Electronic systems are of two types:

(i) Analog systems

(ii) Digital systems
Analog systems are those systems in which voltage and current variations are continuous through the given
range and they can take any value within the given specified range, whereas a digital system is one in which
the voltage level assumes finite number of distinct values. In all modern digital circuits there are just two
discrete voltage level.
Digital circuits are often called switching circuits, because the voltage levels in a digital circuit are assumed to
be switched from one value to another instantaneously. Digital circuits are also called logic circuits, because
every digital circuit obeys a certain set of logical rules.
Digital systems are extensively used in control systems, communication and measurement, computation and
data processing, digital audio and video equipment, etc.
Advantages of Digital Systems
Digital systems have number of advantages over analog systems which are summarized below:
1. Ease of Design
The digital circuits having two voltage levels, OFF and ON or LOW and HIGH, are easier to design in comparison
with analog circuits in which signals have numerical significance; so their design is more complicated.
2. Greater Accuracy and Precision
Digital systems are more accurate and precise than analog systems because they can be easily expanded to
handle more digits by adding more switching circuits.
3. Information Storage is Easy
There are different types of semiconductor memories having large capacity, which can store digital data.
4. Digital Systems Are More Versatile
It is easy to design digital systems whose operation is controlled by a set of stored instructions called program.
However, in analog systems, the available options for programming is limited.
5. Digital Systems are Less Affected by Noise
The effect of noise in analog system is more. Since in analog systems the exact values of voltages an
important. In digital system noise is not critical because only the range of values is important.
6. Digital Systems Are More Reliable
As compared to analog systems, digital systems are more reliable.
Limitations of Digital System
1. The real world is mainly analog.
2. Human does not understand the digital data.
1.1 Digital Number Systems (Positional Weight System)
Many number systems are used in digital technology. A number system is simply a way to count. The
most commonly used number systems are:

 Decimal number system

 Octal number system
 Binary number system
 Hexadecimal number system
Place value = positional weight
The digit presents in greatest positional weight = Most Significant Digit (MSD)
The digit presents in lowest positional weight = Least Significant Digit (LSD)
Radix(r) = Different symbols used to represent a number in a number system
Decimal = 10 (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9)
Binary = 2 (0, 1)
Octal = 8 (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 7)
Hexadecimal = 16 (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B, C, D, E, F)
Decimal Number System

 This system has 'base 10'.

 It has 10 distinct symbols (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9).
 This is a positional value system in which the value of a digit depends on its position.
 Let we have (453), is a decimal number then,
453 =
3 x 10 = 3
5 × 102= 50

4× 103= 400

Finally, we get, 3 + 50 + 400 = 453

We can say "3" is the least significant digit(LSD) and "4" is the most significant digit(MSD).
Binary Number System

 It has base '2' i.e. it has two base numbers 0 and 1 and these base numbers are called "Bits".
 In this number system, group of "Four bits" is known as "Nibble" and group of "Eight bits" is known as
"Byte". i.e. 4 bits = 1 Nibble; 8 bits = 1 Byte
Binary to Decimal Conversion
A binary number is converted to decimal equivalent simply by summing together the weights of various
positions in the binary number which contains '1'.
Decimal to Binary Conversion
The integral decimal number is repeatedly divided by '2' and writing the remainders after each division
until a quotient 'O' is obtained.

To convert Fractional decimal into binary, Multiply the number by "2. After first multiplication integer digit of
the product is the first digit after binary point. Later only fraction part of the first product is multiplied by 2.
The integer digit of second multiplication is second digit after binary point, and so on. The multiplication by 2
only on the fraction will continue like this based on conversion accuracy or until fractional part becomes zero.

1.1.3 Octal Number System

·
It is very important in digital computer because by using the octal number system, the user can simplify the
task of entering or reading computer instructions and thus save time.
It has a base of '8' and it posses 8 distinct symbols (0,1...7).
It is a method of grouping binary numbers in group of three bits.
Octal to Decimal Conversion
An octal number can be converted to decimal equivalent by multiplying each octal digit by its positional
weightage.

Decimal to Octal Conversion

It is similar to decimal to binary conversion.
For integral decimal, number is repeatedly divided by '8' and for fraction, number is multiplie by '8'.

