4

M O V I N G A B O U T

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4.1 Vehicles in Motion

Students learn to:
• identify that a typical journey involves speed changes
• distinguish between the instantaneous and average speed of vehicles and other bodies
• distinguish between scalar and vector quantities in equations
• compare instantaneous and average speed with instantaneous and average velocity
• define average velocity as displacement divided by time.

Transport by cycle, car, train, and aeroplane makes our movements more complex.
Our journeys have starting and finishing points and travel time and speed limits
become important to us. Understanding our own motion and that of other objects is
important.
To interact effectively we must learn to predict how moving objects will behave. This
learning process is based on observations of position and distance, and the way in which
these change with time.
In the process of crossing the road we have learnt to estimate the distance, the rate of
approach and the most likely path followed by cars and trucks. When we play ball games,
we similarly make estimates and predictions concerning the motion of the ball.
This analysis of motion seems to occur automatically. The study of kinematics
(a description of how objects move) and dynamics (an explanation of why objects move
as they do) requires that we place the observations and predictions on a more scientific
basis.
As in all science, we start by considering the description of the simplest form of motion,
in which objects move in straight lines without rotation. This is known as linear motion.

A c tivit y

4.1 As a class obtain a map of the Sydney to Melbourne or Brisbane route, showing
both roads and passenger rail lines. Work out a possible route by car, rail
(a station by station timetable would help), ship and aeroplane. Use the scale
on the map and a string (or other device) to estimate the road distance, rail
distance, sea distance and distance as the crow flies. Estimate the travelling
times for each form of travel using timetables, schedules, speed limits,
personal experience etc. Compare these times. Note:
• Departure and arrival times include taxiing on runways.
• Airports are not in the city centre.
• Car journeys should be interrupted by rest stops every two hours.
Why is it useful to identify speed, direction and changes in speed and direction
to explain differences in estimates of a journey?
Note: Qantas flying time from Sydney to Melbourne is 1 hour 20 minutes, and
from Sydney to Brisbane is 1 hour 25 minutes.

Reference frames
All measurements are made relative to a frame of reference. When we describe the
position and motion of a moving object we need to state clearly which reference point we
are using to make the observations. The following situations illustrate what is meant by
‘frame of reference’.

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Situation 1
When crossing a road in front of a car:
• we look at and observe the approaching car
• we observe the changing position of the car and estimate its speed and path
• we estimate how fast we can move
• we calculate the path we should follow to cross the road without occupying the same
position in space as the car at the same time.
If we make the correct predictions, we will not need to study impacts, energy exchange
between moving objects, or the deformation of materials.
If we look in detail at estimating the car’s distance and velocity, we find that it is
comparatively easy to do this in daylight. We normally have a feeling for the distance of
stationary objects such as lamp posts or telephone boxes. We automatically estimate the
car’s distance from us in terms of this stationary background or frame of reference.
What happens when we lose this reference frame? Suppose it is a dark night; how do we
estimate the distance of the car now? What will happen if the object we assume to be a car
turns out to be a motor bike with a double headlamp?
Situation 2
When we describe the position of an object or place (e.g. Sydney), it is not useful to say
‘Sydney is seventy kilometres away’ unless we state seventy kilometres from where and in
what direction. We need to describe an object’s position with respect to a reference point
that is easily recognised by others.
Situation 3
When we say a plane is travelling at 1000 km h–1 we usually assume that this speed is
measured relative to the ground or the Earth. However, to an observer sitting on the Sun,
the Earth is itself moving at almost 107 000 km h–1. Such an observer could say that the
plane had a speed of 108 000 km h–1 relative to the Sun (Figure 4.1)
Figure 4.1
—1
The aircraft 1000 km h
—1
travels at 1000 km h
1000 km h–1
relative to the
Earth and at
108 000 km h–1
relative to the 107 000 km h—1
Sun.

The aircraft travels at:

1000 km h —1relative to the Earth
and at
108 000 km h—1 relative to the Sun

The Sun

In physics, we often represent a frame of reference by drawing a set of coordinate axes.

One-dimensional (1-D) motion, in which an object moves in one direction only, is the
simplest form of motion to describe.
Figure 4.2
A one-dimensional x axis
reference frame.
–4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4

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E x e r ci s e

4.1 Draw a 1-D grid showing an object at position:

a 5 b –2

Scalars and vectors

Some quantities can be completely specified by a single value, which gives the size or
magnitude of the quantity. We call these quantities scalars. Scalars include such things as
mass, length, time and temperature.
Other quantities cannot be completely specified by magnitude alone, but must also
include a direction. In two-dimensions, it is not sufficient to say that to drive from
Melbourne to Sydney you must ‘drive 600 km’. You must include a direction: ‘drive 600 km
in a NE direction’. Such quantities are known as vectors. Position or displacement is one
of the fundamental vector quantities. Many other vector quantities that are derived from
displacement, for example velocity, acceleration, force, and momentum, are also vectors.

E x e r ci s e

4.2 Why is 10 kg not a vector quantity?

Representation of a vector quantity

In Figure 4.3 each displacement is represented on a scale diagram by a line whose
direction is the same as that of the displacement, and whose length represents the size or
magnitude of the displacement.
Such a representation need not be restricted to displacement. We can represent any
vector in a similar way by a directional line or arrow. Vector quantities in the text will be
indicated in bold type.
Figure 4.3 y
Representation of
one unit scale
vector quantities. vector magnitude: 5 units
vector direction: along x-axis
y in a positive direction

x x

vector magnitude: 3 units

vector direction: along y-axis
in a negative direction 30°

vector magnitude: 3 units

vector direction: 30 degrees from the x-axis

Distance and displacement

The human senses are far better at distinguishing changes in position than in measuring
accurate positions.
Displacement is defined as the change of position of an object and is often referred to
by the symbol ∆s. (The symbol ‘∆’ is used to indicate ‘change in’).
Distance (l ) refers to how far an object has moved.
If, when first observed, a body is at position s1 = 2 m and at a later time is seen to be at
a position s2 = 5 m, then the displacement is given by:
∆s = s 2 – s1 = 5 m – 2 m = 3 m

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Figure 4.4 x1 ∆x
An object at
two different x2
positions. We can
indicate its
displacement, but
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9m
not necessarily
the distance one possible path
travelled. distance travelled = 5 m + 4 m + 2 m = 11 m
displacement = 5 m – 2 m = 3 m to the right

From the information given in Figure 4.4, we have no way of knowing how the body
got from s1 to s2; we know only that it has been displaced 3 m between our observations.
We have no information on the distance travelled by the body.

E x e r ci s e s

4.3 Describe another possible path along which the object in Figure 4.4 could have
travelled.
4.4 A car is observed at two different positions as indicated on the diagram. The
car is observed to follow the path indicated.

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 km

a What is the distance travelled by the car?

b What is the car’s displacement?

Speed and velocity

If we make a table of the position of an object and the times at which each position was
recorded, we can discuss how its position changes with time. In everyday life we use the
terms speed and velocity of an object as if they mean exactly the same thing. To a
physicist there are subtle differences in meaning, just as there is a difference between
distance travelled and displacement.
speed (v) = the distance (l ) travelled by an object per unit of time
velocity (v) = the displacement (s) of an object per unit of time
Both speed and velocity have the units of metres per second (m s–1).
As we shall see later, when we measure the speed of an object, we concern ourselves
only with the total distance travelled and do not worry about changes in direction.
However, when we calculate the velocity of an object we need to worry about the
direction in which the object moves as well as the size of that motion.
In general, we calculate the average speed and average velocity using:
∆l
average speed = v = ∆t

∆s s2 – s1
average velocity = v = ∆t = t – t
2 1

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E x ample
P roble m
Sydney lies 60 km due north of Wollongong, as the currrawong flies. You drive to Sydney in
45 minutes and find that your odometer records that you have in fact travelled 70 km.
a What was your average speed and average velocity for the journey (in m s–1)?
b Why is the distance travelled not the same as the distance between Wollongong and
Sydney?
S olution
Step 1: Note down the information you have been given and convert to the units requested.
distance travelled = 70 km = 70 × 1000 m = 70 000 m or 7 × 104 m
displacement = 60 km = 60 × 1000 m = 60 000 m or 6 × 104 m north
elapsed time = 45 minutes = 45 × 60 s = 2700 s or 2.7 × 103 s
Step 2: Note down the equations you think are useful and calculate the required values.
distance 7 × 104 m
a Average speed = = 2.7 × 103 s = 25.9 m s–1
time

displacement 6 × 104 m
Average velocity = = 2.7 × 103 s = 22.2 m s–1 towards Sydney
time
b The distance travelled is not the same as the actual displacement between the two
cities because the road travelled is not a straight line—any curves or hills add to the
distance travelled.

