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Chapter 6
Systems of Particles and Rotational Motion
Rigid Body
Ideally a rigid body is a body with a perfectly definite and unchanging
shape. The distances between different pairs of such a body do not change.
Motion of a rigid body
The motion of a rigid body which is not pivoted or fixed in some way is
either a pure translation or a combination of translation and rotation.
The motion of a rigid body which is pivoted or fixed in some way is
rotation.
1)Pure Translational Motion
In pure translational motion at any instant of time every particle of the
body has the same velocity.
Eg: A block moving down an inclined plane.

Any point like P1 or P2 of the block moves with

the same velocity at any instant of time.

2)Pure Rotational Motion

In pure rotational motion at any instant of time every point in the rotating
rigid body has the same angular velocity,but different linear velocity.
i) Rotation about a fixed axis

Eg: A ceiling fan A potter’s wheel.

The line along which the body is fixed is termed as its axis of rotation.
In rotation of a rigid body about a fixed axis, every particle of the body
moves in a circle, which lies in a plane perpendicular to the axis and has its
centre on the axis.
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ii) Rotation about an axis which is not fixed

Eg: A spinning top An oscillating table fan

3)Rolling Motion
It is a combination of translational and rotational motion.
Eg A solid cylinder moving down an inclined plane.

Points P1, P2, P3 and P4 have different

velocities at any instant of time. In fact, the
velocity of the point of contact P3 is zero at
any instant, if the cylinder rolls without
slipping.

Centre Of Mass
The centre of is a hypothetical point where the entire mass of an object
may be assumed to be concentrated to visualise its motion.

Consider a two particle system. Let C be the centre of mass which is at a

distancev X from origin.
⃗⃗ = 𝐦𝟏 𝐫𝟏+𝐦𝟐𝐫𝟐
𝐑
𝒎𝟏 +𝒎𝟐

⃗⃗ = 𝐦𝟏𝐫𝟏+𝐦𝟐𝐫𝟐
𝐑 where M=𝒎𝟏 + 𝒎𝟐
𝐌
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𝑚1 𝑥1 +𝑚2 𝑥2
x coordinate of centre of mass 𝑋=
𝑚1 +𝑚2
𝑚1 𝑦1 +𝑚2 𝑦2
y coordinate of centre of mass 𝑌=
𝑚1 +𝑚2
𝑚1 𝑧1 +𝑚2 𝑧2
z coordinate of centre of mass 𝑍=
𝑚1 +𝑚2
If we have n particles of masses 𝑚1 , 𝑚2 , ... 𝑚𝑛

⃗ = 𝐦𝟏𝐫𝟏 +𝐦𝟐𝐫𝟐 +⋯……..+𝐦𝐧 𝐫𝐧

⃗𝐑 --------(1)
𝐌

⃗⃗ = ∑𝐦𝐢 𝐫𝐢
𝐑 where M =m1 + m2 +…….+mn
𝐌

If the origin is chosen to be the centre of mass then𝑅⃗ = 0

∑mi r⃗i
0=
M

∑mi ri = 0
Example
Find the centre of mass of three particles at the vertices of an equilateral
triangle. The masses of the particles are 100g, 150g, and 200g respectively.
Each side of the equilateral triangle is 0.5m long.

𝑚1 𝑦1 +𝑚2 𝑦2 +𝑚3 𝑦3
𝑌=
𝑚1 +𝑚2 +𝑚3
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Motion of Centre of Mass

Position vector of centre of mass
⃗ = ∑mi r⃗i
R M
𝐦𝟏 𝐫𝟏 +𝐦𝟐 𝐫𝟐 +⋯……..+𝐦𝐧 𝐫𝐧
⃗𝐑
⃗ = --------(1)
𝐌
where M =m1 + m2 +…….+mn
Velocity of centre of mass
Differentiating
d
⃗R = d { m1 r⃗1 +m2 r⃗2 +⋯……..+mn r⃗n }
dt dt M
d d d
m1 r1 + m2 r2 + ⋯ … . . +mn rn
⃗V = dt dt dt
M
𝐦𝟏 𝐯⃗𝟏 +𝐦𝟐 𝐯⃗𝟐 +⋯……..+𝐦𝐧 𝐯⃗𝐧
⃗ =
𝐕 --------------(2)
𝐌

