So there is no doubt that
for him this triangle has three right angles, or 270 degrees in the sum. It turns out that for him
the sum of the angles of the triangle is always greater than 180 degrees. In fact, the excess (for
the special case shown, the extra 90 degrees) is proportional to how much area the triangle has.
If a triangle on a sphere is very small, its angles add up to very nearly 180 degrees, only a little
bit over. As the triangle gets bigger the discrepancy goes up. The bugs on the hot plate would
discover similar difficulties with their triangles.

Let’s look next at what our other bugs find out about circles. They make circles and measure
their circumferences. For example, the bug on the sphere might make a circle. And he would
discover that the circumference is less than 2π times the radius. (You can see that because from
the wisdom of our three-dimensional view it is obvious that what he calls the “radius” is a curve
which is longer than the true radius of the circle.) Suppose that the bug on the sphere had read
Euclid, and decided to predict a radius by dividing the circumference C by 2π, taking

rpred=C2π.(42.1)

Then he would find that the measured radius was larger than the predicted radius.
Pursuing the subject, he might define the difference to be the “excess radius,” and write

rmeas−rpred=rexcess,(42.2)

and study how the excess radius effect depended on the size of the circle.

Our bug on the hot plate would discover a similar phenomenon. Suppose he was to draw a
circle centered at the cold spot on the. If we were to watch him as he makes the circle we would
notice that his rulers are short near the center and get longer as they are moved outward—
although the bug doesn’t know it, of course. When he measures the circumference the ruler is
long all the time, so he, too, finds out that the measured radius is longer than the predicted
radius, C/2π. The hot-plate bug also finds an “excess radius effect.” And again the size of the
effect depends on the radius of the circle.

We will define a “curved space” as one in which these types of geometrical errors occur: The
sum of the angles of a triangle is different from 180 degrees; the circumference of a circle
divided by 2π is not equal to the radius; the rule for making a square doesn’t give a closed
figure. You can think of others.

We have given two different examples of curved space: the sphere and the hot plate. But it is
interesting that if we choose the right temperature variation as a function of distance on the hot
plate, the two geometries will be exactly the same. It is rather amusing. We can make the bug
on the hot plate get exactly the same answers as the bug on the ball. For those who like
geometry and geometrical problems we’ll tell you how it can be done. If you assume that the
length of the rulers (as determined by the temperature) goes in proportion to one plus some
constant times the square of the distance away from the origin, then you will find that the
geometry of that hot plate is exactly the same in all details1 as the geometry of the sphere.

There are, of course, other kinds of geometry. We could ask about the geometry of a bug who
lived on a pear, namely something which has a sharper curvature in one place and a weaker
curvature in the other place, so that the excess in angles in triangles is more severe when he
makes little triangles in one part of his world than when he makes them in another part. In other
words, the curvature of a space can vary from place to place. That’s just a generalization of the
idea. It can also be imitated by a suitable distribution of temperature on a hot plate.

We may also point out that the results could come out with the opposite kind of discrepancies.
You could find out, for example, that all triangles when they are made too large have the sum
of their angles less than 180 degrees. That may sound impossible, but it isn’t at all. First of all,
we could have a hot plate with the temperature decreasing with the distance from the center.
Then all the effects would be reversed. But we can also do it purely geometrically by looking
at the two-dimensional geometry of the surface of a saddle. Imagine a saddle-shaped surface.
Now draw a “circle” on the surface, defined as the locus of all points the same distance from a
center. This circle is a curve that oscillates up and down with a scallop effect. So its
circumference is larger than you would expect from calculating 2πrmeas. So C/2π is
now greater than rmeas. The “excess radius” would be negative.

Spheres and pears and such are all surfaces of positive curvatures; and the others are called
surfaces of negative curvature. In general, a two-dimensional world will have a curvature
which varies from place to place and may be positive in some places and negative in other
places. In general, we mean by a curved space simply one in which the rules of Euclidean
geometry break down with one sign of discrepancy or the other. The amount of curvature—
defined, say, by the excess radius—may vary from place to place.

We might point out that, from our definition of curvature, a cylinder is, surprisingly enough,
not curved. If a bug lived on a cylinder, how would you find out that triangles, squares, and
circles would all have the same behavior they have on a plane. This is easy to see, by just
thinking about how all the figures will look if the cylinder is unrolled onto a plane. Then all
the geometrical figures can be made to correspond exactly to the way they are in a plane. So
there is no way for a bug living on a cylinder (assuming that he doesn’t go all the way around,
but just makes local measurements) to discover that his space is curved. In our technical sense,
then, we consider that his space is not curved. What we want to talk about is more precisely
called intrinsic curvature; that is, a curvature which can be found by measurements only in a
local region. (A cylinder has no intrinsic curvature.) This was the sense intended by Einstein
when he said that our space is curved. But we as yet only have defined a curved space in two
dimensions; we must go onward to see what the idea might mean in three dimensions.