E x e r ci s e s

4.5 A sprinter runs around a 100 m radius circular track back to his starting position.
a What distance did he run?
b What is his displacement?

4.6 A car travels from A to B by the path indicated in the diagram. The journey
takes 25 minutes and the odometer indicates that the trip was 11.2 km.

A B

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 km

a What is the distance travelled by the car going from A to B?

b What is the car’s displacement going from A to B?
c Calculate the average speed of the car.
d Calculate the average velocity of the car.

Displacement–time (position–time) graphs

It is often useful to present records of motion in the form of a graph. For example, the
position of a moving object was recorded at four different times and the results shown in
Table 4.1. When analysing motion, we can plot the position or displacement of the object
on the vertical axis (y-axis) and the elapsed time along the horizontal axis (x-axis).

Table 4.1 Displacement and time measurements

Displacement (m) 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0
Time (s) 1.0 3.0 5.0 7.0

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6
Figure 4.5
A displacement–
time (or 5
position–time)
graph. 4

Position (m)
3

interpolation
2

1 observation

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Time (s)

Note that the four plotted points are the four direct observations. When we draw a
line between these points we are assuming that the motion was uniform. This is called
interpolation.

E x e r ci s e

4.7 The following table records the displacement of an object at different times.
Draw a displacement–time graph for the object.

Displacement (m) 0 2 4 4 4 6 6 4 2 0
Time (s) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Consider an object at the 0 point on a one-dimensional reference frame. It moves to

the right (positive direction) for 2 seconds and is then at position 4 metres. It remains
stationary there for 1 second and then returns to its starting point taking another
3 seconds. This is shown in Figure 4.6.
Figure 4.6 journey takes 2 seconds
A one-dimensional wait 1 second
reference frame journey takes 3 seconds
for the motion of
–6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
an object.

Position (metres)

Position–time diagrams can be extremely useful in representing motion. They can be

used to discuss the distance travelled and to calculate the velocity at any given time.
Examine the position–time diagram of Figure 4.7 derived from Figure 4.6.
Figure 4.7 6
Displacement–time
(position–time) B C
4
graph for the
motion of the
2
object described
Position (m)

in Figure 4.6.
0 A D
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Time (s)
–2

–4

–6

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• The section AB represents a change in displacement away from the reference point to
the right (in a positive direction).
• The section BC has zero slope (i.e. is flat). The object is stationary here.
• The section CD represents a change in displacement toward the reference point (in a
negative direction).
• At point D the object is at the same position as at point A. The displacement of the
object at this point is zero.

E x e r ci s e

4.8 Refer to the graph you drew for the previous exercises and indicate the time
intervals when:
a the object’s displacement is increasing with time
b the object is stationary
c the object’s displacement is decreasing with time.

Slope and velocity

Average velocity
The velocity of an object is a measure of the displacement occurring in one second. It is
given in units of m s–1 (m/s) (or in everyday life km h–1 (km/h))
The slope of any graph is defined as the ratio of rise (∆y) to run (∆x):
∆y y2 – y1
slope = ∆x = x – x
2 1

For our position–time graph, the slope is given by:

∆y ∆s s2 – s1
∆x = ∆t = t2 – t1
which is the average velocity of the body between t 2 and t1.
We can calculate the average velocity between time t1 = 1 s and t2 = 3 s for motion given
in Figure 4.5 where s1 = 1 m and s2 = 2 m:
∆s 2m–1m –1
∆t = 3 m – 1 s = 0.5 m s
The position–time diagram takes the form of a straight line graph. The diagram has the
same slope whatever time interval is used. Such a diagram indicates that the velocity of
the object is unchanging or constant with time.
A body moving with constant, uniform velocity travels equal displacements in equal
intervals of time. This kind of motion is represented on the position–time diagram as a
straight line.
Examine Figure 4.8 which shows the displacement of an object against time.
Figure 4.8
A displacement–time
(or position–time) 5
graph.
4
Position (m)

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Time (s)

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We can calculate the average velocity for each of the sections on the graph.
∆s 3m–0m
From t = 0 to 3 s: vav = –1
∆t = 3 s – 0 s = 1.0 m s

∆s 3m–3m
From t = 3 to 4 s: vav = ∆t = = 0.0 m s–1
4s–3s

∆s 6m–3m
From t = 4 to 5 s: vav = ∆t = = 3.0 m s–1
5s–4s

∆s 6m–6m
From t = 5 to 6 s: vav = ∆t = = 0.0 m s–1
6s–5s

∆s 4m–6m
From t = 6 to 8 s: vav = ∆t = = –1.0 m s–1
8s–6s
Note that when the slope of the line is positive the velocity is in the positive direction.
When the slope is zero (i.e. the line is horizontal) the velocity is zero. When the slope is
negative the velocity is negative, which simply means that the direction of motion is in
the opposite direction to the original motion.
We can also calculate the average velocity for the time period plotted:
∆s 4m–0m
From t = 0 to 8 s: vav = ∆t = = –0.5 m s–1
8s–0s
Note that this situation is far more typical of a real journey. An automobile trip to the
city would involve sections at 50 km h–1 through local streets, others at 110 km h–1 on
freeways, and slow creeps through traffic jams. There would also be stops at intersections
and traffic lights, and faster speeds when overtaking.

E x e r ci s e

4.9 Refer to your graph in Exercise 4.7 and determine the average velocity for the
time intervals:
a t = 0 s, to t = 2 s b t = 0 s, to t = 4 s c t = 6 s, to t = 9 s d t = 0 s, to t = 9 s

Instantaneous velocity
In many cases the position–time diagram of the motion will not be a straight line. The
slope and hence the velocity will vary, depending on the time interval chosen.
When the time interval chosen is very small, approaching zero, the ratio of the
distance over the time will give you the instantaneous speed. It is the speed at that
‘instant’ without reference to direction. A simple way to estimate the instantaneous
velocity at any point on the position–time diagram is by drawing the tangent to the
curve at that point. The tangent is a line that just touches the curve. The instantaneous
velocity is the slope of the tangent to the curve. (In a car it is the velocity recorded on a
speedometer.) In Figure 4.9 the instantaneous velocity at time t = 2.0 s is given by the
slope of the tangent:
∆s 0.0 m – 5.0 m
v = ∆t = = 0.91 m s–1
5.5 s – 0.0 s

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Figure 4.9 6
The
instantaneous 4
velocity at time
t = 2.0 s is given
2
by the slope of

Position (m)
the tangent to
the curve at that 0
1 2 3 4 5
point. Time (s)
–2

–4

–6

E x e r ci s e

4.10 Examine the following graph.

50

40
Displacement (m)

30

20

10

0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Time (s)

a Determine the average velocity between time t = 1.0 s and t = 2.0 s.

b Estimate the instantaneous velocity at time t = 4.0 s.
c Estimate the instantaneous velocity at time t = 6.0 s.

Experimental techniques for making position–time

diagrams
We can measure the position of a moving object at regular time intervals using a
number of techniques including multi-flash photography, video freeze-frame
techniques and mechanical ticker timers.

