HELWAN UNIVERSITY

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING – MATARIA

PHYSICS & ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS
DEPARTMENT

ENGINEERING MECHANICS 1
STATICS

Prepared by
Dr: Mohamed Ibrahim
Dr: Mohamed Salah
Dr: Ramadan AwadAlla
 Published by

Publishing and distribution authority

for the university book

Helwan University

copyrights reserved to the authors

2023/2024
LIST OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER ONE - VECTORS FOR MECHANICS ......................................... 1

1.1. Scalar And Vector Quantities ..................................................................... 1
1.2. Vector Representation ................................................................................ 2
1.3. Resultant Of Forces .................................................................................. 15
1.4. Vectors Multiplication .............................................................................. 21
1.5. Problems ................................................................................................... 27
CHAPTER TWO - EQUIVALENT FORCE SYSTEMS ............................... 34
2.1. Moment Of A Force About Point ............................................................. 34
2.2. Couple Moment ........................................................................................ 44
2.3. Moment Of A Force About An Axis ........................................................ 49
2.4. Transfer Of A Force On A Rigid Body .................................................... 52
2.5. Simplification Of A Force And Couple System ....................................... 53
2.6. Further Simplification Of A Force And Couple System .......................... 56
2.7. Reduction Of A System Of Forces To A Wrench .................................... 65
2.8. Problems ................................................................................................... 71
CHAPTER THREE - EQUILIBRIUM OF A PARTICLE ............................ 79
3.1. Condition For The Equilibrium Of A Particle .......................................... 80
3.2. Coplanar Force Systems (2d) ................................................................... 81
3.3. Free Body Diagram (Fbd)......................................................................... 81
3.4. Problems ................................................................................................... 90
CHAPTER FOUR - EQUILIBRIUM OF A RIGID BODY .......................... 93
4.1. Equilibrium Of Rigid Bodies In Two Dimensions ................................... 94
4.2. Conditions For The Equilibrium............................................................... 94
4.3. Free Body Diagram .................................................................................. 95
4.4. Procedure Of Free Body Diagram ............................................................ 99
4.5. Problems (2-D) ....................................................................................... 105

i
 4.6. Equilibrium Of Rigid Bodies In Three Dimensions ............................... 108
4.7. Free Body Diagram ................................................................................ 109
4.8. Problems ................................................................................................. 119
CHAPTER FIVE - STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS .......................................... 123
5.1. Types Of Engineering Structures ........................................................... 125
5.2. Analysis Of Trusses ................................................................................ 126
5.3. Problems (Trusses) ................................................................................. 140
5.4. Analysis Of Frames ................................................................................ 143
5.5. Problems (Frames) .................................................................................. 150
CHAPTER SIX - FRICTION ......................................................................... 152
6.1. Types Of Friction.................................................................................... 153
6.2. Factors Affecting Friction ...................................................................... 162
6.3. Types Of Friction Problems ................................................................... 163
6.4. Problems ................................................................................................. 171
6.5. Flat Belt Friction ..................................................................................... 174
6.6. Problems ................................................................................................. 184
CHAPTER SEVEN - PROPERTIES OF AN AREA ................................... 187
7.1. Centre Of Gravity ................................................................................... 187
7.2. Center Of Mass ....................................................................................... 188
7.3. Centroid .................................................................................................. 188
7.4. Composite Bodies ................................................................................... 192
7.5. Problems ................................................................................................. 196
7.6. Area Moment Of Inertia ......................................................................... 199
7.7. Problems ................................................................................................. 209
REFERENCS .................................................................................................... 211

ii
Chapter One Vectors for Mechanics
1.
Chapter One
Vectors for Mechanics

Introduction

This chapter constitutes an attempt to introduce some concepts of

vectors, first introduced as vector representation graphically. Two and
three dimensional rectangular Cartesian coordinate systems are
discussed, and used to give an analytical representation for the vectors.
Then this chapter moves towards that explaining the adding vectors
analytically and which can be used to determine the resultant of
coplanar forces. Two new operations on vectors called the dot product
and the cross product are introduced.
1.1. Scalar And Vector Quantities
Some physical quantities such as mass, length, time, distance, work
and temperature can be completely described by a single real number.
Because these quantities are describable by giving only a magnitude,
they are called scalars. On the other hand physical quantities such as
force, moment, displacement, velocity, and acceleration require both a
magnitude and a direction to completely describe them. Such quantities
are called vectors.

1
Chapter One Vectors for Mechanics
Vectors are typically illustrated by capital latter and drawing an
⃗⃗ , 𝑩
ARROW above it as: 𝑨 ⃗⃗ , … … . , 𝑭
⃗ , ….etc. The magnitude of the
vector is denoted by capital latter as: 𝐴, 𝐵, … … . , 𝐹, ….etc.

1.2. Vector Representation

We start our discussion of vectors by presenting a couple of different
representations of vectors

1.2.1. Graphical Representation

Because vectors are determined by both a magnitude and a direction,
they are represented geometrically as directed line segments or arrows.
The length of the arrow corresponds to the magnitude of the vector
while the direction of the arrow corresponds to the direction of the
vector as shown in Figure (1-1). A vector variable is represented by a
letter with an arrow over it as in the vector ⃗𝑨
⃗.

Figure (1-1) graphical representation of vector ⃗A

2
Chapter One Vectors for Mechanics
1.2.2. Analytical Representation
In order to further our study of vectors it will be necessary to consider
vectors as algebraic entities by understanding the concepts of unit
vector and the Cartesian coordinate system.
1.2.2.1. Unit Vector
The mathematicians have come up with a special kind of vector called
a unit vector which comes in very handy in mechanics. By definition a
unit vector has magnitude one, with no units, means that if you
multiply a unit vector by a scalar, the resulting vector has a magnitude
equal to the value with-units of the scalar. For example as shown in
Figure (1-2) if you multiply the vector ⃗𝑼
⃗ by 5 N, you get a force vector
⃗𝑭 which has a magnitude of 5 N and points in the same direction as the
⃗⃗ . Thus, in the case at hand, 5 N 𝑼
unit vector 𝑼 ⃗⃗ means 5 N at 30°.

Figure (1-2) Unit vector

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Chapter One Vectors for Mechanics
From the previous definition, the unit vector is introduced as:

(1-1)

1.2.2.2. Cartesian Coordinate System

A coordinate system is a frame of reference that is used as a standard
for measuring distance and direction. There are consists of three
number lines that intersect at right angles at a point 𝑂 called the origin.
The number lines are called the 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠, the 𝑦 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 , and the 𝑧 −
𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠. To each point P in three-dimensional space we associate an
ordered triple of real numbers (𝑥𝑝 , 𝑦𝑝 , 𝑧𝑝 ) called the coordinates of the
point. The number 𝑥𝑝 is the distance of the point P from the 𝑦𝑧 −
𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒. The number 𝑦𝑝 is the distance of the point P from the 𝑥𝑧 −
𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒. The number 𝑧𝑝 is the distance of the point P from the 𝑥𝑦 −
𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 as shown in Figure (1-3).

Figure (1-3) Cartesian coordinate system

4
Chapter One Vectors for Mechanics
There is a special set of three unit vectors that are exceptionally useful
for problems involving vectors, namely the Cartesian coordinate axis
unit vectors. There is one of them for each positive coordinate axis
direction. These unit vectors are so prevalent that we give them special
names. For a three-dimensional x-y-z coordinate system we have the
unit vector 𝒊 pointing in the +𝑥 direction, the unit vector 𝒋 pointing in
⃗ pointing in the +𝑧 direction. In
the +𝑦 direction, and, the unit vector 𝒌
two dimensions we use the perpendicular unit vectors 𝒊 and 𝒋 only, as
shown in Figure (1-4).

Figure (1-4) Cartesian unit vector

1.2.2.3. Vector Components Two-Dimensions
Any vector in two dimensions can be broken down into two
components along the x and y axes. Assume a vector ⃗𝑨
⃗ as shown in
Figure (1-5) is broken up or resolved into two components vectors. 𝐴𝑥
is parallel to the 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠, and the other, 𝐴𝑦 is parallel to the 𝑦 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠.

5
Chapter One Vectors for Mechanics
The process of breaking a vector into its components is sometimes
called vector resolution. The original vector is the sum of the two
component vectors by using Cartesian unit vectors 𝒊 and 𝒋:
⃗𝑨
⃗ = 𝐴𝑥 𝒊 + 𝐴𝑦 𝒋 (1-2)
𝐴𝑥 = 𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼 (1-3)
𝐴𝑦 = 𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼 Or 𝐴𝑦 = 𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛽 (1-4)
Where 𝛼 + 𝛽 = 90
Magnitude of a Cartesian Vector:
𝐴 = √𝐴2𝑥 + 𝐴2𝑦 (1-5)

Figure (1-5) vector resolution

6
Chapter One Vectors for Mechanics
Example (1-1)

Express four forces

shown in figure in terms
of unit vectors 𝒊 and 𝒋.
Solution

Force 𝐹1 can be resolved

into two component
vectors, 𝐹1𝑥 in
positive 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠, and the other, 𝐹2𝑦 in positive 𝑦 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠.
⃗𝑭𝟏 = 150𝑐𝑜𝑠30 𝒊 + 150𝑠𝑖𝑛30 𝒋

⃗𝑭𝟏 = 129.9 𝒊 + 75 𝒋

Force 𝐹2 can be resolved into, 𝐹2𝑥 in negative 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠, and, 𝐹2𝑦 in

positive 𝑦 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠.
⃗𝑭𝟐 = −80𝑠𝑖𝑛20𝒊 + 80𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑠20 𝒋

⃗𝑭𝟐 = −27.36 𝒊 + 75.18 𝒋

Force 𝐹3 has only one component in negative 𝑦 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠.

⃗𝑭𝟑 = −110 𝒋

Finally force 𝐹4 can be resolved into, 𝐹4𝑥 in positive 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠, and, 𝐹4𝑦
in negative 𝑦 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠.
⃗ 𝟒 = 100𝑐𝑜𝑠15 𝒊 − 100𝑠𝑖𝑛15 𝒋
𝑭

⃗ 𝟒 = 96.59 𝒊 − 28.88 𝒋
𝑭

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Chapter One Vectors for Mechanics
1.2.2.4. Vector Components Three-Dimensions
⃗⃗ be a vector, of magnitude 𝐴 with components 𝐴𝑥 , 𝐴𝑦 and 𝐴𝑧 in
Let 𝑨
⃗ directions, respectively as shown in Figure (1-
the positive 𝒊, 𝒋 and 𝒌
6). The vector is the sum of the three component vectors by using
Cartesian unit vectors 𝒊, 𝒋 and ⃗𝒌:
⃗ = 𝐴𝑥 𝒊 + 𝐴𝑦 𝒋 + 𝐴𝑧 ⃗𝒌
⃗𝑨 (1-6)
Magnitude of a Cartesian vector:
𝐴 = √𝐴2𝑥 + 𝐴2𝑦 + 𝐴2𝑧 (1-7)
Orientation of 𝐴 is defined as the coordinate direction angles 𝛼, 𝛽 and
𝛾 measured between the tail of ⃗𝑨
⃗ and the positive 𝑥, 𝑦 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧 axes
respectively.

Figure (1-6) vector resolution three dimensions

8
Chapter One Vectors for Mechanics
⃗⃗
To determine components 𝐴𝑥 , 𝐴𝑦 and 𝐴𝑧 , consider the projection of 𝑨
onto the positive 𝑥, 𝑦 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧-axes:

𝐴𝑥
𝐴𝑥 = 𝐴 cos 𝛼 , cos 𝛼 = (1-8a)
𝐴
𝐴𝑦
𝐴𝑦 = 𝐴 cos 𝛽 , cos 𝛽 = (1-8b)
𝐴

𝐴𝑧
𝐴𝑧 = 𝐴 cos 𝛾 , cos 𝛾 = (1-8c)
𝐴

⃗⃗ , from
To obtained the unit vector in the direction of the vector 𝑨
equation (1-1) in equation (1-6) to get:

⃗⃗
⃗ 𝐴 = 𝑨 = 𝐴𝑥 𝒊 + 𝐴 𝑦 𝒋 + 𝐴𝑧 𝒌
𝑈 ⃗ (1-9)
𝐴 𝐴 𝐴 𝐴

Substituting equations (1-8a), (1-8b) and (1-8c) in equation (1-9) to

get:

𝑈 ⃗
⃗ 𝐴 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼 𝒊 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼 𝒋 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼 𝒌 (1-10)

The magnitude of unit vector must be equal one:

𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝛼 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝛽 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝛾 = 1 (1-11)

Here we can see that if only two of the coordinate angles are known,
the third angle can be found using equation (1-11).

9
Chapter One Vectors for Mechanics
Example (1-2)

Express the force

shown in figure in
terms of unit
⃗
vectors 𝒊 , 𝒋 and 𝒌
Solution

To obtain the third coordinate angle 𝛼, we can use following equation:

cos 2 𝛼 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝛽 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝛾 = 1
The coordinate direction angles 𝛽 and 𝛾 measured between the tail of
⃗𝑭 and the positive 𝑦 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧 axes.
𝛽 = 180 − 45 = 135°
𝛾 = 180 − 60 = 120°
cos 2 𝛼 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 135 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 120 = 1
cos 𝛼 = √1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 135 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 120 = ±0.5
Hence, two possibilities exist, namely
𝛼 = cos −1 0.5 = 60° or 𝛼 = cos −1 −0.5 = 120°
From figure, 𝐹𝑥 must be in the +𝑥 direction, then cos 𝛼 = +0.5
Hence the vector of the force 500 N is
⃗
⃗𝑭 = 𝐹𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼 𝒊 + 𝐹𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛽 𝒋 + 𝐹𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛾 𝒌
⃗𝑭 = (500 × 0.5) 𝒊 + (500 cos 135) 𝒋 + (500 cos 120) ⃗𝒌
⃗
⃗ = 250 𝒊 − 353.55 𝒋 − 250 𝒌
𝑭

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Chapter One Vectors for Mechanics
1.2.2.5. Position Vector

Consider a particle whose position, on a three-dimensional Cartesian

⃗ 𝑨 for that
coordinate system, is 𝐴(𝑥𝐴 , 𝑦𝐴 , 𝑧𝐴 ). The position vector 𝒓
particle is a vector that extends from the origin of the coordinate system
to the particle as shown in Figure (1-7). Hence, the position vector for
the particle is:

⃗ 𝐴 = 𝑥𝐴 𝒊 + 𝑦𝐴 𝒋 + 𝑧𝐴 ⃗𝒌
𝒓 (1-12)

Figure (1-7) position vector

1.2.2.6. General Position Vector
More generally, the position vector may be directed from point
𝐴(𝑥𝐴 , 𝑦𝐴 , 𝑧𝐴 ) to point 𝐵(𝑥𝐵 , 𝑦𝐵 , 𝑧𝐵 ) in space as shown in Figure (1-8).

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Chapter One Vectors for Mechanics

Figure (1-8) general position vector

The particles 𝐴 and 𝐵 have the position vectors are:

⃗ 𝐴 = 𝑥𝐴 𝒊 + 𝑦𝐴 𝒋 + 𝑧𝐴 ⃗𝒌
𝒓 (1-13)

𝒓 ⃗
⃗ 𝐵 = 𝑥𝐵 𝒊 + 𝑦𝐵 𝒋 + 𝑧𝐵 𝒌 (1-14)

Now suppose we need to find a vector that extends from particle 𝐴 to

⃗ 𝐵 is the vector sum of 𝒓
particle 𝐵. From the diagram it is clear that 𝒓 ⃗𝐴
⃗ 𝐴𝐵 (triangle rule).
and 𝒓

⃗𝐵 =𝒓
𝒓 ⃗𝐴 +𝒓
⃗ 𝐴𝐵 (1-15)

⃗ 𝐴𝐵 = 𝒓
𝒓 ⃗𝐵−𝒓
⃗𝐴 (1-16)

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Chapter One Vectors for Mechanics
⃗ 𝐴 and 𝒓
Substituting our expressions above for 𝒓 ⃗ 𝐵 and solving yields:

⃗ 𝐴𝐵 = (𝑥𝐵 − 𝑥𝐴 ) 𝒊 + (𝑦𝐵 − 𝑦𝐴 ) 𝒋 + (𝑧𝐵 − 𝑧𝐴 ) ⃗𝒌

𝒓 (1-17)

The magnitude of the vector is given by the square root of the sum of
the squares of its components:

𝑟𝐴𝐵 = √(𝑥𝐵 − 𝑥𝐴 )2 + (𝑦𝐵 − 𝑦𝐴 )2 + (𝑧𝐵 − 𝑧𝐴 )2 (1-18)

⃗ 𝑨𝑩 (from point
To obtain the unit vector in the direction of the vector 𝒓
𝐴 to point 𝐵), apply the equation (1-1) we get:

⃗𝒓𝑨𝑩
⃗𝑼
⃗ 𝑨𝑩 = (1-19)
𝑟𝐴𝐵

Example (1-3)
Express the force
shown in Figure
in terms of unit
⃗
vectors 𝒊 ,𝒋 and 𝒌

13
Chapter One Vectors for Mechanics
Solution

A force F (with magnitude 𝐹 = 630 N) acting in the direction of a line

⃗ 𝑨𝑩 (which is defined by the unit
represented by a position vector 𝒓
vector ⃗𝑼
⃗ 𝑨𝑩 )
𝐴 = (2, 0, 2) And 𝐵 = (4, 3, −4)
⃗ 𝑨𝑩 = (𝑥𝐵 − 𝑥𝐴 ) 𝒊 + (𝑦𝐵 − 𝑦𝐴 ) 𝒋 + (𝑧𝐵 − 𝑧𝐴 ) ⃗𝒌
𝒓
⃗ 𝑨𝑩 = (4 − 2) 𝒊 + (3 − 0) 𝒋 + (−4 − 2) ⃗𝒌 = 2 𝒊 + 3 𝒋 − 6 ⃗𝒌
𝒓
𝑟𝐴𝐵 = √(𝑥𝐵 − 𝑥𝐴 )2 + (𝑦𝐵 − 𝑦𝐴 )2 + (𝑧𝐵 − 𝑧𝐴 )2

𝑟𝐴𝐵 = √(4 − 2)2 + (3 − 0)2 + (−4 − 2)2 = 7 𝑚

⃗ 𝑨𝑩
𝒓
⃗⃗ 𝑨𝑩 =
𝑼
𝑟𝐴𝐵

2 𝒊+3 𝒋−6 ⃗𝒌 2 3 6
⃗𝑼
⃗ 𝑨𝑩 = = 𝒊+ 𝒋− ⃗
𝒌
7 7 7 7

⃗ 𝑨𝑩 = 630 [2 𝒊 + 3 𝒋 − 6 𝒌
⃗𝑭 = 𝐹 ⃗𝑼 ⃗]
7 7 7

⃗𝑭 = 180 𝒊 + 270 𝒋 − 540 ⃗𝒌

We can simplify by:
⃗ 𝑨𝑩
𝒓 (𝑥𝐵 − 𝑥𝐴 ) 𝒊 + (𝑦𝐵 − 𝑦𝐴 ) 𝒋 + (𝑧𝐵 − 𝑧𝐴 ) ⃗𝒌
⃗𝑭 = 𝐹𝑼
⃗⃗ 𝑨𝑩 = 𝐹 = 𝐹[ ]
𝑟𝐴𝐵 √(𝑥𝐵 − 𝑥𝐴 )2 + (𝑦𝐵 − 𝑦𝐴 )2 + (𝑧𝐵 − 𝑧𝐴 )2
⃗
⃗𝑭 = 630 [ (4−2) 𝒊+(3−0) 𝒋+(−4−2) 𝒌 ]
2 2
√(4−2) +(3−0) +(−4−2)2

⃗𝑭 = 180 𝒊 + 270 𝒋 − 540 ⃗𝒌

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Chapter One Vectors for Mechanics
1.2.2.7. Adding Vectors Analytically
Adding vectors that are expressed in unit vector notation is easy in that
individual unit vectors appearing in each of two or more terms can be
factored out. The concept is best illustrated by example of resultant
force of a system of coplanar forces.
1.3. Resultant Of Forces

Consider the three concurrent forces as shown in Figure (1-9). Can be

expressed in Cartesian form as:

⃗ ,
⃗𝑭𝟏 = 𝐹1𝑥 𝒊 + 𝐹1𝑦 𝒋 + 𝐹1𝑧 𝒌 ⃗ ,
⃗𝑭𝟐 = 𝐹2𝑥 𝒊 + 𝐹2𝑦 𝒋 + 𝐹2𝑧 𝒌

⃗
⃗𝑭𝟑 = 𝐹3𝑥 𝒊 + 𝐹3𝑦 𝒋 + 𝐹3𝑧 𝒌

Figure (1-9)
The resultant force is the sum of forces that are expressed in terms of
unit vectors 𝒊 , 𝒋 and ⃗𝒌.

⃗⃗ = ∑ 𝑭
𝑹 ⃗ =𝑭
⃗ 𝟏+𝑭
⃗ 𝟐+𝑭
⃗𝟑 (1-20)

15
Chapter One Vectors for Mechanics
⃗
⃗⃗ = (𝐹1𝑥 + 𝐹2𝑥 + 𝐹3𝑥 )𝒊 + (𝐹1𝑦 + 𝐹2𝑦 + 𝐹3𝑦 )𝒋 + (𝐹1𝑧 + 𝐹2𝑧 + 𝐹3𝑧 )𝒌
𝑹
(1-21)

⃗⃗ = 𝑅𝑥 𝒊 + 𝑅𝑦 𝒋 + 𝑅𝑧 ⃗𝒌
𝑹 (1-22)

The magnitude of resultant force is,

𝑅 = √𝑅𝑥2 + 𝑅𝑦2 + 𝑅𝑧2 (1-23)
The coordinate direction angles 𝛼, 𝛽, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛾 of the resultant force are
determined by
𝑅𝑥
𝛼 = cos −1 (1-24a)
𝑅
𝑅𝑦
𝛽 = cos −1 (1-24b)
𝑅
𝑅𝑧
𝛾 = cos −1 (1-24c)
𝑅

Figure (1-10) direction of the resultant force

16
Chapter One Vectors for Mechanics
Example (1-4)

Determine the magnitude and direction of the resultant force.

Solution

⃗:
Write the forces in terms of Cartesian unit vectors 𝒊, 𝒋 and 𝒌
For the first force ⃗𝑭𝟏
cos 2 𝛼 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝛽 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝛾 = 1
cos 2 𝛼 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 60 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 45 = 1
cos 𝛼 = √1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 60 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 45 = 0.5
⃗ 𝟏 = 𝐹1 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼 𝒊 + 𝐹1 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛽 𝒋 + 𝐹1 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛾 ⃗𝒌
𝑭
⃗𝑭𝟏 = (200 × 0.5) 𝒊 + (200 cos 60) 𝒋 + (200 cos 45) ⃗𝒌
⃗𝑭𝟏 = 100 𝒊 + 100 𝒋 + 141.4 ⃗𝒌

For the second force ⃗𝑭𝟐

⃗
𝒓 𝑥 𝒊+𝑦 𝒋+𝑧 ⃗𝒌
⃗𝑭𝟐 = 𝐹2 ⃗𝑼
⃗ = 𝐹2 = 𝐹2 [ ]
𝑟 √𝑥 2 +𝑦 2 +𝑧 2

17
Chapter One Vectors for Mechanics
⃗
⃗𝑭𝟐 = 300 [ 3 𝒊−2 𝒋+6 𝒌 ]
2 2
√3 +2 +62

⃗𝑭𝟐 = 128.57 𝒊 − 85.71 𝒋 + 257.14 ⃗𝒌

For the third force ⃗𝑭𝟑

⃗𝑭𝟑 = 𝐹3 cos 𝜃 𝒊 + 𝐹3 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 𝒋

⃗𝑭𝟑 = (150 × 3) 𝒊 + (150 × 4) 𝒋

5 5

⃗𝑭𝟑 = 90 𝒊 + 120 𝒋

For the fourth force ⃗𝑭𝟒

⃗
⃗ 𝟒 = 100 𝒌
𝑭
The resultant force vector is
⃗⃗ = ∑ 𝑭
𝑹 ⃗ =𝑭
⃗ 𝟏+𝑭
⃗ 𝟐+𝑭
⃗𝟑
⃗⃗ = (100 + 128.57 + 90)𝒊 + (100 − 85.71 + 120)𝒋 +
𝑹
(141.4 + 257.14 + 100) ⃗𝒌
⃗⃗ = 318.57 𝒊 + 134.29 𝒋 + 498.54 ⃗𝒌
𝑹
The magnitude and direction of the resultant force
𝑅 = √𝑅𝑥2 + 𝑅𝑦2 + 𝑅𝑧2 = √(318.57)2 + (134.29)2 + (498.54)2
𝑅 = 606.68 N
𝑅𝑥 318.57
𝛼 = cos −1 = cos −1 = 58.3°
𝑅 606.68
𝑅𝑦 134.29
𝛽 = cos −1 = cos −1 = 77.2°
𝑅 606.68
𝑅𝑧 498.54
𝛾 = cos −1 = cos −1 = 34.7°
𝑅 606.68

18
Chapter One Vectors for Mechanics
Example (1-5)

The antenna tower is

supported by three cables.
Determine the forces of
these cables acting on the
antenna 𝐹𝐵 , 𝐹𝐶 and 𝐹𝐷 , so
that the resultant of the
three forces exerted on the
antenna is 2000 N and it is
directed along its axis,
from A toward O.
Solution

Write the forces and resultant force in terms of Cartesian unit

vectors 𝒊, 𝒋 and ⃗𝒌:
𝐴 = (0,0,24), 𝐵 = (0, −10, 0), 𝐶 = (16,18,0)𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐷 = (−12,8,0)
For the first force ⃗𝑭𝑩
⃗ 𝑨𝑩
𝒓 (𝑥𝐵 −𝑥𝐴 ) 𝒊+(𝑦𝐵 −𝑦𝐴 ) 𝒋+(𝑧𝐵 −𝑧𝐴 ) ⃗𝒌
⃗𝑭𝑩 = 𝐹𝐵 ⃗𝑼
⃗ 𝑨𝑩 = 𝐹𝐵 = 𝐹𝐵 [ ]
𝑟𝐴𝐵 √(𝑥𝐵 −𝑥𝐴 )2 +(𝑦𝐵 −𝑦𝐴 )2 +(𝑧𝐵 −𝑧𝐴 )2