3.2 VECTOR VALUED FUNCTION OF A SCALAR VARIABLE

A vector-valued function, also referred to as a vector function, is a mathematical function of

one or more variables whose range is a set of multidimensional vectors or infinite-dimensional
vectors. A vector valued function is a function where the domain is a subset of the real numbers
and the range is a vector. Such a function is called a vector-valued function because each real
number input generates a vector output.

In two dimensions

r(t)=x(t)i^+y(t)j^.(2.1.1)(2.1.1)r(t)=x(t)i^+y(t)j^.

In three dimensions

r(t)=x(t)i^+y(t)j^+z(t)k^.(2.1.2)(2.1.2) r(t)=x(t)i^+y(t)j^+z(t)k^.
You will notice the strong resemblance to parametric equations. In fact there is an equivalence
between vector valued functions and parametric equations.

Figure 1.1 Vector valued function

A vector valued function is a function where the domain is a subset of the real numbers and the
range is a vector. r(t)=x(t)ˆi+y(t)ˆj. r(t)=x(t)ˆi+y(t)ˆj+z(t)ˆk. You will notice the strong
resemblance to parametric equations.

Note that the input of is the real-valued parameter and the corresponding output is vector . ⟨ x
( t ) , y ( t ) , z ( t ) ⟩ . Such a function is called a vector-valued function because each real
number input generates a vector output.

What is the vector valued function of a scalar variable?

A scalar function is a real-valued function. Note that if u(t) is a scalar function and f(t) is a
vector-valued function, then their product, defined by (uf)(t)=u(t)f(t) for all t, is a vector-valued
function (since the product of a scalar with a vector is a vector).

A vector function defines a vector field and a scalar function defines a scalar field in that
domain or on that surface or curve. Examples of vector fields are field of tangent vectors of a
curve, field of normal vectors of a surface, velocity field of a rotating body and the gravitational
field (

Suppose that f(x, y) is a scalar-valued function of two variables. Then the gradient of f is the
vector function defined as, ∇ f = ( ∂f ∂x , ∂f ∂y ) = ∂f ∂x i + ∂f ∂y j.

3.2.1 LIMITS OF A VECTOR FUNCTION

Definition The vector function r : I → R n , with n = 2, 3, has a limit given by the vector L
when t approaches t0, denoted as lim t→t0 r(t) = L, iff: For every number > 0 there exists a
number δ > 0 such that 0 < |t − t0| < δ ⇒ |r(t) − L| < .

Remark: I The limit of r(t) = hx(t), y(t), z(t)i as t → t0 is the limit of its components x(t), y(t),
z(t) in Cartesian coordinates. I That is: lim t→t0 r(t) = lim t→t0 x(t), lim t→t0 y(t), lim t→t0
z(t).

lim t→t0 r(t) = lim t→t0 x(t), lim t→t0 y(t), lim t→t0 z(t)

Example Given r(t) = hcos(t),sin(t)/t,t 2 + 2i, compute lim t→0 r(t).

Solution: Notice that the vector function r is not defined at t = 0, however its limit at t = 0
exists.

Indeed, lim t→0 r(t) = lim t→0 D cos(t), sin(t) t ,t 2 + 2E lim t→0 r(t) = D lim t→0 cos(t), lim
t→0 sin(t) t , lim t→0 (t 2 + 2)E lim t→0 r(t) = h1, 1, 2i. We conclude that lim t→0 r(t) = h1,
1, 2i.

3.2.2 CONTINUITY OF A VECTOR FUNCTION

Definition A vector function r : I → R n , with n = 2, 3, is continuous at t = t0 ∈ I iff holds lim

t→t0 r(t) = r(t0 ).

The function r : I → R n is continuous if it is continuous at every t in its domain interval I.

Remark: A vector function with Cartesian components r = hx, y, zi is continuous iff each
component is continuous. Example The function r(t) = hsin(t),t, cos(t)i is continuous for t ∈ R.
C Remark: Having the idea of limit, one can introduce the idea of a derivative of a vector
valued function.

if it is defined in someContinuity: A vector function v( )t is said to be continuous at 0 t

neighborhood of 0t (including at 0t itself) and 0 0 lim ( ) ( ) t t t . (9.4.8)v v If a Cartesian
coordinate system is introduced, we may write, . 12 3 v i jk () () () () t vt vt vt Then v( )t
is continuous at 0t if and only if its three components are continuous at 0t .

3.2.3 DERIVATIVE OF A VECTOR FUNCTION

Definition The vector function r : I → R n , with n = 2, 3, is differentiable at t = t0, denoted as

r 0 (t) or dr dt , iff the following limit exists, r 0 (t) = lim h→0 r(t + h) − r(t) h . Remarks: I A
vector function r : I → R n is differentiable if it is differentiable for each t ∈ I. I If a vector
function with values r(t) = hx(t), y(t), z(t)i in Cartesian components is differentiable, then r 0
(t) = hx 0 (t), y 0 (t), z 0 (t)i

3.3 UNIT TANGENT, NORMAL AND BI-NORMAL VECTORS TO A

SPACE CURVE

Given the vector function, →r(t)r→(t), we call →r′(t)r→′(t) the tangent vector provided it
exists and provided →r′(t)≠→0r→′(t)≠0→.