Multi-flash photography
We can set up an experiment in which a moving body moves in front of a ruler. The
scene is illuminated only by a flash gun or stroboscope that fires every 0.1 seconds. The
experiment is photographed by a camera whose shutter is kept open while the moving
object passes in front of it. Figure 4.10 illustrates this technique.
The camera will record an image of the scene at every flash. Between flashes only the
ball will have moved and will therefore be recorded in a different position. The positions
of the ball may be measured directly from the picture, and position–time diagrams
produced.
To avoid parallax (in which the perspective affects the experiment) the camera should
be placed some distance from the ruler.

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Figure 4.10 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
Multi-flash
photography can
be used to follow
the motion of an
object.

multi-flash

camera with shutter

open continuously

Video techniques
This technique is similar to that of time-lapse cine photography, which was often used in
the past to slow down or speed up the opening of a flower. The method is simplified by
the use of a video camera. The video is played back frame by frame and the position of the
moving object and the time the frame was taken is noted. Once again, if the camera is too
close to the ruler, perspective and parallax will affect the results.

Ticker timers
A ticker timer is a simple mechanical device that produces dots or ticks, at regular time
intervals, on a strip of paper as the paper passes through the timer. If this strip of paper is
attached to the moving body, the position of each tick can be used to record the position
of the moving object.
Figure 4.11
ticker timer
Using a ticker
timer to record tape
motion.

8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1st dot recorded

regularly spaced large distance start

constant velocity high velocity

Table 4.2 Ticker timer measurements

Dot number 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Time (s) 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8
Distance from start (cm) 1.0 4.0 5.5 6.5 7.0 7.5 8.0 8.5

A c tivitie s

4.2 Plan, choose equipment, and perform a first-hand investigation to measure the
average speed of a vehicle, object or toy.
a Discuss why your procedure allows for valid and reliable data to be collected.
b Use correct SI units when collecting data and correct symbols in any
calculations.
4.3 Determine if the speedometers of various vehicles measure average speed or
instantaneous speed (e.g. exercise cycle, car).
a How may the problem be researched?
b What kind of technology or strategy will you use that will assist efficient
analysis?
c Will you have to deal with any safety issues and how will you address them?

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Velocity–time graphs
We are aware that a car undergoes acceleration when it starts from rest. Acceleration is
the change in velocity per unit of time. As a car slows it is also accelerating but in a
direction opposite to the motion of the car. In this case we commonly say that the car is
decelerating.
We can use the table of position and time to determine the velocity of a moving body
at a given time. First, we convert the displacement–time data to velocity–time data using
the following relationship:
∆s s2 – s1
v = ∆t = t – t
2 1

t1 – t2
at the time in the middle of the interval: t =
2
The results of an experiment in which the displacement of an object was recorded at
regular time intervals are shown in Table 4.3. The derived velocity–time data are also given.

Table 4.3 Displacement–time and velocity–time measurements

Displacement (m) Time (s)

Velocity (m s–1) Time (s)
0 0
2 0.5
2 1
6 1.5
8 2
10 2.5
18 3
14 3.5
32 4
18 4.5
50 5
22 5.5
72 6

The following example shows how a typical set of data is derived. The displacement
changes from 8 to 18 m over the time from 2 to 3 seconds. Now the velocity is given by
the relation:
∆s s2 – s1 18 m – 8 m
velocity = ∆t = t – t = = 10 m s–1
2 1 3s– 2s

t1 + t2 3s+2s
at time = 2 = = 2.5 s
2
Just as we can display the changing position of a position–time diagram (Figure 4.12),
so too can we display the variations in velocity using a velocity–time diagram (Figure
4.13). In this case the graph is linear. This indicates that the velocity is changing at a
constant rate with time. Acceleration is defined as the rate of change of velocity. The slope
of the velocity–time diagram is the acceleration of the object:
∆v v2 – v1
a= ∆ = t –t
2 1

In this case we can determine the acceleration from the graph. Using the coordinates
(5.0, 20) and (0.5, 2):
∆v v2 – v1 20 m s–2 – 2 m s–2
a = ∆t = t – t = 5.0 s – 0.5 s = 4.0 m s–2
2 1

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80 25
70
20
60
Displacement (m)

Velocity (m s–1)
50 15
40
30 10

20
5
10
0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Time (s)
Time (s)

Figure 4.12 A displacement– time graph of accelerated Figure 4.13 The velocity–time graph derived from the
motion. displacement–time data displayed in Figure 4.12.

E x e r ci s e
4.11 Given the following displacement–time data for the motion of an object,
determine the velocity–time data and plot the velocity versus time graph.
Displacement (m) 0 1.5 6.0 13.5 24.0 37.5 54.0
Time (s) 0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0

Average acceleration
The average acceleration of a moving object is a measure of the rate of change of its
velocity, or the change in velocity in one second of time.
The slope of the velocity–time diagram is given by:
∆v v2 – v1
∆t = t2 – t1
This is the average acceleration of the body between t2 and t1.

E x ample
P roble m
Calculate the average acceleration between t = 4.5 s and 5.5 s using the following information:
at t1 = 4.5 s, v1 = +20 m s–1, and at t2 = 5.5 s, v2 = –10 m s–1.
S olution
Substituting in the relation:
∆v v2 – v1
a = ∆t = t – t
2 1

–10 m s–1 – (+20 m s–1) –30 m s–1

= 5.5 s – 4.5 s = 1 = –30 m s–2

Instantaneous acceleration
The slope of the velocity–time diagram, and hence the average acceleration, will vary
depending on the time interval chosen to study. If the velocity–time graph is not linear,
the instantaneous acceleration at a point is equal to the slope of a tangent to that point.

Displacement: the area under a velocity–time graph

Remember how we deduced velocities from displacement–time diagrams?
∆s s2 – s1
v = ∆t = t – t
2 1

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We can rearrange this relation so that

v∆t = v × (t2 – t1) = ∆s
If we look at the velocity–time diagram of an object moving at constant velocity
(Figure 4.14), it can be seen that v × (t2 – t1) is the area bounded by the curve and the two
axes. This relation between area and displacement holds for any shape of
the velocity–time diagram whether the object is experiencing constant acceleration or
not.
In the case illustrated, the displacement from t = 0 to t = 8 s is:
s = (4 m s–1 × 5 s) + (0.5 × 4 m s–1 × 3 s) = 20 m + 6 m = 26 m
Figure 4.14 5
Displacement is uniform velocity uniform acceleration
the area under a 4
velocity–time
Velocity (m s–1)

graph. 3
displacement
2 = 4 m s–1× 5 s
= 20 m
displacement
1 = 0.5 × 4 m s–1 × 3 s
=6m
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Time (s)

E x ample
P roble m
To determine acceleration and displacement from the velocity–time graph.
Consider the following velocity–time graph. We can divide it into three sections: the first
section is from time t = 0 s to time t = 6 s, the second section is from t = 6 s to t = 14 s, and
the third is from t = 14 s to t = 22 s.
50

40
Velocity (m s–1)

30

20

10

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22
Time (s)
S olution
The figure is a trapezium with
height (h) = 40 m s–1
top edge (a) = 14 – 6 = 8 s
base (b) = 22 s
1 1
The area of a trapezium = h(a + b) m = × 40 × (8 + 22) m
2 2
= 600 m
To find the acceleration we can divide the graph into three sections. The first section is
from time t = 0 s to time t = 6 s, the second section is from t = 6 s to t = 14 s, and the third
section is from t = 14 s to t = 22 s.
The acceleration for each of these sections is shown in the following table. Note the
negative acceleration in the third section.

