[even uley-Vl GEOGRAPHY METHODS AND TECHNIQUES eR TS ea aAN PK SHARMAPRACTICAL GEOGRAPHY i METHODS AND TECHNIQUES 7) RN MISHRA P KSHARMARNMISHRA » PKSHARMA PRACTICAL GEOGRAPHY Methodsiand Techniques First Edition : 2023 ISBN : 978-93-92852-39-8 Price : $75.00 $32.00 Publisher : PAREEK PUBLICATIONS S.G.M. House, Nataniyon ka Rasta, Chaura Rasta, Jaipur- 302 003 (Raj.) E-mail : Ouse} Mob: 7742150908, 9314202010 Distributor : Pareek Book Depot Chaura Rasta, Jaipur Printer : Harish art printer, Jaipur © Author's No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form without permission in writing from the author's. ‘The authors have obtained all the information's contained in this book from various reliable sources. However, neither the author's nor the publisher shall be responsible for any errors, omissions or damagesarising out this information,Preface 4. CARTOGRAPHY 1.1 Introduction / 1 1.2 Definition / 1 1.3 Nature and Scope /2 1.4 Branches of Cartography / 2 15 History of Cartography /3 1.6 Contribution of Scholars / 13 1.7 Recent Trends in Cartography / 14 LB Importance of Cartography / 14 1.9 Questions for Practical Examination / 14 1.10 Viva-Voce(Q/A) / 14 L.11 Appendix / 16 2.3 Globe and Map / 18 2.4 Classification of Maps / 19 2.5 Basic Elements of a Map / 29 2.6 Symbolisation in a Map / 29 2.7 Drawing Tools for Mapping / 30 2.8 Application and Importance of Maps /30 2.9 Questions for Practical Examination /31 2.10 Viva-Voce(QV/A) / 31 2.11 Appendix /31 3. SCALE 33-56 3.1 Introduction / 33 3.2 Definition / 33 3.3 Methods of Representing Scale / 33 3.4 Importance of Scale / 51 3.5 Questions for Practical Examination / $2 3.6 Viva-Voce(Q/A) / $2 3.7 Appendix / 34 4, ENLARGEMENT, REDUCTION , COMBINATION OF MAP SAND MEASUREMENT OF AREA 57-68 4.1 Introduction / 57 4.2 Enlargement and Reduction of Maps / $7 4.3 Combination of Maps / 63 4.4 Measurement of Arca / 64 4.5 Questions for Practical Examination / 67 4.6 Viva-Voce(Q/A) / 685. REPRESENTATION OF RELIEF 69-86 5.1 Introduction / 69 5.2 Elevation and Relief / 69 5.3 Methods of Representation of Relief / 70 5.4 Representation of Relief by Contours / 78 5.5 Questions for Practical Examination / 84 5.6 Viva-Vooe(Q/A) / 85 7. MAP PROJECTIONS 7.1 Introduction / 115 7.2 Definition / 115 7.3 Elements of Map Projections / 115 7.4 Utility of Map Projections / 117 7.5 Classification of Projections / 118 7.6 Construction of Projections / 121 7.7 Questions for Practical Examination / 188 7.8 Viva-Voce(Q/A) / 189 115-192 uu z @ 6. PROFILES AND SLOPE ANALYSIS 87 6.1 Introduction / 87 6.2 Definition / 87 6.3 Methods for Drawing Profiles / 87 6.4 Types of Profile /89 6.5 Block Diagram / 93 6.6 Slope and Gradient / 95 6.7 Slope Analysis /97 6.8 Altimetric Frequency Graph / 103 6.9 Relief Diagram / 104 6.10 Drainage Analysis / 106 6.11 Questions for Practical Examination / 11 6.12 Viva-Voce(Q/A) / 112 RN Mishra PK Sharma GRAPHY a > g = oe o - S iz < > = - = = 8. GEOLOGICAL MAPS. 8.1 Introduction / 193 8.2 Definition / 193 8.3 Types of Geological Maps / 193 8.4 Elements of Geological Maps / 194 8.5 Determination of Dip and Strike / 196 8.6 Three Point Problem / 197 8.7 Determination of Width of Rock-Beds / 1 8.8 Study of Geological Maps / 203 8.9 Questions for Practical Examination / 208, 8.10 Viva-Voce(Q/A) / 208 5 E < S e g = 5 & = 6 g & = 2 2 A gz & 3 § gz z = g x 3 3 £ 5 2 > z 3 8 3 x“ 8 8 3 e 6 2 3 a 4 S 5 5 g9. TOPOGRAPHICAL MAPS. 210-235 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Definition / 9.3 Characteristics of Topographical Maps / 210 9.4 Use of Topographical Maps / 211 9.5 Topographical Mapping in India / 211 9.6 Maps of Survey of India / 211 9.7 Nomenclature and Numbering Scheme of Topographical Sheets / 212 9.8 Representation of Topographical Maps / 219 9.9 Interpretation of Topographical Sheets / 222 9.10 National Map Policy, 2005/ 229 = 9.11 Interpretation of OSM Sheet Sagar / 231 9.12 Questions for Practical Examination / 233 9.13 Viva-Voce(Q/A) / 233 P K Sharma 10. DISTRIBUTION MAPS 10.1 Introduction / 236 10.2 Definition / 236 10.3 Methods of Drawing Distribution M 10.4 Questions for Practical Examination 10.5 Viva-Voce(Q/A) / 260 10.6 Appendix / 262 PHY 11. WEATHER MAPS 11.1 Introduction / 263 11.2 Weather and Climate / 263 11.3 Weather Maps / 263 11.4 Recording of Weather Elements / 264 11.5 Representation of Weather Elements on the Map / 271 11.6 Interpretation of Indian Daily Weather Maps / 275 11.7 Importance of Weather Maps / 282 11.8 Questions for Practical Examination / 282 11.9 Viva-Voce(Q/A) / 283 EOGRAPHY Methods & Techniques PROF RN MISHRA DR PK SHARMA ECHNIQU METHODS AN! 12, REPRESENTATION OF STATISTICA 12.1 Introduction / 285 12.2 General Rules for Representation of Data / 285 12.3 Classification of Diagrams / 286 12.4 Graphical Representation / 308 12.5 Other Important Diagrams and Grap? 12.6 Network Analysis / 336 12.7 Techniques of Spatial Analysis / 343 4 12.8 Questions for Practical Examinati 12.9 Viva-Voce(Q/A) /355 12.10 Appendix / 360 LE PAGES OF THE BOOK PRACTICA‘ = Mi13. STATISTICAL METHODS 361-408 13.1 Introduction / 361 13.2 Collection of Data / 361 13.3 Statistical Series / 361 13.4 Measures of Central Tendency / 362 13.5 Measures of Dispersion / 375 13.6 Skewness / 383 13.7 Kurtosis / 385 13.8 Correlation / 386 13.9 Regression / 392 13.10 Sampling /396 13.11 Questions for Practical Examination / 401 13.12 Vi 14, CHAIN AND TAPE SURVEY 14.1 Introduction / 409 14.2 Surveying / 409 14.3 Types of Surveying / 409 14.4 Chain and Tape Surveying / 411 14.5 Methods of Survey /414 14.6 Survey Process / 415 14.7 Questions for Practical Examination / « 14.8 Viva-Voce(Q/A) / 420 15. PLANE TABLE SURVEY 421-435 15.1 Introduction / 421 15.2 Surveying Instruments / 421 15.3 Survey Process / 422 15.4 Methods of Survey / 425 15.5 Methods of Resection / 409 15.6 Merits and Demerits of Plane Table Survey / 429 15.7 Questions for Practical Examination / 434 15.8 Viva-Vooe(Q/A) / 435 16. PRISMATIC COMPASS SURVEY 431 16.1 Introduction / 436 16.2 Instruments of Prismatic Compass Surv 163 Different Parts of Prismatic Compass / 164 Bearing / 439 16.5 Survey Process / 442 16.6 Methods of Prismatic Compass Survey 16.7 Questions for Practical Examination / 4 16.38 Viva-Voce(Q/A) / 453 SAMPLE PAGES OF THE BOOK PRACTICAL GEOGRAPHY Methods & Techniques PROF RN MISHRAIDR PK SHARMA17. LEVELLING INSTRUMENTS 455-474 17.1 Introduction / 455 17.2 Dumpy Level Survey / 455 17.3 Parts of Dumpy Level / 455 17.4 Levelling Staff / 456 17.5 Important Terms Used in Levelling /457 17.6 Temporary Adjustment of the Dumpy Level / 458 17.7 Observation and Recording of Staff Reading / 459 17.8 Methods of Levelling / 461 17.9 Plotting the Longitudinal Profile / 464 09 —_— 17.10 Clinometer Survey / 465 17.11 Abney Level / 469 17.12 Questions for Practical Examination / 471 17.13 Viva-Voce(Q/A) / 472 THEODOLITE SURVEY 18.1 Introduction / 475 18.2 Types of Theodolites / 475 18.3 Parts of Transit Theodolite / 476 18.4 Important Terminology Used in Theod Survey /478 18,5 Procedure of Theodolite Surveying 18.6 Methods of Theodolite Survey / 488 18.7 Questions for Practical Examination / 18.8 Viva-Voce(Q/A) / 494 19. TOTAL STATION SURVEY 496-517 19.1 Introduction / 496 9.2 Functions of Total Station /497 19.3 Parts of Total Station / 497 19.4 Component of Total Station / 498 19.5 Types of Total Station / 500 19.6 Survey Process / S01 19.7 Use of Total Station / $02 19.8 Data Processing / 509 19.9 Display / $10 19.10 Electronic Field Book / $10 19.11 Measurement Program Mode / $11 19.12 Application of Total Station / $13 19.13 Comparison: Theodolite and Total Station Surveying / 514 19.14 Questions for Practical Examination / $15 19.15 Viva-Voce(Q/A) / $15 SAMPLE PAGES OF THE BOOK PRACTICAL GEOGRAPHY Methods & Techniques PROF RN MISHRA DR PK SHARMA20. REMOTE SENSING TECHNIQUES 518-531 20.1 Introduction / 518 20.2 Meaning and Definition / $18 20.3 Process of Remote Sensing / 518 ing / 519 20.5 Electromagnetic Spectrum / 520 20.6 Remote Sensing Platform / $21 20.7 Aerial Photography / 523 20.8 Classification of Aerial Photographs 20.9 Seale of Aerial Photograph / 524 20.10 Identification Aerial Photograph / 5: a 20.11 Elements of Aerial Photo Interpret “= 20.12 Interpretation of Aerial Photographs = ADR PK SHARMA 20.13 Advantages of Aerial Photography ).14 Difference Between Aerial Photogra Topographical Maps / $27 20.15 Questions for Practical Examination . 