The tangent line to →r(t)r→(t) at PP is then the line that passes through the point PP and is
parallel to the tangent vector, →r′(t)r→′(t).

Note that we really do need to require →r′(t)≠→0r→′(t)≠0→ in order to have a tangent vector.

If we had→r′(t)=→0r→′(t)=0→we would have a vector that had no magnitude and so couldn’t

give us the direction of the tangent.

Also, provided →r′(t)≠→0r→′(t)≠0→, the unit tangent vector to the curve is given by,

→T(t)=→r′(t)∥∥→r′(t)∥∥T→(t)=r→′(t)‖r→′(t)‖

While, the components of the unit tangent vector can be somewhat messy on occasion there
are times when we will need to use the unit tangent vector instead of the tangent vector.

Example 1 Find the general formula for the tangent vector and unit tangent vector to the curve
given by →r(t)=t2→i+2sint→j+2cost→kr→(t)=t2i→+2sin⁡tj→+2cos⁡tk→.

First, by general formula we mean that we won’t be plugging in a specific tt and so we will be
finding a formula that we can use at a later date if we’d like to find the tangent at any point on
the curve. With that said there really isn’t all that much to do at this point other than to do the
work.

Here is the tangent vector to the curve.

→r′(t)=2t→i+2cost→j−2sint→kr→′(t)=2ti→+2cos⁡tj→−2sin⁡tk→

To get the unit tangent vector we need the length of the tangent vector.

∥∥→r′(t)∥∥=√4t2+4cos2t+4sin2t=√4t2+4‖r→′(t)‖=4t2+4cos2t+4sin2t=4t2+4

The unit tangent vector is then,

→T(t)=1√4t2+4(2t→i+2cost→j−2sint→k)=2t√4t2+4→i+2cost√4t2+4→j−2sint√4t2+4→k

The unit normal vector is defined to be,

→N(t)=→T′(t)∥∥→T′(t)∥∥N→(t)=T→′(t)‖T→′(t)‖

The unit normal is orthogonal (or normal, or perpendicular) to the unit tangent vector and hence
to the curve as well. We’ve already seen normal vectors when we were dealing with Equations
of Planes. They will show up with some regularity in several Calculus III topics.

The definition of the unit normal vector always seems a little mysterious when you first see it.
It follows directly from the following fact.

Fact

Suppose that →r(t)r→(t) is a vector such that ∥→r(t)∥=c‖r→(t)‖=c for all tt.
Then →r′(t)r→′(t) is orthogonal to →r(t)r→(t).

A normal vector is a perpendicular vector. Given a vector v in the space, there are infinitely
many perpendicular vectors. Our goal is to select a special vector that is normal to the unit
tangent vector. Geometrically, for a non-straight curve, this vector is the unique vector that
point into the curve. Algebraically we can compute the vector using the following definition.

Definition of the Principal Unit Normal Vector

Let r(t) be a differentiable vector valued function and let T(t) be the unit tangent vector. Then
the principal unit normal vector N(t) is defined by

T'(t)
N(t) =
||T'(t)||

The binormal vector is defined to be,

→B(t)=→T(t)×→N(t)B→(t)=T→(t)×N→(t)

Because the binormal vector is defined to be the cross product of the unit tangent and unit
normal vector we then know that the binormal vector is orthogonal to both the tangent vector
and the normal vector.

3.3.1 ARC LENGTH ALONG A CURVE

Arc length is the distance between two points along a section of a curve.

Determining the length of an irregular arc segment by approximating the arc segment as
connected (straight) line segments is also called curve rectification. A rectifiable curve has a
finite number of segments in its rectification (so the curve has a finite length).
Arc length is the distance between two points along a section of a curve. Determining the length
of an irregular arc segment by approximating the arc segment as connected line segments is
also called curve rectification. A rectifiable curve has a finite number of segments in its
rectification.

To calculate arc length without radius, you need the central angle and the sector area: Multiply
the area by 2 and divide the result by the central angle in radians. Find the square root of this
division. Multiply this root by the central angle again to get the arc length.

If a curve can be parameterized as an injective and continuously differentiable function (i.e.,

the derivative is a continuous function) then the curve is rectifiable (i.e., it has a finite length).

The advent of infinitesimal calculus led to a general formula that provides closed-form
solutions in some cases.

Imagine we want to find the length of a curve between two points. And the curve is smooth
(the derivative is continuous).