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Calculation of acceleration, a (m s–2)

Section 1 Section 2 Section 3
40 m s–1 – 0 m s–1 0 m s–1 – 40 m s–1
a= a = 0 m s–2 a=
6s–0s 8s–0s
= 6.7 m s–2 = –5.0 m s–2

E x e r ci s e

4.12 Examine the following velocity–time graph. Determine the acceleration and
displacement during each of the eight sections indicated. At what time is the
total displacement from the starting position equal to zero?
30

20

10
Velocity (m s–1)

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22
Time (s)
–10

–20

–30
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Section

Uniform acceleration in one-dimension

In real life we observe two main kinds of motions: those in which the acceleration is
constant and unchanging with time, and those in which the acceleration varies during
the course of the observations.
Figure 4.15
Motion graphs
showing
corresponding
displacement–time,
velocity–time and
acceleration–time
relations for
situations of
uniform velocity
and uniform
acceleration.

One of the simplest forms of motion we can study is that in which an object moves with
a constant acceleration.
When there is no acceleration the velocity remains constant during the observations.
Examples of motion with zero acceleration are difficult to find in everyday life. It is more
common to observe motion in which the acceleration is almost zero. These include:
• parachutists some time after opening their chutes or when they are in free fall
• ice skaters who have skates that are totally frictionless
• ball bearings rolling on a flat, very smooth surface
• a car that is being driven at exactly the speed limit.

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Can you think of any other examples?

It is also common to observe motion in which the acceleration is non-zero but
constant: that is the velocity increases by a fixed amount each second. Examples which
approximate to this kind of motion include:
• bodies falling freely under gravitational attraction
• a car moving on a flat road, while the driver keeps the accelerator at a fixed position
• an aircraft being catapulted by a steam catapult from an aircraft carrier.
Can you think of any other examples of motion with constant acceleration?
There are many different conventions and symbols used in describing motion. We will
use the following convention in this book:
s = displacement
u = initial velocity
v = final velocity
a = acceleration (and is constant)
t = elapsed time from the start (the clock starts at the beginning of
the motion)
If the acceleration is constant then we can rewrite
∆v v–u
a = ∆t = t
as v = u + at

Bodies falling freely under gravity

One of the most common examples of motion in a straight line with uniform acceleration
is that of an object which falls freely, influenced only by gravity. Until Galileo performed
some of the earliest experiments which showed that both heavy and light objects in the
absence of air and other resistance fall with constant acceleration, people thought that
heavy objects fell faster than light objects. Galileo’s experiments showed that, in ideal
circumstances, two objects of different masses dropped from the same height at the
same time should strike the ground simultaneously.
At a given location on the Earth and in the absence of air resistance, all objects fall with
the same uniform acceleration.
We term this uniform acceleration the acceleration due to gravity on the Earth and
associate it with the symbol g. The average value for g used in calculations is 9.80 m s–2,
and is in a downward direction. The actual value of g, however, depends on the
geographic location, as shown in Table 4.4.
Table 4.4 Values of g around the world
Location g (m s–2)
Equator 9.780
Melbourne 9.800
New Zealand 9.800
South Pole 9.832
Sydney 9.797

Using velocity–time diagrams to calculate displacement–time data

Consider an object initially at rest dropped from a height of 500 m. The displacement–time
diagram is easily derived from the velocity–time graph.
Figure 4.16 is a graph of acceleration versus time. The acceleration is constant at
9.80 m s–2 in a downward direction. It must be remembered that the gradient of a

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 Moving About

Figure 4.16 Time (s)

A graph of 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
acceleration 0
versus time. –1
–2

Acceleration (m s–2)
–3
–4
–5
–6
–7
–8
–9
–10
Figure 4.17 Time (s)
A graph of 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
velocity versus 0
time. –10
–20
–30
–40
Velocity

–50
–60
–70
–80
–90
–100

velocity–time graph gives the acceleration experienced by the object. The slope of the
velocity–time graph must therefore be:
• negative (velocity decreasing as time increases)
• equal in magnitude to 9.80 m s–2.
It is known that the starting velocity at t = 0 is v = 0 m s–1. At least one other point is
needed to plot the line. Consider the point where t = 4 s, with a slope of –9.8 m s–2 then
v = –39.2 m s–1. Other points can be determined in a similar manner.
The velocity–time graph can now be drawn (Figure 4.17).
The displacement–time graph can be drawn (Figure 4.18) by measuring the area under
the v–t diagram between t = 0 and successive times. For example, in Figure 4.18, the
displacement at time equal to 5 s is:
5 s × –50 m s–1 = –125 m

Figure 4.18 Time (s)

A graph of 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
0
displacement
versus time.
–100
Displacement (m)

–200

–300

–400

–500

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E x e r ci s e s

The motion in the following exercises is in a straight line.

4.13 An object travelling in a straight line undergoes a change in velocity of 4 m s–1
in 2.0 s. What is its acceleration?
4.14 A bicycle accelerates from rest and attains a velocity of 21 m s–1 in 3.5 s.
Assuming that the acceleration was constant, determine its magnitude.
4.15 A car moving at 30 m s–1 decelerates at a uniform rate of 2 m s–2. How long will
it take to stop? What will be its displacement during this time?

A c tivit y

4.4 Undertake Experiment 4.2 Acceleration.

Vector diagrams
So far we have been dealing with motion in one dimension. In these experiments the size
or magnitude of displacement, velocity and acceleration was measured.
In real life, however, we rarely move in just one direction. Our movement can be
forward or backward, to the left or right, and up and down.
Since we move in two or three dimensions, if we are to extend our observations into
real-life situations, we need to develop a shorthand that will allow us to discuss the
direction as well as the magnitude of quantities.
Imagine that you are trying to program a robot to run a maze. The robot is fairly simple
and can only move straight ahead. It must stop in order to turn. We could draw a map of
its path as a series of arrows. Each arrow would represent the distance and direction
travelled by the robot. The map would look a little like Figure 4.19
The arrows provide an accurate picture of what is going on. We can take each distance
and direction and program the robot to run the maze.
We can use Figure 4.19 to measure the total distance travelled by the robot from start
to finish. We can also measure the shortest distance between start and finish. This would
tell us how far away from the start ‘as the crow flies’ the robot is once it reaches the end of
the maze. This quantity is known as the displacement.
Figure 4.19
Path of a robot
in a maze.

Finish Start

Displacement
Displacement is defined as a change of position. We can give directions in the form ‘go
4 km due north, followed by 6 km east, and 10 km due south. Then dig under the old tree
to find something to your advantage’.

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 Moving About

On a map we would represent the path traced out by the person following these
instruction as shown in Figure 4.20.
Each separate part of the instructions represents a single displacement.
• Instruction 1: ‘Walk 4 km north’ is the displacement of position 2 from position 1.
• Instruction 2: ‘Walk 6 km east’ is the displacement of position 3 from position 2.
• Instruction 3: ‘Walk 10 km south’ is the displacement of position 4 from position 3.
Figure 4.20
N
Displacement is
the straight line
distance from
the start of the 2 3
first track to the
finish of the
third track.
W 1 E
Start

Finish 4

Someone else would look at the map and say it would be simpler to walk directly from
the start (position 1) to position 4. If the person were to make a scale diagram, the length
of the line between position 1 and position 4 would be measured to be 8.49 km (compared
with the total distance of 20 km walked along the indicated path).
Displacement then is the straight line distance from start to finish in a specified
direction.

A c tivit y

4.5 Obtain a map of your local area. Draw in the route you normally take to school.
Estimate the distance between home and school. What is the displacement or
distance ‘as the crow flies’ from your home to the school?