⃗
⃗𝑭𝑩 = 𝐹𝐵 [−10 𝒋−24 𝒌]
2 2
√10 +24
5 12
⃗𝑭𝑩 = − 𝐹𝐵 𝒋 − 𝐹 ⃗𝒌
13 13 𝐵

⃗𝑪
For the second force 𝑭
⃗ 𝑨𝑪
𝒓 ⃗
(𝑥𝐶 −𝑥𝐴 ) 𝒊+(𝑦𝐶 −𝑦𝐴 ) 𝒋+(𝑧𝐶 −𝑧𝐴 ) 𝒌
⃗ 𝑪 = 𝐹𝐶 𝑼
𝑭 ⃗⃗ 𝑨𝑪 = 𝐹𝐶 = 𝐹𝐶 [ ]
𝑟𝐴𝐶 √(𝑥𝐶 −𝑥𝐴 )2 +(𝑦𝐶 −𝑦𝐴 )2 +(𝑧𝐶 −𝑧𝐴 )2

19
Chapter One Vectors for Mechanics
⃗
⃗𝑭𝑪 = 𝐹𝐶 [ 16 𝒊+18 𝒋−24 𝒌 ]
2 2 2
√16 +18 +24
8 9 12
⃗𝑪=
𝑭 𝐹𝐶 𝒊 + 𝐹𝐶 𝒋 − 𝐹 ⃗
𝒌
17 17 17 𝐶

For the third force ⃗𝑭𝑫

⃗ 𝑨𝑫
𝒓 (𝑥𝐷 −𝑥𝐴 ) 𝒊+(𝑦𝐷 −𝑦𝐴 ) 𝒋+(𝑧𝐷 −𝑧𝐴 ) ⃗𝒌
⃗𝑭𝑫 = 𝐹𝐷 ⃗𝑼
⃗ 𝑨𝑫 = 𝐹𝐷 = 𝐹𝐷 [ ]
𝑟𝐴𝐷 √(𝑥𝐷 −𝑥𝐴 )2 +(𝑦𝐷 −𝑦𝐴 )2 +(𝑧𝐷 −𝑧𝐴 )2

⃗
⃗𝑭𝑫 = 𝐹𝐷 [−12 𝒊+8 𝒋−24 𝒌]
2 2 2
√12 +8 +24

⃗ 𝑫 = − 3 𝐹𝐷 𝒊 + 2 𝐹𝐷 𝒋 − 6 𝐹𝐷 𝒌
𝑭 ⃗
7 7 7

⃗⃗
For the resultant force 𝑹
⃗⃗ = −2000 ⃗𝒌
𝑹
We can write the resultant force vector equation
⃗⃗ = ∑ ⃗𝑭 = ⃗𝑭𝑩 + ⃗𝑭𝑪 + ⃗𝑭𝑫
𝑹
8 3 5 9 2
−2000 ⃗𝒌 = (0𝐹𝐵 + 𝐹𝐶 − 𝐹𝐷 ) 𝒊 + (− 𝐹𝐵 + 𝐹𝐶 + 𝐹𝐷 ) 𝒋 +
17 7 13 17 7
12 12 6
⃗
(− 13 𝐹𝐵 − 17 𝐹𝐶 − 7 𝐹𝐷 ) 𝒌

⃗
Equating coefficients of the unit vectors 𝒊, 𝒋 and 𝒌
8 3
0 𝐹𝐵 + 𝐹𝐶 − 𝐹𝐷 = 0--------------------------------------------(1)
17 7
5 9 2
− 𝐹𝐵 + 𝐹𝐶 + 𝐹𝐷 = 0-------------------------------------------(2)
13 17 7
12 12 6
− 𝐹𝐵 − 𝐹𝐶 − 𝐹𝐷 = −2000------------------------------------(3)
13 17 7

From equations 1, 2 and 3

𝐹𝐵 = 1194.4 N , 𝐹𝐶 = 544.9 N , 𝐹𝐷 = 598.3 N

20
Chapter One Vectors for Mechanics
1.4. Vectors Multiplication
Now we can multiply two vectors together, in the next sections we will
see two different ways of doing so: the scalar product (or dot product)
which produces a scalar, and the vector product (or cross product),
which produces a vector.
1.4.1. Dot Product (Scalar Product)

The dot product is a method for multiplying two vectors; the dot
product is sometimes referred to as the scalar product. Assume we have
the two vectors ⃗𝑨
⃗ and ⃗𝑩
⃗ so that their tails are at the same point. The
angle between the two vectors has been labeled 𝜃 as shown in Figure
(1-11).

⃗
Figure (1-11) the two vectors 𝐴and 𝐵

⃗⃗ and 𝑩
We define the scalar product of 𝑨 ⃗⃗ as follows:
⃗𝑨
⃗ ∙ ⃗𝑩
⃗ = 𝐴 𝐵 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 (1-25)
Where
21
Chapter One Vectors for Mechanics
⃗⃗ ,
𝐴 Is the modulus, or magnitude of vector 𝑨
⃗⃗ , and
𝐵 Is the modulus of vector 𝑩
𝜃 Is the angle between two vectors ⃗𝑨
⃗ and ⃗𝑩
⃗.
Now we can used the equation (1-25) to find the dot product for any
two Cartesian unit vectors. If we take the dot product of a vector with
itself we get:
⃗ ∙𝒌
𝒊∙𝒊=𝒋∙𝒋=𝒌 ⃗ = 1 ∗ 1 ∗ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 0 = 1
If we take the dot product of the two vectors are perpendicular. Thus,
we have the following result:
⃗ =𝒋∙𝒌
𝒊∙𝒋=𝒊∙𝒌 ⃗ = 1 ∗ 1 ∗ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 90 = 0

If we want to find the dot product of two general vectors ⃗𝑨

⃗ and ⃗𝑩
⃗ that
are expressed in Cartesian form, then we have:
⃗𝑨
⃗ ∙ ⃗𝑩 ⃗ ) ∙ (𝐵𝑥 𝒊 + 𝐵𝑦 𝒋 + 𝐵𝑧 ⃗𝒌)
⃗ = (𝐴𝑥 𝒊 + 𝐴𝑦 𝒋 + 𝐴𝑧 𝒌

⃗)
= 𝐴𝑥 𝐵𝑥 (𝒊 ∙ 𝒊) + 𝐴𝑥 𝐵𝑦 (𝒊 ∙ 𝒋) + 𝐴𝑥 𝐵𝑧 (𝒊 ∙ 𝒌

⃗)
+𝐴𝑦 𝐵𝑥 (𝒋 ∙ 𝒊) + 𝐴𝑦 𝐵𝑦 (𝒋 ∙ 𝒋) + 𝐴𝑦 𝐵𝑧 (𝒋 ∙ 𝒌

⃗ ∙ 𝒊) + 𝐴𝑧 𝐵𝑦 (𝒌
+𝐴𝑧 𝐵𝑥 (𝒌 ⃗ ∙ 𝒋) + 𝐴𝑧 𝐵𝑧 (𝒌
⃗ ∙𝒌
⃗)

Carrying out the dot product operations, the result becomes

⃗𝑨
⃗ ∙ ⃗𝑩
⃗ = 𝐴𝑥 𝐵𝑥 + 𝐴𝑦 𝐵𝑦 + 𝐴𝑧 𝐵𝑧 (1-26)

22
Chapter One Vectors for Mechanics
1.4.2. Cross Product (Vector Product)

We now introduce a second method of multiplying two vectors. The

symbol used to denote this product is a cross ×, hence the name "cross
product". Because the result is a vector, the term "vector product" is
sometimes used for this product. Assume we have the two vectors
⃗𝑨
⃗ and ⃗𝑩
⃗ so that their tails are at the same point. The angle 𝜃 is the angle

between their two vectors and the vector ⃗𝑪 is the result of cross product
and its ⃗⃗ and 𝑩
perpendicular to both vectors 𝑨 ⃗⃗ as
shown in Figure (1- 12).

Figure (1-12) cross product

We define the cross product of ⃗𝑨
⃗ and ⃗𝑩
⃗ as follows:
⃗𝑪 = ⃗𝑨
⃗ × ⃗𝑩
⃗ = (𝐴 𝐵 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃) ⃗𝑼
⃗𝑪 (1-27)
⃗ , and
Where (𝐴 𝐵 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃) is the magnitude of the cross product vector 𝑪
⃗ , which has
⃗⃗ 𝑪 is the direction of the cross product 𝑪
the unit vector 𝑼

23
Chapter One Vectors for Mechanics
⃗⃗ and 𝑩
perpendicular on two vectors 𝑨 ⃗⃗ , the commutative law is not
⃗⃗ × 𝑩
valid then, 𝑨 ⃗⃗ ≠ 𝑩
⃗⃗ × 𝑨
⃗⃗ .
⃗𝑨
⃗ × ⃗𝑩
⃗ = −𝑩
⃗⃗ × ⃗𝑨
⃗ (1-28)
This is shown in Figure (1-13) by using the right-hand rule. The cross
product ⃗𝑩
⃗ × ⃗𝑨
⃗ yields a vector that has the same magnitude but acts in

the opposite direction to ⃗𝑪.

Figure (1-13) right-hand rule

Now we can used the equation (1-27) to find the cross product for any
two Cartesian unit vectors. If we take the cross product of a vector with
itself we get:
⃗ ×𝒌
𝒊×𝒊=𝒋×𝒋=𝒌 ⃗ = 1 ∗ 1 ∗ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 0 = 0
If we take the cross product of the two unit vectors are perpendicular.
For example to fined 𝒊 × 𝒋, the magnitude of the resultant vector
is 𝒊 × 𝒋 = 1 ∗ 1 ∗ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 90 = 1, and its direction is determined by the
⃗ , similar
right-hand rule, the direction is 𝒌
24
Chapter One Vectors for Mechanics
⃗
𝒊×𝒋=𝒌 ⃗ = −𝒋
𝒊×𝒌
⃗ =𝒊
𝒋×𝒌 ⃗
𝒋 × 𝒊 = −𝒌
⃗ ×𝒊=𝒋
𝒌 ⃗ × 𝒋 = −𝒊
𝒌
A simple scheme is helpful for obtaining the same result when the need
arises. If the circle is constructed as shown in Figure (1-14), then
crossing two unit vector in a counterclockwise fashion around the
⃗.
circle yields the positive third unit vector, for example 𝒊 × 𝒋 = 𝒌
Crossing clockwise, a negative unit vector is obtained, for example 𝒊 ×
⃗ = −𝒋.
𝒌

Figure (1-14)
⃗⃗ and 𝑩
If we want to find the cross product of two general vectors 𝑨 ⃗⃗
that are expressed in Cartesian form, then we have:
⃗𝑨 ⃗ = (𝐴𝑥 𝒊 + 𝐴𝑦 𝒋 + 𝐴𝑧 ⃗𝒌) × (𝐵𝑥 𝒊 + 𝐵𝑦 𝒋 + 𝐵𝑧 ⃗𝒌)
⃗ × ⃗𝑩

⃗)
= 𝐴𝑥 𝐵𝑥 (𝒊 × 𝒊) + 𝐴𝑥 𝐵𝑦 (𝒊 × 𝒋) + 𝐴𝑥 𝐵𝑧 (𝒊 × 𝒌

⃗)
+𝐴𝑦 𝐵𝑥 (𝒋 × 𝒊) + 𝐴𝑦 𝐵𝑦 (𝒋 × 𝒋) + 𝐴𝑦 𝐵𝑧 (𝒋 × 𝒌

⃗ × 𝒊) + 𝐴𝑧 𝐵𝑦 (𝒌
+𝐴𝑧 𝐵𝑥 (𝒌 ⃗ × 𝒋) + 𝐴𝑧 𝐵𝑧 (𝒌
⃗ ×𝒌
⃗)

25
Chapter One Vectors for Mechanics
Carrying out the dot product operations, the result becomes

⃗𝑨
⃗ × ⃗𝑩 ⃗
⃗ = (𝐴𝑦 𝐵𝑧 − 𝐴𝑧 𝐵𝑦 )𝒊 − (𝐴𝑥 𝐵𝑧 − 𝐴𝑧 𝐵𝑥 )𝒋 + (𝐴𝑥 𝐵𝑦 − 𝐴𝑦 𝐵𝑥 )𝒌

This equation may also be written in a more compact determinant form

as.
𝒊 𝒋 ⃗
𝒌
⃗⃗ × 𝑩
𝑨 ⃗⃗ = |𝐴𝑥 𝐴𝑦 𝐴𝑧 | (1-29)
𝐵𝑥 𝐵𝑦 𝐵𝑧
Where the determinant is given as:

⃗⃗ × 𝑩
𝑨 ⃗
⃗⃗ = (𝐴𝑦 𝐵𝑧 − 𝐴𝑧 𝐵𝑦 )𝒊 − (𝐴𝑥 𝐵𝑧 − 𝐴𝑧 𝐵𝑥 )𝒋 + (𝐴𝑥 𝐵𝑦 − 𝐴𝑦 𝐵𝑥 )𝒌

26
Chapter One Vectors for Mechanics
1.5. Problems

1- Two forces act on the

hook. Determine
graphically the
magnitude and direction
of the resultant force.

2- Determine graphically
the magnitude of the
resultant force and its
direction measure
counterclockwise from
the positive 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠.

3- If force F is to have a
component along the 𝑢 −
𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 of 𝐹𝑢 = 6 𝑘𝑁,
determine the magnitude
of F, and the magnitude
of its component
𝐹𝑣 along the 𝑣 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠.

27
Chapter One Vectors for Mechanics
4- If the resultant force is
required to act along the
positive 𝑢 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 and
have a magnitude
of 5 𝑘𝑁. Determine the
required magnitude of 𝐹𝐵
and its direction 𝜃.

5- If 𝜑 = 30° and the

resultant force is to be
6 𝑘. 𝑁 directed along the
positive 𝑦 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠.
Determine the
magnitudes of 𝐹1 and 𝐹2
and the angle 𝜃 if 𝐹2 is
required to be a
minimum.

6- Resolve 𝐹1 into
components along the 𝑢
and 𝑣 axis and determine
the magnitudes of these
components.

28
Chapter One Vectors for Mechanics
7- Determine the
magnitude and direction
of the resultant force.
Where,
𝐹 = 500𝑁
𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜃 = 30𝑜

8- The three forces are

applied to the bracket.
Determine the range of
values for the magnitude
of force P so that the
resultant of the three
forces does not exceed
2400N.

9- Three forces act on the

bracket determine the
magnitude and direction
𝜃 of 𝐹2 so that the
resultant force is
directed along the
positive 𝑢 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 and
has a magnitude 50 lb.

29
Chapter One Vectors for Mechanics

10- Express the force as a

Cartesian vector.

11- The mast is subjected to

the three forces shown.
Determine the
coordinate direction
angles 𝛼, 𝛽 and 𝛾 of 𝐹1 ,
so that the resultant force
acting on the mast is
zero.

12- Determine the resultant

force at A.

30
Chapter One Vectors for Mechanics
13- The tower is held in
place by three cables. If
the force of each cable
acting on the tower is
shown, determine the
magnitude and
coordinate direction
angles 𝛼, 𝛽 and 𝛾 of the
resultant force. Take 𝑥 =
20 𝑚 and 𝑦 = 15 𝑚.

14- Determine the

magnitude and
coordinate direction
angles of the resultant
force acting at A.

15- If the resultant of the

three forces is 𝑅⃗ =
⃗ 𝑙𝑏.
−900𝑘 Determine
the magnitude of the
force in each chain.

31
Chapter One Vectors for Mechanics
16- Determine the projection
of force 𝐹 = 80 N along
line BC. Express the
result as a Cartesian
vector.

17- Determine the angle 𝜃

between the force and
the line AB. And
determine the
component of projection
of the force along and
perpendicular the line
AB.

18- Determine the angle 𝜃

in the triangular shown
in figure and determine
the length in side BC.

32
Chapter One Vectors for Mechanics
19- Determine the magnitude of the projected component of the 100 𝑙𝑏
force along the axis BC of
the pipe, and also find the
angle 𝜃 between pipe
segments BA and BC.

20- Cable AB exerts a force of

80 N on the end of the 3 m long
boom OA. Determine the
magnitude of the projection of
this force along the boom and
perpendicular on it.

21- The tower is held in place

by three cables, and tension
𝑇 as shown. Determine the
magnitude and coordinate
direction angles of the
resultant force acting at A.
also find the magnitude of
the projection of the
resultant force along the
tower and perpendicular on
it.

33
Chapter Two Equivalent Force Systems
2.
Chapter Two
Equivalent Force Systems

Introduction

In this chapter we will study the effect of forces exerted on a rigid body,
and we will learn how to replace a given system of forces by a simpler
equivalent system. Two important concepts associated with the effect
of a force on a rigid body are the moment of a force about a point and
the moment of a force about an axis. Another concept introduced in
this chapter is that of a couple. As we will see, any system of forces
acting on a rigid body can be replaced by an equivalent system
consisting of one force acting at a given point and one couple. This
basic system is called a force-couple system. In the case of concurrent,
coplanar, or parallel forces, the equivalent force-couple system can be
further reduced to a single force, in the general case the equivalent
force-couple system can be further reduced to Wrench.

2.1. Moment Of A Force About Point

A force can tend to rotate a body about an axis which neither intersects
nor is parallel to the line of action of the force. This rotational tendency
is known as the moment M of a force.

34
Chapter Two Equivalent Force Systems

Figure (2-1)

2.1.1. Moment of a Force – Scalar Formulation

Consider, a rigid slab acted upon by a force 𝑭 as shown in Figure (2-
2). The moment of 𝑭 about a point O chosen in the plane of the Figure
is represented by a vector 𝑴𝒐 perpendicular to that plane shown in
Figure (2-2) is:
𝑴𝒐 = ±𝑭 𝑑
Where: 𝑑 is the perpendicular distance from point O to the line of
action of the force𝑭.
In the case of Figure (2-2a) the vector 𝑴𝒐 points out of the paper, while
in the case of Figure (2-2b) it points into the paper. As we look at the
Figure, we observe in the first case that 𝑭 tends to rotate the slab
counterclockwise and in the second case that it tends to rotate the slab
clockwise.

35
Chapter Two Equivalent Force Systems

Figure (2-2)
The sense of a Moment is defined by the direction it is acting on the
Axis and can be found using Right Hand Rule as shown in Figure (2-
3).

Figure (2-3)

36
Chapter Two Equivalent Force Systems
In the SI system of units, where a force is expressed in newton’s (N)
and a distance in meters (m), the moment of a force is expressed in
newton-meters (N . m). In the U.S. customary system of units, where a
force is expressed in pounds and a distance in feet or inches, the
moment of a force is expressed in lb . ft or lb . in.
2.1.2. Resultant Moment
The resultant moment about point O (the z axis) can be determined by
finding the algebraic sum of the moments caused by all the forces in
the system
(𝑴𝑹 )𝑶 = ∑ 𝑭 𝒅
As a convention, we will generally consider positive moments (+) as
counterclockwise and negative moments (-) as clockwise.

Example (2-1)
A force of 800 N acts on a bracket as
shown. Determine the moment of the
force about point B if 𝜃 = 60°.Also
determines the value of 𝜃 for which
the moment about B is zero and
maximum.

37
Chapter Two Equivalent Force Systems
Solution

We can resolving the force 800 N into

two components horizontal and vertical
as shown in Figure
The moment 𝑴𝑩 of the force 𝑭 about B as a
function of angle 𝜃 is obtained by:
160 200
𝑴𝑩 = (800𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 × ) + (800𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 × 1000)
1000

𝑴𝑩 = 128 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 + 160 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃

The moment 𝑴𝑩 of the force 𝑭 about B at 𝜃 = 60°

(𝑴𝑩 )𝜽=𝟔𝟎 = (128 × 𝑐𝑜𝑠 60) + (160 × 𝑠𝑖𝑛 60)

(𝑴𝑩 )𝜽=𝟔𝟎 = 202.6 𝑁. 𝑚𝑚

The angle 𝜃 at the moment 𝑴𝑩 of the

force F about B is zero

0 = 128 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 + 160 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃

−128
∴ 𝜃 = tan−1 = −38.6°
160

The angle 𝜃 at the moment 𝑴𝑩 is

maximum
𝑑𝑴𝑩
= −128 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 + 160 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 = 0
𝑑𝜃

160
∴ 𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 = 51.3°
128

38
Chapter Two Equivalent Force Systems
Example (2-2)

Determine the resultant moment of the forces about point O.

Solution

Resolution all
forces acting on
the body into two
components
horizontal and
vertical as shown
in Figure.

The resultant moment 𝑴𝑶 of all forces about O is obtained by

𝑴𝑶 = −[600𝑐𝑜𝑠 60 × 0.25] − [600 sin 60 × (0.125 + 0.3)] −

4 3
[ 500 × 0.25] + [ 500 × (0.125 + 0.3)]
5 5

𝑴𝑶 = −268.3 𝑁. 𝑚

39
Chapter Two Equivalent Force Systems
2.1.3. Moment of a Force – Vector Formulation
⃗ acting on a rigid body Figure (2-4). As we
Let us now consider force 𝑭
⃗ is represented by a Cartesian vector form. However,
know, the force 𝑭
the effect of the force on the rigid body depends also upon its point A
(any point on the line of action of its force). The position of A can be
⃗ 𝑶𝑨 which joins the fixed reference
conveniently defined by the vector 𝒓
point O with A; this vector is known as the position vector of A. The
⃗ about point O, and perpendicular to the plane
moment of a force 𝑭
containing O and ⃗𝑭 can be expressed using the vector cross product:
⃗𝑴
⃗⃗ 𝑶 = 𝒓
⃗ 𝑶𝑨 × ⃗𝑭

Figure (2-4)

The magnitude of the moment of ⃗𝑭 about O is

𝑀𝑂 = 𝑟𝑂𝐴 𝐹 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 = 𝐹 (𝑟𝑂𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃) = 𝐹 𝑑

And the direction of 𝑀𝑂 follows the right-hand rule as it applies to the

⃗ 𝑶𝑨 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 ⃗𝑭”.
cross product, “𝒓

40
Chapter Two Equivalent Force Systems
2.1.4. Varignon’s Theorem
The distributive property of vector products can be used to determine
the moment of the resultant of several concurrent forces. If several
forces ⃗𝑭𝟏 , ⃗𝑭𝟐 , . . . are applied at the same point A Figure(2-5), and if
⃗ 𝑨 the position vector of A , Then, the moment of
we denote by 𝒓
⃗⃗ about O is:
resultant 𝑹
⃗⃗⃗ 𝑶 = (𝒓
𝑴 ⃗ 𝟏 ) + (𝒓
⃗ 𝑶𝑨 × 𝑭 ⃗ 𝟐) + ⋯ = 𝒓
⃗ 𝑶𝑨 × 𝑭 ⃗ 𝟏+ 𝑭
⃗ 𝑶𝑨 × ( 𝑭 ⃗ 𝟐 + ⋯)

Figure (2-5)

In words, the moment about a given point O of the resultant of several

concurrent forces is equal to the sum of the moments of the various
forces about the same point O.

41
Chapter Two Equivalent Force Systems
Example (2-3)

A man exerts a 485 N pull on

the rope which is looped
around the branch at point A.
Determine the moment about
point C of this force that
exerts on the branch of the tree
and state the magnitude of this
moment.
Solution
We can represent the tension
force in the rope from A to B
in Cartesian form
⃗
⃗𝑻𝑨𝑩 = 485( 6𝒊+2𝒋−9𝒌 )
2 2 2
√6 +2 +9

⃗
⃗𝑻𝑨𝑩 = 264.5𝒊 + 88.2𝒋 − 396.8𝒌
Position vectors are directed
from point C (moment about
point C) to point A (Any point on
line of action of the tension ⃗𝑻𝑨𝑩 )
⃗ 𝑪𝑨 = 𝒓
𝒓 ⃗𝑨−𝒓
⃗𝑪

⃗
⃗ 𝑪𝑨 = 6𝒋 + 3𝒌
𝒓

The moment about point C of tension force that exerts on the branch
of the tree is:
42
Chapter Two Equivalent Force Systems
⃗⃗⃗ 𝑪 = 𝒓
𝑴 ⃗ 𝑨𝑩
⃗ 𝑪𝑨 × 𝑻

𝒊 𝒋 ⃗
𝒌
⃗𝑴
⃗⃗ 𝑪 = | 0 6 ⃗
3 | = −2645.7𝒊 + 793.5𝒋 − 1587𝒌
264.5 88.3 −396.8

𝑀𝐶 = √(2645.7)2 + (793.5)2 + (1587)2 = 3193.1 𝑁. 𝑚

Example (2-4)
Three forces act on the
pipe. Determine the
resultant moment they
create about the flange
at O and determine the
coordinate direction
angles of the moment.

Solution
The position vectors are
directed from point O to any
point on line of action of
each force as shown in
Figure.

⃗ 𝑨 = 5𝒋
𝒓

⃗
⃗ 𝑩 = 4𝒊 + 5𝒋 − 2𝒌
𝒓

The resultant moment about O:

43
Chapter Two Equivalent Force Systems
⃗⃗⃗ 𝑶 = (𝒓
𝑴 ⃗ 𝟏 ) + (𝒓
⃗𝑨×𝑭 ⃗ 𝟐 ) + (𝒓
⃗𝑨×𝑭 ⃗ 𝟑)
⃗𝑩×𝑭

𝒊 𝒋 ⃗
𝒌 𝒊 𝒋 𝒌⃗ 𝒊 𝒋 ⃗
𝒌
⃗𝑴
⃗⃗ 𝑶 = | 0 5 0 | + |0 5 0 | + | 4 5 −2 |
−60 40 20 0 50 0 80 40 −30
⃗𝑴 ⃗
⃗⃗ 𝑶 = 30𝒊 − 40𝒋 + 60𝒌

The magnitude of the resultant

moment

𝑀𝐶 = √(30)2 + (40)2 + (60)2

𝑀𝐶 = 78.1 𝑁. 𝑚

The coordinate direction angles of the moment

30
𝛼 = cos −1 = 67.4°
78.1

−40
𝛽 = cos −1 = 120.9°
78.1

60
𝛾 = cos −1 = 39.8°
78.1

2.2. Couple Moment

Two forces F and -F having the same magnitude, parallel lines of
action, opposite sense and are separated by a perpendicular distance d
as shown in Figure (2-6). Clearly, the sum of the components of the
two forces in any direction is zero. The sum of the moments of the two
forces about a given point, however, is not zero. While the two forces
will not translate the body on which they act, they will tend to make it
rotate.
44
Chapter Two Equivalent Force Systems

Figure (2-6)

2.2.1. Couple Moment– Scalar Formulation

The moment vector 𝑴 is perpendicular to the plane containing the two
forces and its magnitude is constant defined by the following equation.
𝑴 = ±𝑭 𝑑
Where 𝑑 is the perpendicular distance between the lines of action of
the two forces F and –F.
In the case of Figure (2-7a) the vector 𝑴 points out of the paper, while
in the case of Figure (2-7b) it points into the paper. As we look at the
Figure, we observe in the first case that 𝑴 tends to rotate the slab
counterclockwise and in the second case that it tends to rotate the slab
clockwise.