First we break the curve into small lengths and use the Distance Between 2 Points formula on
each length to come up with an approximate answer:

Figure 1.2
The distance from x0 to x1 is:

S1 = √ (x1 − x0)2 + (y1 − y0)2

And let's use Δ (delta) to mean the difference between values, so it becomes:

S1 = √ (Δx1)2 + (Δy1)2

Now we just need lots more:

S2 = √(Δx2)2 +(Δy2)2
S3 = √(Δx3)2 +(Δy3)2
...
...
Sn = √(Δxn)2 + (Δyn)2

We can write all those many lines in just one line using a Sum:

S≈

i=1

√(Δxi)2 + (Δyi)2

Arc-Length Formulas

Plane curve: Given a smooth curve C defined by the function

r(t)=f(t)i+g(t)j,r(t)=f(t)i+g(t)j, where t lies within the interval [a,b],[a,b], the arc length of C
over the interval is
s=∫ba[f′(t)]2+[g′(t)]2−−−−−−−−−−−−−−√dt=∫ba∥r′(t)∥dt.s=∫ab[f′(t)]2+[g′(t)]2dt=∫ab‖r′(t)‖dt.

Space curve: Given a smooth curve C defined by the function

r(t)=f(t)i+g(t)j+h(t)k,r(t)=f(t)i+g(t)j+h(t)k, where t lies within the interval [a,b],[a,b], the arc
length of C over the interval is
s=∫ba[f′(t)]2+[g′(t)]2+[h′(t)]2−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−√dt=∫ba∥r′(t)∥dt.s=∫ab[f′(t)]2+[g′(
t)]2+[h′(t)]2dt=∫ab‖r′(t)‖dt.

3.3.2 THE ARC LENGTH FUNCTION

If a vector-valued function represents the position of a particle in space as a function of time,

then the arc-length function measures how far that particle travels as a function of time. The
formula for the arc-length function follows directly from the formula for arc length:
s=∫ta√(f′(u))2+(g′(u))2+(h′(u))2du

3.3.3 THE UNIT TANGENT FUNCTION

Let r(t)r(t) be a differentiable vector valued function and v(t)=r′(t)v(t)=r′(t) be the velocity
vector. Then we define the unit tangent vector by as the unit vector in the direction of the
velocity vector.

T(t)=v(t)||v(t)||

Example 2.4.12.4.1

Let

r(t)=ti^+etj^−3t2k^.r(t)=ti^+etj^−3t2k^.

Find T(t)T(t) and T(0)T(0).

Solution

We have

v(t)=r′(t)=i^+etj^−6tk^v(t)=r′(t)=i^+etj^−6tk^

and

||v(t)||=1+e2t+36t2−−−−−−−−−−−√.||v(t)||=1+e2t+36t2.

To find the unit tangent vector, we just divide

T(t)=v(t)||V(T)||=i^+etj^−6tk^1+e2t+36t2−−−−−−−−−−−√.T(t)=v(t)||V(T)||=i^+etj^−6tk^1+e
2t+36t2.

To find T(0)T(0) plug in 0 to get

T(0)=i^+e0j^−6(0)k^1+e2(0)+36(0)2−−−−−−−−−−−−−−√=i^+j^2–√=12–√i^+12–√j^.

The unit tangent vector T(t)T(t) of a vector function

r(t)=r(t)1i+r(t)2j+r(t)3k

is the vector that is 11 unit long and tangent to the vector function at the point tt.

T(t)=∣r′(t)∣r′(t)

3.3.4 NORMAL AND BI-NORMAL VECTORS

Consider a fixed point f(u) and two moving points P and Q on a parametric curve. These three
points determine a plane. As P and Q moves toward f(u), this plane approaches a limiting
position. This is the osculating plane at f(u). Obviously, the osculating plane at f(u) contains
the tangent line at f(u). It can be shown that the osculating plane is the plane that passes
through f(u) and contains both f'(u) and f''(u). More precisely, any point on this plane has an
equation as follows, where p and q are parameters:

f(u) + pf'(u) + qf''(u)

The binormal vector b(u) is the unit-length vector of the cross-product of f'(u) and f''(u):

b(u) = (f'(u) × f''(u)) / | (f'(u) × f''(u)) |

Thus, the binormal vector b(u) is perpendicular to both f'(u) and f''(u) and hence perpendicular
to the osculating plane. The line f(u)+tb(u) is the binormal line at f(u).