Trigonometry: Directions and angles

If we are to feel at ease in dealing with vectors we need to remind ourselves of the
relationships found in right-angle (90º) triangles between the angles and the ratios of the
lengths of the sides.
In Figure 4.21 the capital letters refer to the angles, whereas lower case letters refer to
the lengths of the sides. The following trigonometric relations apply to a right-angle
triangle.
a opposite
sine (A) or sin(A) = =
c hypotenuse

b adjacent
cosine (A) or cos(A) = =
c hypotenuse

a opposite
tangent (A) or tan(A) = =
b adjacent

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Figure 4.21 B
Geometric
relations in a
triangle.
c a

A b C

Vector manipulation
Vectors in two dimensions can be described in various ways. The simplest way is to use
compass directions: north, south, east and west. By convention, north or south is stated
first and then the angle between it and east or west.
Thus, in Figure 4.22, vector A is said to be south 30° east or S 30° E and vector B,
N 73° W. It is also correct to say that A is 60° south of east and B is 17° north of west.
Southwest is S 45°W and no other angle. Similarly NE is N 45° E.
Figure 4.22 N N
Vectors can be
described in
terms of B
73°
compass W E W E
directions.
A
30°

S S

As well, true bearing from north can be used where due north is 0°, east is 90°, south
is 180° and west 270°. Vector A in Figure 4.22 has a true bearing of 150°, while vector B is
at 287°.
If compass directions are not given, any object or motion may be used, for example at
30° to the wall, or at 15° to the original direction of A.
A vector always has magnitude and direction.
There are many cases in the world around us where more than one vector quantity is
involved. To determine the resulting effect of several vector quantities acting at once, we
need to perform some form of arithmetic.
We apply normal arithmetic to scalar quantities. Some of the allowed manipulations of
scalars are addition, subtraction, multiplication and division
In the world of vector quantities, in which direction must also be considered, we have
developed similar rules that allow us to add and subtract vector quantities. These rules
take into account both the magnitude and direction of the vectors being manipulated.
This is necessary as we cannot just add magnitudes: for example, 3 m south + 4 m east is
not equal to 7 m as explained below.
We will represent a vector by use of bold type (e.g. vector A as A).

Vector addition
Consider walking 3 m south, then 5 m east. We can represent these two displacements by
vectors A and B as shown in Figure 4.23. Here north is taken as the positive direction of
the y-axis. When we determine the final displacement from the start (resultant
displacement) using a scale diagram we are in fact adding the two vectors. The line
joining the starting point to the final position is the resultant displacement, vector C.

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Figure 4.23 North North

Vector addition. y-axis y-axis x-axis
East East
x-axis
A

North
y-axis
x-axis
East

In the more general case of vector addition, the sum of two vectors A + B is also the
resultant vector C. This resultant vector is produced by joining the tail of the second
vector B to the head of the first vector A, then drawing a straight line from the tail of A to
the head of B.
The magnitude and direction of the resultant vector C can be obtained by measure-
ment with a ruler and protractor, or by geometry.
Using geometry, the magnitude of vector C is given by:
C 2 = 32 + 52
C = 5.8 m
The direction of vector C is given by:
3
tan θ =
5

3
θ = tan–1 = 31°
5
Thus C is 5.8 m at 31° south of east.
Note that the order of addition of vectors is not important: F + G = G + F.
Figure 4.24
F G
Vector addition:
F + G = G + F.

G
H F
F H

A vector quantity always has magnitude and direction from some reference point.
The resultant of any number of vectors is the single vector that could replace them and
produce the same result.

E x e r ci s e s

4.16 Determine the resultant of the additions of:

a A+B b B+C c A+C

A B C

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4.17 Find the resultant of the following vector additions

a 6 units east + 5 units east b 2 units west + 3 units east
c 1 unit south + 4 units south d 7mS+9mN

4.18 Determine the resultant vector from the sum of vector X and vector Y as drawn.

X Y

Negative vectors and vector subtraction

A negative vector is simply a vector in a negative direction. For instance a displacement of
10 m to the right of the origin would be a positive displacement vector. The negative of
this vector would represent a displacement of 10 m to the left of the origin.
In normal scalar arithmetic we can think of a subtraction of two numbers as an
addition, with the second number having a negative sign:

5 – 3 = 5 + (–3) = 2

We can deal with vector subtraction in a similar way. We first reverse the vector that is
being subtracted then perform a simple vector addition.
Figure 4.25 North
Vector North North
subtraction y-axis
y-axis y-axis x-axis
A – B = D or East East
A + (–B) = D. x-axis
A
–B
B
East
x-axis

North
y-axis
D
–B

x-axis
East
A

E x e r ci s e s

4.19 Determine the resultants of the following vector subtractions

a A–B e 2 units west – 3 units east
b B–C f 1 unit south – 4 units south
c A–C g 7mS–9mN
d 6 units east – 5 units east
A B C

4.20 Determine the resultant vector for vector X minus vector Y as drawn.

X Y

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Adding and subtracting more than t wo vectors

Vector addition and subtraction need not be limited to two vectors. Any number of vectors
may be added or subtracted to yield a resultant vector using the methods discussed.
Figure 4.26
Adding three 5mE 4.2 m NE
vectors A, B
A C
and C. 2mS
N
B

45°
E
A+B+C=D
D

A
C
B

45°
D is 8.1 m 7.1° N of E

Consider the sum of three vectors A, B and C (Figure 4.26). The magnitude and
direction of the resultant vector D can be obtained by measurement with a ruler and
protractor, or by geometry. D is found to be 8.1 m 7.1º N of E.

E x e r ci s e

4.21 Determine the resultant vector sums for the vectors as drawn:
a A+B+C+D b C+B–D c D–C–B

A B D
C

Application of vector addition and subtraction

One application of vector subtraction is to find the change in a vector such as velocity.
This occurs when a moving object undergoes a change in direction.
Change in velocity = final velocity – initial velocity
∆v = v – u
E x ample
P roble m
Consider a car that is travelling south at 50 km h–1 and turns so that it is travelling west at 50
km h–1. There is no change in speed, but there is a change in velocity (∆v).
S olution
v = 50 km h–1 west
u = 50 km h–1 south
To find ∆v we add –u to v
∆v = v + (–u)
Since u = 50 km h–1 south, then –u = 50 km h–1 north.
∆v = v + (–u) = 50 km h–1 west + 50 km h–1 north
Figure 4.27 shows this vector addition diagrammatically. Using this scale diagram we find
∆v = 71 km h–1 NW.

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Figure 4.27
The change
in velocity ∆v
50 km h–1 N
∆v = v + (–u).
–u

50 km h–1 W
v

E x e r ci s e s

4.22 An athlete runs 10 km north along a straight road then turns and runs 5 km east
along another straight road. What are the magnitude and direction of the
athlete’s displacement?
4.23 A car travels 30 km due south then 40 km due west. What are the magnitude and
direction of the car’s displacement?
4.24 A car travels from A to B as indicated in the diagram.
4 km E
A

2 km S

B
2 km W
What are the magnitude and direction of the car’s displacement?
4.25 A car travelling north at 60 km h–1 turns at right angles and travels east at
60 km h–1. What is the change in velocity of the car?
4.26 Three vectors V1, V2 and V3 are drawn to scale. Using the same scale, draw
vector diagrams for: a V1 + V2 b V1 – V3 c V1 – V2
N V1

V2 V3

4.27 A cricket ball travelling north at 100 km h–1 is deflected so that it travels north
east at 100 km h–1. What is the change in velocity of the cricket ball?

Components of a vector
In the previous examples we have seen how we can produce a resultant vector C by
adding two vectors that lie wholly along the x- and y-axis. We can consider these vectors
as the components of the vector C. The process of resolving vectors into components is
essentially the reverse of vector addition. Using simple trigonometry we can break any
vector up into its x- and y- components. The use of vector components makes analysis of
problems with vectors much simpler. The components of a vector are chosen to simplify
a given problem. They are always at right angles to each other.