Figure (2-7)

45
Chapter Two Equivalent Force Systems
2.2.2. Couple Moment – Vector Formulation
⃗ 𝑨 and 𝒓
Denoting by 𝒓 ⃗ 𝑩 , respectively, the position vectors of the points
of application of ⃗𝑭 and −𝑭
⃗ Figure (2-8), we find that the sum of the
moments of the two forces about O is
⃗ ) + (𝒓
⃗𝑨×𝑭
(𝒓 ⃗ ) = (𝒓
⃗ 𝑩 × −𝑭 ⃗𝑨−𝒓 ⃗
⃗𝑩)×𝑭
⃗𝑨−𝒓
Setting 𝒓 ⃗𝑩=𝒓
⃗ 𝑩𝑨 , where is 𝒓
⃗ 𝑩𝑨 is the position vector joining the
points of application of the two forces, we conclude that the sum of the
moments of ⃗𝑭 and −𝑭
⃗ about O is represented by the vector
⃗⃗⃗ = 𝒓
𝑴 ⃗
⃗ 𝑩𝑨 × 𝑭

Figure (2-8)

The vector ⃗𝑴
⃗⃗ is called the moment of the couple; it is a vector
perpendicular to the plane containing the two forces.
2.2.3. Resultant Couple Moment
It is simply the vector sum of all the couple moments of the system.
⃗𝑴
⃗⃗ = ∑(𝒓
⃗ ) × ⃗𝑭

46
Chapter Two Equivalent Force Systems
⃗⃗ 1 and 𝑀
For example, consider the couple moments 𝑀 ⃗⃗ 2 acting on the
pipe as shown in Figure (2-9).

Figure (2-9)
Example (2-5)
Determine the resultant couple moment of the two couples that act on
the pipe assembly. The distance from A to B is 𝑑 = 4 𝑚. Express the
result as a Cartesian vector. Determine the distance d so that the
resultant couple moment has a magnitude of 𝑴 = 20 𝑁. 𝑚

47
Chapter Two Equivalent Force Systems
Solution
⃗ 𝑨𝑩 is
The Position vector 𝒓
directed from point A (point
on the line of action
of ⃗𝑭𝟑 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ⃗𝑭𝟒) to point B
(point on the line of action
⃗ 𝟏 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑭
of 𝑭 ⃗ 𝟐 ) as shown in
Figure.
⃗
⃗ 𝑨𝑩 = −3.5𝒋 + 2𝒌
𝒓
The resultant couple moment of the system is:
⃗⃗⃗ = (𝒓
𝑴 ⃗ 𝟏 ) + (𝒓
⃗ 𝑨𝑩 × 𝑭 ⃗ 𝟐)
⃗ 𝑨𝑩 × 𝑭

𝒊 𝒋 ⃗
𝒌 𝒊 𝒋 ⃗
𝒌
⃗⃗⃗ = |0 −3.5 2 | + | 0
𝑴 −3.5 2 |
0 0 35 −50 0 0
⃗𝑴 ⃗
⃗⃗ = −122.5𝒊 − 100𝒋 − 175𝒌

To determine the distance 𝑑 at resultant couple moment has a

magnitude of 𝑴 = 20 N.m
√3 1
⃗
⃗ 𝑨𝑩 = −
𝒓 𝑑𝒋+ 𝑑𝒌
2 2
𝒊 𝒋 ⃗
𝒌 𝒊 𝒋 ⃗
𝒌
⃗⃗⃗ = ||
𝑴 √3 1 || + || √3 1 ||
0 − 𝑑 𝑑 0 − 𝑑 𝑑
2 2 2 2
0 0 35 −50 0 0
⃗𝑴 ⃗
⃗⃗ = −30.3𝑑 𝒊 − 25𝑑 𝒋 − 43.3𝑑 𝒌

48
Chapter Two Equivalent Force Systems
Magnitude of the resultant couple moment
𝑀 = √(30.3𝑑)2 + (25𝑑)2 + (43.3𝑑)2
(20)2 = 𝑑 2 [(30.3)2 + (25)2 + (43.3)2 ]

(20)2
𝑑=√ = 0.34 𝑚
[(30.3)2 + (25)2 + (43.3)2 ]

2.3. Moment of a Force about an Axis

⃗ acting on a rigid body and the moment 𝑴
Consider again force 𝑭 ⃗⃗⃗ 𝑶 of
that force about O as shown in Figure (2-10). Let OL be an axis through
O; we define the moment 𝑀𝑂𝐿 of 𝐅 about OL as the projection OC of
the moment ⃗𝑴
⃗⃗ 𝑶 onto the axis OL. Denoting by ⃗𝑼
⃗ 𝑶𝑳 the unit vector
along OL, the projection of a vector on a given axis and for the moment
⃗𝑴
⃗⃗ 𝐎 of a force ⃗𝑭 , we write

𝑀𝑂𝐿 = ⃗𝑼
⃗ 𝑶𝑳 . ⃗𝑴
⃗⃗ 𝑶 = ⃗𝑼
⃗ 𝑶𝑳 . (𝒓
⃗ 𝑶𝑨 × ⃗𝑭)

Figure (2-10)

49
Chapter Two Equivalent Force Systems
⃗ about the axis OL is the scalar
Which shows that the moment 𝑀𝑂𝐿 of 𝑭
⃗⃗ 𝑶𝑳 ,𝒓
obtained by forming the mixed triple product of 𝑼 ⃗.
⃗ 𝑶𝑨 and 𝑭
Expressing 𝑀𝑂𝐿 in the form of a determinant, we write

𝑀𝑂𝐿 = ⃗𝑼
⃗ 𝑶𝑳 . (𝒓
⃗ 𝑶𝑨 × ⃗𝑭)
𝑈𝑂𝐿𝑥 𝑈𝑂𝐿𝑦 𝑈𝑂𝐿𝑧
𝑀𝑂𝐿 = | 𝑟𝑂𝐴𝑥 𝑟𝑂𝐴𝑦 𝑟𝑂𝐴𝑧 |
𝑓𝑥 𝑓𝑦 𝑓𝑧
Where 𝑈𝑂𝐿𝑥 , 𝑈𝑂𝐿𝑦 , 𝑈𝑂𝐿𝑧 = direction cosines of axis OL

𝑟𝑂𝐴𝑥 , 𝑟𝑂𝐴𝑦 , 𝑟𝑂𝐴𝑧 = coordinates of point of application of

𝑓𝑥 , 𝑓𝑦 , 𝑓𝑧 = components of force ⃗𝑭

Example (2-6)
A 5 N vertical force
is applied to the
knob of the window-
opener mechanism
when the crank BC is
horizontal.
Determine the
momentof the force
about point A and about line AB.

50
Chapter Two Equivalent Force Systems
Solution

Position vectors are

directed from point A to
point D that point on
line of action of force ⃗𝑭
as shown in Figure.

⃗
⃗ 𝑨𝑫 = 65𝒊 + 75𝒋 + 37.5𝒌
𝒓
⃗ about A is:
The moment of force 𝑭
⃗𝑴
⃗⃗ 𝑨 = 𝒓
⃗ 𝑨𝑫 × ⃗𝑭

𝒊 𝒋 ⃗
𝒌
⃗𝑴
⃗⃗ 𝑨 = |65 75 37.5|
0 0 −5
⃗⃗⃗ 𝑨 = −𝟑𝟕𝟓𝒊 + 𝟑𝟐𝟓𝒋 𝑵. 𝒎𝒎
𝑴

⃗⃗ 𝑨𝑩 , 𝒓
Using the mixed triple product of 𝑼 ⃗ to determine the
⃗ 𝑨𝑫 and 𝑭
moment of force ⃗𝑭 about line AB
𝑀𝐴𝐵 = ⃗𝑼
⃗ 𝑨𝑩 . (𝒓
⃗ 𝑨𝑫 × ⃗𝑭)

The unit vector of the line AB

⃗ 𝑨𝑩
𝒓 ⃗
43.3𝒊+25𝒌
⃗𝑼
⃗ 𝑨𝑩 = = ⃗
= 0.87𝒊 + 0.5𝒌
𝑟𝐴𝐵 √(43.3)2 +(25)2

0.87 0 0.5
𝑀𝑂𝐿 = | 65 75 37.5| = −326.25 𝑁. 𝑚
0 0 −5

51
Chapter Two Equivalent Force Systems
2.4. Transfer of a Force on a Rigid Body
⃗ acting on a rigid body at a point A Figure (2-11).
Consider force 𝑭
Suppose that for some reason we would rather have the force act at
⃗ along its line of action, we cannot move
point O. While we can move 𝑭
it to a point O which does not lie on the original line of action without
modifying the action of ⃗𝑭 on the rigid body. We can, however, attach
two forces at point O, one equal to ⃗𝑭 and the other equal to − ⃗𝑭 ,
without modifying the action of the original force on the rigid body
Figure (2-11b). As a result of this transformation, a force ⃗𝑭 is now
⃗⃗⃗ =
applied at O; the other two forces form a couple of moment 𝑴
⃗ 𝑶𝑨 × ⃗𝑭 Figure (2-11c). Thus, any force ⃗𝑭 acting on a rigid body can
𝒓
be moved to an arbitrary point O provided that a couple is added
whose moment is equal to the moment of ⃗𝑭 about O.

Figure (2-11)

52
Chapter Two Equivalent Force Systems
2.5. Simplification of a Force and Couple System
Sometimes it is convenient to reduce a system of forces and couple
moments acting on a body to a simpler form by replacing it with an
equivalent system.
⃗ 𝑨 , ⃗𝑭𝑩 and ⃗𝑭𝑪 located at points A,
Assume a system of several forces𝑭
⃗⃗⃗ 𝟏 and 𝑴
B and C respectively and two couple moments 𝑴 ⃗⃗⃗ 𝟐 acting on
a body as shown in Figure (2-12). This system of forces and couple
moments can be reduced to an equivalent resultant force ⃗𝑭𝑶𝑹 acting at
⃗⃗⃗ 𝑶𝑹 .
a point O and a resultant couple moment𝑴

Figure (2-12)

53
Chapter Two Equivalent Force Systems
⃗ 𝑨 and so
In the Figure (2-12), point O is not on the line of action of 𝑭
⃗⃗⃗ 𝑨 =
this force can be moved to point O provided a couple moment 𝑴
⃗ 𝑶𝑨 × ⃗𝑭𝑨 is added to the body.
𝒓
Similarly, the couple moments ⃗𝑴
⃗⃗ 𝑩 = 𝒓
⃗ 𝑶𝑩 × ⃗𝑭𝑩 and ⃗𝑴
⃗⃗ 𝑪 = 𝒓
⃗ 𝑶𝑪 × ⃗𝑭𝑪
⃗ 𝑩 and 𝑭
should be added to the body when we move 𝑭 ⃗ 𝑪 to point O.
⃗⃗⃗ 𝟏 and 𝑴
Finally, since the couple moments 𝑴 ⃗⃗⃗ 𝟐 is free vectors, it can
just be moved to point O. If we sum the forces and couple moments,
we obtain the resultant force and the resultant couple moment
⃗𝑭𝑶𝑹 = ⃗𝑭𝑨 + ⃗𝑭𝑩 + ⃗𝑭𝑪
⃗𝑴
⃗⃗ 𝑶𝑹 = ⃗𝑴
⃗⃗ 𝑨 + ⃗𝑴
⃗⃗ 𝑩 + ⃗𝑴
⃗⃗ 𝑪 + ⃗𝑴
⃗⃗ 𝟏 + ⃗𝑴
⃗⃗ 𝟐

We can generalize this method of reducing a force and couple system

to an equivalent resultant forces ⃗𝑭𝑶𝑹 acting at point O and a resultant
⃗⃗⃗ 𝑶𝑹 by using the following equations:
couple moment 𝑴

⃗ 𝑶𝑹 = ∑ 𝑭
𝑭 ⃗

⃗𝑴
⃗⃗ 𝑶𝑹 = ∑ ⃗𝑴
⃗⃗ 𝑶 + ∑ ⃗𝑴
⃗⃗

orces oup e
mo e oment
oment

54
Chapter Two Equivalent Force Systems
Example (2-7)

The pulley and gear are

subjected to the
loadsshown. For these
forces, determine the
equivalent force-couple
system at point O.

Solution

The forces exerted on the pulley

and gear as Cartesian form
⃗𝑭𝑨 = 800𝒊
⃗ 𝑩 = 200𝒊
𝑭
⃗𝑭𝑪 = −1200𝑠𝑖𝑛10 𝒊
+ 1200𝑐𝑜𝑠10𝒋
⃗𝑭𝑪 = −208.4 𝒊 + 1181.8𝒋

⃗𝑭𝑶𝑹 = ∑ ⃗𝑭 = ⃗𝑭𝑨 + ⃗𝑭𝑩 + ⃗𝑭𝑪

⃗𝑭𝑶𝑹 = 791.6 𝒊 + 1181.8𝒋

⃗ 𝑶𝑨 , 𝒓
The Position vector 𝒓 ⃗ 𝑶𝑩 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝒓
⃗ 𝑶𝑪 are directed from point O to
points A, B and C respectively as shown in Figure
⃗
⃗ 𝑶𝑨 = 0.1 𝒋 − 0.55𝒌
𝒓

⃗
⃗ 𝑶𝑩 = −0.1 𝒋 − 0.55𝒌
𝒓

55
Chapter Two Equivalent Force Systems
⃗
⃗𝒓𝑶𝑩 = 0.075 𝒊 − 0.22𝒌

⃗⃗⃗ 𝑶 at point O
The resultant couple moment 𝑴

⃗𝑴
⃗⃗ 𝑶𝑹 = ∑ ⃗𝑴
⃗⃗ 𝑶 = ⃗𝑴
⃗⃗ 𝑨 + ⃗𝑴
⃗⃗ 𝑩 + ⃗𝑴
⃗⃗ 𝑪

⃗⃗⃗ 𝑶𝑹 = (𝒓
𝑴 ⃗ 𝑨 ) + (𝒓
⃗ 𝑶𝑨 × 𝑭 ⃗ 𝑩 ) + (𝒓
⃗ 𝑶𝑩 × 𝑭 ⃗ 𝑪)
⃗ 𝑶𝑪 × 𝑭

𝒊 𝒋 ⃗
𝒌 𝒊 𝒋 ⃗
𝒌
⃗𝑴
⃗⃗ 𝑶𝑹 =| 0 0.1 −0.55| + | 0 −0.1 −0.55|
800 0 0 200 0 0
𝒊 𝒋 ⃗
𝒌
+ | 0.075 0 −0.22|
−208.4 1181.8 0
⃗𝑴
⃗⃗ 𝑶𝑹 = 260 𝒊 − 504𝒋 + 28.6𝒋 𝑁. 𝑚

2.6. Further Simplification of a Force and Couple System

Let us now investigate the conditions under which a given system of
forces can be reduced to a single force. The force-couple system at O
⃗⃗ acting along a new line of action if
can be replaced by a single force 𝑹
⃗𝑭𝑶𝑹 and ⃗𝑴
⃗⃗ 𝑶𝑹 are mutually perpendicular then;
⃗𝑭𝑶𝑹 . ⃗𝑴
⃗⃗ 𝑶𝑹 = 0.
While this condition is generally not satisfied by systems of forces in
space, it will be satisfied by systems consisting of (1) concurrent forces,
(2) coplanar forces, or (3) parallel forces. These three cases will be
discussed separately.

56
Chapter Two Equivalent Force Systems
(1) Concurrent Force System

Concurrent forces are applied at the same point and may be added
⃗⃗ as shown in Figure (2-13) discussed in
directly into their resultant 𝑹
Chapter 1.

Figure (2-13)

(2) Coplanar Forces System (2-D)

The sum 𝑭𝑶𝑹 of the forces of the system lies in the plane as shown in

Figure (2-14),while the moment of each force about point O, and thus
the resultant moment 𝑴𝑶𝑹 , will be perpendicular to that plane. The
force-couple system at point O consists of a force 𝑭𝑶𝑹 and a couple
moment 𝑴𝑶𝑹 which are mutually perpendicular. They may be
reduced to a single force 𝑹 by moving 𝑭𝑶𝑹 in the plane of the figure
until its moment about point O becomes equal to 𝑴𝑶𝑹 . The distance
from point O to the line of action of 𝑹 = 𝑭𝑶𝑹 is the distance “d”
where 𝑑 = 𝑴𝑶𝑹 /𝑹

57
Chapter Two Equivalent Force Systems

Figure (2-14)

There are two alternatives for specifying the position of the resultant
force.
1-The position of the force may be specified by a distance 𝒅.
The direction of the resultant force 𝑹 is known. The position where 𝑹
is tangent to a circle with a radius 𝑑 = 𝑴𝑶𝑹 /𝑹 is determined by
inspection to achieve the proper direction of the moment as shown in
the Figure (2-15).

Figure (2-15)
58
Chapter Two Equivalent Force Systems
2- The position of the force may be specified by two points on the
line of action of the resultant force 𝑹 .

Figure (2-16)
From Figure (2-16) we can determine the coordinates of the point of
application of the resultant force 𝑹 by:
𝑀𝑂𝑅 𝑀𝑂𝑅
𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑦 = −
𝑅𝑦 𝑅𝑥

The points (𝑑𝑥 , 0) and (0, 𝑑𝑦 ) are two points along the line of action
of the resultant force. The signs (+ or -) of 𝑑𝑥 and 𝑑𝑦 are determined
by inspection to achieve the proper direction of the moment.

(3) Parallel Force System

Parallel forces have parallel lines of action and may or may not have
the same sense. Assuming here that the forces are parallel to the y axis
as shown in Figure (2-17), we note that their sum ⃗𝑭𝑶𝑹 will also be
parallel to the y axis. On the other hand, since the moment of a given
force must be perpendicular to that force, the moment about O of each
force of the system, and thus the moment resultant ⃗𝑴
⃗⃗ 𝑶𝑹 , will lie in the
𝑧𝑥 plane.
59
Chapter Two Equivalent Force Systems

Figure (1-17)

The force-couple system at O consists, force ⃗𝑭𝑶𝑹 and a couple vector

⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑶𝑹 which are mutually perpendicular as shown in Figure (2-17b).
𝑴
⃗⃗ (Figure (1-17c).
They can be reduced to a single force 𝑹
The reduction of the system to a single force can be carried out by
moving ⃗𝑭𝑶𝑹 to a new point of application 𝐶( 𝑥 , 0, 𝑧 ) chosen so that
⃗⃗ about O is equal to ⃗⃗⃗⃗
the moment of 𝑹 𝑴 𝑶𝑹 . We write

𝒓 ⃗⃗ = ⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗ 𝑪 × 𝑹 𝑴 𝑶𝑹

⃗ ) × 𝑅𝒋 = 𝑀𝑥 𝒊 + 𝑀𝑧 𝒌
(𝑥 𝒊 + 𝑧𝒌 ⃗

By computing the vector products and equating the coefficients of the

corresponding unit vectors in both members of the equation, we obtain
two scalar equations which define the coordinates of point of
application C,

60
Chapter Two Equivalent Force Systems
Example (2-8)

A machine component is
subjected to the forces
and couples shown. The
component is to be held in
place by a single rivet that
can resist a force but not a
couple. Determine the
location of the rivet hole if
it is to be located (a) on line FG , ( b ) on line GH .

Solution

Equivalent force-couple system at point G.

Resolving all forces into two components as shown in Figure, The
force-couple system at G equivalent to the given system of forces
⃗ 𝑮𝑹 and a couple 𝑴𝑮𝑹 defined:
consists of a force 𝑭

61
Chapter Two Equivalent Force Systems
⃗ 𝟏 = 193.2𝒊 − 51.8𝒋 , 𝑭
𝑭 ⃗ 𝟐 = −41 𝒊 − 112.8𝒋 , 𝑭
⃗ 𝟑 = −80 𝒋
⃗ 𝑮𝑹 = ∑ 𝑭
𝑭 ⃗ =𝑭
⃗ 𝟏+𝑭
⃗ 𝟐+𝑭
⃗𝟑

⃗𝑭𝑮𝑹 = 152.2 𝒊 − 244.6𝒋

𝑴𝑮𝑹 = ∑ 𝑴𝑮 + ∑ 𝑴

(520 − 50) 50
𝑴𝑮𝑹 = − (193.2 × ) + (51.8 × )
1000 1000
(520 − 50) (240 − 50)
+ (41 × ) − (112.8 × )
1000 1000
(640 − 50)
− (80 × ) + 42 + 40
1000
𝑴𝑮𝑹 = −55.5 𝑁. 𝑚

Now we can move 𝑭𝑮𝑹 = 𝑹 in the plane of the figure until its moment
about point G becomes equal to 𝑀𝐺𝑅 ,

62
Chapter Two Equivalent Force Systems
The location of the rivet must be on the line of action of the resultant
force 𝑹 as shown in Figure.
(a) On line FG
𝑀𝑂𝑅 −55.5
𝑑𝑦 = − =−
𝑅𝑥 152.2
𝑑𝑦 = 0.365 𝑚
(b) On line HG
𝑀𝑂𝑅 −55.5
𝑑𝑥 = =
𝑅𝑦 −244.6
𝑑𝑥 = 0.227 𝑚

Example (2-9)
The building slab is
subjected to four
parallel column
loadings. Determine
the equivalent
resultant force and
specify its location
(𝑥, 𝑦) on the slab.
Take 𝐹1 = 20 𝑘𝑁, 𝐹2 = 50 𝑘𝑁

63
Chapter Two Equivalent Force Systems
Solution

We can representation of the forces exerted on the building slab as

Cartesian form
⃗ , ⃗𝑭𝟐 = −50𝒌
⃗𝑭𝟏 = −20𝒌 ⃗ , ⃗𝑭𝟑 = −50𝒌
⃗ , ⃗𝑭𝟒 = −20 ⃗𝒌
⃗𝑭𝑶𝑹 = ∑ ⃗𝑭 = ⃗𝑭𝟏 + ⃗𝑭𝟐 + ⃗𝑭𝟑 + ⃗𝑭𝟒 = −140 ⃗𝒌

⃗ 𝑨, 𝒓
The Position vectors 𝒓 ⃗ 𝑩, 𝒓
⃗ 𝑪 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝒓
⃗ 𝑫 are directed from Origin to
points A, B, C and D respectively as shown in Figure
⃗ 𝑨 = 11𝒋
𝒓

⃗ 𝑩 = 10 𝒊 + 13𝒋
𝒓

⃗ 𝑪 = 4 𝒊 + 3𝒋
𝒓

⃗ 𝑫 = 10 𝒊
𝒓

The resultant couple moment

⃗⃗⃗ 𝑶𝑹 at point O
𝑴

⃗𝑴
⃗⃗ 𝑶𝑹 = (𝒓
⃗ 𝑨 × ⃗𝑭𝟏 ) + (𝒓
⃗ 𝑩 × ⃗𝑭𝟐 ) + (𝒓
⃗ 𝑪 × ⃗𝑭𝟑 ) + (𝒓
⃗ 𝑫 × ⃗𝑭𝟒 )

𝒊 𝒋 ⃗
𝒌 𝒊 𝒋 ⃗
𝒌 𝒊 𝒋 ⃗
𝒌
⃗𝑴
⃗⃗ 𝑶𝑹 = |0 11 0 | + |10 13 0 | + |4 3 0 |
0 0 −20 0 0 −50 0 0 −50
𝒊 𝒋 ⃗
𝒌
+ |10 0 0 |
0 0 −20
⃗𝑴
⃗⃗ 𝑶𝑹 = −1020 𝒊 + 900𝒋 𝑁. 𝑚

64
Chapter Two Equivalent Force Systems
The reduction of the system to a single force can be carried out by
⃗ 𝑶𝑹 to a new point of application 𝐸( 𝑥 , 𝑦, 0) chosen so that
moving 𝑭
⃗⃗ about O is equal to 𝑴
the moment of single force 𝑹 ⃗⃗⃗ 𝑶𝑹 as shown in
Figure. We write
⃗⃗ = ⃗𝑴
⃗𝑬×𝑹
𝒓 ⃗⃗ 𝑶𝑹

⃗ = −1020 𝒊 + 900𝒋
(𝑥 𝒊 + 𝑦𝒋) × −140𝒌

140𝑥 𝒋 − 140𝑦𝒊 = −1020 𝒊 + 900𝒋

∴ 𝑥 = 6.4 𝑚 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 = 7.3 𝑚

2.7. Reduction of a System of Forces to a Wrench

In the general case of a system of forces in space, the equivalent force
couple system at O consists of a force ⃗𝑭𝑶𝑹 and a couple vector ⃗𝑴
⃗⃗ 𝑶𝑹
⃗ 𝑶𝑹 . 𝑴
which are not perpendicular 𝑭 ⃗⃗⃗ 𝑶𝑹 ≠ 0, Figure (2-18).