The normal vector is the vector perpendicular to both tangent and binormal vectors with its
direction determined by the right-handed system. That is, the unit-length normal vector n(u) is
defined to be

n(u) = ( b(u) × f'(u) ) / | b(u) × f'(u) |

The line f(u)+tn(u) is the normal line at f(u). Therefore, tangent vector f'(u), normal vector n(u)
and binormal vector b(u) form a coordinate system with origin f(u). The tangent line, binormal
line and normal line are the three coordinate axes with positive directions given by the tangent
vector, binormal vector and normal vector, respectively. These three vectors are usually
referred to as the moving triad or triad at point f(u). Moving triad is also called moving
trihedron. The following figure shows their relationship. Note that the tangent, normal and f''(u)
vectors are on the same plane

Figure 1.3
An Example

Let us compute the tangent, binormal and normal vectors of the circular helix curve:

f(u) = ( acos(u), asin(u), bu )

The first and second derivatives are as follows:

f'(u) = ( -asin(u), acos(u), b )

f''(u) = ( -acos(u), -asin(u), 0 )

The non-unit-length binormal vector is the cross-product of f'(u) and f''(u), in this order:

b(u) = f'(u) × f''(u) = ( absin(u), -abcos(u), a2 )

The non-unit-length normal vector is the cross-product of the binormal vector and the tangent
vector, in this order:

n(u) = b(u) × f'(u) = ( -a(a2 + b2)cos(u), -a(a2 + b2)sin(u), 0 )

If you compare n(u) and f''(u), you will see that these vectors are parallel to each other (i.e.,
coefficients are proportional) and are both parallel to the xy-plane. As a result, after
normalizing all involving vectors, the normal and the second derivative vectors are identical.
This is shown by the following figure. It is computed at u = 1.

Figure 1.4
Graphs of the tangent, normal and binormal vectors for a parametrically defined curve, with
the normal plane:

We have a curve in space, and at any given point you can define three orthogonal vectors with
respect to the curve. The first is tangent to the curve (it points along the curve), the second is
the normal vector which points in the direction of greatest curvature; and the third is the
binormal which is perpendicular to the first two. In terms of physics concepts, if you think of
the space curve as the path along which an object is travelling, the tangent vector is in the
direction of its velocity (and tangential acceleration), the normal vector is in the direction of its
centripetal acceleration, and the binormal vector is equal to vec T(t) . vec N(t). That is a good
way to describe a curve in space, we need all three quantities.
The unit tangent vectors are graphically intuitive, as we are used to thinking about tangent lines
of curves.

The normal vector points “inward,” as seen in the following animation.

The binormal vector is vec B(t) = vec T(t) . vec N(t).

At any point (t), the plane through the point vec r(t) and normal to the tangent vector vec
T(t) is called the normal plane to the curve at (t). The unit normal vector vec N(t) and the
binormal vector vec B(t) are both orthogonal to vec B(t), and hence they both lie in the normal
plane. The binormal vector, then, is

3.4 CURVATURE AND TORSION

At every point on a circle, the curvature is the reciprocal of the radius; for other curves (and
straight lines, which can be regarded as circles of infinite radius), the curvature is the reciprocal
of the radius of the circle that most closely conforms to the curve at the given point (see figure).

In the differential geometry of curves in three dimensions, the torsion of a curve measures how
sharply it is twisting out of the osculating plane. Taken together, the curvature and the torsion
of a space curve are analogous to the curvature of a plane curve.

Curvature: Motion in several dimension has two aspects: one is its speed of motion; the other
the shape of the curve it follows. The former is measured by the speed of motion, ds/dt, where
s = (r r)1/2.

The latter is measured at each point by the curvature, , of the curve traced. This is the
magnitude of the rate of change of a unit vector in the direction of motion with distance s along
the curve. Its dimension is that of an inverse length, and its reciprocal 1/ , is called the radius
of curvature.
The curvature is proportional to the component of the acceleration normal to the velocity with
a proportionality constant that can only depend on the speed:

The dimension of a v is L2/T3 which implies up to a constant which

constant is 1.
The plane of motion is that normal to a v. The torsion of the curve is the magnitude of the
rate of change of a unit vector in the direction of a v with distance along the curve. There is
a formula for it that you might remember exists but should not remember in detail.

3.4.1 CIRCLE OF CURVATURE

The curvature of a circle is equal to the reciprocal of its radius. The binormal vector at t is
defined as B(t)=T(t)×N(t), where T(t) is the unit tangent vector.

The circle that touches a curve (on the concave side) and whose radius is the radius of curvature

At a given point on a curve, there is, in general, but one tangent and one normal. An infinite
number of circles, all having their centers lying on the normal, can be drawn through this point.
Of these circles, the one whose radius equals the radius of curvature for the curve at that point
is called the circle of curvature for the point. Obviously, each point on the curve has a different
circle of curvature (except in special cases such as when the curve itself is a circle). It can be
shown that the circle of curvature at any point “fits” the curve more closely, near that point,
than any other circle.

The circle of curvature is also known as the osculating circle. In general, the circle of curvature
of a curve at a point crosses the curve at that point. The center of the circle of curvature is
known as the center of curvature.

The Center of Curvature. Let P(x,y) be any point on a given curve y = f(x); let t be the tangent
to the curve at P. Assume that the curve lies entirely on one side of the tangent. Along the
normal, toward the concave side of the curve, lay off the distance PQ, equal to the radius of
curvature R at P. Thus Q, the center of the circle of curvature of the given curve for the
point P, is called the center of curvature with respect to point P.
 Figure 1.5

Without proof, we state the coordinates (α,β) of the center of curvature in terms of the
coordinates (x,y) of P:

Figure 1.6

3.4.2 RADIUS OF CURVATURE

In differential geometry, the radius of curvature, R, is the reciprocal of the curvature. For a
curve, it equals the radius of the circular arc which best approximates the curve at that point.
For surfaces, the radius of curvature is the radius of a circle that best fits a normal section or
combinations thereof.