Acceleration of centre of mass

Differentiating
d ⃗ 1 +m2 v
d m1 v ⃗ 2 +⋯……..+mn v
⃗n
⃗V = { }
dt dt M
d d d
m1 v ⃗ 1 + m2 v ⃗ 2 + ⋯ … . . +mn v ⃗n
⃗ = dt dt dt
A
M
𝐦𝟏 𝐚⃗𝟏 +𝐦𝟐 𝐚⃗𝟐 +⋯……..+𝐦𝐧 𝐚⃗𝐧
⃗⃗⃗𝐀 = ………………(3)
𝐌

Force on centre of mass

Acceleration of centre of mass
m a⃗ + m2 a⃗2 + ⋯ … … . . +mn a⃗n
⃗A = 1 1
M
MA⃗ = m1 a⃗1 + m2 a⃗2 + ⋯ … … . . +mn a⃗n

𝐅𝐞𝐱𝐭 = m1 a⃗1 + m2 a⃗2 + ⋯ … … . . +mn a⃗n

𝐅𝐞𝐱𝐭 = 𝐅𝟏 + 𝐅𝟐 + ⋯ … … . . +𝐅𝐧
⃗
𝐅𝐞𝐱𝐭 = MA
The centre of mass of a system of particles moves as if all the mass of the
system was concentrated at the centre of mass and all the external forces
were applied at that point.
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The centre of mass of the fragments of the projectile continues along the
same parabolic path which it would have followed if there were no
explosion.
Linear Momentum of centre of mass
Velocity of centre of mass
⃗ 1 +m2 v
m1 v ⃗ 2 +⋯……..+mn v
⃗n
⃗V =
M
⃗ = m1 v
MV ⃗ 1 + m2 v
⃗ 2 + ⋯ … … . . +mn v
⃗n
⃗ = 𝐩
𝐏 ⃗𝟏+𝐩 ⃗ 𝟐 + ⋯ … … . . +𝐩
⃗𝐧

Law of Conservation of Momentum for a System of Particles

If Newton’s second law is extended to a system of particles,
d⃗P
⃗Fext =
dt
When the sum of external forces acting on a system of particles is zero
⃗Fext = 0
d⃗P
=0
dt
⃗ = constant
P

Thus, when the total external force acting on a system of particles is zero,
the total linear momentum of the system is constant. This is the law of
conservation of the total linear momentum of a system of particles.
But ⃗P = MV⃗
MV⃗ = constant
⃗V = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
When the total external force on the system is zero the velocity of the
centre of mass remains constant or the CM of the system is in uniform
motion.
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Vector Product or Cross product of Two Vectors

Vector product of two vectors A ⃗ and B⃗ is defined as
⃗ x ⃗𝐁
𝐀 ⃗ = AB 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 𝐧 ̂
where A and B are magnitudes of ⃗A and ⃗B
𝜽 is the angle between ⃗A and ⃗B
𝑛̂ is the unit vector perpendicular to the plane containing A ⃗ and B
⃗
The direction of ⃗A x ⃗B is given by right hand screw rule or right hand rule
Right hand screw rule
If we turn the head of screw in the direction from ⃗A to ⃗B ,then the tip of the
screw advances in the direction ofA⃗ x ⃗B

Right hand rule

if the fingers of right hand are curled up in the direction from ⃗A to ⃗B, then
the stretched thumb points in the direction of ⃗A x ⃗B

▪ The vector product is not commutative

⃗ x ⃗𝐁
𝐀 ⃗ ≠ ⃗𝐁
⃗ x 𝐀
⃗
▪ Vector product obeys distributive law
⃗ x ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐀 (𝐁 + 𝐂 )= 𝐀⃗ x ⃗𝐁
⃗ +𝐀
⃗ 𝐱𝐂