65
Chapter Two Equivalent Force Systems

Figure (1-18)
Thus, the system of forces cannot be reduced to a single force or to a
single couple. The couple vector, however, can be replaced by two
other couple vectors obtained by resolving ⃗𝑴
⃗⃗ 𝑶𝑹 into a component ⃗𝑴
⃗⃗ ∥

along ⃗𝑭𝑶𝑹 and a component ⃗𝑴

⃗⃗ ⊥ in a plane perpendicular to ⃗𝑭𝑶𝑹 Figure

(2-18b). The couple vector ⃗𝑴

⃗⃗ ⊥ and the force ⃗𝑭𝑶𝑹 can then be replaced
⃗ 𝑶𝑹 = 𝑹
by single force 𝑭 ⃗⃗ acting along a new line of action. The original
⃗⃗ and to the couple vector 𝑴
system of forces thus reduces to 𝑹 ⃗⃗⃗ ∥ Figure
⃗⃗ and a couple acting in the plane perpendicular to 𝑹
(2-18c), i.e., to 𝑹 ⃗⃗ .
This particular force-couple system is called a wrench because the
resulting combination of push and twist is the same as that which
⃗⃗ is known
would be caused by an actual wrench. The line of action of 𝑹
as the axis of the wrench, and the ratio 𝑝 = 𝑀∥ / 𝑅 is called the pitch of

66
Chapter Two Equivalent Force Systems
the wrench. A wrench, therefore, consists of two collinear vectors, a
⃗⃗ and a couple vector 𝑴
force 𝑹 ⃗⃗⃗ ∥ = 𝑝𝑹
⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗ 𝑶𝑹 on the line of action of 𝑹
The projection of 𝑴 ⃗⃗ is
⃗⃗⃗ 𝑶𝑹 . 𝑹
𝑴 ⃗⃗
𝑀∥ =
𝑅

Thus, the pitch of the wrench can be expressed as

𝑀∥ ⃗⃗⃗ 𝑶𝑹 . 𝑹
𝑴 ⃗⃗
𝑝= =
𝑅 𝑅2

To define the axis of the wrench, we can write a relation involving the
⃗ 𝑶𝑨 of an arbitrary point A located on that axis.
position vector 𝒓
⃗⃗ and couple vector ⃗𝑴
Attaching the resultant force 𝑹 ⃗⃗ ∥ at A Figure (2-
18c) and expressing that the moment about O of this force-couple
system is equal to the moment resultant ⃗𝑴
⃗⃗ 𝑶𝑹 of the original force
system, we write
⃗𝑴
⃗⃗ ∥ + 𝒓 ⃗⃗ = ⃗𝑴
⃗ 𝑶𝑨 × 𝑹 ⃗⃗ 𝑶𝑹 Or ⃗⃗ + 𝒓
𝑝𝑹 ⃗⃗ = ⃗𝑴
⃗ ×𝑹 ⃗⃗ 𝑶𝑹

Example (2-10)

Three cables are attached to a

bracket as shown. Replace the
forces exerted by the cables with
an equivalent force-couple
system at A. Also find the pitch
of the wrench, and the point
where the axis of the wrench
intersects the 𝑦𝑧 plane.
67
Chapter Two Equivalent Force Systems
Solution

We first express the forces in Cartesian form

⃗
75 𝒊−150𝑐𝒋+50𝒌
⃗𝑭𝑩 = 700 ( )
√(75)2 +(150)2 +(50)2

⃗
⃗ 𝑩 = 300 𝒊 − 600𝒋 + 200𝒌
𝑭
⃗
⃗ 𝑪 = 1000𝑐𝑜𝑠45𝒊 − 1000𝑠𝑖𝑛45𝒌
𝑭
⃗
⃗ 𝑪 = 707 𝒊 − 707𝒌
𝑭
⃗𝑭𝑫 = 1200𝑐𝑜𝑠60𝒊 − 1200𝑠𝑖𝑛60𝒋
⃗𝑭𝑫 = 600 𝒊 + 1039𝒋
The force-couple system at A
equivalent to the given forces consists of a force
⃗ 𝑶𝑹 = ∑ 𝑭
𝑭 ⃗ =𝑭
⃗ 𝑩+𝑭
⃗ 𝑪+𝑭
⃗𝑫

⃗ 𝑁
⃗𝑭𝑶𝑹 = 1607 𝒊 + 439𝒋 − 507𝒌
And a couple
⃗𝑴
⃗⃗ 𝑶𝑹 = ∑ ⃗𝑴
⃗⃗ 𝑶 = (𝒓
⃗ 𝑶𝑩 × ⃗𝑭𝑩 ) + (𝒓
⃗ 𝑶𝑪 × ⃗𝑭𝑪 ) + (𝒓
⃗ 𝑶𝑫 × ⃗𝑭𝑫 )

⃗ 𝑶𝑩 , 𝒓
To determine the Position vectors 𝒓 ⃗ 𝑶𝑪 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝒓
⃗ 𝑶𝑫
⃗
⃗ 𝑶𝑩 = 0.075 𝒊 + 0.1𝒋 + 0.05𝒌
𝒓
⃗
⃗ 𝑶𝑪 = 0.075 𝒊 + 0.1𝒋 − 0.05𝒌
𝒓
⃗ 𝑶𝑫 = 0.1 𝒊
𝒓
The resultant couple moment ⃗𝑴
⃗⃗ 𝑶 at point O

68
Chapter Two Equivalent Force Systems

𝒊 𝒋 ⃗
𝒌 𝒊 𝒋 ⃗
𝒌
⃗⃗⃗ 𝑶𝑹
𝑴 = |0.075 0.1 0.05| + |0.075 0.1 −0.05|
300 −600 200 707 0 −707

𝒊 𝒋 ⃗
𝒌
+ | 0.1 0 0|
600 −1039 0
⃗ N. m
⃗⃗⃗ 𝑶𝑹 = 30 𝒊 + 17.7𝒋 + 118.9𝒌
𝑴

The pitch of the wrench can be expressed as

⃗⃗⃗ 𝑶𝑹 . 𝑹
𝑴 ⃗⃗ ⃗ ). (30 𝒊 + 17.7𝒋 + 118.9𝒌
(1607 𝒊 + 439𝒋 − 507𝒌 ⃗ )
𝑝= =
𝑅2 ((1607)2 + (439)2 + (507)2 )

𝑝 = −0.0014

69
Chapter Two Equivalent Force Systems
⃗ 𝑶𝑹 = 𝑹
Axis of Wrench: the wrench consists of the force 𝑭 ⃗⃗ and the
⃗⃗
couple vector parallel to resultant force𝑹
⃗𝑴
⃗⃗ ∥ = 𝑝𝑹 ⃗ )
⃗⃗ = −0.0014(1607 𝒊 + 439𝒋 − 507𝒌

⃗
⃗⃗⃗ ∥ = −2.25 𝒊 − 0.61𝒋 + 0.71𝒌
𝑴

To find the point where the axis of the wrench intersects the 𝑦𝑧 lane,
we express that the moment of the wrench about O is equal to the
⃗⃗⃗ 𝑶𝑹 of the original system:
moment resultant 𝑴
⃗⃗⃗ ∥ + 𝒓
𝑴 ⃗⃗ = 𝑴
⃗ 𝑶𝑨 × 𝑹 ⃗⃗⃗ 𝑶𝑹

𝒊 𝒋 ⃗
𝒌
⃗
(−2.25 𝒊 − 0.61𝒋 + 0.71𝒌) + | 0 𝑦 𝑧 |
1607 439 −507
⃗
= 30 𝒊 + 17.7𝒋 + 118.9𝒌

[−2.25 + (−507𝑦 + 439𝑧)] 𝒊 + (1607𝑧 − 0.61)𝒋

⃗ = 30 𝒊 + 17.7𝒋 + 118.9𝒌
+ (0.71 − 1607𝑦)𝒌 ⃗

⃗
Equating coefficients of the unit vectors 𝒋 and 𝒌

1607𝑧 − 0.61 = 17.7 𝑧 = 0.049

0.71 − 1607𝑦 = 118.9 𝑦 = −0.074

70
Chapter Two Equivalent Force Systems
2.8. Problems
1) The magnitudes of the forces exerted on the pillar at D by the
cables A, B, and C are equal, 𝐹𝐴 = 𝐹𝐵 = 𝐹𝐶 . The magnitude of
the total
moment about E
due to the forces
exerted by the
three cables at D
is 1350kN-m.
What is 𝐹𝐴 ?

2) Three forces act on the

piping. Determine the
sum of the moments of
the three forces about
point P.

3) If the moment of a
force about point A is
10 kN.m. Determine
the angle 𝜃. Also
determines the value
of 𝜃 for which the moment about A is zero and maximum.

71
Chapter Two Equivalent Force Systems
4) Determine the sum of the
moments of the two forces
𝐹𝐵 , 𝐹𝐶 about point P.

5) Before the trunk of a large

tree is felled, cables AB
and BC are attached as
shown. Knowing that the
tensions in cables AB
and BC are 555 N and
660 N, respectively,
determine the moment
about O of the resultant
force exerted on the tree
by the cables at B.

6) Determine the resultant

couple moment acting on
the beam.

72
Chapter Two Equivalent Force Systems
7) Determine the
magnitude of
couple forces 𝐹1
and 𝐹2 so that the
resultant couple
moment on the
block is zero.

8) Determine the couple

moment acting on the pipe.

9) Determine
the resultant
moment
acting on the
beam about
point O.

73
Chapter Two Equivalent Force Systems
10) Cable that passes through a ring at B and is attached to hooks at
G and H. Knowing
that the tension in
the cable is 450 N,
determine the
moment about the
diagonal AD of the
force exerted on
the frame by
portion BH of the
cable.

11) Determine the magnitude of force 𝐹 in cable AB in order to

product a
moment of
500 𝑙𝑏. 𝑓𝑡
about the
hinged axis
CD, which is
needed to hold
the panel in
the position shown.

74
Chapter Two Equivalent Force Systems
12) Replace the force and couple moment system acting on the
overhang
beam by a
resultant force
and couple
moment at
point A.

13) Replace the two forces on

the post by a resultant
force and couple moment
at point O. Express the
results in Cartesian vector
form.

14) If 𝑃 = 0, replace the

two remaining
couples with a single
equivalent couple,
specifying its
magnitude and the
direction of its axis.

75
Chapter Two Equivalent Force Systems
15) Three control rods attached to a lever ABC exert on it the forces
shown. (a) Replace the three forces with an equivalent force-
couple system at B. (b) Determine the single force that is
equivalent to
the force-couple
system obtained
in part a , and
specify its point
of application
on the lever.

16) A truss supports the loading shown. Determine the equivalent

force acting on the truss and the point of intersection of its line
of action with a line drawn through points A and G.

76
 Chapter Two Equivalent Force Systems
17) Four signs are
mounted on a frame
spanning a highway,
and the magnitudes
of the horizontal
wind forces acting
on the signs are as
shown. Determine
the magnitude and
the point of
application of the
resultant of the four wind forces when 𝑎 = 1 𝑓𝑡 and 𝑏 = 12 𝑓𝑡.

18) Determine the magnitude of forces 𝐹𝐴 and 𝐹𝐵 so that the resultant

force passes through point O of the column.

77
 Chapter Two Equivalent Force Systems
19) Two ropes attached at A and B are used to move the trunk of a fallen
tree. Replace the forces exerted by the ropes with an equivalent
wrench and determine (a) the resultant force R, (b) the pitch of the
wrench, (c)
the point
where the
axis of the
wrench
intersects
the 𝑦𝑧 plane.

20) Determine whether the force-

and-couple system shown can
be reduced to a single
equivalent force R. If it can,
determine R and the point
where the line of action of R
intersects the 𝑦𝑧 plane. If it
cannot be so reduced, replace
the given system with an equivalent wrench and determine its
resultant, its pitch, and the point where its axis intersects the 𝑦𝑧
plane.

78
Chapter Three Equilibrium of a Particle
3.
Chapter Three
Equilibrium of a Particle

Introduction

An object that is relatively small to other objects or dimensions in a

problem can often idealized as a particle. The particle is a model of a
real body. Modeling a body as particle is equivalent to the assumption
that all forces applied on body act at the same point as shown in Figure
(3.1). This assumption is acceptable in many practical engineering
applications.

Figure (3.1)
In this chapter, various problems concerning the equilibrium of a
particle will be considered.

79
Chapter Three Equilibrium of a Particle
3.1. Condition for the Equilibrium of a Particle
A particle is in equilibrium if the resultant of ALL forces acting on the
partic e is equa to zero (Newton’s first aw is that a body at rest is not
subjected to any unbalanced forces).
In a physical sense, a particle which is acted upon by two forces will
be in equilibrium if the two forces have the same magnitude and the
same line of action but opposite sense. The resultant of the two forces
is then zero.
The condition for the equilibrium of a particle may be stated
mathematically as:
∑ ⃗𝑭 = 0
Where, ∑ 𝐹 represents the vector sum of all forces acting on the
particle. If resolving each force F into rectangular components, we
have:
⃗ =0
(∑ 𝐹𝑥 ) 𝒊 + (∑ 𝐹𝑦 ) 𝒋 + (∑ 𝐹𝑧 ) 𝒌
Therefore, the force summations along each of the unit vector
directions must be equal to zero, and we conclude that the necessary
and sufficient conditions for the equilibrium of a particle are:
∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 0,
∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 0,
∑ 𝐹𝑧 = 0.
The above equations may be used to solve the particles equilibrium
problems included no more than three unknowns.

80
Chapter Three Equilibrium of a Particle
3.2. Coplanar Force Systems (2D)
In some problems, the forces acting on a particle may all lie in the same
plane, that is, the force system is coplanar. If all the forces are coplanar,
the number of equations for the force equilibrium is reduced to two
(say, the x and y axes); namely,
∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 0,
∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 0.
3.3. Free Body Diagram (FBD)
Imagine the particle to be isolated or cut free from its surroundings and
show all the forces that act on the particle. Identify each force and show
all known magnitudes and directions. Show all unknown magnitudes
and / or directions as variables.
In solving a problem concerning the equilibrium of a particle, it is
essential to consider all the forces acting on the body. The free body
diagram is a necessary step in the solution of the problem before
applying the equilibrium conditions.
To construct a free body diagram of a particle, we proceed as follows:
1. Decide on the particle whose equilibrium is to be analyzed.
2. Isolate the particle from its surroundings and draw or sketch its
outlined shape.
3. Indicate on this sketch all the forces that act on the particle:
a. Active forces, which tend to set the particle in motion
(e.g., weight, magnetic and e ectrostatic interaction,…,
tension in cables).

81
Chapter Three Equilibrium of a Particle
b. Reactive forces will be considered such as those caused
by supports that tend to prevent motion.
4. The forces that are known should be labeled with their proper
magnitudes and directions. Use letters to represent the
magnitudes and directions of unknown forces.
5. Sketch the coordinate system to be used.
6. Add pertinent dimensions and angles to define the locations and
orientations of all forces.
To draw a free body diagram, we must know the type of force exerted
on a body by each type of connection or contact, which proceed as
follows:
3.3.1. Weight Force
All objects upon earth experience a force of gravity which is directed
"downward" towards the center of the earth. On the surface of the earth,
the effect of gravity in the absence of other forces is to give an object
an acceleration of g towards the center of the earth, Figure (3.2). Thus
the weight W of an object on the surface of the earth is, 𝑊 = 𝑚. 𝑔.

Figure (3.2)

82
Chapter Three Equilibrium of a Particle
3.3.2. Cables and Pulleys

In engineering applications, we frequently use cables to connect

different bodies and exert pulling forces along straight lines or over
curved surfaces. All cables are assumed to have negligible weight and
cannot be stretched. Such cables carry only tension forces, and these
forces are always directed along the axes of the cables.
If the pulley has friction, then
T1≠ T2

If the pulley has frictionless, then

T 1 = T2

T2
T1
Figure (3.3)
Cables are often used in conjunction with pulleys. A pulley is used to
change the direction of a cable and hence change the direction of the
force supported by a cable, as shown in Figure (3.3). If a pulley is
idealized as being frictionless and the cable has negligible weight, then
the magnitude of the force supported by the cable is unchanged as it
wraps around the pulley.

3.3.3. Body on Smooth Surfaces

Normal force is the force of a surface acting on an object (the normal

force is perpendicular to the plane of contact). This force is directly
83
Chapter Three Equilibrium of a Particle
related to the force of gravity, as the third law of Newton state that
when a force is applied to an object it will react with an equal force in
the opposite direction. So when a rigid body is placed on a smooth
surface. The surface exerts a normal force on the body; this force will
act normal to the tangent of the surface at the point of contact, as shown
in Figure (3.4).

(a) Three dimension example (b) Two dimension example

Figure (3.4)

3.3.4. Linear Elastic Spring

Springs are common elastic elements in mechanical systems. The
behavior of a linear elastic spring is characterized in Figure (3.5).
Linear means there is linear relation between the magnitude of the
tensile or compressive force Fs supported by the spring and magnitude
of the change in its length S, as shown in Figure (3.5a). Otherwise, the
spring is called a nonlinear spring. Elastic means the spring returns to
its original length after the spring force Fs is removed.

84
Chapter Three Equilibrium of a Particle

(a) (b) (c)

Figure (3.5)

The governing equation of the linear elastic spring is:

𝐹𝑠 = 𝑘 𝑆
𝐹𝑠 = 𝑘 (𝐿 − 𝐿0 )
Where, Fs : is the spring force,
S: is the elongation of the spring from its unstretched or undeformed
length,
K : is the spring stiffness,
L0 : is the initial (unstretched) length,
L : is the final spring length.

Example (3-1)
Determine the mass that must be supported at B and the angle ϴ of the
connecting cord in order to
hold the system in
equilibrium, if block C has
mass 50Kg and block D is
40Kg.

85
Chapter Three Equilibrium of a Particle
Solution:

Free body diagram:

The weight of the block C causes

the tension in cable AC to be:

TAC = 50(9.8) = 491 N.

The weight of the block D causes

the tension in cable AD to be:

TAD= 40(9.8) = 392 N.

The free body diagram of point A

is shown in Figure.

Equations of equilibrium:
Applying the equations of equilibrium along the x and y axes, we have:
→+ ∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 0 𝑇𝐴𝐶 cos 30 − 𝑇𝐴𝐵 cos 𝜃 = 0
491 cos 30 − 𝑇𝐴𝐵 cos 𝜃 = 0
𝑇𝐴𝐵 cos 𝜃 = 425.2184 (1)

↑+ ∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 0 𝑇𝐴𝐶 sin 30 +𝑇𝐴𝐵 sin 𝜃 − 𝑇𝐴𝐷 = 0

491 sin 30 +𝑇𝐴𝐵 sin 𝜃 − 392 = 0
𝑇𝐴𝐵 sin 𝜃 = 146.5 (2)

Dividing equation (2) by equation (1), produce

tan 𝜃 = 0.3445, then 𝜃 = 19𝑜

86
Chapter Three Equilibrium of a Particle
Substituting in equation (1) gives 𝑇𝐴𝐶 = 449.719 𝑁
𝑇𝐴𝐶
The mass of block B 𝑚𝐵 = = 45.89 𝐾𝑔
𝑔

Example (3-2)
Determine the required length AB
of the spring, so that the 8 kg block
30
is suspended in the position shown.
The springs free length is 0.4m and
its constant is k=300 N/m.
Solution:

Free body diagram:

The weight of the block is W = 8(9.8) N

The free body diagram of point A is shown

in Figure.

Equations of equilibrium:
Applying the equations of equilibrium along
the x and y axes, we have:
→+ ∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 0 𝐹𝑠 − 𝑇𝐴𝐶 cos 30 = 0 (1)
↑+ ∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 0 𝑇𝐴𝐶 sin 30 −8(9.8) = 0 (2)
By solving two equations (1) and (2) produce,
TAC= 156.8 N and Fs = 135.8 N
Since, Fs =k (L –L0)
Therefore, 135.8 =300(AB – 0.4)
AB = 0.85m

87
Chapter Three Equilibrium of a Particle
Example (3-3)
The bulldozer exerts a
force F=2000 N at A
and is parallel to x-axis.
What are the tensions in
cables AB, AC, and
AD.

Solution:

Free body diagram

The free body diagram of point A is

shown in Figure.

Equations of equilibrium
∑𝐹 = 0
𝐹 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑇𝐴𝐵 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑇𝐴𝐶 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑇𝐴𝐷 = 0 ………………………(I)

Express the tensions in terms of unit vectors.

The coordinates of points A, B, C, and D are:

88
Chapter Three Equilibrium of a Particle
A=(8, 0, 0), B=(0, 3, 8), C=(0, 2,-6), and D=(0,-4, 0).
𝐹 = 2000𝑖
−8𝑖+3𝑗+ 8𝑘 ⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑇𝐴𝐵 = 𝑇𝐴𝐵 ( ⃗)
) = 𝑇𝐴𝐵 (−0.6835 𝑖 + 0.2563 𝑗 + 0.6835 𝑘
√137

−8𝑖+2𝑗− 6𝑘 ⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑇𝐴𝐶 = 𝑇𝐴𝐶 ( ⃗)
) = 𝑇𝐴𝐶 (−0.7845 𝑖 + 0.1961 𝑗 + 0.5883 𝑘
√104
−8𝑖−4𝑗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑇𝐴𝐷 = 𝑇𝐴𝐷 ( ) = 𝑇𝐴𝐷 (−0.8944 𝑖 − 𝑜. 4472 𝑗)
√80

Substituting these forces into equation (I) yields:

⃗)+
2000𝑖 + 𝑇𝐴𝐵 (−0.6835 𝑖 + 0.2563 𝑗 + 0.6835 𝑘
⃗ ) + 𝑇𝐴𝐷 (−0.8944 𝑖 −
𝑇𝐴𝐶 (−0.7845 𝑖 + 0.1961 𝑗 + 0.5883 𝑘
0.4472 𝑗) = 0
⃗ components to zero, we have:
Equating the respective 𝑖⃗ , 𝑗, 𝑘
∑ ⃗⃗⃗
𝐹𝑥 = 0 2000 − 0.684 𝑇𝐴𝐵 − 0.785 𝑇𝐴𝐶 − 0.8944 𝑇𝐴𝐷 = 0(1)
∑ ⃗⃗⃗
𝐹𝑦 = 0 0.256 𝑇𝐴𝐵 + 𝑜. 196 𝑇𝐴𝐶 − 𝑜. 447 𝑇𝐴𝐷 = 0 (2)

∑ ⃗⃗⃗
𝐹𝑧 = 0 0.684 𝑇𝐴𝐵 + 0.588 𝑇𝐴𝐶 = 0 (3)

Solving the above three equations simultaneously, we get:

TAB = 780.31 N
TAC = 906.49 N
TAD = 844.74 N

89
Chapter Three Equilibrium of a Particle
3.4. Problems
(1) The gusset plate is subjected
to the forces of three members.
Determine the tension force in
member C and its angle 𝜃 for
equilibrium. The forces are
concurrent at point O. Take𝐹 =
8 𝑘𝑁.

(2) The weights 𝑊𝐸 = 50 𝑁

and 𝑊𝐹 are suspended by the
cable system shown. Determine
the weight 𝑊𝐹 and the tensions
in the cables AB, BC, and CD.
Take 𝜽 = 𝟏𝟓𝒐 .

(3) If the mass of the bucket

m1= 12 kg. Determine the
tensions developed in each
cables.

90
Chapter Three Equilibrium of a Particle
(4) Determine the
stretch in springs AC and
AB for equilibrium of the
2-kg block. The springs
are shown in the
equilibrium position.

(5) A container of weight

W=1165 N is supported
by three cables as shown.
Determine the tension in
each cable.

(6) Determine the tension

in the cables in order to
support the 100-kg crate
in the equilibrium
position shown.

91
Chapter Three Equilibrium of a Particle
(7) The 20-kg mass is
suspended by cables attached
to three vertical 2-m posts.
Point A is at (0, 1.2, 0) m.
Determine the tensions in
cables AB, AC, and AD.

(8) Three cables are used to

tether a balloon as shown.
Determine the vertical force P
exerted by the balloon at A
knowing that the tension in
cable AB is 259 N.

(9) Determine the tension in

each cord and the stretch of the
spring used to hold the crate of
mass 100 𝑘𝑔 in the equilibrium
position shown. The spring has
a stiffness 𝑘 = 1.5𝑘𝑁/𝑚.

92
Chapter Four Equilibrium of a Rigid Body
4.
Chapter Four
Equilibrium of a Rigid Body

Introduction

In this chapter, we will show that for the equilibrium of a rigid body
with certain dimensions, the points of application of the various forces
are of critical importance.

Figure (4.1)

In chapter two, we saw the external forces acting on a rigid body can
be reduced to a force-couple system at some arbitrary point O, Figure
(4.1). When the force and the couple are both equal to zero, the external
forces form a system equivalent to zero, and the rigid body is said to
be in equilibrium.

93
Chapter Four Equilibrium of a Rigid Body
Mathematically the equilibrium of a body is expressed as:

∑𝐹 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ⃗⃗ = 0
∑𝑀 (4.1)

These requirements are both necessary and sufficient conditions for

equilibrium.

In this chapter, we will follow the arrangement used in previous

chapter, and discuss in first section the equilibrium of rigid bodies in
two dimensions and in second section the equilibrium of rigid bodies
in three dimensions.

4.1. Equilibrium of Rigid Bodies in Two Dimensions

In this section, we discuss the equilibrium of rigid bodies subjected to
coplanar force systems (the force system acting on a rigid body lies in
or may be projected onto a single plane) and all moments have
direction perpendicular to this plane.
4.2. Conditions for the Equilibrium
we developed the two equations which are both necessary and
sufficient for the equilibrium of a rigid body, namely, and When the
body is subjected to a system of forces, which all lie in the x–y plane,
then the forces can be resolved into their x and y components.
Consequently, the conditions for equilibrium in two dimensions are

∑𝐹 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ⃗⃗ = 0
∑𝑀

94
Chapter Four Equilibrium of a Rigid Body
If the body is subjected to a system of forces, which all lies in the single
plane (say, x - y plane), consequently the conditions for equilibrium in
two dimensions are:
∑ 𝐹𝑥 𝑖⃗ + ∑ 𝐹𝑦 𝑗⃗ = 0
⃗ =0
∑ 𝑀𝑜 𝑘
Where ∑ 𝐹𝑥 and ∑ 𝐹𝑦 represent the algebraic sums of the x and y
components of all the forces acting on the body, respectively. and
∑ 𝑀𝑜 represents the algebraic sum of the couple moments and the
moments of all the force components about the z axis, which is
perpendicular to the x-y plane and passes through the arbitrary point
O.
These equations may be expressed in the scalar form:
∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 0,
∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 0.
∑ 𝑀𝑜 = 0.
4.3. Free Body Diagram
No equilibrium problem should be solved without first drawing the
free-body diagram, so as to account for all the forces and couple
moments that act on the body. The free body diagram is a first step in
the solution of the problem before applying the equilibrium conditions,
and is an essential aid for accurate application of the equations of
equilibrium. All of remarks made on free body diagrams in chapter 3
are applicable here.