20.16 Viva-Voce(Q/A) / $29 RN PK Sha 21. GEOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION SYSTEM 532-539 21.1 Introduction / $32 21.2 History of GIS / $32 21.3 Definitions of GIS / $32 21.4 Important Features of GIS / $33 21.5 Objectives of GIS / $33 21.6 Elements of GIS / 534 21.7 Function of GIS / $34 21.8 Data Models / $36 21.9 Application of GIS / $37 21.10 Questions for Practical Examination / $38 21.11 Viva-Voce(Q/A) / 538 ICALGEOGRAPHY Methods & Te PRACTICAL GEOGRAPHY 22. GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEM 22.1 Introduction / $40 22.2 History of GPS / 540 22.3 Principles of GPS / $41 22.4 Segments of GPS / $41 5 Application of GPS / $43 6 Sources of GPS Error / $44 7 Advantages and Disadvantages of € = 22.8 Questions for Practical Examinatior 22.9 Viva-Voce(QVA) / 545 23. FIELD STUDY AND REPORT WRITING 546-569 1ODS AND TECHNIQUES DOK PRAC ME 23.1 Introduction / $46 3.2 Process of Field Study / $46 3.3 Survey Report / 554 3.4 Socio-economic Survey Report of ChhaparadV illage / 555 u 23.5 Questions for Practical Examination / 568 23.6 Viva- Voce(Q/A) / 569 Bibliography 570-571 —t 4 , SD SAMPLE'PAG!CHAPTER 1 Cartography 1.1 INTRODUCTION Cartography is the natural expression of information by humans. The primitive people have natural capacity to picture out the environment around them and to depict the same on notional maps carved out or drawn with the help of stylus ora suitable marker on any available ‘material or surface. Even today, a layman draws or seeks diagrams o maps, while transcribing the information. ‘The humans started using symbols and sketches way before writing, Therefore, the history of map art (Cargography) is as old as human history. Since the beginning of civilisation, humans have been using maps in some form. In the early years, they made depictions ‘of wild animals and nature on the walls of caves or rocks for permanent information of habitat sites, hunting areas, routes etc. Studies of the ancient civilisations provide sufficient evidence that prehistoric human has composed and used maps in their time, With the development of civilisation, the art of map-making has also developed, fened and now, it has become an important tool, no cone is left untouched by it 1.2 DEFINITION Cartography (in Greek chartis = map and graphein = write) is the study and practice of making maps of the whole or part of the earth, It is the science, technique and art of making and using maps. The map is made for the entire earth or a part of the earth on a defined scale in variants like maps, charts, globe or models. In other words, itis the science of composing maps and charts where it comprises all the steps from ground survey to printing and production of maps; therefore the cartography has been defined as the art, science and technology of making maps. Some of definitions of Cartography are: Erwin Raisz: ‘Cartography isthe of making maps, charts, globes and reli Robinson: “Cartography is « fundamentally concerned with reducis characteristics of a large area- a porto earth, or another celestial body- and j form that makes it observable. Monkhouse “Cartography 3 the entire series of map-making from an of around printing the map: namore the drawing of a map. = Jackie Smith: *Cartography is 1% building maps and charts. It includes the original survey, the selection of $3 projections and decisions on colors, lay 5 other visual representations." e Encyclopedia Britannica: ‘Cartoy% and science of graphically repr = geographical area, usually on a flat sur 4 ‘map or chart, International Cartographic Associ) seience and technology of making maps. & their study as scientific documents and 2 this context, maps may be regarded as ‘ypes of maps, charts and sections, thre models and globes representing the celestial body at any scale.’ es British Cartographic Soci “Cartography is a study concerned wit compilation, design, drafisman and evaly. {0 produce a new map or revised docum ds & Techniques PRGF RN|MISHRA Dik PK SHARMA = q aCartography with the development of improved and advanced ‘methods of preparing maps manually or with the help of computers. Instrumentation and automation, accordingly, fall within the preview of applied cartography. Topographical and socio-geographic surveys also are considered as major aspects of applied cartography. An applied cartographer takes interest in researches leading to the application cartographic methods in the solution of natural, environmental and socio-economic problems. L.SHISTORY OF CARTOGRAPHY ‘The history of the development of cartography begins in the eamestat the time of the skilled Mediterranean, ‘Mesopotamian and thereafter the Egyptian map-makers, In the ancient Egypt, the individual field boundaries of cultivated land had to be wiped out by floods inthe Nile basin. After the floods have retreated, each field boundary had to be re-established on the basis of accurate cadastral maps constructed by the Egyptian cartographers. The concept of mapmaking, however, shifted from these regions to the ancient Greek and Roman countries, followed by successful cartographic contributions of the Arabs during the middle ages. Meanwhile, the Chinese made some of the world’s first < 2 ‘maps. Inthe field of mapping theories a’ the ancient Chinese cartographers once |=) The history of obtaining maxim measuring and displaying the distance, & area, in a way, is the history of the dese cartography. From the primitive time to 5 continued to be modified, but the credit 15S foundation goes to ancient Greek geogt scholars were the first to measure the equi\f Latitude - Longitude system, construct t and they tried to make a map of the then = oon a scientific basis Cartography in medieval Europe if regarded as a highly developed craft. Fo the 15th century onwards, eartograp advanced on the European region, culn present maps that now benefit fom the = methods. Cartography after many ups and historical perspective ofan art; today ist) geographic analysis. The use of 19 cartography, aerial photography and re'9 has taken this science and art to 1/5 development of cartography can be 13 various historical chronological periods: 5 Ancient Cartography (from the beginning to 400 AD) Primitive Greek Roman —_ Chinese DEVELOPMENT OF CARTOGRAPHY. (00AD 6 TMD ADS Cartography Cartography Cartography Cartography Cartography — Early Medieval Cartography (400 AD to 1250 AD) Modem Cartog (1700 AD to the Indian | Late Medieval Cartography (1250 AD to 1700 AD) GES OF THE BOOK PRACTICAL: GEOGRAPH Early Modern Late W is Cartography. Cantos (1700.AD to 1900. AD) (1900 AD to © Chart 1.1 : Development of CartographyFig. 