⃗ = ⃗𝟎
⃗ x𝐀
▪ 𝐀
▪ 𝒊̂ × 𝒊̂ = 𝟎 , 𝒋̂ × 𝒋̂ = 𝟎 , ̂×𝒌
𝒌 ̂=𝟎
̂,
▪ 𝒊̂ × 𝒋̂ = 𝒌 ̂ = 𝒊̂,
𝒋̂ × 𝒌 ̂ × 𝒊̂ = 𝒋̂
𝒌
̂,
▪ 𝒋̂ × 𝒊̂ = −𝒌 ̂ × 𝒋̂ = −𝒊̂,
𝒌 ̂ = −𝒋̂
𝒊̂ × 𝒌
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Angular Velocity and its Relation with Linear Velocity

⃗⃗⃗ is directed along the fixed axis

The angular velocity is a vector quantity. 𝝎
as shown.
The linear velocity of the particle is
⃗⃗⃗
𝒗 =𝝎⃗⃗⃗ × 𝒓
⃗
⃗⃗⃗ and 𝒓
It is perpendicular to both 𝝎 ⃗ and is directed along the tangent to
the circle described by the particle.

Figure shows the direction of angular velocity when the body rotates in
clockwise and anti clockwise direction.
For rotation about a fixed axis, the direction of the vector ω does not
change with time. Its magnitude may change from instant to instant. For
the more general rotation, both the magnitude and the direction of ω may
change from instant to instant.
Angular acceleration
Angular acceleration α
⃗ is defined as the time rate of change of angular
velocity.
⃗⃗⃗
𝐝𝛚
⃗ =
𝛂
𝐝𝐭
If the axis of rotation is fixed, the direction of ω and hence, that of α is
fixed. In this case the vector equation reduces to a scalar equation
dω
α=
dt
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Torque or Moment of Force

The rotational analogue of force is torque or moment of force .

If a force ⃗⃗⃗
𝐅 acts on a single particle at a point P whose position with
respect to the origin O is 𝒓⃗ ,then torque about origin o is
⃗ = r F sinθ
𝝉
⃗ x ⃗⃗⃗
⃗𝝉 = 𝒓 𝐅
▪ Torque has dimensions M L2 T −2
▪ Its dimensions are the same as those of work or energy.
▪ It is a very different physical quantity than work.
▪ Moment of a force is a vector, while work is a scalar.
▪ The SI unit of moment of force is Newton-metre (Nm)
The magnitude of the moment of force may be written
τ = (r sin θ ) F = 𝒓⊥ F
τ = r (F sin θ ) = r 𝐅⊥

where r⊥ = r sin θ is the perpendicular distance of the line of action of F

form the origin and F⊥ = Fsin θ is the component of F in the direction
perpendicular to r.

Angular momentum of a particle

Angular momentum is the rotational analogue of linear momentum.
Angular momentum is a vector quantity. It could also be referred to as
moment of (linear) momentum.
𝒍=𝒓 ⃗ ×𝒑⃗
𝒍 = 𝒓𝒑𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝛉
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Relation connecting Torque and Angular momentum

𝑙 =𝑟×𝑝
Differentiating
𝑑𝑙 d
= (r×p
⃗ )
𝑑𝑡 dt
𝑑𝑙 dr⃗ ⃗
dp
= ×p
⃗ + rx
𝑑𝑡 dt dt
dr⃗ ⃗
dp
⃗ = mv
p ⃗ , =v
⃗ , = ⃗⃗F
dt dt
𝑑𝑙
=v ⃗ + r x ⃗⃗F
⃗ × mv
𝑑𝑡
⃗ = 0 , (r x ⃗⃗F =τ⃗ )
⃗ ×v
v
𝑑𝑙
=0 + 𝜏
𝑑𝑡
𝒅𝒍
⃗ =
𝝉 𝒅𝒕
Thus, the time rate of change of the angular momentum of a particle is
equal to the torque acting on it.
⃗
dp
This is the rotational analogue of the equation ⃗⃗F = , which expresses
dt
Newton’s second law for the translational motion of a single particle.