Radius of Curvature Formula

Any approximate circle's radius at any particular given point is called the radius of curvature
of the curve. As we move along the curve the radius of curvature changes. The radius of
curvature formula is denoted as 'R'. The amount by which a curve derivates itself from being
flat to a curve and from a curve back to a line is called the curvature. It is a scalar quantity. The
radius of curvature is the reciprocal of the curvature. The radius of curvature is not a real shape
or figure rather it's an imaginary circle. Let us understand the radius of curvature formula in
detail using solved examples in the following section.

What is the Radius of the Curvature Formula?

The distance from the vertex to the center of curvature is known as the radius of curvature
(represented by R). Any approximate circle's radius at any particular given point is called the
radius of curvature of the curve or the vector length of curvature is also called the radius of
curvature. For any curve with equation y = f(x), with x as its parameter the radius of curvature
can be given as:

Radius of Curvature Formula

Example 2: Find the radius of curvature of for 3x3 + 2x - 5 at x = 2.

Solution:

To find: the radius of curvature of the given curve

y = 3x3 +2x-5

dydx=9x2+2dydx=9x2+2
d2ydx2=18xd2ydx2=18x (given)

Using radius of curvature formula,

R=(1+(dydx)2)3/2|d2ydx|R=(1+(dydx)2)3/2|d2ydx|

Put the values,

R=(1+(9x2+2)2)3/2|18x|R=(1+(9x2+2)2)3/2|18x|

R = (1+81x4+4+36x2)3/218x(1+81x4+4+36x2)3/218x

R = (81x4+5+36x2)3/218x(81x4+5+36x2)3/218x

Putting x = 2

R = (1296+5+144)3/236(1296+5+144)3/236

R = (1373)3/236(1373)3/236

R = 1413.19

Answer: Radius of curvature, R = 1413.19 units

3.4.3 EXPRESSION FOR CURVATURE

The Curvature tells how fast the direction is changing as a point moves along a curve. The
curvature is measured in radians/meters or radians/miles or degrees/mile. The curvature is the
reciprocal of the radius of curvature of the curve at a given point. The radius of curvature
formula is R=(1+(dydx)2)3/2|d2ydx2|R=(1+(dydx)2)3/2|d2ydx2|.

The curvature(K) of a path is measured using the radius of the curvature of the path at the given
point. If y = f(x) is a curve at a particular point, then the formula for curvature is given as K =
1/R. Where R = the radius calculated using the radius of curvature
formula (1+(dydx)2)3/2|d2ydx2|

3.4.4 TORSION

The torsion of a space curve, sometimes also called the "second curvature", is the rate of change
of the curve's osculating plane. The torsion is positive for a right-handed curve, and negative
for a left-handed curve.

It is the twisting of a rod or beam as a result of an applied torque.

The amount of twisting (θ) depends on:

1. Applied torque τ= FR

2. Length of rod or beam

3. Modulus of rigidity(shear modulus)

(depends on material)
 4. Torsional constant J (depend on shape)

In the differential geometry of curves in three dimensions, the torsion of a curve measures how
sharply it is twisting out of the osculating plane. Taken together, the curvature and the torsion
of a space curve are analogous to the curvature of a plane curve.

3.4.5 EXPRESSION FOR TORSION

Torsion equation or torsion constant is defined as the geometrical property of a bar’s cross-
section that is involved in the axis of the bar that has a relationship between the angle of twist
and applied torque whose SI unit is m4. The torsion equation is given as follows:

TJ=τr=GΘL

Torsional Constant

In 1820, the French engineer Duleau derived analytically the torsional constant (J) of a rod.

He showed that the

Torsional constant = second moment of area

The torsional constant is a measure of how well the cross-sectional shape can resist bending.

Torsion equation derivation

Following are the assumptions made for the derivation of torsion equation:

a. The material is homogeneous (elastic property throughout)

b. The material should follow Hooke’s law
c. The material should have shear stress proportional to shear strain
d. The cross-sectional area should be plane
e. The circular section should be circular
f. Every diameter of the material should rotate through the same angle
g. The stress of the material should not exceed the elastic limit
 h. Consider a solid circular shaft with radius R that is subjected to a torque T at
one end and the other end under the same torque.

The torsion of the curve given by the vector function r is

3.5 EXAMPLES

Example 1

Find the unit tangent vector to the curve defined by the vector-valued
function r⃗ (t)=(t2,2t,3) at t=2.

Solution

We must first differentiate r⃗ (t) to get r′→(t). Differentiating component by component we

have that r′→(t)=(2t,2,0). Now to compute T^, we will divide this vector by its magnitude.