1.8: Representation of the Jambu-dwipa areas were well developed in ancient India; the manual known as the Sulua Sutra (the Science of measurement) bears testimony to this early knowledge. In ancient India, there was a clear assessment of direction and distance estimation. In the Sth century, Aryabhatta presented the correct calculations of the perimeter, radius and area of the earth. In the Puranas, the entire world classified into Sapta Dwi (Sapta means seven and Dwipa means islands in Sanskrit): precise to the seven islands of the world. These islands were: 1. Jambu Dwipa 2. Plaska Dwipa 3. Salmali Dwipa PURANIG DWIPAS TN a To] << ) Puskara Dwing afer Ro Aamoy ovis) fends 7” ‘Sake Owipa Fig. 1.9: The Map of the Sapta-dwipa in Puranas Practi 4. Kush Dwipa 5. Kraucha Dwipa 6. Saka Dwipaand 7. Pushkara Dwipa In the Mahabharata period, it was the earth was a sphere and surrounded by inthe center lies Meru Mountains (repre Highlands, Tibet). In the north of Mert varsa region lies and in the south, the 1 Bharatvarsa (India) were located 1.5.2 Medieval Cartography (From 400 AD to 1700 AD) The medieval period of the development is divided into two parts; 1. Early Medieval Cartography (From 400 AD to 1250 AD) ‘After the third century, in Europe, reig found to accept contradictory earth-relat to this,all development of knowledge bun; this period is known as “The Dark Age’ science and also for Cartography. Most this period are known as “Tin © Maps’, commonly known asa T in O map, repre 2 world (0) with a trilateral scheme (1). & oriented in the east, where Asia is atthe toss ithods & Techniques-PROF RN MISHBA-DR PK SHARMA TINO MAP 10: The Isidore T-O Map (1 SAMBLE PAGEROF THELBOOK-PRACACAL GEOGRAPHTy 1.7 RECENT TRENDS IN CARTOGRAPHY ‘The technological advancement in producing and securing data has led to a paradigm in the Cartographical processes; with the adoption of new technologies for acquire data to make a map and conduct spatial analyses. ‘This is an era of advance tools and machines through which maps can be developed with greater accuracy, speed and durability. It shows the close relationship between the cartographic achievements and technology. In present time we have ability to save several layers of data within a smaller space with much higher quality than before. Remote Sensing is one huge development in the map-making world, which is “the science of deriving information about an object from measurements made cata distance from the object without actually coming in contact with it. This advanced technique has been made possible to gather information about the remotest areas of the earth and it has helped in understanding the phenomenon that was a mystery to human for a long time. The satellites and aircraft sensors have been able to clearly show the distribution of various phenomena on the earth. In the age of information, GIS (Geographic Information System) is an important advance tool through which one can analyse a large amount of geographic data in forms of aerial photographs, satellite imageries and even topographical maps. GIS, as defined by USGS, is a computer system capable of assembling, storing, manipulating and displaying geographically referenced information, data identified according to their location. It helps in creating precise maps, monitoring geographical, hydrological and socio-economic activities on earth, evaluation and analysis of various developmental processes and planning, 1.8 QUESTIONS FOR PRACTICAL EXAMINATION Qu. Define Cartography. Q2. Highlight the nature and the scope of Cartography. Q3. ‘Map is a combination of the science and the art’ Explain this statement, QA. Give the brief historical development of Cartography. Qs. Q6. Qi. Qs. Practi 4 Ilostate the ‘Seven Islands! (& popular nian Carron iy Explain the concept of “T in O° me What is a ‘Portolan chart"? Clarify the changing nature of C the late modem perio. 1.9 VIVA-VOCE (Q/A) Qi. Ans. Whatis Cartography? Cartography is the art and scien maps. According to the Monkho series of map-making from an ac ground to the printing of the ni: cartography. 3 2. How cartography isascience ane = Making the map attractive isan arti: formulation according to sc scientific side, so eartography i) z Describe the subject matter of the 5 All the methods of representation Qs. Ans. Q6. Ans. Qz. Ans. any celestial body, earth surface 25 form of a map, graphs and dia subject matter of cartography. How many segments are there cartography? Cartography is historically separ:¢ period of time 8 Ancient Period (up to 400 AD i= (ii) Medieval Period (400 AD to 1) (il) Moder Period (1700 AD tot ‘Which cartographic developmen: = inancient times? Q In ancient times, the developmen: Greek, Roman, Chinese and Indic is included. Describe theeffortsmadeby Gre thedevelopmentofeartography. = The Greck scholars attempted to J: ‘equation of the Earth, the devel | latiude-longitude system, the zon ©) projections and the scientific kno known world, 3 Who made the first world map? The Greek scholar Anaximander ¢ i map of the known worl.CHAPTER. 2 Maps 2.1 INTRODUCTION Human knowledge, from the beginning, isan attempt to understand the surrounding natural and human environment with respect to where, why and how? In the context of where, attempts have been directed to know the certain positions of any phenomena or object on earth giving origin to cartography. The locational analysis is the key subject matter of geography; therefore, a map is a very important tool in any geographic analysis. Due to this connection between the map and the geography, the map is called * the language of geography * ot ‘shorthand to geography’. In the previous chapter, you have already seen how the maps came to be at their present stage and how the development has progressed in the past. Mapping is a tool in geography that constantly changes with new instruments and development in spatial analysis. Maps have helped understand the cultures and mysteries of the ancient world. It was the pictures of the ancient kingdoms and cultures when languages were a barrier between any two cultures, connecting them, either for the commercial uses or for the cultural diffusion. Maps have been around long before languages and scripts were developed, setting the information to diffuse in the world. Not only this, with the introduction of GIS and Remote Sensing, spatial analysis has improved and we have gathered knowledge about various remote locations of the earth easily. Different types of maps can be developed with single satellite imagery i.e. geological, hydrological maps, settlement maps, relief maps, agricultural maps, forest maps etc. This development has revolutionised geography. Maps are thus the most significant part of geographical studies, setting it apart from various other sciences and social sciences. Maps have become a handy tool for acquiring RN|MISHRA DR PK SHARMA and representing new found knowledge 3 to understand. It requires less work of © many symbols are standardised by variov organisations around the world. § 2.2 MEANING AND DEFINITION Maps are one of the most importi geographical studies. Through maps, analyse and interpret the distribution of v of the earth's surface. The word “map” i the Latin word ‘Mappa’ which means “2 ‘napkin’, In the medieval period of development, maps drawn on clothes “Mappa”, Later it came to be used and pez ‘map’. Thus, ‘map’ became the shorteneé to a two-dimensional representation of the earth, 9 Map is the method of inter) three- dimensional earth’s surface or an > two-dimensional surface or plane paper. to display one or more of its features w accuracy possible. The cartographer ex necessary features of the surface through and symbols, which are called the conve The conventional signs are nationally or 3 recognised. Technically, the term ‘map’ can be b asan ‘abstract representation’ of the fetus orofthe whole ofthe earth, graphically = planar surface. Maps display signs, symb at relationships among the features shown, have interpreted their definitions while {i various concepts of the map. Monkhouse: ‘A map isa representa surface of the features of part of the «8 drawn to some specific scale.”20 Practi < 3 CLASSIFICATION OF MAPS = | z ¥ According to Seale According to Purpose According ty | ‘Topographical DS 3 3 Large-scale Small-scale General Purpose. Special Purpose 5 Maps Maps. Maps. Maps: 5 z ls Cadastral Topographic! Wall Aas Hypsomettic Plime Maps Maps Maps Maps Maps Maps = According to Content Accord of Co 1 Physical Maps Human & Cultural Maps Combined Maps Qualitative = Population Racial Language Economic Political Transport Maps Maps Maps. Maps. Maps. Maps || Maps Climatic Maps Weather Maps Vegetation Maps Soil Maps Dr Relief Maps _Geolos Chart 2.1 : Classification of Maps ‘made on the scale of 1:3,960(16~ I mile)to 1: 1,980 (32 and presents itself as a base for further inch = 1 mile). The cadastral map serves the general Management mapping. purpose of the detailed description of the small area 2, Topographical Maps CADASTRAL MAP ‘These are also large-scale maps made « 5 fe field surveys, also known as toposheets relief of he region with contours. These to display all the important features (5) Cultural) of the earth’s surface, i.e, 1% drainage system, forest