Relation connecting Torque and Angular momentum for a system

of particles
⃗
𝒅𝑳
⃗𝝉 =
𝒅𝒕
⃗
where 𝐿 = 𝑙1 + 𝑙2 + ⋯ ⋅ +𝑙𝑛
Law of Conservation of Angular momentum
For a system of particles
⃗
dL
τ⃗ext =
dt

If external torque τ⃗ext = 0 ,

⃗
dL
=0
dt

𝐋 = 𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐭
If the total external torque on a system of particles is zero, then
the total angular momentum of the system is conserved i.e,
remains constant.
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Example
Find the torque of a force 𝟕𝐢̂ + 𝟑𝐉̂ − 𝟓𝐤̂ about the origin. The force acts on a
̂.
particle whose position vector is 𝐢̂ − 𝐉̂ + 𝐤
𝜏 = 𝑟 x ⃗⃗F
𝜏 = (î − Ĵ + k̂) x(7î + 3Ĵ − 5k̂)

+ - +
î 𝐽̂ 𝑘̂
𝜏 =|1 −1 1 |
7 3 −5
⃗τ = î [(−1 x − 5) −(3 x 1) ] - Ĵ [(1x-5)- (7x1)] + k̂ [(1x3) -(7x-1)]
τ⃗ = î [5 - 3] - Ĵ [-5 – 7] + k̂ [3 – -7]
τ⃗ = 2î +12 Ĵ + 10k̂

Equilibrium of a Rigid Body

A rigid body is said to be in mechanical equilibrium, if it is in both
translational equilibrium and rotational equilibrium.
i.e, for a body in mechanical equilibrium its linear momentum and angular
momentum are not changing with time.
Translational Equilibrium
When the total external force on the rigid body is zero, then the total
linear momentum of the body does not change with time and the body will
be in translational equilibrium .

Rotational Equilibrium
When the total external torque on the rigid body is zero, the total angular
momentum of the body does not change with time and the body will be in
rotational equilibrium .

Partial equilibrium
A body may be in partial equilibrium, i.e., it may be in translational
equilibrium and not in rotational equilibrium, or it may be in rotational
equilibrium and not in translational equilibrium.
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Here net torque is zero and the body is in rotational equilibrium.

Net force is not zero and the body is not in traslational equilibrium

Here net torque is not zero and the body will not be rotational
equilibrium.
Net force is zero and the body will be in traslational equilibrium.
Couple
A pair of equal and opposite forces with different lines of action is known
as a couple. A couple produces rotation without translation.

Our fingers apply a couple to turn the lid The Earth’s magnetic field exerts equal and
opposite forces on the poles of a compass
needle. These two forces form a couple.
Principles of Moments

The lever is a system in mechanical equilibrium.

For rotational equilibrium the sum of moments must be zero,
𝐝𝟏 𝐅𝟏 − 𝐝𝟐 𝐅𝟐 = 0
The equation for the principle of moments for a lever is
𝐝𝟏 𝐅𝟏 = 𝐝𝟐 𝐅𝟐
load arm × load = effort arm × effort
𝐹1 𝑑2
Mechanical Advantage MA =
𝐹2
=
𝑑1
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Centre of gravity
The Centre of gravity of a body is the point where the total gravitational
torque on the body is zero.

▪ The centre of gravity of the body coincides with the centre of mass.
For a body is small, g does not vary from one point of the body to the
other. Then the centre of gravity of the body coincides with the
centre of mass.
▪ If the body is so extended that g varies from part to part of the body,
then the centre of gravity and centre of mass will not coincide.