95
Chapter Four Equilibrium of a Rigid Body
Before presenting a formal procedure as to how to draw a free-body
diagram for a rigid body, we will first consider the various types of
reactions that occur at supports and points of contact between bodies
subjected to coplanar force systems.
4.3.1. Support Reactions
We consider the various types of reactions that occur at supports and
points of contact between bodies subjected to coplanar force systems.
As a general rule:
➢ If a support prevents the translation of a body in a given
direction, then a force is developed on the body in that direction.
➢ If rotation is prevented, a couple moment is exerted on the body.
According to previous rule we can classification the types of supports
into three groups.

Group (A): One unknown

Each of these reactions involves one unknown, namely, the magnitude

of the reaction; this magnitude should be denoted by an appropriate
letter. The line of action of the reaction is known and should be
indicated clearly in the free-body diagram as shown below:
(1) Cables

Figure (4.2): Short cable

96
Chapter Four Equilibrium of a Rigid Body
When a cable is used to support a body, the support body is prevented
from translating only (always a tension away from the body) in the
direction of the cable, shown Figure (4.2).

(2) Roller, ball, Rocker, and smooth surface

Figure (4.4): Ball

Figure (4.3): Roller Figure (4.5): Rocker

Figure (4.6): Smooth surface

When the roller, rocker, ball, or smooth surface is used to support, the
support body is prevented from translating only perpendicular to the
possible direction of motion (in a direction normal to the surface) at
the point of contact.

97
Chapter Four Equilibrium of a Rigid Body
Group (B): Two unknowns
Each of these reactions creates a force of unknown direction and
magnitude. Reactions of this group involve two unknowns and are
usually represented by their x and y components. Supports and
connections causing reactions of this type include smooth pin or
hinges, and rough surfaces, as shown Figure (4.7) and (4.8). They
can prevent translation of the free body in all directions, but they
cannot prevent the body from rotating about the connection.
(1) Smooth pin or Hinge

Figure (4.7)
(2) Rough surfaces

Figure (4.8)
Group (C): Three unknowns
Reactions of this group involve three unknowns, consisting usually of
the two components of the force and the moment of the couple. These

98
Chapter Four Equilibrium of a Rigid Body
reactions are caused by fixed supports, which oppose any motion of
the free body and thus constrain it completely, figure (4.9).

Fixed support

Figure (4.9)
4.4. Procedure of Free Body Diagram
To construct a free body diagram of a rigid body, we proceed as
follows:
1. Decide on the body whose equilibrium is to be analyzed.
2. Isolate this body from its surroundings and draw or sketch its
outlined shape.
3. Indicate on this sketch all the forces and couple moments that
act on the body. Those generally encountered arc due to:
a. Applied forces and couples
b. Weight of the body
c. Reactions occurring at the supports or at points of contact
with other bodies.
4. The forces that are known should be labeled with their proper
magnitudes and directions. Use letters to represent the magnitudes and
directions of unknown forces.

99
Chapter Four Equilibrium of a Rigid Body
5. Sketch the coordinate system to be used.
6. Add pertinent dimensions and angles to define the locations and
orientations of all forces.

Example (4-1)

Draw the free-body diagram

of the uniform beam shown in
Figure. The beam has a mass
of 100 kg.

Solution:
The free-body diagram of the beam is shown in Figure. Since the
support at A is fixed, the wall exerts three reactions on the beam
denoted Rx, Ry, and M. The magnitudes of these
reactions are unknown, and their sense has been assumed. The weight
of the beam W = 100(9.8) = 980 N. acts through the beam's center of
gravity since the beam is uniform.

Ry

Rx

100
Chapter Four Equilibrium of a Rigid Body
Example (4-2)

Draw the free-body

diagram of the hand
punch, which is pinned
at A and bears down on
the smooth surface at B.

Solution:
The free-body diagram of
the hand punch is shown in
figure. The hand punch is
acted upon by the forces and
reactions shown in figure
where:
• The smooth surface at B exerts force of unknown magnitude in
direction normal to the surface.
• The applied force F=8 lb acts on the free body diagram as given.
• Since the support at A is pinned, the pin exerts two reactions Ax,
and Ay. The magnitudes of these reactions are unknown, and
their sense has been assumed

101
Chapter Four Equilibrium of a Rigid Body
Example (4-3)

Determine the
tension in the
rope and the
reactions at B.

Solution:
Free body diagram:

The free body

diagram of point A
is shown in Figure.

Equations of equilibrium:

Applying the equations of equilibrium along the x and y axes:

→+ ∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 0 →→ −𝑇 𝑠𝑖𝑛30 − 600 𝑠𝑖𝑛30 + 𝐵𝑥 = 0 (1)

↑+ ∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 0 →→ 𝑇 𝑐𝑜𝑠30 − 600 𝑐𝑜𝑠30 + 𝐵𝑦 = 0 (2)

The sum of the moments about B is:

↶+ ∑ 𝑀𝐵 = 0 →→ 600 cos30. (9) − T cos30. (14) = 0

T=368 N

Substituting for T into equations (1) and (2) produce: Bx=493N

By=186N

102
Chapter Four Equilibrium of a Rigid Body
Example (4-4)

A fixed crane has a mass of

1000 kg and is used to lift a
2400-kg crate. It is held in
place by a pin at A and a
rocker at B. The center of
gravity of the crane is
located at G. Determine the
components of the reactions at A and B.

Solution:
Free body diagram:

The weight of the block causes

the tension in cable to be:

T= 2400 (9.8) = 23520N

=23.52KN.

The weight of the crane is:

W= 1000 (9.8) = 9800N= 9.8 KN.

The free body diagram is shown in Figure The reaction at pin

A is represented by its components Ax and Ay. The reaction at
the rocker B is perpendicular to the rocker surface; thus, it is
horizontal.
103
Chapter Four Equilibrium of a Rigid Body
Equations of equilibrium:
Applying the equations of equilibrium along the x and y axes, we have:
• The sums of the forces are:
→+ ∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 0 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵 = 0 (1)

↑+ ∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 0 𝐴𝑦 − 9.8 − 23.52 = 0
𝐴𝑦 = 33.32 KN
• The sum of the moments about A is:
↶+ ∑ 𝑀𝐴 = 0 𝐵. (1.5) − 9.8(2) − 23.52(6) = 0
𝐵 = 107.14 KN
Substituting B into equation (1) produces:
𝐴𝑥 = −107.14 KN
Since the result is negative, the sense of 𝐴𝑥 is opposite to that assumed
originally.

104
Chapter Four Equilibrium of a Rigid Body
4.5. Problems (2-D)
(1) Determine the
reactions at the roller A
and pin B.

(2) The operator applies a vertical force 𝑭 = 30 𝑙𝑏 to the pedal so that

the spring is stretched
1.5 in. Determine the
reactions at A and the
force in the short link
at B.

(3) Determine the

reactions at fixed
support A.

(4) The weight W = 2 kN.

Determine the tension in
the cable and the
reactions at A.

105
Chapter Four Equilibrium of a Rigid Body
(5) A gardener uses a 60N
wheelbarrow to transport a 250-
N bag of fertilizer. What force
must she exert on each handle?

(6) Determine the

reactions at the pin
support A.

(7) Spring CD remain in horizontal position at all times due to the

roller at D. if the spring is
unstreched when 𝜃 = 0 and
the bracket achieves its
equilibrium position
when 𝜃 = 30, Determine the
stiffness k of the spring and
reaction at pin A.

106
Chapter Four Equilibrium of a Rigid Body
(8) Beam AD carries the two 40-
lb loads shown. The beam is
held by a fixed support at D and
by the cable BE that is attached
to the counterweight W.
Determine the reaction at D
when W = 100 lb.

(9) The rod supports a

weight of 200 𝑙𝑏 and is
pinned at its end A, if it is
also subjected to a couple
moment of 100 𝑙𝑏 𝑓𝑡.
Determine the angle 𝜃 for
equilibrium. The spring
has an unstretched length of 2 𝑓𝑡 and a stiffness of 𝑘 = 50 𝑙𝑏/𝑓𝑡.

(10) Determine the magnitude

and direction of the minimum
force P needed to pull the 50-
kg roller over the smooth step.

107
Chapter Four Equilibrium of a Rigid Body
4.6. Equilibrium of Rigid Bodies in Three Dimensions
In this section, we extend our principles and methods developed for
two- dimensional equilibrium to the case of three-dimensional
equilibrium. Previously, we saw the conditions for equilibrium of a
rigid body subjected to force system require that both the resultant
force and resultant couple moment acting on the body be equal zero.
The necessary conditions for equilibrium in three dimensions may be
written in vector form as:

∑ ⃗⃗⃗
𝐹 =0 ⟾ ⃗⃗⃗ = 0
∑ 𝐹𝑥 𝑖⃗ + ∑ 𝐹𝑦 𝑗⃗ + ∑ 𝐹𝑧 𝑘 (I)

∑ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑀𝑜 = 0 ⟾ ∑ 𝑀𝑥 𝑖⃗ + ∑ 𝑀𝑦 𝑗⃗ + ∑ 𝑀𝑧 ⃗⃗⃗
𝑘 = 0 (II)

Where, ∑ 𝐹𝑥 , ∑ 𝐹𝑦 , and ∑ 𝐹𝑧 represent the algebraic sums of the x, y,

and z components of all the forces acting on the body, respectively.
∑ 𝑀𝑥 , ∑ 𝑀𝑦 , and ∑ 𝑀𝑧 represents the algebraic sum of the couple
moments and the moments of all the force components about the x, y,
and z axis passes through the arbitrary point O.

These equations may be expressed in the scalar form:

∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 0, ∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 0, ∑ 𝐹𝑧 = 0.
And,
∑ 𝑀𝑥 = 0, ∑ 𝑀𝑦 = 0, ∑ 𝑀𝑧 = 0.
These equations can be solved for no more than six unknowns, which
generally will represent reactions at supports or connections.

108
Chapter Four Equilibrium of a Rigid Body
4.7. Free Body Diagram
The first step in solving three-dimensional equilibrium problems, as in
the case of two dimensions, is to draw a free-body diagram. Essentially
it requires first isolating the body by drawing its outlined shape. This
is followed by a careful labeling of all the forces and couple moments
with reference to an established x, y, z coordinate system. It is
suggested to show the unknown components of reaction as acting on
the free body diagram in the positive sense. In this way if any negative
values are obtained. They will indicate that the components act in the
negative coordinate directions. Finally, add pertinent dimensions and
angles to define the locations and orientations of all forces.
Before we can do this, however it is first necessary to discuss the types
of reactions that can occur at the supports.
4.7.1. Support Reactions
Some common types of supports and their reactions are shown here in
three dimensions. Its types of support reactions in three-dimensional
can be divided into three groups as follows:

Group (A): One unknown

Each of these reactions involves one unknown, namely, the magnitude

of the reaction. The support is prevented from translating only
perpendicular to the possible direction of motion (in a direction
normal to the surface) at the point of contact. Supports causing
reactions of this type include smooth surface and ball.

109
Chapter Four Equilibrium of a Rigid Body
(1) Smooth surface

Figure (4.10): Smooth surface

(2) Ball or Roller

Figure (4.11): Ball

Group (B): Three unknowns

Supports of this group prevent translation in three directions; these
supports involve three unknown force components. Supports and
connections causing reactions of this type include Rough surface, and
Ball-and-socket, as shown Figure (4.12) and (4.13). They can prevent
translation of the free body in all directions, but they cannot prevent
the body from rotating about the connection.

110
Chapter Four Equilibrium of a Rigid Body
(1) Rough surfaces

Figure (4.12)
(2) Ball –and- Socket

Figure (4.13)
Group (C): Six unknowns
Supports in this group prevents any motion (rotation as well as
translation), consists of three unknown forces and three unknown
couples. These reactions are caused by fixed supports, which oppose
any motion of the free body and thus constrain it completely, Figure
(4.14).
Fixed support

Figure (4.14)
111
Chapter Four Equilibrium of a Rigid Body
Example (4-5)

Draw the free-body diagram

of the 5 x 8 ft plate weighing
270 lb and is supported by a
ball and socket joint at A and
by two cables.

Solution:

The free-body diagram of the plate and its weighting and support
reactions are shown in figure, where:
• Cables support tension forces directed along each cable.
• The weight of plate W=270 lb acts vertically downward at center
of gravity of the plate.
• The ball-and-socket
support produces the
three rectangular
components of which
are unknown, and their
sense has been
assumed.

112
Chapter Four Equilibrium of a Rigid Body
Example (4-6)

Determine the reaction

at the ball-and-socket
joint A and the tension
in each of the wires.
When the load has a
weight of 200 N.

Solution:

Free body diagram

The free body diagram of

rigid body ABCE is
shown in Figure

Express the tensions

and forces in Cartesian
vectors form.
The coordinates of points A, B, G, C, D, F, and E are:
A=(0, 0, 0), B=(4, 0, 0), G=(4, 2, 0),
C=(4, 4, 0), D=(4, 0, 3), F=(2, 4, 3), and E=(2,4, 0).
Thus,

⃗
𝐴 = 𝐴𝑥 𝑖 + 𝐴𝑦 𝑗 + 𝐴𝑧 𝑘

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗
TBD = TBD k

113
Chapter Four Equilibrium of a Rigid Body
⃗
⃗⃗⃗ = −200k
W
−4𝑗+ 3𝑘 ⃗ −4 3
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑇𝐶𝐷 = 𝑇𝐶𝐷 ( ) = 𝑇𝐶𝐷 ( 𝑗 + ⃗)
𝑘
5 5 5

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗
TEF = TEF k

Applying the force equation of equilibrium

∑𝐹 = 0 𝐴 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑇𝐵𝐷 + 𝑊⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑇𝐶𝐷 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑇𝐸𝐹 = 0

(𝐴𝑥 𝑖 + 𝐴𝑦 𝑗 + 𝐴𝑧 𝑘 ⃗ ) + 𝑇𝐶𝐷 (−4 𝑗 +

⃗ ) + ( TBD ⃗k) +(−200k 3
⃗)+
𝑘
5 5
(TEF ⃗k) = 0

⃗ components to zero, we have:

Equating the respective 𝑖⃗ , 𝑗, 𝑘
∑ ⃗⃗⃗
𝐹𝑥 = 0 𝐴𝑥 = 0 (1)
4
∑ ⃗⃗⃗
𝐹𝑦 = 0 𝐴𝑦 − 𝑇𝐶𝐷 = 0 (2)
5
3
∑ ⃗⃗⃗
𝐹𝑧 = 0 𝐴𝑧 + TBD − 200 + 𝑇𝐶𝐷 + TEF = 0 (3)
5

Summing moments about point A:

∑ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
MA = 0
rAB x ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ rAC x ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
TBD + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ rAE x⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
TCD + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ rAG x ⃗W
TEF + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ = 0

The position vectors ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

rAB , ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
rAC , ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
rAE , and⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
rAG must be determined first

rAB = 4 i
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ rAE = 2 i + 4𝑗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
rAC = 4 i + 4𝑗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ r⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
AG = 4 i + 2𝑗

Thus,

114
Chapter Four Equilibrium of a Rigid Body
−4 3
{ 4 i x TBD ⃗k } + {(4 i + 4𝑗)x(𝑇𝐶𝐷 ( 𝑗 + ⃗ ) )} +
𝑘
5 5
{(2 i4𝑗)x(TEF ⃗k)} + {(4 i + 2𝑗)x(−200k
⃗ )} = 0

−16 12 12
{−4 TBD j} + {𝑇𝐶𝐷 ( ⃗ −
𝑘 𝑗+ i )}+{ -2 TEF j + 4 TEF i} +
5 5 5
{800 𝑗 − 400i } = 0

⃗ components to zero, we have:

Equating the respective 𝑖⃗ , 𝑗, 𝑘
12
∑ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑀𝑥 = 0 𝑇𝐶𝐷 + 4 TEF − 400 = 0 (4)
5
12
∑ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑀𝑦 = 0 −4 TBD −𝑇𝐶𝐷 − 2 TEF + 800 = 0 (5)
5
−16
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑧 = 0
∑𝑀 𝑇𝐶𝐷 =0 (6)
5

Solving equations (1) through (6),

𝑇𝐶𝐷 = 0, 𝐴𝑥 = 0,
𝑇𝐸𝐹 = 100𝑁,
𝐴𝑦 = 0,
𝑇𝐵𝐷 = 150𝑁,
𝐴𝑧 = −50𝑁.
The negative signs of indicates that A z acts in the opposite
direction that on the free body diagram.

115
Chapter Four Equilibrium of a Rigid Body
Example (4-7)

The pipe assembly

supports the vertical
loads shown. Determine
the components of
reaction at the ball and
socket joint A, and the
tension in the cables BC
and BD.

Solution:

Free body diagram

The free body diagram of

rigid body AB is shown
right figure.

Expressing each of the forces indicated on the rigid body in

Cartesian vectors form.
The coordinates of points A, B, E, and H are:
A=(0, 0, 0), B=(0, 1.5, 1), C=(3, 0, 2), D=(-3, 0, 2), E=(0, 4.5, 2), and
H=(0,6, 2).
Thus,

116
Chapter Four Equilibrium of a Rigid Body

⃗
𝐴 = 𝐴𝑥 𝑖 + 𝐴𝑦 𝑗 + 𝐴𝑧 𝑘

⃗
3𝑖 − 1.5𝑗 + 1𝑘 3 1.5 1
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
TBC = 𝑇𝐵𝐶 ( ) = 𝑇𝐵𝐶 ( 𝑖− 𝑗+ ⃗)
𝑘
3.5 3.5 3.5 3.5

⃗
−3𝑖 − 1.5𝑗 + 1𝑘 −3 1.5 1
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
TBD = 𝑇𝐵𝐷 ( ) = 𝑇𝐵𝐷 ( 𝑖− 𝑗+ ⃗)
𝑘
3.5 3.5 3.5 3.5

⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗
F1 = −4k

⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗
F1 = −3k

Applying the force equation of equilibrium

∑𝐹 = 0 𝐴 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑇𝐵𝐶 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑇𝐵𝐷 + ⃗⃗⃗
𝐹1 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐹2 = 0

⃗ ) + 𝑇𝐵𝐶 ( 3 𝑖 − 1.5 𝑗 +
(𝐴𝑥 𝑖 + 𝐴𝑦 𝑗 + 𝐴𝑧 𝑘
1
⃗ ) + 𝑇𝐵𝐷 (−3 𝑖 −
𝑘
3.5 3.5 3.5 3.5
1.5 1
𝑗+ ⃗ ) + (−4k
𝑘 ⃗ ) +(−3k
⃗)=0
3.5 3.5

⃗ components to zero, we have:

Equating the respective 𝑖⃗ , 𝑗, 𝑘
3 3
∑ ⃗⃗⃗
𝐹𝑥 = 0 𝐴𝑥 + 𝑇 − 𝑇 =0 (1)
3.5 𝐵𝐶 3.5 𝐵𝐷
1.5 1.5
∑ ⃗⃗⃗
𝐹𝑦 = 0 𝐴𝑦 − 𝑇 − 𝑇 =0 (2)
3.5 𝐵𝐶 3.5 𝐵𝐷
1 1
∑ ⃗⃗⃗
𝐹𝑧 = 0 𝐴𝑧 + 𝑇 + 𝑇 −7=0 (3)
3.5 𝐵𝐶 3.5 𝐵𝐷

Summing moments about point A:

∑ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
MA = 0 rAB x ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ rAB x ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
TBC + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ rAH x⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
TBD + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ rAE x ⃗⃗⃗⃗
F1 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ F2 = 0

The position vectors ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

rAB , ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
rAH , and ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
rAE must be determined first

117
Chapter Four Equilibrium of a Rigid Body

rAB = 1.5 j + ⃗k
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

⃗
rAH = 6 j + 2k
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

rAE = 4.5 i + 2𝑗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

Thus,

i j ⃗k i j ⃗k
| 0 1.5 1 |+| 0 1.5 1 |
3 −1.5 1 −3 −1.5 1
𝑇 𝑇 𝑇𝐵𝐶 𝑇 𝑇 𝑇
3.5 𝐵𝐶 3.5 𝐵𝐶 3.5 3.5 𝐵𝐷 3.5 𝐵𝐷 3.5 𝐵𝐷

i j ⃗k i j ⃗k
+ |0 6 2 | + |0 4.5 2 | = 0
0 0 −4 0 0 −3
3 3 4.5 3 3 4.5
{ 𝑇𝐵𝐶 i + 𝑇𝐵𝐶 j − 𝑇𝐵𝐶 ⃗k} + { 𝑇𝐵𝐷 i − 𝑇𝐵𝐷 j + 𝑇 ⃗k}
3.5 3.5 3.5 3.5 3.5 3.5 𝐵𝐷
+ {−24i} + {−13.5i} = 0

⃗ components to zero, we have:

Equating the respective 𝑖⃗ , 𝑗, 𝑘
3 3
∑ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑀𝑥 = 0 𝑇𝐵𝐶 + 𝑇 − 37.5 = 0 (4)
3.5 3.5 𝐵𝐷
3 3
∑ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑀𝑦 = 0 𝑇𝐵𝐶 − 𝑇 =0 (5)
3.5 3.5 𝐵𝐷
4.5 4.5
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑧 = 0
∑𝑀 − 𝑇𝐵𝐶 + 𝑇 =0 (6)
3.5 3.5 𝐵𝐷

Solving equations (1) through (6),

𝑇𝐵𝐶 = 𝑇𝐵𝐷 = 21.87𝐾𝑁, 𝐴𝑦 = 18.74𝐾𝑁,
𝐴𝑥 = 0,
𝐴𝑧 = −5.5𝐾𝑁.

118
Chapter Four Equilibrium of a Rigid Body
4.8. Problems

(1) The vertical mass supports

the 4-KN force and is
constrained by the two fixed
cables BC and BD and by a ball-
and-socket connection at A.
Calculate the tension T1 in BD.

(2) Determine the tension in cables

BD and CD and the reaction at the
ball-and-socket joint at A.

(3) The young tree, originally bent,

has been brought into the
vertical position by adjusting
the three guy-wire tension to
AB=0, AC=40 N, and AD=60
N. Determine the force and
moment reactions at the trunk
base point O. neglect the weight
of the tree.

119
Chapter Four Equilibrium of a Rigid Body
(4) A 10-ft boom is acted upon
by the 840-lb force shown.
Determine the tension in each
cable and the reaction at the ball-
and-socket joint at A.

(5) Bar AC rests against a

smooth surface at end C and is
supported at end A with a ball-
and-socket joint. The cable at B
is attached midway between the
ends of the bar. Determine the
reactions at supports A and C
and the tension in the cable at B.

(6) The tension in cable AB is 800

lb. Determine the reactions at the
fixed support C.

120
Chapter Four Equilibrium of a Rigid Body
(7) A derrick carries a 12-Mg
crate as shown. Determine the
tension in the cables BF and BG
and the reaction from the support
A.

(8) The suspended load exerts

a force FD 600 lb at A, and the
weight of the bar OA is
negligible. Determine the
tensions in the cables and the
reactions at the ball and socket
support O.

(9) The 80-lb bar is supported

by a ball and socket support at
A, the smooth wall it leans
against, and the cable BC. The
weight of the bar acts at its
midpoint. Determine the
tension in cable BC and the
reactions at A.

121
Chapter Four Equilibrium of a Rigid Body
(10) The force F acting on the boom 𝐴𝐵𝐶 at 𝐶 points in the direction
of the unit vector 0.512 𝑖⃗ − 0.384 𝑗⃗ + 0.768 ⃗⃗⃗
𝑘 . The boom is
supported by a ball and socket
at 𝐴, and the cables 𝐵𝐷 and 𝐵𝐸.
The collar at 𝐵 is fixed to the
boom, and the tension in cable 𝐵𝐸
is 18.4 𝑘𝑁. Determine the
magnitude of the force 𝐹, and the
tension in the cable 𝐵𝐷 and the
reactions at 𝐴.

(11) The 9-m steel boom has a mass of 600 kg with center of mass at
mid length. It is supported by a ball-and socket joint at A and the two
cables under tensions T1 and
T2. The cable which support
the 2000-kg load leads
through a sheave (pulley) at
B and is secured to the
vertical x-y plane at F.
(Note: Write a moment
equation which eliminates
all unknowns except T.

122
Chapter Five Structural Analysis
5.
Chapter Five
Structural Analysis
Introduction

The problems considered in the preceding chapters concerned the

equilibrium of a single rigid body, and all forces involved were
external to the rigid body. We now consider problems dealing with the
equilibrium of structures made of several connected parts. These
problems call for the determination not only of the external forces
acting on the structure but also of the forces which hold together the
various parts of the structure. From the point of view of the structure
as a whole, these forces are internal forces. Consider, for example, the
crane shown in Fig. 5.1a, which carries a load W. The crane consists
of three beams AD, CF, and BE connected by frictionless pins; it is
supported by a pin at A and by a cable DG. The free-body diagram of
the crane has been drawn in Fig. 5.1b. The external forces, which are
shown in the diagram, include the weight W, the two components Ax
and Ay of the reaction at A, and the force T exerted by the cable at D.
The internal forces holding the various parts of the crane together do
not appear in the diagram. If, however, the crane is dismembered and
if a free-body diagram is drawn for each of its component parts, the
forces holding the three beams together will also be represented, since

123
Chapter Five Structural Analysis
these forces are external forces from the point of view of each
component part (Fig. 5.1c).

(a) (b)

Figure (5.1)

(c)
It will be noted that the force exerted at B by member BE on member
AD has been represented as equal and opposite to the force exerted at
the same point by member AD on member BE; the force exerted at E
by BE on CF is shown equal and opposite to the force exerted by CF
on BE; and the components of the force exerted at C by CF on AD are
shown equal and opposite to the components of the force exerted by
AD on CF. This is in conformity with Newton’s third aw, which states
that the forces of action and reaction between bodies in contact have

124
Chapter Five Structural Analysis
the same magnitude, same line of action, and opposite sense. As
pointed out, this law, which is based on experimental evidence, is one
of the six fundamental principles of elementary mechanics, and its
application is essential to the solution of problems involving connected
bodies.