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 Moving About

• The vector component which lies wholly along the x-axis is the x-component (or
horizontal component).
• The vector component which lies wholly along the y-axis is the y-component (or
vertical component).
• Any two-dimensional vector can be produced by adding an x-component vector to a
y-component vector.
Figure 4.28 shows two alternate diagrams which resolve vector C into its components
Cx and Cy . Using the sine and cosine relations we find:

Cx
Figure 4.28 x-component
Alternate 60°
30°

y-component
diagrams

y-component
showing the
resolution of a C Cy
Cy
vector C into C
its components
Cx and Cy. 30°
60°
x-component
Cx

opposite C
sin 60° = = y so Cy = C × sin 60°
hypothenuse C
adjacent C
cos 60° = = x so Cx = C × cos 60°
hypothenuse C
opposite C
sin 30° = = x so Cx = C × sin 30°
hypothenuse C
adjacent C
cos 30° = = y so Cy = C × cos 30°
hypothenuse C
Cx = C × cos 60° = C × sin 30°
Cy = C × sin 60° = C × cos 30°
Cy
tan (60) = C
x

√
magnitude of C = Cx2 + C y2 by Pythagoras’ Theorem
A simple way to determine the component of a vector along any axis is to use the rule:
The vector component is the product of the magnitude of the vector and the cosine
of the angle you have to turn through to point in that direction.
That is:
vector component = |V | × cos θ
However, if you cannot readily remember this rule it is an easy matter to construct
a right angle triangle and simply write down the sin and cos relations as shown in
Figure 4.28.

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E x e r ci s e s

4.28 Determine the x- and y-components of vectors A, B, C and D in the following

diagram. D 4 cm y

A 2 cm
50°
30°
x
C 1 cm 80°
70°

B 3 cm

4.29 Copy each of the following vectors and draw the triangle showing their
components. Use a protractor and write the expressions for Cx and Cy in each case.

V1
V2

V4
V3

4.30 Determine the values for the x-component and y-component of the following
vectors.
a b c
4 4 4

3 3 3
y 2 y 2 2 y

1 1 1

0 0 0
1 2 3 1 2 3 –3 –2 –1
x x x

Addition of vectors using their components

We have seen that we can add vectors using scale vector diagrams. Now that we can break
any vector into its x and y components, we can perform vector addition numerically.
Consider two vectors A and B of magnitude and direction as indicated in Figure 4.29.
Figure 4.29
Vectors A and B.

A
φ B

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 Moving About

Figure 4.30 Ax Bx
Vectors A + B φ
and their B By
components.
A
Ay

To add these vectors:

1 draw them head to tail
2 draw in the components of each (Figure 4.30)

Figure 4.31 Ax Bx
The resultant φ
vector C and its B By
components.
A
Ay
C
Cy
θ
ψ
Cx

3 draw in the resultant vector and its components (Figure 4.31).

Now: A+B=C
then: Ax + Bx = Cx and Ay + By = Cy

√
|C | = Cx2 + C y2

Cy
tan ψ = C
x

Alternatively this can be set out in table form and the problem determined
mathematically.

Vector x-Component y-Component

A Ax Ay
B Bx By
C Cx Cy

E x ample
P roble m
An explorer walks 30.0 km due south, then 20.0 km due east, then finally in a direction 60º
north of east for 50.0 km. Using the addition of vector components method, calculate the
distance of the explorer from the starting point.
S olution
Step 1 Draw a scale diagram for the vectors and the resultant vector (Figure 4.32a).
Step 2 Draw the components of the vectors on the diagram (Figure 4.32b). Let the first
vector be V1 and the second V2 etc. Note that V1 and V2 are directed along axes. So that the
x-component of V1 = 0 and the y-component of V2 = 0.

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a b c
N y
N
R V3
resultant
Ry
W E 30°
Rx y-component
y-component = V3 × cos 30
30 km S 50 km V1 V3 of V3
60° N of E
20 km E 60° V2 60°
60°
x
x-component x-component
of V3 = V3 × cos 60°
Figure 4.32 Vector addition using components.

Recall the rule for finding the components of a vector (Figure 4.32c):
vector component = (size of vector) × (cosine of the angle you have to turn vector through to
point along the axis)
So the x-component of V3 = V3 × (the cos of the angle required to point it along the x-axis)
= V3 cos 60°.
The y-component of V3 = V3 × (the cos of the angle required to point it along the y-axis)
= V3 cos 30°.
Step 3 Determine components of each vector.
Calculate the x-components of each vector:
First vector –30.0 km × cos (90) = 0
Second vector 20.0 km × cos (0) = 20.0 km
Third vector 50.0 km × cos (60) = 25.0 km
Calculate the y-components of each vector:
First vector 30.0 km × cos (0) = –30.0 km
Second vector 20.0 km cos (90) = 0 km
Third vector 50.0 km cos (30) = 43.3 km
Step 4 Determine the x- and y-components of the resultant vector (R):
Rx = 0 km + 20.0 km + 25.0 km = 45.0 km
Ry = –30.0 km + 0 km + 43.3 km =13.3 km
Step 5 Combine the components to give the magnitude of the resultant vector:

√
R = Rx2 + R y2

= √2025 + 176.9
= 46.9 km
Step 6 Calculate the direction with respect to the x-axis:
Ry 13.3
tan (θ) = R = 45.0 = 0.296
x

θ = tan–1 (0.296)
= 16.5º north of east

E x e r ci s e s
Use components of vectors to perform the following vector additions.
4.31 Add vector 10 m N 30° of E, to vector 4.0 m S 20° of E.
4.32 Add vector 15 m N 25° of W, to vector 9.0 m S 50° of W.

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Relative velocities and reference frames

You may have sat in a train at the station waiting for it to leave, only to look out of the
window at a neighbouring train and discover that you are pulling away in the wrong
direction. When you gather your wits you realise it is the neighbouring train that is pulling
out of the station.
The effect is due to you thinking that it is your reference frame (the train) that is
moving.
The motion of objects appears different according to the viewpoint you have; whether
you, the observer, are stationary or moving with some velocity.
We can change the viewpoint or reference frame from that of a stationary observer to
that of a moving observer by subtracting the velocity vector of the moving observer from
the velocity vector of each object. This has the effect of making the resultant velocity of
the observer zero and hence freezing the action from the observer’s point of view. This is
fairly simple to achieve as the following examples show.

Figure 4.33 subtract vB from

To determine all velocity vectors
the velocity of –vB
view from A
other objects
A
relative to a A
–v
moving observer
(B), subtract B’s
velocity vector
from the velocity –vB
vector of each
–vB
object.
+vB

B B

–vB

E xample 1
P roble m
You are travelling on a train moving at 30 m s–1 parallel to a car that is moving at 10 m s–1 in
the same direction (Figure 4.34). An observer on the train would see the car apparently
moving backwards at 20 m s–1. Explain.
S olution
The speed of the car compared to that of the train is equal to the car’s speed minus the
speed of the train.

Figure 4.34 30 m s–1

The relative
train
speeds of train
and car moving
in the same
direction as
10 m s–1
seen by
a a stationary 10 m s–1
observer and
car –30 m s–1
b a passenger
on the train.
–20 m s–1
a as seen from outside b as seen from train

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speedcar relative to train = speedcar – speedtrain

= 10 m s–1 – 30 m s–1
= –20 m s–1
The negative sign indicates that the apparent direction of motion of the car is opposite to
the direction of motion of the train. An observer in the car would see the train moving ahead
at +20 m s–1.
speedtrain relative to car = speedtrain – speedcar
= 30 m s–1 – 10m s–1
= +20 m s–1

E xample 2
P roble m
You are travelling on a train at 100 km h–1 from west to east relative to the ground. A second
train is travelling on a parallel track at 10 km h–1 from east to west relative to the ground. A
stationary observer is standing between the tracks (Figure 4.35).
a What is the other train’s velocity in your reference frame?
b What is the velocity of a person standing by the track in your reference frame?

a b
other train
vother train = –10 km h–1 –100 km h–1 = –110 km h–1
10 km h–1 observer
observer vobserver = 0 km h–1 –100 km h–1 = –100 km h–1
your train
your train
100 km h–1 v = 100 km h–1 –100 km h–1 = 0 km h–1

Figure 4.35 aThe view as seen by an outside observer, and b your view from the train.