Moment of Inertia
Moment of Inertia is the rotational analogue of mass.
Moment of inertia is a measure of rotational inertia

The moment of inertia of a particle of mass m rotating about an axis is

I =m𝐫 𝟐
The moment of inertia of a rigid body is

The moment of inertia of a rigid body depends on

• The mass of the body, its shape and size
• Distribution of mass about the axis of rotation
• The position and orientation of the axis of rotation.
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Moments of Inertia of some regular shaped bodies about specific axes

Rotational Kinetic energy

Cosider a particle of mass m rotating about an axis of radius r with angular
velocity 𝜔
The kinetic energy of motion of this particle is
1
𝑘𝐸 = 𝑚𝑣 2
2
But v = r 𝜔
1
𝑘𝐸 = 𝑚𝑟 2 𝜔2
2
I =m𝑟 2
𝟏
Rotational 𝐤𝐄 = 𝐈𝛚𝟐
𝟐

Radius of Gyration (k)

The radius of gyration can be defined as the distance of a mass point from
the axis of roatation whose mass is equal to the whole mass of the body
and whose moment of inertia is equal to moment of inertia of the whole
body about the axis.
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If K is the radius of gyration, we can write
I =M𝑘 2
𝑰
𝒌=√
𝑴
Flywheel
The machines, such as steam engine and the automobile engine, etc., that
produce rotational motion have a disc with a large moment of inertia,
called a flywheel. Because of its large moment of inertia, the flywheel
resists the sudden increase or decrease of the speed of the vehicle. It
allows a gradual change in the speed and prevents jerky motions, thereby
ensuring a smooth ride for the passengers on the vehicle.
Kinematics of Rotational Motion about a Fixed Axis
The kinematical equations of linear motion with uniform (i.e. constant)
acceleration

The corresponding kinematic equations for rotational motion with

uniform angular acceleration are:

Dynamics of Rotational Motion about a Fixed Axis

Comparison of Translational and Rotational Motion
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Work done by a torque

Work done by a force F acting on a particle of a body rotating about a fixed

axis
dW = F. ds
dW= Fds cosφ
but φ +α =90, φ = 90 – α
cos( 90 – α) =sin α
dW = F(r dθ)sinα
dW = r F sin α dθ
dW = 𝜏 dθ
W= 𝝉 θ
Instantaneous power by a Torque
𝑑𝑊
P=
𝑑𝑡
But, dW =𝜏 dθ
dθ
P= 𝜏
𝑑𝑡
P = τω
Angular Momentum in Case of Rotation about a Fixed Axis.(or)
Relation Connecting Angular Momentum And Moment Of Inertia
Angular momentum of a particle, 𝑙 =𝑟×𝑝
For a system of particles , ⃗L = ∑ 𝑙
⃗ = ∑ ⃗r × p
L ⃗
⃗L = ∑ 𝑟𝑝 sin 90 𝑘̂
⃗ = ∑ 𝑟𝑝 𝑘̂
L
⃗L = ∑ 𝑟𝑚𝑣 𝑘̂ (p=mv)
⃗L = ∑ 𝑟𝑚(𝑟𝜔) 𝑘̂ (v=r𝜔)
⃗L = ∑ 𝑚𝑟 2 𝜔 𝑘̂
⃗L = Iωk̂
⃗⃗⃗
𝐋 = 𝐈𝛚
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Relation Connecting Torque and Angular Acceleration

⃗
dL
τ⃗ =
dt
But ⃗L = 𝐼𝜔
⃗
⃗⃗⃗
d𝐼𝜔
τ⃗ =
dt
d𝜔⃗⃗⃗
τ⃗ = I
dt
⃗
𝛕⃗ = 𝐈 𝛂

Conservation of angular momentum

If the external torque is zero, angular momentum is constant.
L = constant
Iω = constant
When I increases ,ω decreases and vice versa, so that Iω is constant.
While the chair is rotating with
considerable angular speed , if you
stretch your arms horizontally, moment
of inertia(I) increases and as a result, the
angular speed(ω) is reduced.
If you bring back your arms closer to
your body, moment of inertia(I)
decreases and as a result, the angular
speed(ω) increases again.