area, reservoir, town, village, transport routes ete. Ther very useful for military, planners ang) particular and are used to show the inte between physical and cultural landscap‘® ‘Topographic maps are made on the scale FACTICALGEOGRAPHY Methods & Teclinigjues P inch = 4 miles) to 1 : 62, 500. Maps macs scale than 1’: 4 miles are called geogr & 2 q aMaps region which are very helpful for the topographical knowledge. As it has been explained in the previous section, various types of the map have very important functions tous. The climatic and weather maps are very useful to know the temperature, rainfall, air pressure and seasonal conditions as well as for forecast of ‘weather phenomena of a region. The vegetation maps are used to explain various vegetative cover (forest, grass, bush, etc.) of the surface. Geological maps are useful in understanding rock structures, mineral resources and ground water status etc. on a map. Soil ‘maps are assisting with soil classification as well as soil conservation and land-use planning. As well as analysing natural resources, maps are multi-purpose in the field of human, cultural and environmental analysis and in regional planning and management, 3 and animation maps are newly developed kinds ‘of maps that are opening doors for more creative and information-packed maps than before. 3D maps are useful in representing relief features while animation maps are used to show trends in change of land use land cover, landslides, distribution of seismic actions, effects of flood and other important features. 2.9 QUESTIONS FOR PRACTICAL EXAMINATION QU. Define the map. Q2. Explain the classification of maps. Q3. Explain the difference between a cadastral map and a topographic sheet. QA. Give prime examples of physical maps Q5. Explain the types of maps based on the scale, Q6. Explain the importance of maps. Q7. Discuss this statement ‘Map is the major tool of ‘geographer’. Q8. Classify the thematic maps. Q9. What are the basic elements of a map layout? Q10. Mention some of the important drawing tools used for map-making, QU1. Explain ‘Symbolisation in a map" and its importance in map-making, 2.10 VIVA-VOCE (Q/A) Q ‘Ans. Map is a selective, symbolised and generalised representation of the whole or part ofthe earth at areduced scale. < 2 Q.2. Define the map according to Mons ‘Ans. According to Monkhouse, * = representation on a plane surface of part of the earth’s surface d specific scale." ° 3. Describe the basic elements of th. The basic elements ofa map ineluc representations, the scale, th: sraticule, ttle and legend, etc dimensional representation of th flat surface or paper: 2 Explain the basis ofthe classifica ® ‘The maps are classified accordin the number of topographic construction method and purpos:° Depending on theseale, how many & arethere?Giveexamples, © Based on the seale, the maps ar) two classes: (i) Large scale map (Cadastral an map) (i) Small scale map (Wall and At s> How many types of maps areclas: 3 theamount of topographic featur = (On the basis of the amount of features, the maps are classified in 5) and plenimetrie maps. 7. What isa Cadastral map? ‘A map made ona large scale, buildings, roads and property lin fora small administrative unit like ‘What isa Topographic map? ‘A map made on the large sco constructed after an extentive = representing the detailed features for general purpose 4 Show the difference between hy) planimetric maps? Relief and topographic features #5 in a hypsometric map while in th map, social-economic charac iw represented. Fs |. Deseribe the type of map accra. purpose? Give example. Oo According to the purpose maps ar {() (@ General Purpose map such as Alas, Toposheet and = (i Thematic map e.g., pop Janguage map, economic Mat 2 q aCHAPTER. 3 Scale 3.1 INTRODUCTION In the previous chapter, you have been introduced to the art and science of map making ie. cartography. It is. impossible to create a map that represent the true size of anareaon earth, For example, ifwe want to make a map of India without scaling it down, a paper of approximately 3000 km x 3500 km will be required. How can this dimension of paper be worked with? The answer is it can not be. A map is always smaller than the area it represents ‘To tackle this issue, cartographers have developed several methods to represent an area on a plane surface ‘or paper, preserving the correct distance, right direction and true shape ofthe area, which willbe discussed in a chapter named Map Projections. 3.2 DEFINITION ‘The scale is the relation between the distance of two points on the map and the actual distance between those two points on the surface, The ratio among the real distance on the surface and the distance shown on the map is known as scale. Some of the important definitions given by various scholars are: FJ. Monkhouse :*/ denotes the relationship which is the distance between any two points on the map bears 10 the corresponding distance of the ground.” Robinson : “The relationship between reality and representation is usually referred to as ‘scale'.” John Bygott : ‘Seale has the meaning ofa ratio, It signifies the proportion of which length on the map bears to the actual distance of the ground.” Jackie Smith : ‘Scale is the measure that is used ‘on a map to represent corresponding distance upon the earths surface.’ Arthur N. Strahler : ‘Seale isthe ‘map distance and the actual ground dis ‘map represents.” Distance between two points Distance between same poin For example, wwe say that Lem = I km that means ‘map distance is equal to one km on the s The large scale maps show a larc geographical features and their analy: whereas the small scale maps are used to the key features of a large area. Hence, the map i to select the scale in mind, Seale Be Techoigues PROF RN MISHRA OR PK SHARMA 3.3 METHODS OF REPRESENTING Map scales are represented throu ‘methods—a statement, a numeric ratio an accordingly they are respectively called St” Representative Fraction and Graphical Sed ‘The Scale we chose primarily deper = ‘The size of the area to be mapped ‘The amount of details to be shown 3. The size of the paper 1. Statement Method. 1 2 ‘The statement scale is simply the rep scale as a sentence, Iti also known as «2 can be orally represented, For example, 1 1 kmor | inch isequal to I mile, meaning 1 is equal fo | km on the ground or 1 inch vy ‘equal to I mile on the ground, ‘The vahi hand side of the statement indicates the eminch) and that on the right-hand sic us ground distance (knvmile).Practi < 2 SCALE a = ——+—_:: x“ Statement Scale Representative Fraction Graphical Seale = (RE) 5 ¢ 3 Plain ‘Comparat Diagonal Vernier 3 Scale Seale Scale Seale 3 Zz = Scale of Time Place Revolution Direct Retrograde Dov Different Units Scale Scale Scale Scene a ce Seale Seale Sev Chart 3.1 : Methods of Representing Seale 2 that | particular unit of length (em, inch, ° = = 10kilometer ‘on the map represents 10000 of same pj = Shectameter (ems, inches, feet or yards) on the grou = 200meter distance of lem on the map will show 10-2 (iv) Vinch = 10mile earth. This unit may be in inch or a cen’ (¥) Linch = 12 furlong (vi) Linch = 100 eet Merits 1. This is a simple method that even a layman can understand. 