S olution
Take east as the positive direction.
In the observer on the platform’s reference frame:
V1 = velocity of the other train = –10 km h–1
V2 = velocity of observer = 0 km h–1
V3 = velocity of your train = 100 km h–1
To calculate the velocities relative to your train, we subtract the velocity vector of your
train from all the other velocity vectors.
V1’ = V1 – V3 = –10 km h–1 – 100 km h–1 = –110 km h–1 (west)
V2’ = V2 – V3 = 0 km h–1 – 100 km h–1 = –100 km h–1 (west)
V3’ = V3 – V3 = 0 km h–1

E xample 3
P roble m
A boat is capable of a maximum velocity relative to the water of 10 km h–1. It is travelling at
maximum velocity at a right angle to a river flowing at 5 km h–1 relative to the surrounding
land. What is the boat’s velocity and direction of travel relative to the river bank?
S olution
Again we proceed by drawing a rough diagram showing velocities as vectors (Figure 4.36).
Vboat relative to bank = Vboat relative to water + Vwater relative to bank

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In the x-direction:
Vboat relative to bank = +5 km h–1
In the y-direction:
Vboat relative to bank = +10 km h–1
The magnitude of the resultant velocity (from Figure 4.36b)

√
Vboat relative to bank = 25 + 100 = 11.18 km h–1

The direction of the resultant velocity:

10
tan θ = 5

θ = tan–1 2 = 63.4º
The boat will travel downstream at 11.18 km h–1 at 63.4º to the bank.
a b
Figure 4.36 a b
a Velocities of
boat and water 5 km h—1 5
as vectors, and
b the resolution 10 km h —1
of these vectors. 10
11.8
resultant velocity
relative to bank

E x e r ci s e s

4.33 Train A is moving at 100 km h–1 through a station. Train B is also travelling at
100 km h–1 through the station but in the opposite direction to train A. What is
the speed of:
a a seated passenger on train A relative to an observer on the station
b a seated passenger on train A relative to another seated passenger on the
same train
c a seated passenger on train B relative to a passenger on train A?

4.34 You are on a train travelling from north to south at 180 km h–1 relative to the
ground. A second train is travelling from north to south on a parallel track at
100 km h–1 relative to the ground. In your reference frame:
a What is the velocity of the other train?
b What is the velocity of a person standing by the track?

4.35 You are on a train travelling 60.0 degrees north of east at 120 km h–1. relative
to the ground. A second train is travelling due east at 100 km h–1 relative to
the ground.
What is the magnitude and direction of the velocity of the second train relative
to your train? Draw a vector diagram to scale and use a ruler and protractor to
confirm your answer.

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4.2 External Forces and Accelerating Vehicles

Students learn to:
• describe the motion of one body relative to another
• identify the usefulness of using vector diagrams to help in solving problems
• explain the need for a net external force to act in order to change the velocity of an object
• describe the actions that must be taken for a vehicle to change direction, speed up and slow down
• describe the typical effects of external forces on bodies including: friction between surfaces and
air resistance
• define average acceleration as the change of velocity over time
• define the terms ‘mass’ and ‘weight’ with reference to the effects of gravity
• outline the forces involved in causing a change in the velocity of a vehicle when: coasting with no
pressure on the accelerator, pressing on the accelerator, pressing on the brakes, passing over an icy
patch on the road, climbing and descending hills following a curve in the road
• interpret Newton’s Second Law of Motion and relate it to the equation: ΣF = ma
• identify the net force in a wide variety of situations involving modes of transport and explain the
consequences of the application of that net force in terms of Newton’s Second Law of Motion.

Force, mass and acceleration

Forces: Cause and effect
We constantly classify objects according to their shape, size, colour, weight and the type
of motion they follow.
Consider how Homo sapiens evolved. We started as hunter gatherers existing in a fairly
unfriendly environment (we were part of the food chain).
• Some objects are stationary and offer hardly any threat at all to us.
• Other objects move in a predictable way, for example with constant velocity or
constant acceleration. We can estimate the path they will follow and either avoid or
intercept them.
• Other objects move in unpredictable ways with variable and often erratic changes in
velocity and acceleration. We avoid these.
Scientists still consider the behaviour of bodies in this way, and motion that requires
explanation is separated into four main types according to the characteristics of their
velocity and acceleration:
1 stationary objects: s = constant, v = 0, a = 0
2 objects moving with constant velocity: s is changing, v = constant, a = 0
3 objects moving with constant acceleration: s is changing, v = changing, a = constant
4 objects moving with a variable acceleration: s is changing, v = changing, a = variable.
In order to predict how an object will move, we need to understand what produces that
movement. This comes naturally to some extent. If we are walking in a crowd and suddenly
notice that the people in front begin falling over, we look out for an obstacle ahead. We see
an effect and look for a cause. We don’t normally expect a stationary object to suddenly
accelerate to 100 km h–1. If we observe this, we conclude that something or someone has
pushed (or pulled) it and ask questions. What did the pushing or pulling? What did it push
or pull? How big was the push or pull? In what direction was the push or pull?
We call the push or pull exerted by objects on each other force. The forces themselves
are not visible, what we observe are their effects on objects.
How many examples of forces can you see in the world around you?

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General behaviour of forces

Question: What happens if you push an object?
Answer: The object changes its motion in a particular way. It accelerates in the
direction of the push.
Question: What happens when we stop pushing the object?
Answer: It stops accelerating and maintains its new velocity. In the absence of other forces
the object continues at the same speed and in the same direction for ever.
Question: What happens when you flick a bowling ball with your finger? Compare this
with kicking an identical ball. Which provides the greater acceleration and
gives the ball the higher final velocity?
Answer: Kicking the ball causes it to accelerate more and obtain a higher final
velocity. The harder the push the larger the acceleration of a given object.
Question: Compare what happens when you flick a marble and a bowling ball with your
finger. Which accelerates more and reaches a higher velocity?
Answer: The marble accelerates more and reaches a higher velocity. The greater the
mass of an object, the harder it is to accelerate.

Iner tia and mass

All objects resist your attempts to change their velocity. You have to exert a force to start
a stationary body moving. If the object is already moving, you have to exert a force to
increase its velocity or change the direction of the object. It is noticeable that it is harder
to push a stationary coal truck than a billiard ball. This resistance exists even in free space
where there are no friction or drag forces.
Sir Isaac Newton called this resistance to a change in velocity, inertia. Large, massive
bodies contain more matter than bodies of similar composition but smaller volume.
Massive bodies resist changes to their velocity more than light bodies and are said to have
greater inertia.
Since this inertia is fundamental to understanding the motion of all things in our
universe, we can describe objects by their inertia or inertial mass or more simply mass.
In what other situations do you describe things or people as having inertia?
During the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, Newton summarised and developed
the results of several centuries of experimental work on motion. His findings are now
known as Newton’s laws of motion.

Newton’s first law

Newton’s first law states:
Every object continues in a state of rest or moving at constant speed in a straight line
unless it is compelled to change from that state by forces acting upon it.
Or put more simply:
If all external forces are balanced, an object will remain at rest or moving with constant
velocity.
Since velocity is a vector, this means that neither the magnitude of the velocity nor its
direction may change.
Newton’s first law is not apparent in many real world situations. In space, far from the
reach of gravitational forces, an object, pushed once, will continue on forever. The Voyager
spacecraft, heading out of the solar system, will continue to travel away from Earth even
though its fuel was used up long ago. If a car runs out of fuel, however, it will coast to a
stop. This is because there are forces acting against the original push, for example rubbing
with the ground (friction) or the air (air resistance, which is a form of friction).