A circus acrobat and a diver take

advantage of this principle.
Also, skaters and classical, Indian or
western, dancers performing a pirouette
on the toes of one foot display ‘mastery’
over this principle.
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Chapter 7
Gravitation
Kepler’s Laws
1.Law of orbits
All planets move in elliptical orbits with the Sun situated at one of the foci
of the ellipse.

PA is the major axis

BC is the minor axis

2.Law of areas
The line that joins any planet to the sun sweeps equal areas in equal
⃗
𝚫𝐀
intervals of time. i.e, 𝐚𝐫𝐞𝐚𝐥 𝐯𝐞𝐥𝐨𝐜𝐢𝐭𝐲 is 𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐭
𝚫𝐭
The planets move slower when they are farther from the sun than when
they are nearer.
The law of areas is a consequence of conservation of angular momentum.

Proof
The area swept out by the planet of mass
m in time interval Δt is
⃗ = 1 (r × v
ΔA ⃗ Δt)
2
⃗ = mv
p ⃗ ,
⃗
p
⃗ =
v
m
⃗⃗
ΔA 1 ⃗
p
= (r × )
Δt 2 m
⃗ =r×p
L ⃗
⃗
𝚫𝐀 𝐋
=
𝚫𝐭 𝟐𝐦
For a central force, which is directed along r, angular momentum,⃗⃗⃗L is a
constant.
⃗
𝚫𝐀
=𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐭
𝚫𝐭
This is the law of areas.
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3.Law of periods
The square of the time period of revolution of a planet is proportional to
the cube of the semi- major axis of the ellipse traced out by the planet.
𝐓 𝟐 ∝ 𝐚𝟑

Universal Law of Gravitation

Every body in the universe attracts every other body with a force which is
directly proportional to the product of their masses and inversely
proportional to the square of the distance between them .
𝐦𝟏 𝐦𝟐
𝐅=𝐆 𝟐
𝐫
where G is the universal gravitational constant.
In vector Form
⃗ = G m12m2 (−r̂) =−G m12m2 r̂
F
r r
r̂ is the unit vector from m1 to m2 .
The gravitational force is attractive, as the force 𝐅 is along – r.
By Newton’s third law the, gravitational force ⃗F12 on the body 1 due to 2
⃗ 21 on the body 2 due to 1 are related as F
and F ⃗ 12 = – F
⃗ 21 .

The Gravitational Constant

The value of the gravitational constant G was determined experimentally
by English scientist Henry Cavendish in 1798.
G = 6.67×1𝟎−𝟏𝟏 N 𝐦𝟐 /𝐤𝐠 𝟐
Acceleration due to gravity of the Earth
Consider a body of mass m on the surface of earth of mass M and radius R.
The gravitational force between body and earth is given by
GMm
F= -----------(1)
R2
By Newton’s second law
F=mg -----------(2)
where g is acceleration due to gravity
From Eq (1) and (2)
GMm
mg =
R2
𝐆𝐌
g=
𝐑𝟐
Acceleration due to gravity is independent of mass of the body.
The average value of g on the surface of earth is 9.8m𝐬 −𝟐 .
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Acceleration due to gravity below and above the surface of earth

1.Acceleration due to gravity at a height h above the surface of the earth.
Acceleration due to gravity on the surface of
earth
GM
g = 2 ------------(1)
R
Acceleration due to gravity at a height above
the surface of earth
GM
gh = 2 ----------(2) (R+h)
GM
for , h << R, gh = h
R2 (1+ )2
R
GM h
gh = (1 + )−2
R2 R
h
substituting from eq(1) , g h = g(1 + )−2
R
Using binomial expression and neglecting higher order terms.
𝟐𝐡
𝐠 𝐡 ≅ 𝐠 (𝟏 − )
𝐑
Thus, as we go above earth’s surface, the acceleration due gravity
𝟐𝐡
decreases by a factor (𝟏 − )
𝐑