We must first compute the magnitude of r′→(t) though, which isn't too hard
as ∥r′→(t)∥=(2t)2+(2)2+(0)2−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−√=4t2+4−−−−−−√, and so:

(1)

T^(t)=r′→(t)∥r⃗ ∥=14t2+4−−−−−−√(2t,2,0)

Now to figure out the unit tangent vector for t=2, we just need to plug in 2 into the above
equation and so T^(2)=120√(4,2,0)=125√(4,2,0)=(25√,15√,0) is the unit tangent vector at t=2.

Example 2

We calculate the torsion of the curve (t) = 1 3 p cos t + 1 2 p sin t; 1 3 p cos t; 1 3 p cost¡ 1 2
p sint .

Solution

Note that we have seen there that t is already the arc length parameter. _(t) = ¡ 1 3 p sin t + 1 2
p cost;¡ 1 3 p sin t; ¡ 1 3 p sin t ¡ 1 2 p cost ; (28) •(t) = ¡ 1 3 p cost ¡ 1 2 p sin t; ¡ 1 3 p cost; ¡
1 3 p cost + 1 2 p sin t= ¡x(t): (29) Thus clearly ( _(t) •(t)) ___(t) = 0 =) (t) = 0: (30)23

Example 3

Find the radius of curvature of for 3x2 + 2x - 5 at x = 1

Solution:

To find: The radius of curvature.

y = 3x2 +2x-5

dydx=6x+2dydx=6x+2
d2ydx2=6d2ydx2=6 (given)

Using radius of curvature formula,

R=(1+(dydx)2)3/2|d2ydx|R=(1+(dydx)2)3/2|d2ydx|

Put the values,

R=(1+(6x+2)2)3/2|6|R=(1+(6x+2)2)3/2|6|

R=(1+36x2+4+24x)3/26R=(1+36x2+4+24x)3/26

R=(36x2+5+24x)3/26R=(36x2+5+24x)3/26

Putting x = 1

R=(36+5+24)3/26R=(36+5+24)3/26

R=(65)3/26R=(65)3/26

R = 87.34

Answer: Radius of curvature, R = 87.34 units

Example 4

Let f(x)=2x3/2f(x)=2x3/2. Calculate the arc length of the graph of f(x)f(x) over the
interval [0,1][0,1]. Round the answer to three decimal places.

Solution

We have f'(x)=3x1/2,f′(x)=3x1/2, so [f'(x)]2=9x.[f′(x)]2=9x. Then, the arc length is

Arc Length =∫ba1+[f'(x)]2−−−−−−−−−√dx=∫101+9x−−−−−√dx.Arc

Length=∫ab1+[f′(x)]2dx=∫011+9xdx.

Substitute u=1+9x.u=1+9x. Then, du=9dx.du=9dx. When x=0x=0, then u=1u=1, and

when x=1x=1, then u=10u=10. Thus,
Arc Length
=19∫101+9x−−−−−√9dx=∫101+9x−−−−−√dx=19∫101u−−√du=19⋅ 23u3/2∣ 101=227[1010−−
√−1]≈2.268units.

Example 5

Find the general formula for the tangent vector and unit tangent vector to the curve given
by →r(t)=t2→i+2sint→j+2cost→kr→(t)=t2i→+2sin⁡tj→+2cos⁡tk→.

Solution

First, by general formula we mean that we won’t be plugging in a specific tt and so we will be
finding a formula that we can use at a later date if we’d like to find the tangent at any point on
the curve. With that said there really isn’t all that much to do at this point other than to do the
work.

Here is the tangent vector to the curve.

→r′(t)=2t→i+2cost→j−2sint→kr→′(t)=2ti→+2cos⁡tj→−2sin⁡tk→

To get the unit tangent vector we need the length of the tangent vector.

∥∥→r′(t)∥∥=√4t2+4cos2t+4sin2t=√4t2+4‖r→′(t)‖=4t2+4cos2t+4sin2t=4t2+4

The unit tangent vector is then,

→T(t)=1√4t2+4(2t→i+2cost→j−2sint→k)=2t√4t2+4→i+2cost√4t2+4→j−2sint√4t2+4→

3.6 SUMMARY

 Curved space often refers to a spatial geometry which is not "flat", where a flat space
is described by Euclidean geometry.

 A vector-valued function, also referred to as a vector function, is a mathematical

function of one or more variables whose range is a set of multidimensional vectors or
infinite-dimensional vectors.

 A vector valued function is a function where the domain is a subset of the real numbers
and the range is a vector.

 Arc length is the distance between two points along a section of a curve.
  Determining the length of an irregular arc segment by approximating the arc segment
as connected (straight) line segments is also called curve rectification.

 The binormal vector b(u) is the unit-length vector of the cross-product of f'(u)
and f''(u):

3.7 KEYWORDS

1. Vector-valued function: It is a mathematical function of one or more variables

whose range is a set of multidimensional vectors or infinite-dimensional vectors.