5.1. Types of engineering structures

In this chapter, three broad categories of engineering structures will be
considered:

➢ Trusses, which are designed to support loads and are usually

stationary, fully constrained structures. Trusses consist exclusively
of straight members connected at joints located at the ends of each
member. Members of a truss, therefore, are twoforce members, i.e.,
members acted upon by two equal and opposite forces directed
along the member.
➢ Frames, which are also designed to support loads and are also
usually stationary, fully constrained structures. However, like the
crane of Fig. 5.1, frames always contain at least one multiforce
member, i.e., a member acted upon by three or more forces which,
in general, are not directed along the member.
➢ Machines, which are designed to transmit and modify forces and
are structures containing moving parts. Machines, like frames,
always contain at least one multi force member.

125
Chapter Five Structural Analysis
5.2. Analysis of Trusses
The truss is one of the major types of engineering structures. It provides
both a practical and an economical solution to many engineering
situations, especially in the design of bridges and buildings. A typical
truss is shown in Fig. 5.2a. A truss consists of straight members
connected at joints. Truss members are connected at their extremities
only; thus no member is continuous through a joint. In Fig. 5.2a, for
example, there is no member AB; there are instead two distinct
members AD and DB. Most actual structures are made of several
trusses joined together to form a space framework. Each truss is
designed to carry those loads which act in its plane and thus may be
treated as a two-dimensional structure.

(a) (b)
Figure 5.2

126
Chapter Five Structural Analysis
In general, the members of a truss are slender and can support little
lateral load; all loads, therefore, must be applied to the various joints,
and not to the members themselves. When a concentrated load is to be
applied between two joints, or when a distributed load is to be
supported by the truss, as in the case of a bridge truss, a floor system
must be provided which, through the use of stringers and floor beams,
transmits the load to the joints (Fig. 5.3).

Figure 5.3

The weights of the members of the truss are also assumed to be applied
to the joints, half of the weight of each member being applied to each
of the two joints the member connects. Although the members are
actually joined together by means of welded, bolted, or riveted
connections, it is customary to assume that the members are pinned
together; therefore, the forces acting at each end of a member reduce
to a single force and no couple. Thus, the only forces assumed to be
applied to a truss member are a single force at each end of the member.
Each member can then be treated as a two-force member, and the entire
truss can be considered as a group of pins and two-force members (Fig.
5.2b).

127
Chapter Five Structural Analysis
An individual member can be acted upon as shown in either of the two
sketches of Fig. 5.4. In Fig. 5.4a, the forces tend to pull the member
apart, and the member is in tension; in Fig.
5.4b, the forces tend to compress the
member, and the member is in
compression. A number of typical trusses
are shown in Fig. 5.5.
(a) (b)
Figure (5.4)

Figure (5.5)

128
Chapter Five Structural Analysis
5.2.1. Analysis of Trusses by the Method of Joints
A truss can be considered as a group of pins and two-force members.
The truss of Fig. 5.2, whose free-body diagram is shown in Fig. 5.6a,
can thus be dismembered, and a free-body diagram can be drawn for
each pin and each member (Fig. 5.6b). Each member is acted upon by
two forces, one at each end; these forces have the same magnitude,
same ine of action, and opposite sense. urthermore, Newton’s third
law indicates that the forces of action and reaction between a member
and a pin are equal and opposite. Therefore, the forces exerted by a
member on the two pins it connects must be directed along that
member and be equal and opposite. The common magnitude of the
forces exerted by a member on the two pins it connects is commonly
referred to as the force in the member considered, even though this
quantity is actually a scalar. Since the lines of action of all the internal
forces in a truss are known, the analysis of a truss reduces to computing
the forces in its various members and to determining whether each of
its members is in tension or in compression.

(a) (b)
Figure (5.6)

129
Chapter Five Structural Analysis
Since the entire truss is in equilibrium, each pin must be in equilibrium.
The fact that a pin is in equilibrium can be expressed by drawing its
free-body diagram and writing two equilibrium equations. If the truss
contains n pins, there will, therefore, be 2n equations available, which
can be solved for 2n unknowns. In the case of a simple truss, we have
m = 2n - 3, that is, 2n =m +3, and the number of unknowns which can
be determined from the free-body diagrams of the pins is thus m + 3.
This means that the forces in all the members, the two components of
the reaction RA, and the reaction RB can be found by considering the
free-body diagrams of the pins.

The fact that the entire truss is a rigid body in equilibrium can be used
to write three more equations involving the forces shown in the free-
body diagram of Fig. 5.6a. Since they do not contain any new
information, these equations are not independent of the equations
associated with the free-body diagrams of the pins. Nevertheless, they
can be used to determine the components of the reactions at the
supports. The arrangement of pins and members in a simple truss is
such that it will then always be possible to find a joint involving only
two unknown forces. These forces can be determined by equilibrium
conditions and their values transferred to the adjacent joints and treated
as known quantities at these joints. This procedure can be repeated
until all unknown forces have been determined. As an example, the
truss of Fig. 5.6 will be analyzed by considering the equilibrium of
each pin successively, starting with a joint at which only two forces are
130
Chapter Five Structural Analysis
unknown. In the truss considered, all pins are subjected to at least three
unknown forces.

Therefore, the reactions at the supports must first be determined by

considering the entire truss as a free body and using the equations of
equilibrium of a rigid body. We find in this way that RA is vertical and
determine the magnitudes of RA and RB. The number of unknown
forces at joint A is thus reduced to two, and these forces can be
determined by considering the equilibrium of pin A.
The reaction RA and the forces FAC and FAD exerted on pin A by
members AC and AD, respectively, must form a force triangle. First we
draw RA (Fig. 5.7); noting that FAC and FAD are directed along AC and
AD, respectively, we
complete the triangle and
determine the magnitude
and sense of FAC and FAD.

The magnitudes FAC and

FAD represent the forces in
members AC and AD. Since
FAC is directed down and to
the left, that is, toward joint
A, member AC pushes on
pin A and is in compression.
Since FAD is directed away Figure 5.7
131
Chapter Five Structural Analysis
from joint A, member AD pulls on pin A and is in tension. Such a
diagram, known as Maxwell’s diagram, greatly facilitates the
graphical analysis of truss problems.

Example (5-1)

Determined the force in each member

of the truss shown in Figure and
indicate whether the members are in
tension or compression.

Solution:

The first step will be to compute the

external forces at A and C from the free-
body diagram of the truss as a whole.
The equations of equilibrium give:

∑ 𝑀𝐴 = 0
(500 × 2) − (𝐶𝑦 × 2) = 0
𝐶𝑦 = 500𝑁
→ + ∑ 𝑓𝑥 = 0 ⟹ 500 − 𝐴𝑥 = 0 ∴ 𝐴𝑥 = 500 𝑁
↑ + ∑ 𝑓𝑦 = 0 ⟹ 𝐶𝑦 + 𝐴𝑦 = 0 ∴ 𝐴𝑦 = −𝐶𝑦 = −500 𝑁 ↓

Next we draw free-body diagrams showing the forces acting on each

of the connecting pins.

132
Chapter Five Structural Analysis
• Joint (A):

→ + ∑ 𝑓𝑥 = 0 ⟹ ∴ 𝐹𝐴𝐶 = 500 𝑁 (T)

↑ + ∑ 𝑓𝑦 = 0 ⟹ ∴ 𝐹𝐴𝐵 = 500 𝑁 (T)

• Joint (C):

→ + ∑ 𝑓𝑥 = 0 ⟹ 𝐹𝐶𝐵 𝑐𝑜𝑠45 − 500 = 0

500
∴ 𝐹𝐶𝐵 = = 707 𝑁 (C)
𝑐𝑜𝑠45

Example (5-2)

Determined the force in each

member of the truss shown in
Figure and indicate whether the
members are in tension or
compression.

Solution:

The first step will be to compute the

external forces at A and C from the
free-body diagram of the truss as a
whole. The equations of equilibrium
give:

133
Chapter Five Structural Analysis
∑ 𝑀𝐶 = 0

(400 × 3) + (600 × 4) − (𝐴𝑦 × 6) = 0 ∴ 𝐴𝑦 = 600 𝑁

→ + ∑ 𝑓𝑥 = 0 ⟹ 600 − 𝐶𝑥 = 0 ∴ 𝐶𝑥 = 600 𝑁

↑ + ∑ 𝑓𝑦 = 0 ⟹ 𝐴𝑦 − 𝐶𝑦 − 400 = 0 ∴ 𝐶𝑦 = 200 𝑁

Next we draw free-body diagrams showing the forces acting on each

of the connecting pins.

• Joint (A):

4
↑ + ∑ 𝑓𝑦 = 0 ⟹ 600 − 𝐹𝐴𝐵 = 0
5

∴ 𝐹𝐴𝐵 = 750 𝑁 (C)

3
→ + ∑ 𝑓𝑥 = 0 ⟹ 𝐹𝐴𝐷 − 𝐹𝐴𝐵 = 0
5

∴ 𝐹𝐴𝐷 = 450 𝑁 (T)

• Joint (D):

→ + ∑ 𝑓𝑥 = 0
3
𝐹 + 600 − 450 = 0
5 𝐷𝐵

∴ 𝐹𝐷𝐵 = −250 𝑁 (T)

134
Chapter Five Structural Analysis
↑ + ∑ 𝑓𝑦 = 0

4
− 𝐹𝐷𝐵 − 𝐹𝐷𝐶 = 0 ⟹ ∴ 𝐹𝐷𝐶 = 200 𝑁 (C)
5

• Joint (C):

→ + ∑ 𝑓𝑥 = 0 ⟹⟹ 𝐹𝐶𝐵 − 600 = 0

∴ 𝐹𝐶𝐵 = 600 𝑁 (C)

5.2.2. Analysis of Trusses by the Method of Sections

The method of joints is most effective when the forces in all the
members of a truss are to be determined. If, however, the force in only
one member or the forces in a very few members are desired, another
method, the method of sections, is more efficient.

Assume, for example, that we want to determine the force in member

BD of the truss shown in Fig. 5.8a. To do this, we must determine the
force with which member BD acts on either joint B or joint D. If we
were to use the method of joints, we would choose either joint B or
joint D as a free body. However, we can also choose as a free body a
larger portion of the truss, composed of several joints and members,
provided that the desired force is one of the external forces acting on
that portion. If, in addition, the portion of the truss is chosen so that
there is a total of only three unknown forces acting upon it, the desired
135
Chapter Five Structural Analysis
force can be obtained by solving the equations of equilibrium for this
portion of the truss. In practice, the portion of the truss to be utilized is
obtained by passing a section through three members of the truss, one
of which is the desired member, i.e., by drawing a line which divides
the truss into two completely separate parts but does not intersect more
than three members.

Either of the two portions of the truss obtained after the intersected
members have been removed can then be used as a free body.

(a) (b)
Figure (5.8)

In Fig. 5.8a, the section nn has been passed through members BD, BE,
and CE, and the portion ABC of the truss is chosen as the free body
(Fig. 5.8b). The forces acting on the free body are the loads P1 and P2
at points A and B and the three unknown forces FBD, FBE, and FCE. Since
it is not known whether the members removed were in tension or
compression, the three forces have been arbitrarily drawn away from
the free body as if the members were in tension. The fact that the rigid
136
Chapter Five Structural Analysis
body ABC is in equilibrium can be expressed by writing three equations
which can be solved for the three unknown forces. If only the force FBD
is desired, we need write only one equation, provided that the equation
does not contain the other unknowns. Thus the equation ∑ 𝑀𝐸 = 0
yields the value of the magnitude FBD of the force FBD (Fig. 5.8b). A
positive sign in the answer will indicate that our original assumption
regarding the sense of FBD was correct and that member BD is in
tension; a negative sign will indicate that our assumption was incorrect
and that BD is in compression.

Example (5-3)

Determine the force in

members FH, GH, and GI
of the roof truss shown.

Solution:

Free Body: Entire Truss.

From the free-body diagram of
the entire truss, we find the
reactions at A and L are : Ay =
12.50 kN and Ly 7.50 kN, check
results by equilibrium
equations.

137
Chapter Five Structural Analysis
𝐹𝐺 8
→ tan 𝛼 = = = 0.533 ⟹⟹ 𝛼 = 28𝑜
𝐺𝐿 15
Force in Member GI.

Section nn is passed
through the truss as
shown.Using the
portion HLI of the truss
as a free body, the
value of FGI is obtained by writing:

∑ 𝑀𝐻 = 0 , (7.5 × 10) − (1 × 5) − (𝐹𝐺𝐼 × 5.33) = 0

𝐹𝐺𝐼 = + 113.13 𝑘𝑁 , 𝐹𝐺𝐼 = 113.13 𝑘𝑁 (𝑇)

Force in Member FH.

The value of FFH is obtained from the equation ∑ 𝑀𝐺 = 0. We move

FFH along its line of action
until it acts at point F,
where it is resolved into its
x and y components. The
moment of FFH with
respect to point G is now
equal to (FFH cosa)(8 m).

∑ 𝑀𝐺 = 0

138
Chapter Five Structural Analysis
(7.5 × 15) − (1 × 10) − (1 × 5) + (𝐹𝐹𝐻 × 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑎 × 8) = 0

𝐹𝐹𝐻 = −13.81𝑘𝑁 , 𝐹𝐹𝐻 = 13.81𝑘𝑁 (𝐶)

Force in Member GH.

We first note that

𝐺𝐼 5
→ 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛽 = = = 0.934 ⟹⟹ 𝛽 = 43.15𝑜
𝐻𝐼 2
(8)
3
The value of FGH is then
determined by resolving
the force FGH into x and
y components at point G
and solving the equation.

∑ 𝑀𝐿 = 0

(1 × 10) + (1 × 5) − (1 × 5) + (𝐹𝐹𝐺 × 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽 × 15) = 0

𝐹𝐹𝐺 = −1.371𝑘𝑁 , 𝐹𝐹𝐺 = 1.371𝑘𝑁 (𝐶)

139
Chapter Five Structural Analysis
5.3. Problems (Trusses)

(1) Determine the force in each

member of the truss. Note the
presence of any zero-force
members.

(2) Determine the force in each

member of the truss shown below.

(3) Determine the force in each

member of the truss, and state if the
members are in tension or
compression.

(4) Determine the force in each

member of the truss, and state if
the members are in tension or
compression. Set 𝑃 = 4 𝑘𝑁

140
Chapter Five Structural Analysis
(5) Determine the force in each member of
the truss, and state if the members are in
tension or compression.

(6) Determine the force in

each member of the
Gambrel roof truss shown.
State whether each
member is in tension or
compression.

(7) Determine the force in

each member of the Warren
bridge truss shown. State
whether each member is in
tension or compression.

(8) Determine the force in

members CD and DF of the
truss shown.

141
Chapter Five Structural Analysis
(9) A Warren bridge
truss is loaded as shown.
Determine the force in
members CE, DE, and
DF.

(10) Determine the

force in members
AD, CD, and CE of
the truss shown.

(11) Determine the force in members EG and EF of the truss shown

when P =20 kips.

142
Chapter Five Structural Analysis
5.4. Analysis of Frames
an example of analysis of a frame is the crane which carries a given
load W (Fig. 5.9a). The free-body diagram of the entire frame is shown
in Fig. 5.9. This diagram can be used to determine the external forces
acting on the frame. Summing moments about A, we first determine
the force T exerted by the cable; summing x and y components, we
then determine the components Ax and Ay of the reaction at the pin A.

In order to determine the internal forces holding the various parts of a

frame together, we must dismember the frame and draw a free-body
diagram for each of its component parts (Fig. 5.9c).

First, the two-force members should be considered. In this

frame,member BE is the only two-force member. The forces acting at
each end of this member must have the same magnitude, same line of
action, and opposite sense. They are therefore directed along BE and
will be denoted, respectively, by FBE and 2FBE. Their sense will be
arbitrarily assumed as shown in Fig. 5.9c; later the sign obtained for
the common magnitude FBE of the two forces will confirm or deny this
assumption.

143
Chapter Five Structural Analysis

(a) (b)

(c)
Figure (5.9)
5.20cmembers, i.e., the members which are
Next, we consider the multiforce
acted upon by three or more forces. According to Newton’s third aw,
the force exerted at B by member BE on member AD must be equal
and opposite to the force FBE exerted by AD on BE. Similarly, the force
exerted at E by member BE on member CF must be equal and opposite
to the force -FBE exerted by CF on BE.

144
Chapter Five Structural Analysis
Thus the forces that the two-force member BE exerts on AD and CF
are, respectively, equal to -FBE and FBE; they have the same magnitude
FBE and opposite sense, and should be directed as shown in Fig.5.9c.
At C two multiforce members are connected. Since neither the
direction nor the magnitude of the forces acting at C is known, these
forces will be represented by their x and y components. The
components Cx and Cy of the force acting on member AD will be
arbitrarily directed to the right and upward. Since, according to
Newton’s third aw, the forces exerted by member CF on AD and by
member AD on CF are equal and opposite, the components of the force
acting on member CF must be directed to the left and downward; they
will be denoted, respectively, by -Cx and -Cy. Whether the force Cx is
actually directed to the right and the force -Cx is actually directed to
the left will be determined later from the sign of their common
magnitude Cx, a plus sign indicating that the assumption made was
correct, and a minus sign that it was wrong. The free-body diagrams of
the multiforce members are completed by showing the external forces
acting at A, D, and F. The internal forces can now be determined by
considering the free-body diagram of either of the two multiforce
members. Choosing the free-body diagram of CF, for example, we
write the equations

∑ 𝑀𝑐 = 0, ∑ 𝑀𝐸 = 0, and ∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 0, which yield the values of the

magnitudes FBE, Cy, and Cx, respectively. These values can be checked
by verifying that member AD is also in equilibrium. It should be noted
145
Chapter Five Structural Analysis
that the pins in Fig. 5.9 were assumed to form an integral part of one
of the two members they connected and so it was not necessary to show
their free-body diagram. This assumption can always be used to
simplify the analysis of frames and machines. When a pin connects
three or more members, however, or when a pin connects a support and
two or more members, or when a load is applied to a pin, a clear
decision must be made in choosing the member to which the pin will
be assumed to belong. (If multiforce members are involved, the pin
should be attached to one of these members.) The various forces
exerted on the pin should then be clearly identified.

We can concluded that in solving problems involving frames

containing one or more multiforce members, follow these steps:

1. Draw a free-body diagram of the entire frame. Use this free-body

diagram to calculate, to the extent possible, the reactions at the
supports.

2. Dismember the frame, and draw a free-body diagram of each

member.

3. Considering first the two-force members, apply equal and opposite

forces to each two-force member at the points where it is connected to
another member. If the two-force member is a straight member, these
forces will be directed along the axis of the member. If you cannot tell
at this point whether the member is in tension or compression, just

146
Chapter Five Structural Analysis
assume that the member is in tension and direct both of the forces away
from the member. Since these forces have the same unknown
magnitude, give them both the same name and, to avoid any confusion
later, do not use a plus sign or a minus sign.

4. Next, consider the multiforce members. For each of these members,

show all the forces acting on the member, including applied loads,
reactions, and internal forces at connections. The magnitude and
direction of any reaction or reaction component found earlier from the
free-body diagram of the entire frame should be clearly indicated.

a. Where a multiforce member is connected to a two-force member,

apply to the multiforce member a force equal and opposite to the force
drawn on the free-body diagram of the two-force member, giving it the
same name.

b. Where a multiforce member is connected to another multiforce

member, use horizontal and vertical components to represent the
internal forces at that point, since neither the direction nor the
magnitude of these forces is known. The direction you choose for each
of the two force components exerted on the first multiforce member is
arbitary, but you must apply equal and opposite force components of
the same name to the other multiforce member. Again, do not use a
plus sign or a minus sign. 5.The free-body diagram of each of the
multiforce members can provide you with three equilibrium equations.

147
Chapter Five Structural Analysis
Example (5-4)

Determine the horizontal and

vertical components of force which
the pin at C exerts on member BC
of the frame in Fig.

Solution:

By inspection it can be
seen that AB is a two-
force member as
shown in fig. and the
free-body diagrams for member CB shown in fig.

The three unknowns can be determined by applying the three equations

of equilibrium to member CB.

∑ 𝑀𝐶 = 0

(2000 × 2) − (𝐹𝐴𝐵 𝑠𝑖𝑛60 × 4) = 0

𝐹𝐴𝐵 = 1154.7 𝑁

→ + ∑ 𝑓𝑥 = 0

𝐹𝐴𝐵 𝑐𝑜𝑠60 − 𝐶𝑥 = 0 ∴ 𝐶𝑥 = 577.4 𝑁

↑ + ∑ 𝑓𝑦 = 0 𝐶𝑦 + 𝐹𝐴𝐵 𝑠𝑖𝑛60 − 2000 = 0 ∴ 𝐶𝑦 = 1000 𝑁

148
Chapter Five Structural Analysis
Example (5-5)

The compound beam shown in

Fig. is pin connected at B.
Determine the components of
reaction at its supports.
Neglect its weight and thickness.

Solution:

Equilibrium
equations for
segment BC
→ + ∑ 𝑓𝑥 = 0 ⇒
⇒ −𝐵𝑥 = 0 ∴ 𝐵𝑥 = 0

∑ 𝑀𝐵 = 0 ⇒⇒ (8 × 1) − (𝐶𝑦 × 2) = 0 ∴ 𝐶𝑦 = 4 𝑘𝑁

↑ + ∑ 𝑓𝑦 = 0 ⇒⇒ 𝐶𝑦 + 𝐵𝑦 − 8 = 0 ∴ 𝐵𝑦 = 4 𝑘𝑁

Equilibrium equations for segment AB

3
→ + ∑ 𝑓𝑥 = 0 ⇒⇒ 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑥 − ( × 10) = 0 ∴ 𝐴𝑥 = 6𝑘𝑁
5

4
∑ 𝑀𝐴 = 0 ⇒⇒ 𝑀𝐴 − ( × 10 × 2) − (𝐵𝑦 × 4) = 0 ∴ 𝑀𝐴 =
5

32 𝑘𝑁. 𝑚

4
↑ + ∑ 𝑓𝑦 = 0 ⇒⇒ 𝐴𝑦 − 𝐵𝑦 − ( × 10) = 0 ∴ 𝐴𝑦 = 12 𝑘𝑁
5

149
Chapter Five Structural Analysis
5.5. Problems (Frames)
(1) Determine the horizontal and vertical components of force which
the pin at A exerts on member
AC of the frame in Figure.

(2) The compound beam shown in Figure is pin connected at B.

Determine the components of
reaction at its supports. Neglect
its weight and thickness. Set
𝑀 = 100 𝑙𝑏. 𝑓𝑡

(3) Determine the horizontal and

vertical components of reaction at
pin C.

(4) Determine the horizontal

and vertical components of
reaction at pin A and C.

150
Chapter Five Structural Analysis
(5) Determine the components of all
forces acting on each member of the
loaded frame.

(6) The compound beam is supported by

a rocker at B and is fixed to the wall at A.
If it is hinged (pinned)
together al C, determine
the components of reaction
at the supports. Neglect the
thickness of the beam.

(7) Determine the horizontal and

vertical components of reaction at
pin A and C. exert of the two-
member arch.

(8) For the frame and loading shown,

determine the components of the forces
acting on member CFE at C and F.

151
Chapter Six Friction
6.
Chapter Six
Friction

Introduction

In the preceding chapters we have usually assumed that the

forces of action and reaction between contacting surfaces act
normal to the surfaces. This assumption characterizes the
interaction between smooth surfaces. Although this ideal
assumption often involves only a relatively small error, there
are many problems in which we must consider the ability of
contacting surfaces to support tangential as well as normal
forces. Tangential forces generated between contacting
surfaces are called friction forces and occur to some degree in
the interaction between all real surfaces. Whenever a tendency
exists for one contacting surface to slide along another surface,
the friction forces developed are always in a direction to
oppose this tendency.
In some types of machines and processes we want to minimize
the retarding effect of friction forces. Examples are bearings of
all types, power screws, gears, the flow of fluids in pipes, and
the propulsion of aircraft and missiles through the atmosphere.
In other situations we wish to maximize the effects of friction,

152
Chapter Six Friction
as in brakes, clutches, belt drives, and wedges. Wheeled
vehicles depend on friction for both starting and stopping, and
ordinary walking depends on friction between the shoe and the
ground.
Friction forces are present throughout nature and exist in all
machines no matter how accurately constructed or carefully
lubricated. A machine or process in which friction is small
enough to be neglected is said to be ideal. When friction must
be taken into account, the machine or process is termed real. In
all cases where there is sliding motion between parts, the
friction forces result in a loss of energy which is dissipated in
the form of heat. Wear is another effect of friction.
6.1. Types Of Friction
In this chapter we briefly discuss the types of frictional
resistance encountered in mechanics. The next article contains
a more detailed account of the most common type of friction,
dry friction.
(a) Dry Friction. Dry friction occurs when the unlubricated
surfaces of two solids are in contact under a condition of
sliding or a tendency to slide. A friction force tangent to the
surfaces of contact occurs both during the interval leading up
to impending slippage and while slippage takes place. The
direction of this friction force always opposes the motion or
impending motion. This type of friction is also called Coulomb

153
Chapter Six Friction
friction. The principles of dry or Coulomb friction were
developed largely from the experiments of Coulomb in 1781
and from the work of Morin from 1831 to 1834. Although we
do not yet have a comprehensive theory of dry friction, in sec.
5.3 we describe an analytical model sufficient to handle the
vast majority of problems involving dry friction. This model
forms the basis for most of this chapter.
(b) Fluid Friction. Fluid friction occurs when adjacent layers
in a fluid (liquid or gas) are moving at different velocities.
This motion causes frictional forces between fluid elements,
and these forces depend on the relative velocity between
layers. When there is no relative velocity, there is no fluid
friction. Fluid friction depends not only on the velocity
gradients within the fluid but also on the viscosity of the fluid,
which is a measure of its resistance to shearing action between
fluid layers. Fluid friction is treated in the study of fluid
mechanics and will not be discussed further in this book.
(c) Internal Friction. Internal friction occurs in all solid
materials which are subjected to cyclical loading. For highly
elastic materials the recovery from deformation occurs with
very little loss of energy due to internal friction. For materials
which have low limits of elasticity and which undergo
appreciable plastic deformation during loading, a considerable
amount of internal friction may accompany this deformation.