2.Acceleration due to gravity at a depth d below the surface of the earth

We assume that the entire earth is of uniform density. Then mass of earth
Mass =volume x density
4
M= πR3 ρ ------------(1)
3
Acceleration due to gravity on the surface of
earth
GM
g= 2 -------------(2)
R
Substituting the value of M in eq(2)
G 4
g = 2 ( πR3 ρ)
R 3
4
g = πRρG ---------------(3)
3
Acceleration due to gravity at a depth d below the surface of earth
4
g d = π(R − d)ρG ---------(4)
3
4
eq(4) gd 3
π(R−d)ρG
------ = 4
eq(3) g πRρG
3
gd (R−d)
=
g R
𝐝
𝐠 𝐝 = 𝐠(𝟏 − )
𝐑
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Thus, as we go down below earth’s surface, the acceleration due gravity
𝐝
decreases by a factor(𝟏 − )
𝐑
▪ The value of acceleration due to earth’s gravity is maximum on its
surface and decreases whether you go up or down.
▪ At the centre of earth acceleration due to earth’s gravity is zero.

Example
At what height the value of acceleration due to gravity will be half of
that on surface of earth. (Given the radius of earth R =6400km)
h
. g h = g(1 + )−2
R
g
gh =
2
g h
= g(1 + )−2
2 R
1 h
= (1 + )−2
2 R
h
2 = (1 + )2
R
h
√2 =1 + R
h
= √2-1
R
h = (√2-1) R
h = (1.414 -1) 6400 = 2650 km

Example
Calculate the value of acceleration due to gravity at a height equal to half of
the radius of earth.
GM
gh =
(R+h)2
R
h=
2
GM GM
gh = R 2
= 3 2
(R+ 2 ) (2R)

GM 4 GM 4
=9 = = 𝑔
R 2 9 R2 9
4
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Gravitational Potential Energy

Gravitational potential energy at point is defined as the work done in
displacing the particle from infinity to that point without acceleration.

Gravitational force on a mass m at a distance x

GMm
F=
x2
The work done to give a displacement dx to the mass
dW=Fdx
GMm
dW= dx
x2
Total work done to move the mass from ∞ to r
r GMm
W =∫∞ dx
x2
r 1
W = GMm ∫∞ dx
x2
−1 r
W = GMm [ ]
x ∞

1 1
W=−GMm [ − ]
r ∞
−GMm
W=
r

This work is is stored as gravitational PE in the body.

−𝐆𝐌𝐦
U=
𝐫

Gravitational Potential
The gravitational potential due to the gravitational force of the earth is
defined as the potential energy of a particle of unit mass at that point.
The gravitational Potential energy of a bodyof mass m at a distance r
−GMm
U=
r
For unit mass m=1
−𝐆𝐌
So gravitational potential, V=
𝐫
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Escape speed
The minimum speed required for an object to reach infinity i.e. to escape
from the earth’s gravitational pull is called escape speed.
Let the body thrown from the surface of earth to infinity.
Total initial energy of the body
TE =KE + PE
1 GMm
TE = mvi2 - -------(1)
2 R

1
Total final energy, TE = mvf2 +0 ------------(2)
2
By conservation of energy TE is constant.
1 GMm 1
mvi2 - = mvf2
2 R 2

RHS is always always a positive quantity with minimum value zero

Taking the minimum value
1 GMm
mvi2 - =0
2 r
1 GMm
mvi2 =
2 R
2GM
vi2 =
R
𝟐𝐆𝐌
𝐯𝐞 = √
𝐑
GM
But g= , GM =gR2
R2
2gR2
ve = √
R
𝐯𝐞 = √𝟐𝐠𝐑
𝐄𝐬𝐜ape velocity is independent of mass of the body.
𝐄𝐬𝐜𝐚𝐩𝐞 𝐬𝐩𝐞𝐞𝐝 (𝐨𝐫 𝐞𝐬𝐜𝐚𝐩𝐞 𝐯𝐞𝐥𝐨𝐜𝐢𝐭𝐲) on the surface of earth is 11.2km/s

Moon has no atmosphere. Why?

The escape speed of moon is about 2.3 km/s. which is less than the
average speed of gas molecules of moon. Thus gas molecules escape from
surface of moon and it has no atmosphere.