2. It is the description of the scale by which the distances are well explained, Demerits 1. Itean be understood only by those people who are familiar with the units of measurement, 2. When the original map is reduced or enlarged, its scale also changes, 2. Representative Fraction or R-F. Representative Fraction (R.F.) is a numerical ratio scale in which the scale is represented as a fraction or ratio. For example, RF. = 1:10,000. The numerator ofthis fraction is always 1 representing a unit distance on the map and the denominator is the distance on the ground: which the numerator (1) unit is showing. Thus, ___ Distance on the map Distance on the ground It is important to note that, the numerator (1) and the denominator in the R.F. scale are always inthe same Unit of length. Ifthe R.F is stated to be 1:10000, it means, other unit of length Examples: @ RE. 1:100 Gi) RE. 1:500 i) RF. 1100000 RE. 1:2500000 Merits 1. No measurement units are used to RE scale which makes it niversal. = 2 Itis also called Intemational Scal:=t adjusted with any unit scale of an= ‘example—inch in USA, varst in RO France ete Demerits 1. REF ismere fraction which stateno ur © while this makes it universal, it also to understand, wi When the size ofthe map is reduced = a photography method the scale is 3. ‘The reader is required to be awareo! © scale. (RLF. 1:100000,ifrepresented {f 11cm on map is equal to 100000 ems i which isa very large number for or 2 head but ifconvere: 1 km on the ground. itis simply 1 ers & 2 q a38 2. It requires drawing skill and steady hands to construct it precisely. Construction of Graphical Seale To construct a neat and precise graphical scale, the following directives should be kept in mind: 1. The line bar ofa graphical scale should be between 10 o 15 emor4 to6 inches depending on the nature of the map. ‘The ground distances which are to be represented on the scale should always be a whole number, like 1Lkm, I mile, 200 m, 5 feet, 500m et. 3. The primary divisions and sub-divisions (secondary divisions) are decided according to the requirement of the map or mentioned R.F, or statement of scale. ‘The sub-divisions (secondary divisions) are made on the leftsmost division ofthe scale and secondary ‘measurements are mentioned inthis section of the scale 5. Thezero‘0” of the scale should lie right next to the sub-division (Ieft-most) section of the scale. The primary divisions or units are mentioned on the right from the ‘0’ while sub-divisions o Practi (secondary divisions) are mentiones the 0" ona graphical scale, 7. REE. or statement of scale should be with the graphical scale. Draw a straight line AB, 12 em. in| seale— @ Statement method (i) Representative Factor or RF (ii) Linear or Graphical method Q2 Ans. HOOK PRACTICAL GEO! Q3. Ans. SAMPLE PAGE!couapren Enlargement, Reduction, Combination of M and Measurement of Area 4.1 INTRODUCTION Previously, we have learned about different scales and their methods of representation an a map. In this chapter though, we are going to learn a technique that has been tremendously helpful for the cartographers of early generations, The enlargement and reduetion of maps is a scale-based technique that allows you to enlarge and reduce the size of a map or area in a map without too much work and with accuracy to an extent. With the introduction of GIS tools, the enlargement and reduction of maps is on our fingertips but it is important to understand the mechanism behind it The making of a bigger map than the original is called enlargement of the map and the reduction of a ‘map is other way around. For example, if an original map with RF. 1: 50,000 is remade with R.F. 1: 25,000 then the map is enlarged. How? You see, in the original ‘map I-unit distance on map is representing 50,000-unit distance on ground while in the enlarged map I-unit distance is representing only half the distance i.e. 25,000- nit distance on the ground making it more detailed with the features like a large-scale map. Similarly, in the reduction of the map, the original map is converted to even more small scale map than the original. For example, if the scale of the original map is R.F. = 1 : 50,000 and is reduced to 1 : 1,00,000, the new map represents 1,00,000-unit distance on the ground in I- nit distance of the map, 2 times the original map. The details on the map will be diminished than before. The enlargement and reduction ofthe map are thus techniques to epresent any given area on the map in a more detailed large format and less detailed sm respectively. In geography, map of particular pis is often required in few different sizes purposes. A map of a district can be nes different sizes, large scale maps (Cay ‘Topographical sheet) are required for plan often enlarged up to block level and vill for planning and administrative bodies, w= scale map is required for activities like ts the different sites in a tourism region car 5 fone map and distances among sites ean '= scale map ofa district is perfect for textboo ig the scales of neighboring places or tet 5 ‘made on a different scale in ther original © together in one map is called combination of different countries with different projecy converted into one single projection and to be combined. 4.2 METHODS OF ENLARGEMI REDUCTION OF MAPS ues PROF RN MIgfIRA DR PK SHARMA ‘The following methods are used fo and reduction of maps: 4.2.1 Linear Method 1, Square Method In square method, we make a grid the original map to reconstruct it into enlar = form, It is a simple linear method of en st reduction of map, In this method, the 0 covered in straight grid lines to forma netw 5 = q60 Pract Example 4.2 : The original map of Australia of RE. length of the side of square on original » 1 + 80,000,000 is to be reduced and enlarge to RF. find the length of the side of squares of 1: 100,000,000 and 1 : 40,000,000, respectively. Ifthe enlarged maps. A 4 ‘SQUARE METHOD Enlargement and Reduction of Map (Australia) ORIGINAL MAP 1: 80,000,000 C as ety We Keay ENLARGED MAP 40, Fig. 4.2 : Square Method SAMPLE PAGES OF THE BOOK PRACTICAL GEOGRAPHY Methods & Techniques PROF RN MISHRA DR PK SHARMA.Enlargement, Reduction, Combination of Maps and Measurement of Area CAMERA LUCIDA 4.2.3 Photographic Method 1. Photography and Photostate Method This method is one of the best way to enlarge and reduce maps, With photography techniques any map can be reduced by developing a negative and changing the size of the developed photograph of the map. In recent times, the mess of negatives has also been reduced with the introduction of digital methods of photography and. advancements of mapping tools. Photostate machine has a camera like device and a prism which is fixed on its front frame, The original map is placed in horizontal position vertically below the prism. The prism transfers the image on sensitised photostate paper. 4.3 COMBINATION OF MAPS Combination of maps are drawn when a study requires collective regional map of areas of two or more different territories. The combination of maps is done with modifications in scale of one or more maps involved. in the action, To make a new map by combining two different sized (scale) maps, we can do the following, actions: 1. You can combine the small map by enlarging it to a larger map, i. bringing it to the same seal. 2. Larger maps can be combined by reducing it equal to the small map, ic. by bringing them to the same scale 3. Tomakeanew map ina suitable shape, by changing the scale of both the maps. Fig. 4.6: Camera Lucida Example 4.5 : Maps of Tamil Nadu a available in different R.F. at 1:1,0t 1:75,00,000. Combine both maps 7:50,00,000, Composition Method The length of the side of the s: combined map is determined beforehanc square sizes ofthe original maps ae set wi scale 2 ods & Techniques PROF RN MISHRA DR PK SHARMA ‘Suppose that, the length of one side 7 in combined map is 0.5 em, then ,00,00,000 » 1,50,00,000 = 0.75 em 2. The length of the side of square f Kerala 1 1 75,00,000 ” 150,00,000 * © Make lem » lem square grid on K 0.75em * 0.75 em square grids on the Tavs To construct the combination map, cr: ‘squares of dimension 0.5em 0.5 em, Ke carefully draw the map of Kerala from th, the drawing of shared boundaries betwe:v» ‘Tamil Nadu. The eastern boundary of Ke ij) ‘western boundary of Tamil Nadu; thus, 1 same. Start constructing the Tamil Nadu same line forward. g GOWPRACTICAL GEO! q aCHAPTER 5 Representation of Relief 1.1 INTRODUCTION ‘The representation of relief is an important part of practical geography, along with the statistical analysis of the existing surface features on the earth’s surface hich has always been an essential aspect of geography. At firs, landforms were shown inaccurately for a very long period of time, often exaggerated in extent and elevation, as there was no way to scale all the hills (or mountains around the world. There are still many high mountains and rugged topographies in which only a few are on scales. For example, high glacial ranges of Himalaya or Badlands of Chambal valley or Rann of Kutch are some of the extreme landscapes of India which haven't and couldn't be measured in all extent. That's why, historically, representation of relief remained somewhat artistic choice in map making for a long time. Until 1807 AD, height of only 60 mountains had been measured but the question of representing them accordingly on a two-dimensional surface remained unanswered for a long time until landforms were portrayed using band of colours. Most of the physical maps still show elevation with colour bands. Many techniques began to emerge prior to the colour band display of elevation, but the most effective techniques did not provide precise terrain information ‘and methods that did provide precise terrain information were ineffective visually. DEM or DTM are newly developed computer methods of relief representation in which the relief is shown in 3D preface in digital mediums. These elevation models also use colour and fr contour fines when layout is made on 2D surface. Let's see, how cartographers have developed an accurate technique to represent the relief inthis chapter. 