154
Chapter Six Friction
The mechanism of internal friction is associated with the
action of shear deformation, which is discussed in references
on materials science. Because this book deals primarily with
the external effects of forces, we will not discuss internal
friction further.
6.1.1. Dry Friction
The remainder of this chapter describes the effects of dry
friction acting on the exterior surfaces of rigid bodies. We will
now explain the mechanism of dry friction with the aid of a
very simple experiment.
6.1.1.1. Mechanism of Dry Friction
Consider a solid block of mass m resting on a horizontal
surface, as shown in Figure (6.1a). We assume that the
contacting surfaces have some roughness. The experiment
involves the application of a horizontal force P which
continuously increases from zero to a value sufficient to move
the block and give it an appreciable velocity. The free-body
diagram of the block for any value of P is shown in Figure
(6.1b), where the tangential friction force exerted by the plane
on the block is labeled F. This friction force acting on the
body will always be in a direction to oppose motion or the
tendency toward motion of the body.

155
Chapter Six Friction

(a) (b)

Figure (6.1)
There is also a normal force N which in this case equals mg,
and the total force R exerted by the supporting surface on the
block is the resultant of N and F.
A magnified view of the irregularities of the mating surfaces,
Figure (6.2a), helps us to visualize the mechanical action of
friction. Support is necessarily intermittent and exists at the
mating humps. The direction of each of the reactions on the
block, R1, R2, R3, etc. depends not only on the geometric
profile of the irregularities but also on the extent of local
deformation at each contact point. The total normal force N is
the sum of the n-components of the R’s, and the tota frictiona
force F is the sum of the t-components of the R’s. When the
surfaces are in relative motion, the contacts are more nearly
along the tops of the humps, and the t-components of the R’s
are smaller than when the surfaces are at rest relative to one
another. This observation helps to explain the wellknown fact
that the force P necessary to maintain motion is generally less
156
Chapter Six Friction
than that required to start the block when the irregularities are
more nearly in mesh. If we perform the experiment and record
the friction force F as a function of P, we obtain the relation
shown in Figure (6.2b).

(a) (b)

Figure (6.2)

When P is zero, equilibrium requires that there be no friction

force. As P is increased, the friction force must be equal and
opposite to P as long as the block does not slip. During this
period the block is in equilibrium, and all forces acting on the
block must satisfy the equilibrium equations.
Finally, we reach a value of P which causes the block to slip
and to move in the direction of the applied force. At this same
time the friction force decreases slightly and abruptly. It then
remains essentially constant for a time but then decreases still
more as the velocity increases.

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Chapter Six Friction
6.1.1.2. Static Friction
The region in Figure (6.1b) up to the point of slippage or
impending motion is called the range of static friction, and in
this range the value of the friction force is determined by the
equations of equilibrium. This friction force may have any
value from zero up to and including the maximum value. For a
given pair of mating surfaces the experiment shows that this
maximum value of static friction Fmax is proportional to the
normal force N. Thus, we may write
Fmax = µs N (6.1)
where µs is the proportionality constant, called the coefficient of
static friction.
Be aware that eqn. (6.1) describes only the limiting or
maximum value of the static friction force and not any lesser
value. Thus, the equation applies only to cases where motion
is impending with the friction force at its peak value. For a
condition of static equilibrium when motion is not impending,
the static friction force is
≤ µs N
6.1.1.3. Kinetic Friction
After slippage occurs, a condition of kinetic friction
accompanies the ensuing motion. Kinetic friction force is
usually somewhat less than the maximum static friction force.

158
Chapter Six Friction
The kinetic friction force Fk is also proportional to the normal
force. Thus, Fk = µk N (6.2)
where µk is the coefficient of kinetic friction. It follows that µ k
is generally less than µs. As the velocity of the block increases,
the kinetic friction decreases somewhat, and at high velocities,
this decrease may be significant. Coefficients of friction
depend greatly on the exact condition of the surfaces, as well
as on the relative velocity, and are subject to considerable
uncertainty.
Because of the variability of the conditions governing the
action of friction, in engineering practice it is frequently
difficult to distinguish between a static and a kinetic
coefficient, especially in the region of transition between
impending motion and motion. Well-greased screw threads
under mild loads, for example, often exhibit comparable
frictional resistance whether they are on the verge of turning
or whether they are in motion.
In the engineering literature we frequently find expressions for
maximum static friction and for kinetic friction written simply
as F= µN. It is understood from the problem at hand whether
maximum static friction or kinetic friction is described.
Although we will frequently distinguish between the static and
kinetic coefficients, in other cases no distinction will be made,
and the friction coefficient will be written simply as F=µN. In

159
Chapter Six Friction
those cases you must decide which of the friction conditions,
maximum static friction for impending motion or kinetic
friction, is involved. We emphasize again that many problems
involve a static friction force which is less than the maximum
value at impending motion, and therefore under these
conditions the friction relation eqn. (6.1) cannot be used.
Figure (6.2a) shows that rough surfaces are more likely to
have larger angles between the reactions and the n-direction
than are smoother surfaces. Thus, for a pair of mating surfaces,
a friction coefficient reflects the roughness, which is a
geometric property of the surfaces. With this geometric model
of friction, we describe mating surfaces as “smooth” when the
friction forces they can support are negligibly small. It is
meaningless to speak of a coefficient of friction for a single
surface.

6.1.1.4. Friction Angles

The direction of the resultant R in Figure (6.1b) measured
from the direction of N is specified by tan α = /N. When the
friction force reaches its limiting static value F max, the ang e α
reaches a maximum value𝜑𝑠 . Thus, tan 𝜑𝑠 = µs
When s ippage is occurring, the ang e α has a a ue 𝜑𝑘
corresponding to the kinetic friction force. In like manner,
tan 𝜑𝑘 = µk

160
Chapter Six Friction
In practice we often see the expression tan 𝜑 = µ in which
the coefficient of friction may refer to either the static or the
kinetic case depending on the particular problem. The angle 𝜑𝑠
is called the angle of static friction, and the angle 𝜑𝑘 is called
the angle of kinetic friction. The friction angle for each case
clearly defines the limiting direction of the total reaction R
between two contacting surfaces. If motion is impending, R
must be one element of a right-circular cone of vertex angle
2 𝜑𝑠 , as shown in Figure (6.3). If motion is not impending, R
is within the cone.
This cone of vertex angle 2 𝜑𝑠 is called the cone of static
friction and represents the locus of possible directions for the
reaction R at impending motion. If motion occurs, the angle of
kinetic friction applies, and the reaction must lie on the surface
of a slightly different cone of vertex angle 2 𝜑𝑘 . This cone is
the cone of kinetic friction.

Figure (6.3)

161
Chapter Six Friction
6.2. Factors Affecting Friction
Further experiment shows that the friction force is essentially
independent of the apparent or projected area of contact. The
true contact area is much smaller than the projected value,
since only the peaks of the contacting surface irregularities
support the load. Even relatively small normal loads result in
high stresses at these contact points.
As the normal force increases, the true contact area also
increases as the material undergoes yielding, crushing, or
tearing at the points of contact.
A comprehensive theory of dry friction must go beyond
the mechanical explanation presented here. For example, there
is evidence that molecular attraction may be an important
cause of friction under conditions where the mating surfaces
are in very close contact. Other factors which influence dry
friction are the generation of high local temperatures and
adhesion at contact points, relative hardness of mating
surfaces, and the presence of thin surface films of oxide, oil,
dirt, or other substances.
Some typical values of coefficients of friction are given in
Table (5-1). These values are only approximate and are subject
to considerable variation, depending on the exact conditions
prevailing. They may be used, however, as typical examples of
the magnitudes of frictional effects. To make a reliable

162
Chapter Six Friction
calculation involving friction, the appropriate friction
coefficient should be determined by experiments which
duplicate the surface conditions of the application as closely as
possible.

Table (5-1).

6.3. Types of Friction Problems

We can now recognize the following three types of problems
encountered in applications involving dry friction.
1. In the first type of problem, the condition of impending
motion is known to exist. Here a body which is in equilibrium
is on the verge of slipping, and the friction force equals the
limiting static friction Fmax = µs N. The equations of
equilibrium will, of course, also hold.

163
Chapter Six Friction
2. In the second type of problem, neither the condition of
impending motion nor the condition of motion is known to
exist. To determine the actual friction conditions, we first
assume static equilibrium and then solve for the friction force
F necessary for equilibrium. Three outcomes are possible:
(a) F ˂ (Fmax = µs N): Here the friction force necessary for
equilibrium can be supported, and therefore the body is in
static equilibrium as assumed. We emphasize that the actual
friction force F is less than the limiting value Fmax given by
eqn.(6.1) and that F is determined by the equations of
equilibrium.
(b) F = (Fmax = µs N): Since the friction force F is at its
maximum value Fmax, motion impends, as discussed in
problem type (1). The assumption of static equilibrium is
valid.
(c) F ˃ (Fmax = µs N): Clearly this condition is impossible,
because the surfaces cannot support more force than the
maximum µs N. The assumption of equilibrium is therefore
invalid, and motion occurs. The friction force F is equal to µk
N from Eq. (6.2).
3. In the third type of problem, relative motion is known to
exist between the contacting surfaces, and thus the kinetic
coefficient of friction clearly applies. For this problem type,
eqn. (6-2) always gives the kinetic friction force directly.

164
Chapter Six Friction
Example (6-1)

Determine the maximum angle 𝜃 which the adjustable incline may

have with the horizontal before
the block of mass m begins to
slip. The coefficient of static
friction between the block and
the inclined surface is µs.

Solution:

The free-body diagram of the block shows its weight W =mg,

the normal force N, and the friction force F exerted by the
incline on the block. The friction force acts in the direction to
oppose the slipping which would occur if no friction were
present.

Equations of equilibrium:

By applying equations of
equilibrium in the x- and y-
directions, we have:
[ΣFx = 0] mg sinθ -F = 0, F=mg sinθ
[ΣFy = 0] -mg cosθ+N = 0, N=mg cosθ
Dividing the first equation by the second gives F/N=tanθ.
Since the maximum angle occurs when F= Fmax= 𝜇𝑠 N, for
impending motion we have𝜇𝑠 = tanθmax or θmax =tan-1 (𝜇𝑠 )

165
Chapter Six Friction
Example (6-2)

The uniform 10 kg ladder

rests against the smooth
Wall at B.and the end A rests
on the rough horizontal
plane for which the
coefficient of static friction
is μs= 0.3 .Determine the
angle of inclination θ of the ladder and the normal reaction at
B if the ladder is on the verge of slipping.

Solution:

Free-Body Diagram.
As shown on the free-body
diagram, the frictional force FA
must act to the right since
impending motion at A is to the
left.

Equations of Equilibrium
and Friction.

Since the ladder is on the verge of slipping, then F A = 𝜇𝑠 𝑁𝐴 =

0.3N. By inspection, NA can be obtained directly.
∑ 𝐹𝑦 =0 ,
NA -10(9.81) = 0 , NA = 98.1 N

166
Chapter Six Friction
Using this result, FA = 0.3(98.1) = 29.43 N. Now NB can be
found.
∑ 𝐹𝑥 =0 , 29.43 - NB = 0
NB =29.43 Ans.
ina y, the ang e θ can be determined by summing moments
about point.
∑ 𝑀𝐴 = 0, (29.43)(4) sinθ-[10(9.81) ](2 m) cosθ= 0
sinθ
= 𝑡𝑎𝑛θ = 1.667
cosθ
θ = 59.04𝑜 Ans.

Example (6-3)
Determine the range of values which the mass m0 may have so that the
100-kg block shown in the figure will neither start moving up the plane
nor slip down the plane. The
coefficient of static friction for the
contact surfaces is 0.30.

Solution:

The maximum value of m0 will be given by the requirement

for motion impending up the plane. The friction force on the
block therefore acts down the plane, as shown in the free-body
diagram of the block for Case I in the figure. With the weight
mg =100(9.81)=981 N, the equations of equilibrium give:

167
Chapter Six Friction

∑ 𝐹𝑦 =0, N – (981 cos 20)=0 , N =922 N

[ Fmax = µs N ] , Fmax =0.30(922)=277 N

∑ 𝐹𝑥 =0, m0(9.81) – 277– 981 sin 20=0,

m0 =62.4 kg

The minimum value of m0 is determined when motion is

impending down the plane. The friction force on the block will
act up the plane to oppose the tendency to move, as shown in
the free-body diagram for Case II. Equilibrium in the x-
direction is
∑ 𝐹𝑥 =0, m0(9.81) +277– 981 sin 20=0,
m0 = 6.01 kg

Thus, m0 may have any value from 6.01 to 62.4 kg, and the
block will remain at rest.

168
Chapter Six Friction
Example (6-4)

The homogeneous 100 lb block shown in figure. Determine

the greatest magnitude for
the applied force P without
causing the block to move.
The static coefficient of
friction between the block
and the support is 0.3.

Solution:
There are two possible ways in which the block may begin to
move are impending motion or tips. The magnitude of force P
needed to cause each of these motions will be computed.
Although we are asked to find the force P that would cause
impending motion, we do not know whether sliding or tipping
impends. Therefore, this is a third type problem.

(a) Impending motion

The free body diagram of the
block is shown in figure. Since
in this case the block at
impending motion, therefore, the
friction force is maximum Fm.

169
Chapter Six Friction
Equations of equilibrium:
↑+ ∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 0 N − 100 = 0
𝑁 = 100𝑙𝑏
→+ ∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 0 𝑜. 3(100) − 𝑃 = 0
𝑃 = 30𝑙𝑏
We should check whether tipping occurs or not. The tipping
does not occur as long as 0 < 𝑑 < 2ft. the magnitude of d may
be determined by summing moments about point o, which
yields.
↶+ ∑ 𝑀𝑜 = 0 −100(1) + 30(4) + 100(d) = 0
−20
𝑑= = −0.2
100
Since d is negative it indicates the resultant normal force acts
to the left of the point o. therefore tipping will occur.

(b)Tips
When block is on the verge of tipping,
the normal reaction acts at point O. this
case is shown in the right figure. For
equilibrium, we can write:
↶+ ∑ 𝑀𝑜 = 0 −100(1) + P(4) = 0
𝑃 = 25𝑙𝑏
The smallest magnitude of force P is developed under the
conditions of case (b). Therefore, tipping will first occur
when 𝑷 > 25𝒍𝒃.

170
Chapter Six Friction
6.4. Problems
(1) Determine whether the block
shown is in equilibrium and find the
magnitude and direction of the friction
force when ϴ=25° and P=150 lb.

(2) The coefficient of kinetic friction

between the 40-kg crate and the slanting floor is µk= 0.3. If the angle
α=20°, what tension must the
person exert on the rope to move
the crate at constant speed.

(3) Determine the

maximum force P
that can be applied
without causing
the two 50 kg crates to move. The coefficient of static friction between
each crate and the ground is 0.25.

(4) Determine the minimum force P

required to push the crate up the plane.
The crate has a mass of 50 kg and the
coefficient of static friction between the
crate and the plane is µs = 0.25.

171
Chapter Six Friction
(5) The drum has a weight of 100 lb and rests on the floor for which
the coefficient of static friction is
µs=0.6. If a=2ft and b=3ft, determine
the smallest magnitude of the force P
that will cause impending motion of the
drum.

(6) The man is trying to push the

homogeneous 20-kg ladder AB up a wall
by applying the horizontal force P.
Determine the smallest value of P that
would move the ladder. The coefficient of
static friction between the ladder and both
contact surfaces is 0.3.

(7) The uniform 50-kg plank in Figure is resting on friction surfaces

at A and B. The coefficients of static friction are shown in the figure. If
a 80-kg man
starts walking
from A toward
B, determine the
distance x when
the plank will
start to slide.
172
Chapter Six Friction
(8) Determine the range of
cylinder weights W for
which the system is in
equilibrium. The
coefficient of static friction
between 100lb block and
incline is 0.20.

(9) Determine the minimum force

P that can be applied without
causing movement of the 250lb
crate which has a center of gravity
at G. The coefficient of static
friction between the floor and crate
is 0.4.

(10) Block A has a weight of

100 Ib and rests on a surface
for which µs= 0.25.
Determine the greatest
weight of the suspended
cylinder B without causing
motion.

173
Chapter Six Friction
6.5. Flat Belt Friction
The impending slippage of flexible cables, belts, and ropes
over sheaves and drums is important in the design of belt
drives of all types, band brakes, and hoisting rigs.
Whenever belt drives or band brakes arc designed. It is
necessary to determine the frictional forces developed between
the belt and its contacting surface. In this section we will
analyze the frictional forces acting on a flat belt. Although the
analysis of other types of belts, such as the V-belt is based on
similar principles.
Consider the flat belt acting over a fixed drum shown in Figure (6.4),
of radius r, and the total contact ang e in radians is β. the coefficient of
friction between the two surfaces is µ. The drum subjected to the two
belt tensions T1 and T2. If it is known that the tension acting in the belt
on the left of the drum is T1, we wish to determine the tension T2 in the
belt which is needed to pull the belt clockwise over the surface.
Obviously, T2 must be greater than
T1 since the belt must overcome the
resistance of friction at the surface
of contact.

Figure (6.4)
174
Chapter Six Friction
According to the theory of dry friction, the belt is in one of the
following states depending on the values of T1 and T2:

▪ Equilibrium without impending slipping.

▪ Equilibrium with impending slipping.

▪ Slipping.
The analysis that follows determines the relationship between T 1 and
T2 for the last two cases.

Figure (6.5)

The forces acting on the belt are shown in Figure (6.5), where the
weight of the belt is assumed to be negligible. The drum exerts normal
and friction forces on the belt, both of which are distributed along the
contact area between A and B. Because the direction of impending
motion (or motion) of the belt is assumed to be clockwise, equilibrium
implies that T2 > T1. Due to this unknown distribution, the analysis of
the problem will first require a study of the forces acting on a

175
Chapter Six Friction
differential (element) length of the belt that subtends the differential
angle dϴ.
A free body diagram of the differential element of the belt is shown in
Figure (6.6) having a length rdϴ, and the normal force is the
differential dN. Assuming either impending motion or motion of the
belt, the magnitude of friction force is
dF=µ dN. This force opposes the
sliding motion of the belt, and so it
will increase the magnitude of the
tensile force acting in the belt from T
to T+dT in an angle dϴ.

Figure (6.6)
Equilibrium of forces in the t-direction yields:
𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜃
↗+ ∑ 𝐹𝑡 = 0 𝑇𝑐𝑜𝑠 + 𝜇 𝑑𝑁 − (𝑇 + 𝑑𝑇)𝑐𝑜𝑠 =0
2 2

The balance of forces in the n-direction gives:

𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜃
↖+ ∑ 𝐹𝑛 = 0 𝑑𝑁 − 𝑇𝑠𝑖𝑛 − (𝑇 + 𝑑𝑇)𝑠𝑖𝑛 =0
2 2
dθ dθ dθ
For an infinitesimal angle, sin = , and cos = 1. Also,
2 2 2

neglecting the product of differentials (dT dϴ) compared to T dϴ.

The above two equations therefore reduce to:
𝜇 𝑑𝑁 = 𝑑𝑇
And,
𝑑𝑁 = 𝑇 𝑑𝛳

176
Chapter Six Friction
Eliminating dN between these two equations, we obtain:
𝑑𝑇
= µ 𝑑𝛳
𝑇
Integrating, both sides of equation over the contact angle θ shown in
Figure (6.6), we have T =T1 when ϴ =0, and T = T2 when ϴ = β.
Integrating between these limits, we write:
𝑇2 𝛽
𝑑𝑇
∫ = ∫ µ 𝑑𝛳
𝑇1 𝑇 0

After integration we get,

𝑇2
ln =µ𝛽
𝑇1
This can be written as:

𝑻𝟐 = 𝑻𝟏 𝒆µ 𝜷 (I)

Where, e = 2.718 . . . is the base of natural logarithms. If the tension in

one side of the belt is known, the equation (I) can be used to calculate
the belt tension in the other side.
The following points should be kept in mind when using equation (I):

▪ T2 is the belt tension that is directed opposite the belt friction.

Thus, T2 must always refer to the larger of the two tensions.

▪ For impending motion, use μ = μs. If there is relative motion

between the belt and cylinder, use μ = μk .

▪ The angle of contact β must be expressed in radians.

177
Chapter Six Friction

▪ Where, equation (I) is independent of r, its use is not restricted

to circular contact surfaces; it may also be used for a surface of
arbitrary shape.

Example (6-5)

Determine the minimum number of

turns of rope that will allow the 5-lb
force to support the 600-lb block, if the
coefficient of static friction is 0.15.

Solution:

The motion can't be up, since the 5-lb

force is too small to lift the 600-lb block.
Apply the equation for belt friction
T2 = T1 eµ β (1)
In this equation, T2 is the tension in the
direction of impending motion
T2 = 600 lb
The other tension, T1, is in the direction opposite the impending
motion, so
T1 = 5 lb

Since µ= 0.15, Eq. 1 becomes

600 = 5e0.15 β

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Chapter Six Friction
So ing gi es β= 31.917 radians. If n is the number of turns of rope,
then the number of radians is 2π n. equating this to gi es an equation
for n:
2πn=31.917
Solving for n gives n = 5.08 turns, Rounding off to the next higher
integer then gives n = 6.

Example (6-6)
If the coefficient of static friction
between the rope and the fixed
circular drums A and B is 0.2,
determine the largest value of the
force P that can be applied without
moving the 150-lb weight upwards.

Solution:

➢ Tensions in the rope on

either side of drum A.
Because slip impends
between the rope and the
drum, we can apply the equation for belt friction:
T2 = T1 eµ β (1)
where T2 is the tension in the direction of impending motion. In our
particular problem, T2 = TAB. And the tension opposing the impending
motion is T1 = 150 lb.

179
Chapter Six Friction
𝜋
Using these results andµ = 0.2 and 𝛽 = in Eq. 1 gives
2
𝜋
TAB = (150)e(0.2)( 2 ) =205.4 lb

➢ Tensions in the rope on either side of drum B

Flat-belt friction equation : T2 = T1 eµ β
So, P = (205.4)e(0.2) β (2)
𝜋
β=60o = radian
3

Substitute in eqn. (2),

we have
P = 253 lb Ans.

Example (6-7)

A cable is placed around three

parallel pipes. The coefficient
of friction between the cable
and the fixed round supports
are µs= 0.25 and µk= 0.2.
(a) What is the minimum weight W required to support the box?
(b) What weight W is required to move the box upward at a constant
rate?

180
Chapter Six Friction
Solution:
Hence, the total angle of contact between the cable and round supports
A, B, and C is 𝛽 = (900 + 1800 + 900 ) = 2𝜋 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠.
(a) What is the minimum weight W required to support the
box
Using the equation (I), we have:
𝑇2 = 𝑇1 𝑒 µ𝑠 𝛽
50 = 𝑊𝑒 0.25(2𝜋)
𝑊 = 10.39 𝑙𝑏
(b) What weight W is required to move the box upward at
a constant rate
Using the equation (I), we have:
𝑇2 = 𝑇1 𝑒 µ𝑘 𝛽
𝑊 = 50𝑒 0.2(2𝜋) = 175.68 𝑙𝑏

Example (6-8)
Determine the range of values which the mass mB may have so that the

10-kg block A shown in the figure will neither start moving up the
plane nor slip down the plane. The coefficient of static friction for the
contact surfaces is
0.30 and that
between the cord and
cylindrical support
surface is 0.25.
181
Chapter Six Friction
Solution:

Since the pulley is not smooth, therefore

the tension in the rope is not equal to the
weight T≠WB as shown in the right figure.
➢ Maximum value of T
The maximum value of will be given by
the requirement for motion impending up
the plane, as shown in the free body
diagram.

Equations of equilibrium:
↖+ ∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 0 N − 10(9.8)cos30 = 0
𝑁 = 84.87𝑁
↗+ ∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 0 𝑇 − 0.3(84.87) − 10(9.8)𝑠𝑖𝑛30 = 0
𝑇=74.461N
➢ Maximum value of mB
The angle of contact between the cable and round support is
𝜋
𝛽 = (1200 ) = 120 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠.
180

Using the equation (I), we have:

𝑇2 = 𝑇1 𝑒 µ𝑠 𝛽
𝜋
0.25(120 )
𝑊𝐵 = 74.461𝑒 180

𝑊𝐵 = 125.69𝑁
𝟏𝟐𝟓.𝟔𝟗
𝒎𝑩 = = 12.82 𝑘𝑔
𝟗.𝟖

182
Chapter Six Friction
➢ Minimum value of T
The minimum value of T will be given by
the requirement for motion impending
down the plane, as shown in the free body
diagram.

Equations of equilibrium:
↖+ ∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 0 N − 10(9.8)cos30 = 0
𝑁 = 84.87𝑁
↗+ ∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 0 𝑇 + 0.3(84.87) − 10(9.8)𝑠𝑖𝑛30 = 0
𝑇 = 23.539N

➢ Minimum value of mB
Using the equation (I), we have:
𝑇2 = 𝑇1 𝑒 µ𝑠 𝛽
𝜋
0.25(120 )
23.539 = 𝑊𝐵 𝑒 180

𝑊𝐵 = 13.94𝑁
𝟏𝟑.𝟗𝟒
𝒎𝑩 = = 𝟏. 𝟒 𝒌𝒈
𝟗.𝟖

Thus, mB may have any value from 1.4 to 12.82 kg, and the block
will remain at rest.

183
Chapter Six Friction
6.6. Problems
(1) The rope running
over two fixed cylinders
carries the 4-kg mass at
one end. Determine the
force P that must be
applied to the other end
to initiate motion. The coefficient of static friction between the rope
and the cylinders is 0.15.

(2) If the coefficient of static friction between

the fixed drums D and E and the ropes is 0.35,
determine the largest weight W that can be
supported.

(3) Determine the range of cylinder mass m for

which the system is in
equilibrium. The coefficient of
static friction between 50kg
block and incline is 0.15, and
that between the cord and
cylindrical support surface is
0.25.

184
Chapter Six Friction
(4) The maximum tension that can be developed in the cord
shown in Fig. is 500 N. If the pulley at A is free to rotate and
the coefficient of static
friction at the fixed drums
B and C is µs = 0.25.
Determine the largest
mass of the cylinder that
can be lifted by the cord.

(5) Determine the range of cylinder weights W for which the

system is in equilibrium.
The coefficient of static
friction between 100lb
block and incline is
0.20, and that between
the cord and cylindrical
support surface is 0.3.