2. Arc length: It is the distance between two points along a section of a curve.

3. Torsion: is the rate of change of the curve's osculating plane. The torsion is positive
for a right-handed curve, and negative for a left-handed curve.

4. Torsion constant: It is defined as the geometrical property of a bar’s cross-section

that is involved in the axis of the bar that has a relationship between the angle of twist
and applied torque whose SI unit is m4.

5. Arc Length Function: It is a vector-valued function represents the position of a

particle in space as a function of time, then the arc-length function measures how far
that particle travels as a function of time.

3.8 LEARNING ACTIVITY

1. Find out what is the curvature of the earth and then compute the radius of this
curvature.

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
______

2. Take a cone and look at the circle at its base. Find the radius and make two points O
and P on the circle and connect them to make an arc. Use length of the arc formula
and find out the arc length.

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
______
3.9 UNIT END QUESTIONS

A. Descriptive

Short Questions

1. Compute limt→1→r(t)limt→1⁡r→(t) where →r(t)=⟨t3,sin(3t−3)t−1,e2t⟩r→(t)=⟨t3,si

n⁡(3t−3)t−1,e2t⟩.

2. Let f(x)=2x3/2f(x)=2x3/2. Calculate the arc length of the graph of f(x)f(x) over the
interval [0,1][0,1]. The answer must be rounded to three decimal places.

3. what is the formula for arc length function

4. Find the radius of the curvature for y = 5x3– x + 14 at x=2.

5. Find the unit tangent vector if r→⁢(t)=⟨3⁢cos⁡t,3⁢sin⁡t,4⁢t⟩. Find T→⁢(t) and

compute T→⁢(0) and T→⁢(1).

Long Questions

1. Find the derivative of the vector valued function

r⇀(t)=(3t+4)i^+(t2−4t+3)j^.r⇀(t)=(3t+4)i^+(t2−4t+3)j^

2. Determine the length of y=ln(secx)y=ln⁡(sec⁡x) between 0≤x≤π40≤x≤π4.

3. A curve is parameterized by the vector function R(t) = 2(t + 2)i + e 2t j + (2 − 4t + t 2

)k. Find a unit tangent vector to the curve at the point (4, 1, 2).

4. Find the unit normal and the binormal vectors for the following vector function.
→r(t)=⟨ cos(2t),sin(2t),3⟩ r→(t)=⟨ cos⁡(2t),sin⁡(2t),3⟩

5. Find the radius of curvature of for 3x2 + 2x - 5 at x = 1

B. Multiple Choice Questions

1. Vector-Valued function or vector function is a

a. A mathematical function of one or more variables whose range is a set of

multidimensional vectors
b. A mathematical function of just two variables whose range is a set of
multidimensional vectors
c. A mathematical function of many variables whose range is a set of two-
dimensional vectors
 d. A mathematical function of one or more variables whose range is a set of three-
dimensional vectors

2. A vector valued function is a function

a. Where there is not domain but the range is a vector.

b. Where the domain is a subset of the real numbers and the range is a vector.
c. Where the domain is not a subset of the real numbers and the range is a graph.
d. Where the domain is a subset of the real numbers and the range is a polynomial.

3. In a vector valued function the limit exists

a. Only if there is a graph

b. Only if one of the limits of the components exist.
c. Only if two of the limits of the components exist.
d. Only if each of the limits of the components exist.

4. A vector-valued function A~ is continuous at t0

a. Only if each of its component functions is continuous at t0.

b. Only if none of its component functions is continuous at t0.
c. Only if two of its component functions is continuous at t0.
d. Only if ten of its component functions is continuous at t0.

5. Arc length is the

a. Distance between any five points of a curve..

b. Distance between three points along a section of a curve.
c. Distance between any two points of a curve.
d. Distance between two points along a section of a curve.

Answers

1-a, 2-b, 3-d, 4-a, 5-d

3.10 REFERENCES

Reference Books

 Introduction to Differential Geometry of Space Curves and Surfaces: Differential

Geometry of Curves and Surfaces

 Curvature of Space and Time, with an Introduction to Geometric Analysis.

Textbook References

 Solutions of Exercises of Introduction to Differential Geometry of Space Curves and

Surfaces (2019) by Taha Sochi

 Curved Spaces ICM Edition: From Classical Geometries to Elementary Differential

Geometry (2010) by P. M. H. Wilson

 RIEMANNIAN GEOMETRY- Concepts, Examples and Techniques Paperback (2020)

by S. Kumaresan.

Websites

 https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/space-curves

 https://tutorial.math.lamar.edu/classes/calcii/arclength.aspx

 http://mathonline.wikidot.com/unit-normal-and-unit-binormal-vectors-to-a-space-
curve

 https://demonstrations.wolfram.com/CircleOfCurvature/

 https://math.mit.edu/~djk/18_022/chapter02/section07.html