Octal-to-Binary Conversion
This conversion can be done by converting each octal digit into binary individually.

Binary-to-Octal Conversion
In this conversion the binary bit stream is grouped into groups of three bits starting at the LSB and the each
group is converted into its octal equivalent. After decimal point grouping start from left.
1.1.4 Hexadecimal Number System
The base for this system is "16", which requires 16 distinct symbols to represent the numbers.
It is a method of grouping 4 bits.
This number system contains numeric digits (0, 1, 2,....9) and alphabets (A, B, C, D, E and F) both,
so this is an "ALPHANUMERIC NUMBER SYSTEM".
Microprocessor deals with instructions and data that use hexadecimal number system for
programming purposes.
To signify a hexadecimal number, a subscript 16 or letter 'H' is used i.e. (A7) 16 or (A7)H
Hexadecima Decimal Binary
l
0 0 0
1 1 1
2 2 10
3 3 11
4 4 100
5 5 101
6 6 110
7 7 111
8 8 1000
9 9 1001
A 10 1010
B 11 1011
C 12 1100
D 13 1101
E 14 1110
F 15 1111

Hexadecimal-to-Binary Conversion
For this conversion replace each hexadecimal digit by its 4 bit binary equivalent.

Binary-to-Hexadecimal Conversion
For this conversion the binary bit stream is grouped into pairs of four (starting from LSB) and hex number is
written for its equivalent binary group.
Codes
When numbers, letters or words are represented by a special group of symbols, we say that they are being
encoded, and the group of symbols is called "CODE".

Non-Binary Ex: Morse code

In Morse code series
of dots and dashes represents the letters of the alphabet.
Binary
Ex: Gray code
BCD, Excess-3 Code, 8-4-2-1 code
Error detecting
and correcting codes
Alphanumeric
Ex: Boudot's code (5 bit code) Internal code (6 bit)
ASCII code (7 bit + 1bit parity) EBCDIC (8 bit)

Binary Coded Decimal Code (BCD)

In this code, each digit of a decimal number is represented by binary equivalent. It is a 4-bit binary code.
It is also known as "8-4-2-1 code" or simply "BCD Code".
It is very useful and convenient code for input and output operations in digital circuits. Also, it is a "weighted
code system".
Advantages of BCD Code
.
·
The main advantage of the BCD code is relative ease of converting to and from decimal. Only 4-bit code groups
for the decimal digits "O through 9" need to be remembered.
This case of conversion is especially important from the hardware standpoint.
→ In 4-bit binary formats, total number of possible representation = 24 = 16 Then, Valid BCD codes = 10
⇒ In 8-bit binary formats,
Invalid BCD codes = 6
Valid BCD codes = 100
1.2.2 Excess-3 Code
·
It is a 4-bit code.
Invalid BCD codes 256-100 156
=
It can be derived from BCD code by adding "3" to each coded number.
It is an "unweighted code".
It is a "self-complimenting code" i.e. the 1's compliment of an excess-3 number is the excess-3
code for the 9's compliment of corresponding decimal number.
This code is used in arithmetic circuits because of its property of self-complimenting.

1.2.3 Gray Code

It is a very useful code also called "minimum change codes" in which only one bit in the co
group changes when going from one step to the next.
It is also known as "Reflected code".
It is an unweighted code, meaning that the bit positions in the code groups do not have any
specific weight assigned to them.
These are used in instrumentation such as shaft encoders to measures angular displacement or This code is
not well suited for arithmetic operations but it finds application in input/output devices
linear encoders for measurement of linear displacement.
Binary-to-Gray Conversion
MSB' in the gray code is same as corresponding digit in binary number.
Starting from "Left to Right", add each adjacent pair of binary bits to get next gray code bit
(Discard the carry if generated).
Arithmetic Operations
We are all familiar with the arithmetic operations like addition, subtraction, multiplication and division using
decimal numbers. Such operations can also be performed on digital numbers.
1.3.1 Binary Addition
0+0=0; 0+1=1
1+0=1; 1+1=10
1.3.2 Binary Subtraction
0-0 0; 10-11 (Borrow)
1-01; 1-1=0
While subtracting a large number from a smaller number, we can subtract the smaller from the larger and
change the sign.