5.2 ELEVATION AND RELIEF Elevation and relief are often used in but are wildly different in terms representation, Elevation refers to height ofthe lane some respective datum, Itis the vertica ‘mean sea level as its reference point or de Relief refers to the difference in height bx and lowest elevation of the said area tha or viewer is looking at. It is calculated the lowest elevation from the highest ¢ area Matifods & Techniques PROF RN|MISHRA DR PK SHARMA Elevation and Relief are essentially. elevation is a much more scientific tem standardisation of height across continer © Relief, on the other hand, is the act experienced by the locality Ibis what is vs the shape ofhilsand mountains and val = and plains ete. The elevation of Gan Varanasi India about 73 meters from 2 level but the relief is almost non-existen the Middle Ganga Plain, is a huge = featureless ood plain with 73 meter ele So, landforms can have high elevation bu: plateau and can also have low elevatics variable relief, ike coastal hills. 7 Development of Techniques of Represen Relief e As described eatlier, the develops accurate method for the representation of 3 a long journey of constant inventions % precision and effective visualisati wy dimensional landforms. Fora long time, .& = q a70 Practi <4 = remained an artistic choice and often exaggerated visual The European Topographic surveys in = symphonies the cartographer and map reader. Early bird-eye view or looking straight down “= depiction of landforms remained vague and imprecise. _ and released symbols to represent reliet 7) Terrain representation on small scale maps was shown was consecutively developed duriie in forms of crude undulations (symbols for hills or 19" century which was helpful in sho ‘mountains). During the Ith century, landscape painting surfaces. At the same time, contouring ‘was popular when painters gave these terrains their and standardized. Contouring, Hachu exaggerated forms in their painting to make it visually shading are the methods most widel\2) appealing and hyperbolic to the context of the paintings. together, By the late 20th century, com 3 ‘This led to various perspective drawings of landforms borne cameras and sensors brought new 2 as well. Cartographers, nonetheless, always found the representation. DTM and images, as we! poetic representation of relief, unscientific and kept on are new methods of the representation finding the ways to represent the relief accurately. Bird precision and value. eye view mapping also gave a little push to the development of relief depiction. By the 16th century, 3 METHODS OF REPRESENTAT Dutch developed a method of lines connecting points SUI of equal elevation and called it Isarithm to display Representation of relief is a very t underwater relief for navigational purposes, which when and requires precision of drawing. A fev translated to English became contour lines in further be keptin mind while representing landfor years of the extent of the terrain, the precisio Johann Georg Lehmann in 1799 AD, developed depiction of irregular surface. The a method of terrain representation through a system representation of rele of short lines or linear symbols known as Hachures. three categories. i a METHODS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIEF oth Qualitative Methods Quantitative Methods Composite Methods - SAMPLE PAGES-OF THE BOOK PRACTICAL GEOGRAPHY Methods & Techniques PROF Hachure Hill Shading ‘Trachographie Morpholo; Methods Methods Method Method Bench Mark Spot Heights ‘Trigonometric Stations Form Lines Contou PO Contours Contour Contours tours c Hachure Hachure Spot Height Hill Shading Layer Spot Heights Form Lines Chart 5.1 : Methods of Representation of ReliefRepresentation of Relief ‘CONTOUR DRAWING MODEL. @ 6 Fig. 6: Contour Drawing Model Similarly, we will increase the height ofthe ink at dem, 6 em, 8 em and 10 em and mark their level as shown in fig. 5.6(4). Each line on the plastic hill shows the elevation of those level ‘onthe hill. (5) After taking out the ink or coloured water, we ‘draw these lines on the plane paper (ig. 5.6(5)) (©) When the papers lifted and placed on aplane surface, the circular line will appear as in fig. 5.6(6). Each circular line shows a particular height ofthe plastic hill. As the figure portrays, the contour lines represent the line of equal elevation, The basis of making contour lines on a map is to ‘mark the highest elevation on the map by Spot Heights Then, the contour interval is decided and using interpolation of contour method, the contour lines are constructed on the map in form of circular lines. The choice of interval and interpolation of contours are discussed in the later parts of the chapter. Contour Interval The vertical distance between the elevations represented by adjacent or consecutive contour lines (on a map is called contour interval. Cor are based on choice of the map maker. The contour interval depends on: (a) The nature of the surface (b) The scale of the map (©) The purpose of the survey A contour map should aim at completeness ofthe landform data init. 1 may produce less detailed relief map due An approximate relief map will be the ‘O intervals. The purpose of the map isessen |) of contour intervals. A much detailed required for planning purposes lik& HY Methods & Techniques PROF RN MISHRA DR PK SHARMA ¢ 2 9 Fre} management, drainage basin plannsf morphology ete. whereas atypical conto.) enough for general purpose maps like Uneven contour interval should be becomes hard to analyze and visualize the Supplementary Contours: Suz contours re used when the basic interval» the map is too large to mark important v3 that are significant locally like river levee interval is then decreased for these parts uy incorporate the minor details. a 2 q a(Sesenaerg A andDrwnanseseA8) 5.25 Ox-Bow Lake RIA COAST 8 (Secton along AB and Drawn on base A'S!) Fig. 5.26 Ria Coast Practi 2. jord Coast (or Fjord) Fiord Coastis formed inthe high ltt areas by the erosion of glacier by sea. Ty fiord landforms are U-shaped. FIORD COAST SHARMA. (Secon along AB and Drawn on base AE Fig. 5.27: Fiord Coast GEOGRAGHY Methods & Techniques PROF RN MISHRA DR P! 5.5 QUESTIONS FOR PRACTICA! 