Earth Satellites
Earth satellites are objects which revolve around the earth.
Their motion is very similar to the motion of planets around the Sun and
hence Kepler’s laws of planetary motion are equally applicable to them.
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Satellites are of two types (1) Natural satellites and artificial satellites.
Moon is the natural satellite of earth whose time period of revolution is
27.3 days.
Artificial satellites are used for telecommunication, geophysics and
meteorology etc.

Orbital Speed
The speed with which a satellites revolves around earth is called orbital
speed.
Consider a satellite of mass m in a circular orbit of a distance (R + h) from
the centre of the earth. The necessary centripetal force for revolution is
provided by gravitational force between earth and satellite.
GMm
Fgravitational =
(R+h)2
mv2
Fcentripetal =
R+h
Fcentripetal = Fgravitational
mv2 GMm
=
R+h (R+h)2
2 GM
v =
(R+h)
𝐆𝐌
𝒗𝒐 = √
(𝐑+𝐡)
Thus orbital velocity 𝒗𝒐 decreases as height ,h increases.
If the satellite is very close to earth (R+h) ≈R
𝐆𝐌
𝒗𝒐 = √
𝐑
GM
But g= , GM =gR2
R2
𝒗𝒐 = √𝒈𝑹

Relation Connecting Escape Velocity and Orbital Velocity

GM
Orbital Velocity ,v0 = √ or vo = √gR
R

2GM
Escape Velocity ,ve = √ or ve = √2gR
R

𝐯𝐞 = √𝟐 𝐯𝐨
Escape Velocity = √𝟐 x Orbital Velocity
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Period of a Satellite
Period of a satellite is the time required for a satellite to complete one
revolution around the earth in a fixed orbit.
Distance
Time=
𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑
For one revolution
circumference of the orbit
Period T=
𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑
2𝜋 (𝑅+ℎ)
T= GM
√(R+h)

(𝑹+𝒉) 𝟑
T=𝟐𝝅√
𝐆𝐌

If the satellite is very close to earth (R+h) ≈R

𝑹 𝟑
T=𝟐𝝅√
𝐆𝐌
GM
But g= , GM =g𝑅 2
𝑅2
𝑅3
T=2𝜋√
g𝑅 2
𝑹
T=𝟐𝝅√
𝐠
If we substitute the numerical values, g = 9.8 m𝑠 −2 and R = 6400 km.,
6400 𝑥 103
T=2𝜋√
9.8
𝑇𝑜 =85 minutes

Proof of Kepler’s third law

(R+h)3
Period of a satellite, T= 2π√
GM
(R+h)3
T2= 4π2
GM
4π 2
T2= (R + h)3
GM
T 2 =constant x (R + h)3
T 2 ∝ (R + h)3
𝐓 𝟐 ∝ 𝐚𝟑
Which is Kepler’s Law of Periods.
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Weighing the Earth :
You are given following data: g = 9.81𝑠 −2 m, 𝑅𝐸 = 6.37×106 m, the
distance to the moon R = 3.84× 108 m and the time period of the moon’s
revolution is 27.3 days. Obtain mass of the Earth 𝑀𝐸 in two different ways.
First method
𝐺𝑀
g= 2
𝑅

Second method
𝑅3
T=2𝜋√
GM

Both methods yield almost the same answer

Energy of an orbiting satellite
1
KE= mvo2
2
GM
vo = √
R+h
GM
vo2 =
R+h
1 GM
KE= m 𝑥
2 R+h
GMm
KE=
2(R+h)
−GMm
PE =
R+h
Energy =KE + PE
GMm −GMm
E= +
2(R+h) R+h
−𝐆𝐌𝐦
E=
𝟐(𝐑+𝐡)
The total energy of an circularly orbiting satellite is negative, which
means that the satellite is bound to the planet .If the total energy is
positive or zero, the object escapes to infinity. Satellites are always at finite
distance from the earth and hence their energies cannot be positive or
zero.