(6) A cable is placed around three parallel pipes. If the pulley

at C is free to rotate and the
coefficients of friction at the
fixed drums A and B is µs=
0.25, determine the smallest
weight W for which
equilibrium is maintained.

185
Chapter Six Friction
(7) Determine the static coefficient of
friction µs between the cord and the
fixed shaft

(8) A 300-lb block is supported by a rope

1
that is wrapped 1 times around a
2

horizontal rod. Knowing that the

coefficient of static friction between the
rope and the rod is 0.15, determine the
range of values of P for which
equilibrium is maintained.

(9) A 50-kg block A

rests on surface B for
which 𝜇𝑠 = 0.25. If the
mass of suspended
cylinder D is 4 kg,
determine the friction
force acting on A and
check if motion occurs.
The coefficient of static
friction between the
cord and the fixed peg
at C is 0.3.

186
Chapter Seven Properties of an Area
7.
Chapter Seven
Properties of an Area

Introduction

This chapter constitutes an attempt to introduce some concepts of

center of gravity, centroids and moment of inertia. The term first
moment of area is explained and the method of finding centroid of
plane areas is illustrated. After explaining the term second moment of
area, the method of finding moment of inertia of plane figures about x-
x or y-y axis is illustrated.
7.1. Centre of Gravity
The center of gravity G is a point which locates the resultant weight of
a system of particles. If we consider a system of n particles fixed within
a region of space as shown in figure (7-1), it is evident that the weights
of the particles comprise a system of parallel forces which can be
replaced by a single equivalent resultant weight having the defined
center of gravity G. To find the location of the center of gravity
G(x,y,z):
𝑊𝑅 = ∑ 𝑊

𝑥̅ 𝑊𝑅 = 𝑥̃1 𝑊1 + 𝑥̃2 𝑊2 + ⋯ + 𝑥̃𝑛 𝑊𝑛

𝑦̅ 𝑊𝑅 = 𝑦̃1 𝑊1 + 𝑦̃2 𝑊2 + ⋯ + 𝑦̃𝑛 𝑊𝑛

187
Chapter Seven Properties of an Area
𝑧̅ 𝑊𝑅 = 𝑧̃1 𝑊1 + 𝑧̃2 𝑊2 + ⋯ + 𝑧̃𝑛 𝑊𝑛

∑ 𝑥̃𝑖 𝑊𝑖 ∑ 𝑦̃𝑖 𝑊𝑖 ∑ 𝑧̃𝑖 𝑊𝑖

𝑥̅ = , 𝑦̅ = , 𝑧̅ =
∑ 𝑊𝑖 ∑ 𝑊𝑖 ∑ 𝑊𝑖

Figure 7-1

7.2. Center of Mass

The center of mass is a point which locates the resultant mass of a
system of particles or body. To find the location of the center of mass
C(x,y,z):
Knowing W=mg, if we assume that the acceleration due to gravity (g)
for every particle is constant (g will be cancelled out)

∑ 𝑥̃𝑖 𝑚𝑖 ∑ 𝑦̃𝑖 𝑚𝑖 ∑ 𝑧̃𝑖 𝑚𝑖

𝑥̅ = , 𝑦̅ = , 𝑧̅ =
∑ 𝑚𝑖 ∑ 𝑚𝑖 ∑ 𝑚𝑖

A rigid body is composed of an infinite number of particles; hence it is

necessary to use integration instead of summation.

∫ 𝑥̃ 𝑑𝑚 ∫ 𝑦̃ 𝑑𝑚 ∫ 𝑧̃ 𝑑𝑚
𝑥̅ = , 𝑦̅ = , 𝑧̅ =
∫ 𝑑𝑚 ∫ 𝑑𝑚 ∫ 𝑑𝑚

7.3. Centroid
The centroid C is a point which defines the geometric center of an
object. Its location can be determined using the same principles
employed to determine the center of gravity of a body. In the case

188
Chapter Seven Properties of an Area
where the material composing a body is uniform or homogeneous, the
density or specific weight will be constant throughout the body. Hence,
the resulting formulas that define the centroid of a body depend only
on the geometry of the body {Volume (V), Area (A), or Length (L) as
shown in figure (7-2)}.

Figure 7-2

7.3.1. Volume:
When a body is subdivided into volume elements 𝑑𝑉, so 𝑑𝑚 = 𝜌𝑑𝑉,
and constant density the location of the centroid 𝐶(𝑥̅ , 𝑦̅, 𝑧̅) for the
volume of the object can be determined by

∫ 𝑥̃ 𝑑𝑉 ∫ 𝑦̃ 𝑑𝑉 ∫ 𝑧̃ 𝑑𝑉
𝑥̅ = , 𝑦̅ = , 𝑧̅ =
∫ 𝑑𝑉 ∫ 𝑑𝑉 ∫ 𝑑𝑉

7.3.2. Area:
In a similar manner, the centroid for the surface area of an object can
be determined by subdividing the area into differential elements of area

189
Chapter Seven Properties of an Area
𝑑𝐴 so 𝑑𝑉 = 𝐿𝑑𝐴, and constant length then calculating the centroid
𝐶(𝑥̅ , 𝑦̅, 𝑧̅) for the area of the object can be determined by

∫ 𝑥̃ 𝑑𝐴 ∫ 𝑦̃ 𝑑𝐴 ∫ 𝑧̃ 𝑑𝐴
𝑥̅ = , 𝑦̅ = , 𝑧̅ =
∫ 𝑑𝐴 ∫ 𝑑𝐴 ∫ 𝑑𝐴

7.3.3. Line:
Finally, if the geometry of the studied body is such as a thin rod or
wire, it can be approached to a line. The line can be subdivided into
differential elements 𝑑𝐿 so 𝑑𝑉 = 𝐴𝑑𝐿, and constant cross section area
then we can be determine the centroid 𝐶(𝑥̅ , 𝑦̅, 𝑧̅) for a line by
∫ 𝑥̃ 𝑑𝐿 ∫ 𝑦̃ 𝑑𝐿 ∫ 𝑧̃ 𝑑𝐿
𝑥̅ = , 𝑦̅ = , 𝑧̅ =
∫ 𝑑𝐿 ∫ 𝑑𝐿 ∫ 𝑑𝐿

The centroids of some shapes may be partially or completely specified

by using conditions of symmetry. In cases where the shape has an axis
of symmetry, the centroid of the shape will lie along that axis as shown
in figure (7-3).

Figure 7-3

190
Chapter Seven Properties of an Area
Example (7-1)

Locate the centroid of the area

shown in fig.

Solution

The area of the element 𝑑𝐴 = 𝑦𝑑𝑥

𝑦
The centroid of the element 𝑥̃ = 𝑥, 𝑦̃ =
2
1
∫ 𝑥̃ 𝑑𝐴 ∫ 𝑥𝑦 𝑑𝑥 ∫0 𝑥 3 𝑑𝑥 0.25
Then 𝑥̅ = = = 1 = = 0,75 𝑚
∫ 𝑑𝐴 ∫ 𝑦 𝑑𝑥 ∫0 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 0.333

𝑦 1 𝑥2
∫ 𝑦̃ 𝑑𝐴 ∫( 2 )𝑦 𝑑𝑥 ∫0 ( 2 )𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 0.1
And 𝑦̅ = = = 1 = = 0,333 𝑚
∫ 𝑑𝐴 ∫ 𝑦 𝑑𝑥 ∫0 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 0.333

Example (7-2)

Locate the centroid

of the semi elliptical
area shown in fig.

Solution

The area of the element 𝑑𝐴 = 2𝑥 𝑑𝑦, 𝑥 = 2√1 − 𝑦 2

The centroid of the element 𝑥̃ = 0, 𝑦̃ = 𝑦

1 1 4⁄
∫ 𝑦̃ 𝑑𝐴 ∫0 𝑦 2𝑥𝑑𝑦 ∫0 4𝑦 √1−𝑦 2 𝑑𝑦 3
Then 𝑦̅ = = 1 = 1 = = 0.424 𝑓𝑡
∫ 𝑑𝐴 ∫0 2𝑥 𝑑𝑦 ∫0 4√1−𝑦 2 𝑑𝑦 𝜋

191
Chapter Seven Properties of an Area
7.4. Composite Bodies
If we can break up a body into a series of smaller bodies that have
predefined the weight and the location of center of gravity of each of
these bodies, then we can use this formula to locate the center of
gravity of the composite body
∑ 𝑥̃𝑖 𝑊𝑖 ∑ 𝑦̃𝑖 𝑊𝑖 ∑ 𝑧̃𝑖 𝑊𝑖
𝑥̅ = ∑ 𝑊𝑖
𝑦̅ = ∑ 𝑊𝑖
𝑧̅ = ∑ 𝑊𝑖

W=mg and because g is constant then

∑ 𝑥̃𝑖 𝑚𝑖 ∑ 𝑦̃𝑖 𝑚𝑖 ∑ 𝑧̃𝑖 𝑚𝑖
𝑥̅ = ∑ 𝑚𝑖
𝑦̅ = ∑ 𝑚𝑖
𝑧̅ = ∑ 𝑚𝑖

For homogeneous entire body (i.e. all components are made of the
same material) then the center of mass is the same of the centroid of
volume and the equation became
∑ 𝑥̃𝑖 𝑉𝑖 ∑ 𝑦̃𝑖 𝑉𝑖 ∑ 𝑧̃𝑖 𝑉𝑖
𝑥̅ = ∑ 𝑉𝑖
𝑦̅ = ∑ 𝑉𝑖
𝑧̅ = ∑ 𝑉𝑖

For thin plat the centroid of area is

∑ 𝑥̃𝑖 𝐴𝑖 ∑ 𝑦̃𝑖 𝐴𝑖 ∑ 𝑧̃𝑖 𝐴𝑖
𝑥̅ = ∑ 𝐴𝑖
𝑦̅ = ∑ 𝐴𝑖
𝑧̅ = ∑ 𝐴𝑖

If the shape is rod with constant cross section area, the centroid of the
line is
∑ 𝑥̃𝑖 𝐿𝑖 ∑ 𝑦̃𝑖 𝐿𝑖 ∑ 𝑧̃𝑖 𝐿𝑖
𝑥̅ = ∑ 𝐿𝑖
𝑦̅ = ∑ 𝐿𝑖
𝑧̅ = ∑ 𝐿𝑖

We will care more about finding the centroid of an area. Therefore we

will learn about the centroid of basic and most traditional shapes in
engineering problems, the following table shows the area and centroid
each of those shapes

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Chapter Seven Properties of an Area
Centroid of a Composite Area

Circle
𝐴 = 𝜋 𝑟2

Rectangle
𝐴=ℎ𝑏

Triangle
1
𝐴=2𝑏ℎ

Half Circle
1
𝐴 = 2 𝜋 𝑟2
4𝑟
𝑒=
3𝜋
Quarter Circle
1
𝐴 = 4 𝜋 𝑟2
4𝑟
𝑒=
3𝜋

193
Chapter Seven Properties of an Area
Example (7-3)

Locate the centroid of the

plate area shown in figure.

Solution

The plate is divided into three parts as shown in the fig.

The centroid of each part is located as indicated in figure. Not that the
𝑥̃ coordinate of part 2 and 3 are negative.
Taking the data from fig. the calculations are tabulated as follows:
No. Ai (ft2) xi (ft) yi (ft) xi Ai (ft3) yi Ai (ft3)
0.5(3)(3) = 3 3
1 =1 =1 4.5 4.5
4.5 3 3
2 (3)(3) = 9 −1.5 1.5 −13.5 13.5
−(2)(1)
3 −2.5 2 −5 −4
= −2
∑ 11.5 −4 14
∑x𝑖 A𝑖 −4
𝑥̅ = = = −0.348 ft
∑x𝑖 11.5
∑y𝑖 A𝑖 14
𝑦̅ = = = 1.22 ft
∑y𝑖 11.5
194
Chapter Seven Properties of an Area
Example (7-4)

Locate the centroid of the plate

area shown in figure.

Solution

The centroid of each part is located as indicated in figure. Not that the
𝑥̃ coordinate of part 3 negative.
Taking the data from fig. the calculations are tabulated as follows:
No. Ai (ft2) xi (ft) yi (ft) xi Ai (ft3) yi Ai (ft3)
3 3
1 (3)(3) = 9 = 1.5 = 1.5 13.5 13.5
2 2
3 + 3/3 3
2 0.5(3)(3)=4.5
=4 =1 18 4.5
3
4(1.5)
0.5𝜋(1.5)2 −
3 3𝜋 1.5 −2.26 5.3
= 3.53
= −0.64
−𝜋(1)2
4 0 1.5 0 −4.71
= −3.14
∑ 13.89 29.24 18.1

∑x𝑖 A𝑖 29.24
𝑥̅ = = = 2.1ft
∑x𝑖 13.89
∑y𝑖 A𝑖 18.1
𝑦̅ = = = 1.3 ft
∑y𝑖 13.89
195
Chapter Seven Properties of an Area
7.5. Problems
1- Locate the centroid of the shown shapes.

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

(e) (f)

196
Chapter Seven Properties of an Area
2- Locate the centroid of the cross section area for the shown shapes.

(a) (b)

(d)
(c)

(e) (f)

197
Chapter Seven Properties of an Area
3- Locate the centroid of the shaded area for the following shepes

(a) (b)

(d)
(c)

(e) (f)
198
Chapter Seven Properties of an Area
7.6. Area Moment of Inertia
The area moment of inertia is an important property for several fields
of engineering such that structural engineering, stress analyses, theory
of machines …etc. So it will be shown in this chapter the moment of
inertia in detail. The beginning of this chapter we define the moment
of inertia and how to calculate it, and, then how to use the parallel axis
theorem to calculate moment of inertia of the composite area.

➢ Definition
The moment of inertia (I) is a term used to describe the capacity of a
cross-section to resist bending. It is always considered with respect to
a reference axis such as X-X or Y-Y. The figure (7-4) shows that both
beams have the same area and even the same shape. Beam 1 is stronger
than Beam 2 because it
has a higher second
moment of area (I).
Where b is breadth
(horizontal) and h is
height (vertical) if the
load is vertical - e.g.
Figure (7-4)
gravity load.

7.6.1. Calculation of the Moment of Inertia

The area moment of inertia is the second moment of area around a
given axis. For example, given the axis O-O and the shaded area shown

199
Chapter Seven Properties of an Area
in Figure (7-5) we calculate the second moment of the area by adding
together 𝑙 2 𝑑𝐴 for all the
elements of area 𝑑𝐴 in the
shaded area. The area moment
of inertia, denoted by 𝐼, and the
subscript refers to the axis
therefore, be calculated from:

𝐼𝑂𝑂 = ∫𝐴 𝑙 2 𝑑𝐴 Figure (7-5)

If we have a rectangular coordinate system as shown in figure (7-6),

we can define the area moment of
inertial around the x-axis,
denoted by 𝐼𝑥 , and the area
moment of inertia about the y-
axis, denoted by 𝐼𝑦 . These are
given by:

𝐼𝑥 = ∫𝐴 𝑦 2 𝑑𝐴 Figure (7-6)

𝐼𝑦 = ∫𝐴 𝑥 2 𝑑𝐴

The polar area moment of inertia, denoted by 𝐼𝑂 , is the area moment of

inertia about the z-axis given by

𝐼𝑂 = ∫𝐴 𝑟 2 𝑑𝐴

Note that since 𝑟 2 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2

200
Chapter Seven Properties of an Area
∴ 𝐼𝑂 = 𝐼𝑥 + 𝐼𝑦

From previous lows we can concluded that the units of moment of

inertia is length to the fourth power (𝑚4 or 𝑓𝑡 4 ).

7.6.2. Radius of Gyration

or a gi en area A and it’s 𝐼𝑥 , imagine that the entire area is located at

distance 𝑘𝑥 from the x axis as shown in figure (7-7). Then, 𝐼𝑥 = 𝑘𝑥2 𝐴
or 𝑘𝑥 = √( 𝐼𝑥 / 𝐴) .

This 𝑘𝑥 is called the radius of gyration of the area about the x axis.

Similarly;

𝑘𝑦 = √( 𝐼𝑦 / 𝐴)

𝑘𝑂 = √( 𝐼𝑜 / 𝐴)

Figure 7-7

The radius of gyration has units of length and gives an indication of the
spread of the area from the axes. This characteristic is important when
designing columns.

7.6.3. Moment of Inertia of Some Basic Geometric Shapes

In the table below, the over bar indicates the moment of inertia is taken
about an axis that passes through the centroid, denoted as ‘C’

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Chapter Seven Properties of an Area
Rectangle
𝐴=ℎ𝑏
𝑏 ℎ3
𝐼𝑥𝑐 =
12
ℎ 𝑏3
𝐼𝑦𝑐 =
12

Polar moment of inertia 𝐼𝐶 = 𝐼𝑥𝑐 + 𝐼𝑦𝑐

Triangle
𝐴 = 12 𝑏 ℎ
𝑏 ℎ3
𝐼𝑥𝑐 =
36
ℎ 𝑏3
𝐼𝑦𝑐 =
36
Polar moment of inertia 𝐼𝐶 = 𝐼𝑥𝑐 + 𝐼𝑦𝑐
Circle
𝐴 = 𝜋 𝑟2
1
𝐼𝑥𝑐 = 𝐼𝑦𝑐 = 4 𝜋 𝑟 4
Polar moment of inertia 𝐼𝐶 = 𝐼𝑥𝑐 + 𝐼𝑦𝑐

Half Circle
4𝑟
𝐴 = 12 𝜋 𝑟, 𝑒 =
3𝜋

𝐼𝑥 = 𝐼𝑦𝑐 = 12(14 𝜋 𝑟 4 )

Quarter Circle
𝐴 = 14 𝜋 𝑟
𝐼𝑥 = 𝐼𝑦 = 14(14 𝜋 𝑟 4 )

202
Chapter Seven Properties of an Area
7.6.4. The Parallel-Axis Theorem
The moment of inertia of an area with respect to any axis not through
its centroid is equal to the moment of inertia of that area with respect
to its own parallel centroidal axis plus the product of the area and the
square of the distance between the two axes as shown in Figure (7-8).

Figure 7-8

𝐼𝑥 = ∫ 𝑦 2 𝑑𝐴 = ∫(𝑦́ + 𝑑1 )2 𝑑𝐴

𝐼𝑥 = ∫ 𝑦́ 2 𝑑𝐴 + 2𝑑1 ∫ 𝑦́ 𝑑𝐴 + 𝑑12 ∫ 𝑑𝐴

∫ 𝑦́ 𝑑𝐴 = 0 , because the centroid is on this 𝑥𝑐 axis

𝐼𝑥 = ∫ 𝑦́ 2 𝑑𝐴 + 𝑑12 ∫ 𝑑𝐴

𝐼𝑥 = 𝐼𝑥𝑐 + 𝐴 𝑑1 2 Similarly 𝐼𝑦 = 𝐼𝑦𝑐 + 𝐴 𝑑22

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Chapter Seven Properties of an Area
Example (7-5)

Find the moment of inertia for the

cross-section area shown in the
figure about the x-axis and the y-
axis.

Solution

Part 1

𝐼𝑥1 = 𝐼𝑥𝑐1 + 𝐴1 𝑑12

300×(50)3
𝐼𝑥1 = + (300 × 50)(325)2
12

𝐼𝑥1 = 1.59 × 109 𝑚𝑚4

Part 2

𝐼𝑥2 = 𝐼𝑥𝑐2 + 𝐴2 𝑑22

50×(300)3
𝐼𝑥2 = + (300 × 50)(150)2
12

𝐼𝑥2 = 0.45 × 109 𝑚𝑚4

The total moment of inertia about x-axes

𝐼𝑥 = 𝐼𝑥1 + 𝐼𝑥2

𝐼𝑥 = 2.04 × 109 𝑚𝑚4

𝐼𝑦 = 𝐼𝑦1 + 𝐼𝑦2

50 × (300)3 300 × (50)3

𝐼𝑦 = + = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟏 × 𝟏𝟎𝟗 𝒎𝒎𝟒
12 12

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Chapter Seven Properties of an Area
Example (7-6)

Find the moment of

inertia for the shaded
area shown in the figure
about the x-axis and the
radius of gyration 𝑘𝑥 .

Solution

Part 1

𝐼𝑥1 = 𝐼𝑥𝑐1 + 𝐴1 𝑑12

300×(200)3
𝐼𝑥1 = + (300 × 200)(100)2
12

𝐼𝑥1 = 0.8 × 109 𝑚𝑚4

Part 2

𝐼𝑥2 = 𝐼𝑥𝑐2 + 𝐴2 𝑑22

300×(200)3 2
𝐼𝑥2 = + (0.5 × 300 × 200)(200
3
)
36

𝐼𝑥2 = 0.2 × 109 𝑚𝑚4

Part 3

𝐼𝑥3 = 𝐼𝑥𝑐3 + 𝐴3 𝑑32

𝐼𝑥3 = 14 𝜋(75)4 + (𝜋 (75)2 )(100)2

𝐼𝑥2 = 0.202 × 109 𝑚𝑚4

𝐼𝑥 = 𝐼𝑥1 + 𝐼𝑥2 − 𝐼𝑥3

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Chapter Seven Properties of an Area
𝑰𝒙 = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟗𝟗 × 𝟏𝟎𝟗 𝒎𝒎𝟒

𝑘𝑥 = √( 𝐼𝑥 / 𝐴)

𝐼𝑥
𝑘𝑥 = √
𝐴1 + 𝐴2 − 𝐴3

0.799 × 109
𝑘𝑥 = √
(300 × 200) + (0.5 × 300 × 200) − (𝜋 (75)2 )

𝒌𝒙 = 𝟏𝟎𝟓. 𝟏 𝒎𝒎

Example (7-7)

The shaded area shown in

the figure determine radius
of gyration about x-axis and
y-axis.

Solution

Moment of inertia about x-axis

Part 1

𝐼𝑥1 = 𝐼𝑥𝑐1 + 𝐴1 𝑑12

200×(100)3
𝐼𝑥1 = + (200 × 100)(50)2
12

𝐼𝑥1 = 66.67 × 106 𝑚𝑚4

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Chapter Seven Properties of an Area
Part 2

𝐼𝑥2 = 𝐼𝑥𝑐2 + 𝐴2 𝑑22

200×(100)3
𝐼𝑥2 =
36

2
+(0.5 × 200 × 100)(100 + 100
3
) = 183.3 × 106 𝑚𝑚4

Part 3

𝐼𝑥3 = 𝐼𝑥𝑐3 + 𝐴3 𝑑32

𝐼𝑥3 = 14 𝜋(30)4 + (𝜋 (30)2 )(50)2

𝐼𝑥3 = 7.7 × 106 𝑚𝑚4

Part4

𝐼𝑥4 = 𝐼𝑥𝑐4 + 𝐴4 𝑑42

𝐼𝑥4 = 12[14 𝜋(50)4 ] + (12 𝜋 (50)2 )(50)2

𝐼𝑥4 = 12.3 × 106 𝑚𝑚4

The total moment of inertia about x-axes

𝐼𝑥 = 𝐼𝑥1 + 𝐼𝑥2 − 𝐼𝑥3 − 𝐼𝑥4

𝑰𝒙 = 𝟐𝟑𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎𝟔 𝒎𝒎𝟒

𝑘𝑥 = √( 𝐼𝑥 / 𝐴)

𝐼𝑥
𝑘𝑥 = √
𝐴 1 +𝐴2 −𝐴3 −𝐴4

230×106
𝑘𝑥 = √(200×100)+(0.5×200×100)−(𝜋 (30)2)−(1 (50)2 = 𝟗𝟗. 𝟓 𝒎𝒎
𝜋 2
)

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Chapter Seven Properties of an Area
Moment of inertia about y-axis
Part 1
𝐼𝑦1 = 𝐼𝑦𝑐1 + 𝐴1 𝑑52
100×(200)3
𝐼𝑦1 = + (200 × 100)(100)2
12

𝐼𝑦1 = 266.7 × 106 𝑚𝑚4

Part 2
𝐼𝑦2 = 𝐼𝑦𝑐2 + 𝐴2 𝑑62
100×(200)3 2
𝐼𝑦2 =
36
+ (0.5 × 200 × 100)(200
3
) = 66.7 × 106 𝑚𝑚4

Part 3
𝐼𝑦3 = 𝐼𝑦𝑐3 + 𝐴3 𝑑72

𝐼𝑦3 = 14 𝜋(30)4 + (𝜋 (30)2 )(150)2

𝐼𝑦3 = 64.3 × 106 𝑚𝑚4

Part4
𝐼𝑦4 = 12[14 𝜋(50)4 ] = 2.5 × 106 𝑚𝑚4

The total moment of inertia about y-axes

𝐼𝑦 = 𝐼𝑦1 + 𝐼𝑦2 − 𝐼𝑦3 − 𝐼𝑦4

𝑰𝒚 = 𝟔𝟐𝟐. 𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎𝟔 𝒎𝒎𝟒

𝐼𝑦
𝑘𝑦 = √( 𝐼𝑦 / 𝐴) = √
𝐴 1 +𝐴2 −𝐴3 −𝐴4

622.2×106
𝑘𝑦 = √(200×100)+(0.5×200×100)−(𝜋 (30)2)−(1 (50)2 = 𝟏𝟔𝟑. 𝟔 𝒎𝒎
𝜋 2
)

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Chapter Seven Properties of an Area
7.7. Problems
1- Find the moment of inertia about the x-axis and the y-axis for the
following shapes.

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

(e)

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Chapter Seven Properties of an Area
2- Determine radius of gyration 𝑘𝑥 and 𝑘𝑦 .the shaded area for the
following shepes.

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

(e)

210
Reference
8.
REFERENCS

[1] R.C Hibbe er “Engineering echanics Statics” 12th. Edition,

Prentice Hall, 2010.
[2] .B. Beer and E.R. Johnston “Vector echanics for Engineering”,
9th. edition, Mcgraw Hill , 2009.
[3] J. L. eriam “Static and dynamics” Second Edition, 1975, John
Wiley and Son, Inc., New Yourk.
[4] I. .Jong and B. . Rogers “Engineering echanics”, 1991,
Saunders Collage Publishing.
[5] .I.Kho osy and A.S. Bassouni “ echanics”, 1996, H.T.I,
Ramadan City Cairo, Egypt.

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