3 EXAMINATION Describe the methods of represen ¢ Qi Q.2, Differentiate between elevation a Q.3. Explain the depiction ofreliefthro ae Q.4, What are contours? Explain examples. Q.5, What do you mean by interpolatio Explain with suitable example. Q.6. Show the following landform 18) contour lines, ( Plateau (ii) V-shaped valley i) Uniform slope (iv) Ria coast g 3 © SAMPLE PAGEStowers, bridge, telephone stations ete. whereas spot heights are actual elevation of random points from mean sea level on ground. Q.15. What isa Benchmark? ‘Ans. It isthe actual elevation above mean sea level of the actual places like building. Mountain top, tower ete, determined by surveys. Q.16. What kind of surveys used in Trigonometrie stations? ‘Ans. The triangulation surveys used in trigonometric, stations Q.17, What are the symbols used to represent Benchmark, Spot Heights and Trigonometrie stationsona map? ‘Ans. Benchmark—B.M. followed by the feet or meter. Spot Height—Arrow or dot followed by elevation in feet or meter. ‘Trigonometric Station—Small triangle followed by elevation in feet or meter. Q.18. What are Form Lines? ‘Ans. The approximate fragmented lines drawn between ‘the contour lines in the relief map are called form lines. Q.19. Who invented contours? ‘Ans, Nicolas Cruquius in 1730 AD. Q. 20. Define contour interval. ‘Ans. Difference in elevation between two adjacent ‘contour lines are called contour interval Q.21. What are Supplementary contours? ‘Ans. When the basic existing contour interval for the map is too large to delineate some important evation in Practi < 2 features of significance, smaller co are used for that area are called: contours. a Q.22, What are some characteristies = Ans. Some ofthe characteristic feat lines are: (@ They are closed is Gi Steeper the slope, closer the © (iii) It bends upstream while z. waterbody. Zz Q.23. What aresome demerits or error‘. Ans. Some demerits in contour method g (@ Contour connects sample are usually apart and thus | between two sample points & drawn. Gi Number of sample points for (3 is yet not standardised. Q.24. Name some of the composite me’! representation, Ans. Some Compostemethods ofl are: M (@ Contour tines + Hachure (@ Contour lines + Hachure +S Gil) Contour lines + Spot Height Gv) Contour lines + Spot Height: (©) Contour lines + Layer Tintin © Q.25, What is Layer Tinting? o Ans, Layer tinting isa method of relief in which different colors are as different zones of elevation. ic SAMPLE PAGES OF THE BOOK PRACTICHAPTER 6 Profiles and Slope Analysis 6.1 INTRODUCTION A cartographer must ear to have a proper understanding, of the landform features and distributions of the worl. ‘Topographical maps give a lot of information about the features ofthe land, which can be studied and modified to generate more new used information, Profile drawing, is one of the methods to modify the contour maps to generate new information and to better understand the landforms at a certain plane. Profile is an outline of the feature we study. If you picture a mountain, what you see is profile of it. As soon as you change your angle of vision, the profile of the mountain appear to change. ‘This means thata profile is partly based on the landform and partly on the plane of vision. Specifically, profiles are drawn on cross-section lines. If you cut a mountain vertically at different places into slices, a lange number of profiles can be envisioned, known as serial profiles. ‘A number of cross-section lines are drawn on a contour map along which a profile can be drawn these cross-section lines. In the geomorphology and geology, the profiles are of utmost importance, because they gives. a clear understanding of the relief and rock structures, as well as profiles are useful in finding evidences of geological history, which is explained in Chapter 8 Geological Maps. 6.2 DEFINITION As explained earlier, a profile is an outline of the landform at a certain plane. Some of the important definitions are : “A profile is a cross-sectional view along a line drawn through a portion of a topographic map.” “4 Profile is a representation of the relief of the terrain that is obtained by cutting transversely the lines of a topographical map.” “A topographic profile isa graph or « attempts to display the cross-sectional ¢ view of the land surface topography:” “Profile or a section is a method v visualise the relief feature for a larger are a selected base line.” ‘That is, the profiles display the ve the area, If profiles are drawn on the be method of profil drawing in which the po = are placed along the edge of paper strip = is explained stepwise with an example of S¢ Techniques PROF RN|MISHRA DR PK SHARMA of an area, The steps are:‘Take two points A and B on two sides ofthe contour map as shown in the fig. 6.1: Join points A and B with a straight line, making the cross-section line. ‘This line is the base of the profile that is to be drawn. 9. Take a paper strip and put its one straight edge on the line AB. Now mark the points A and B on the paper strip with pencil, as well as all the points where the contour lines touch the sheet of paper. Now write the height of the respective contour lines on each of the points marked and mention points A and B accordingly on the paper strip. ‘Take another sheet of plain paper and draw line ABB’ equal othe cross-section line AB and carefully transfer the points of contour lines from paper strip, to line A'B' by putting it over the line. . Raise two perpendicular lines A'C and B'D from points A’ and B' which will represent the elevation of the contours. . As shown in fig. 6.1, the elevation of points of contour lines are taken as per scale for PAPER STRIP METHOD Practi-J G < = perpendicular lines A'C and BYD. US scale, mark the values of elevation > (For example, lem= 10m). 7. Now, carefully draw points of contoue section line A'B' an just ikea erg point perpendicularly above the p height measuring from vertical sca\s all the points 3 Connect all the points with freehand & finish the profile drawing, This line profile along cross-section line AB. © 6.3.2 Perpendicular Method The perpendicular method is a c method of drawing profile from contou' the requirement of a paper strip to tar: elevation. This method i less fussy and w the previous one, though they are similar’ In this method, profile is draw perpendicular lines from the contour ni cross-section line. The steps in making perpendicular method is as follows: 2 1, ‘Take two points A and B on two sides & ‘map as shown in the fig 6.2. Join p22 with a straight line making the eros >: This line i the base of the profile that & ee PERPENDICULAR METHO © SAMBLE PAGES OF THE BOOK PRACTICAL GEOProfiles and Slope Analysis 1° slope = ,° 2s 2 slope = 5 3° slope G5 gradient 5° slope = £5 gradien In this way up to 7° considered true for slope. Example 6.3 : If the slope of any hill is 4, its vertical interval is 400 meter, then calculate its horizontal distance. Solution : ‘The horizontal distance is measured as: Angle of Slope _ 4°, Gradient ea ‘cola! Vid HE. 15 HE. 15* VL. 15 « 400 = 6000 meter. Example 6.4 : Find out the gradient between AB with the help of the following contour map. CONTOUR MAP RF. 1:3,00,000 Solution : Vertical interval between AB = 500 — 200 = 300 meter. According to R.F, | em. =3 km,=30 Horizontal equivalent between Aan km = 6000 meter A 4 Gradient Slope in Degree = 5— Gradient between AB 6.7 SLOPE ANALYSIS Slope analysis is a sciemific tec analysis of morphological structures of thy (On the basis of contour map and flow sy ‘of the spatial pattem of slope of any area On this basis we find out the gradient of important methods of average slope a follows : 1. S. Finster Walder's Method of Ave Determination S. Finster Walder (1890) used foll to determine the slope: ‘Average Slope (in degrees) = Total Length of Contours x Conto Total Area “These steps have been followed to slope: (Divide the contour map in the squares, Measure total length of contour square. [Now multiply the total lengths & ‘each square with contour intervi cach individual value by area oS this will give the value of ave degree for each square. Here & square is equal w Put the value of average slope [= cach square, then by interpol draw the lines showing simi (ii) CTIGAL GEOGRAPHY Methods & Techninues PRGF RN MISHRA DR PK SHARMA ii) prepare the slope map. ‘This method is more suitable for c-5% é large scale in comparison to small scale.Profiles and Slope Analysis AVERAGE SLOPE MAP S PROF AT MISHA DRIP S CTICAT GECGHAPHIV hethods ex Techniqui Index Jorto 1° E=|r or EH © = A Above 3° Fig, 6.15 : Average Slope Map104 ‘Table 6.4 : Height (in meters) 150 20 | x21 | 496 | 559 130 2s | 499 | 380 | 60 235 450 120 | 500 | 60 101 40 | 420 | 30 | 330 139 20 133, | 353 | S31 no 151 37s | 424 | 599 116 a4 | 499 | 403 | 570 240 44 | 499 | sto | 555 Construction: Table 6.5: Class Interval of Heights and Pereentage of Frequency Class | Tally Mark] Frqueney} Percentage Intervalof of Heights Frequency 100-150 | PHU III 8 200 151-200 \ 1 25 201-250 ul 3 18 251-300 | 1 25 301-350 \ 1 28 351-400 MW 3 75 4or4s0 | TY 6 150 4sisoo | MJ II 7 17s soso | II) 4 10.0 31-600 | HUI 6 150 Total 0 100.00 ALTIMETRIC FREQUENCY HISTOGRAM Frequency in % TLL. “oO 181 201 251 201 951 401 451 SOT 551 600 ‘Aude above Sea Leavin Metres Fig, 6.18 : Altimetric Frequency Histogram Practi 6.9 RELIEF DIAGRAM 1, Area Height Diagram Various types of diagram have been used relationship between area and attitude, Tx. ‘curve shows the actual area of land betwee contours which can be usually measured (33 Area measurement by planimeter |= labourious. Considering this problem, A.A >" «gave anew method to measure the percen different parts ofthe contour map. In this parallel Hines are drawn at equal distance os map and find out the total length of inte: parallel tines between each two adjacen’ = is calculated. Take the percentage vel construct area height curve on this basis, = 2. Hypsometric Curve This curve was first used by D. Lap Hypsometrie curve indicates the propor of the surface at difference elevations als below a given datum, According to & hypsometric curve is used to represe landform found between two contour § method, area of elevated portion is repres km or percentage. z Example 6.7 : Prepare a hypsometric eur of the given contour map (Fig. 6.19) 1:500,000. ‘CONTOUR MAP A 6s, o~ ° Nd SAMPLE PAGES OF /THE BOOK RRACHCAL GEO! Zo. RF. 1-5 00,000 Fig. 6.19 : Contour MapProfiles and Slope Analysis Nu is also stable. When its value is found be: Nu+l shows an ideal situation of stream order. Physiography of drainage basin and climate eects example 6.8 : Find out Bifurcation Rati the bifurcation ratio, Inthe situation of same Formation gfe following map. ofthe rock, cimate and development stages the Rb ratio Bifurcation Ratio (Rb) X i STREAM ODERING Fig, 6.22 : Stream Orde1 SAMPLE PAGES OF THE BOOK PRACTICAL GEOGRAPHY Methods & Techniques PROF RN MISHRA DR PK SHARMAProfiles and Slope Analysis M DRAINAGE DENSI CHOROPLETH METE SEBO SIR LRKRK SRR REG Below 1.25 1.25- 2.50 KX boo a Re Ro CRN Se ER I 42 S XS Roe Fig. 6.26 : Drainage Density Map : Choropleth MethodProfiles and Slope Analysis along the cross-section line. What is meant by exaggeration of vertical scale ina profile? ‘Considering the difference in scale of elevation and distribution of a landform, the profiles are usually drawn with exaggerated vertical scale ‘The vertical scale is exaggerated to prevent the details of the relief or profile from being missed ‘or underrepresented on the profile diagram and is dependent on scale and relative altitude or relief, Name the types of profiles. ‘There are four types of profile: (i) Serial Profite i) Superimposed Profile (iii) Projected Profile iv) Composite Profile ‘What is a serial profile? The series of profiles drawn on different cross~ section lines across a contour map are known as serial profiles. Q.8. What is a Superimposed profile? ‘Ans. A superimposed profile is drawn by superimposing the serial profiles on one another ‘ona single base line and same vertical scale. What is a projected profile? Projected profiles are just like superimposed profiles with same base and same vertical scale but with a slight change. In projected profile, the portion of each profile which comes after the previous profiles is left undrawn. Q. 10. What is composite profile? ‘Ans. A composite profil is the composite sky-line or ‘outline of all the serial profiles, when they are combined together on single base and same vertical scale in which only the highest part of all profile is shown, What do you mean by Horizontal Equivalent? Actual distance between two points as per scale in contour map. Q. 12. What do you mean by Block Diagram? Ans. Block diagram is the representation of different types physiographical features and their Qs. Ans. Q6 Ans. Qt. Ans. Q9 Ans. Qu. Ans. systematic development. Q.13. Name the types of Block Diagram Ans. Block diagram is of tree types: 1. Sketch Block Diagram 2. Perspective Block Diagram 3. Non-perspective Block Diag «t 0.14. What is difference between per rnon-perspective block diagram” = Ans, Perspective block diagram give= appearance of the landscape whe 2 block narrower than the front. Y= diagram isnot a picture ofthe acti known as non-perspective block ¢ 15. What isthe vanishing point in Block Diagram? Ans. The point of convergence on hor perspective block diagram is know point 2 .16. What isthe difference between b% and a map? Block diagram represent the chara = shape of relief features, while »& representation of the shape and exe: thing. Q.17. Differentiate between stream Strabler and Horton, In Strahler method river is divided and assign I order t tributary: Wh segment of channel meet Il orde:~ allowed where as Horton allotted the segment of the channel hav length within I order of two chann Q. 18, What do you mean by drainage f ‘Ans. Drainage density is the ratio betwe we of the stream and its area x q RPK SHARMA Ans. Ans. eet) Drainage Density = Lu =Total length of stream per g ‘Au =Area of each grid {Q. 19. What do you mean by slope gradi ‘Ans. It is the ratio between vertical horizontal equivalent. SAMPLE PAGES OF: THE BOOTCHAPTER 7 Map Projection 7.1 INTRODUCTION Map projection is the system of transformation of the spherical surface ona plane surface. Itisa systematic representation of the parallels and meridians (latitudes and longitudes) ofthe spherical earth ona plane surface with a specific scale. This involves the application of a set of principles, procedures and purposes. Broadly speaking, map projection means preparation of graticule cn the plane surface; imaging, a paper is placed on a point on globe to draw a map. In order to draw the map, either you have to wrap the paper and draw the map and then straighten the paper (conical projection, cylindrical projection ete.) or you will have to cast the shadow or mage of the parts of the globe on to the paper by some way. for example - by illuminating the globe from its center or from the opposite side ofthe point, where the paper touches the globe. In either ofthe ways, the map that appears on the paper is distorted. Numerous map projections have been developed to sustain different characteristics of the globe ot earth as required for different uses of maps. All these various ways of casting the earth on a paper is called map projection. The presentation is based on the different mathematical and graphical methods of representing the graticule on a Paper. 7.2 DEFINITION Many scholars have defined projection in various Steers: ‘A map projection is a means of representing the lines of latitudes and longitudes of the globe on flat sheet of paper” Erwin Raisz: ‘A projection can be defined as any orderly system of parallels and meridians on which a ‘map can be drawn.” Strahler: “A map projection isan of parallels and meridians used as a bas a map on aflat surface. Kelevee: ‘Map projection is the met parallels and meridians of the earth on paper Monkhouse: *4 map projectio presentation of the earth's parallels anc 3 4 net or graticule on a plane surface.” Therefore, a map projection is cS) systematic drawing of a network of meridians on a plain paper portraying aps the earth’ surface, > chniques PROF RN|MISHRA DR PK SHARMA z 7.3 ELEMENTS OF MAP PROJEC 1. Reduced Earth 5 AA three-dimensional model of the reduced scale can be developed on a flat ~) reduced earth. It should be more or less sp the ength of polar diameter less than the = on this model, the network of latitude anc) be transferred on a developable surface. 2. Latitude and Parallels of Latitude Latitude ofany place isan angular di: the equatorial plane and the line joining & center of the earth (Fig, 7.1). The equa i! equatorial plane, making 0° angle with i the poles les at aright angle from the ec) being denoted as 90° N and 90°S. The ec ys divides the earth into two halves, know > and Southern hemispheres lying betwee: and 0° and 90°S latitudes respectivis 180 degrees. The angular distance north B