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Newton’s second law

This law concerns itself with the relation between the applied force and the change in
velocity.
The acceleration of an object is directly proportional to the resultant, net force acting on
it and is inversely proportional to its mass. The direction of the acceleration is in the
direction of the applied resultant, net force.
Again we can state this more simply:
If we apply several forces to a body we can add them using vector addition to derive the
resultant or net force.
If the resultant or net force is not zero then:
F
• the acceleration is given by a =
m
• the acceleration is in a direction of the resultant or net force
• the acceleration occurs only while the force is applied
• the acceleration may be a change in direction and not in speed. An object moving at a
constant speed in a circle is always changing direction toward the centre and is
therefore accelerating as a result of a force acting toward the centre of the circle.
Without this force the object would move in a straight line under the influence of
its inertia.

E x e r ci s e

4.36 What forces cause a bicycle to slow when the rider eases off?

A c tivit y

4.6 Plan and perform a first-hand investigation to show the relationship between
force, mass and acceleration.
a Choose and assemble the most appropriate equipment needed to
undertake the investigation.
b Which variables need to be kept constant? How will you do this?
c Use the results to formulate a cause and effect relationship.

Defining force
Newton’s second law can be rearranged to express the relation between the observable
quantities, mass and acceleration, and the less tangible idea of force.
Force = mass × acceleration
or: F = ma
In describing the magnitude of a force we use SI units which are the result of
combining the units of mass (kg) and acceleration (m s–2). The SI units of force are
therefore kg m s–2. The SI unit of force is called the newton (N) and it is defined in terms
of Newton’s second law.
1 newton is the force necessary to give a mass of 1 kg an acceleration of 1 m s–2
(1 N = 1 kg m s–2).

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Applications of Newton’s second law

E xample 1
P roble m
A 1000 kg car is observed to accelerate from rest to 10 m s–1 in 2 seconds. What force was
applied to the car and for how long?
S olution
We know m = 1000 kg, but we need to calculate the acceleration from the given data.
Using v = u + at:
v–u 10 m s–1 – 0 m s–1
a = elapsed time = 2s = 5 m s–2
Using F = ma:
F = 1000 kg × 5 m s–2 = 5000 kg m s–2 = 5000 N
The force has to be present while the car is accelerating over the period from 0 to 2 seconds.

E xample 2
P roble m
Two forces act on a 100 kg mass on a frictionless surface as shown. What is the resulting
acceleration of the mass?
100 kg
25 N 50 N

S olution
Step 1 Determine the net force:
Fnet = 50 N – 25 N
Fnet = 25 N to the right
Step 2 Determine the acceleration:
Fnet 25 N
Fnet = ma = m = 100 kg = 0.25 m s–2

E xample 3
P roble m
In a series of experiments, a force was applied to an object of unknown mass and the
acceleration measured. The results are plotted in Figure 4.37. What was the mass of the
object?
Force (N) 0.0 4.0 8.0 12.0 16.0 20.0

Acceleration (m s–2) 0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0

Figure 4.37 20
Graph of
force versus
16
acceleration.
Force (N)

12

0 1 2 3 4 5
a (m s–2)

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S olution
There is a linear relation between the force and the acceleration. Force is directly
proportional to acceleration, that is:
Force ∝ acceleration (in accord with Newton’s second law)
and:
F = ma, where the mass is equal to the slope of the line.
Thus:
20 N – 0 N
m = 5 m s–2 – 0 m s–2 = 4.0 kg (1 N = 1 kg m s–2)

E x e r ci s e s

4.37 In a series of experiments a force was applied to an object of unknown mass

and the acceleration measured. The results are given in the accompanying
table. Graph these results and determine the mass of the object.
Force (N) 0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0
Acceleration (m s–2) 0.0 0.95 2.08 2.91 4.10 4.89

4.38 Two forces act on a 200 kg mass on a frictionless surface as shown. What is the
resulting acceleration of the mass?

200 kg
20 N 60 N

4.39 Two forces act on a 200 kg mass on a frictionless surface as shown. What is the
resulting acceleration of the mass?

200 kg
40 N 60 N

Gravity, the normal force and weight

Galileo suggested that all objects, regardless of their mass, fall with the same acceleration.
This acceleration due to gravity is approximately 9.8 m s–1 near the Earth’s surface and is
given the symbol g. The gravitational force, which produces this constant acceleration
is given by
Fgravity = mg
The direction of the force is downward toward the centre of the Earth and is always
present. If this force is always present, why can an object rest on a desk and not accelerate
downward? There must be other forces acting to oppose the gravitational force.
The only forces that act on the object are:
• the force due to gravity
• the upward reaction force of the table on the object.
This reaction force is called the normal force. The normal force always acts at right
angles, or normal, to the interface between two objects.

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Figure 4.38
Forces acting on
a book on a
table. weight force
of object
force of
table on
object

The object is stationary and therefore its acceleration is zero. Applying Newton’s second
law we have:
Fnormal – Fgravity = ma
Fnormal – mg = 0
Suppose we place a set of scales between the object and the table. The scales actually
register the normal force and hence the weight ‘mg’ of the object. Weight is therefore a
force and, like any other force, is measured in newtons.
weight – mg = 0
Mass, however, is the amount of matter in any object and is measured in kilograms.
A mass of 1 kg has a weight (on the Earth’s surface) of 9.8 newtons. In common everyday
usage mass is referred to as weight. This is inappropriate in physics as weight is a force.
It is useful to refer to mass as kilogram mass and weight by the term ‘newton’ to ensure
there is no misunderstanding. Our individual weight force will vary slightly in different
locations on the Earth’s surface though our mass is the same. An astronaut in the space
shuttle in orbit round the Earth is weightless, but has the same mass as on Earth.

E x e r ci s e s

4.40 a What is the weight force of an object with a mass of 5.0 kg?
b What is the reactive force of your hand on the object when you hold it?

4.41 a What is the weight force of a student with a mass of

i 50.0 kg ii 75 kg iii 100 kg?
b Which of these students could stand on an ice surface capable of
providing a reactive force of 700 N?

4.42 An object of mass 5 kg is suspended from the ceiling of a room by light inelastic
string. A mass of 2 kg is suspended from the 5 kg by light inelastic string. The
tensions in each string are T1 and T2 as indicated in the following diagram.

T1

5 kg

T2

2 kg

Determine the values of the tensions T1 and T2.

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Types of forces
In the world around you can observe many examples of forces acting on objects, causing
acceleration and deceleration. Wherever you see a body changing its velocity or its
direction, it is being accelerated by an unbalanced force. Some types of forces are more
obvious than others.

Mechanical forces
We have seen some examples of the effects of mechanical forces (pushing, pulling and
reaction forces) on objects. These forces are applied through contact. We can identify the
object or person applying the force.
In the following examples, identify the forces that are acting and how they are applied:
• a truck slowing down at a red traffic light
• a car stopping suddenly as it hits a brick wall
• a ball moving in a circle at the end of a string
• a weight moving up and down on the end of a spring or an elastic band (e.g. bungee jumping)
• a jet of water driving a water-wheel
• wind driving a windmill.

Fundamental forces
In other types of motion, the source of the acceleration is less obvious:
• an apple falling from a tree
• the moon orbiting the Earth
• an electric motor rotating when connected to a battery.

boing!

Figure 4.39 Mechanical forces act in the situations shown.

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On a microscopic and sub-atomic scale we find charged particles accelerating away from
particles with a similar charge, and particles accelerated towards particles of the opposite
charge without making contact! These forces, which are said to arise through ‘action at a
distance’ and require no contact between the interacting bodies, are termed fundamental
forces.
Four fundamental forces have been identified:
• gravitational force
• electromagnetic force
• strong nuclear force
• weak nuclear force.

Friction: a mechanical force

If we pull a heavy object over even the smoothest of surfaces, we find that we have to pull
quite hard to start the body moving. There is some force associated with the interface
between the body and the surface which resists our pull. These resistive forces are termed
friction.

Figure 4.40
Friction is a
mechanical force in
part produced by
rough surfaces and Fpull
the electrostatic
forces between
atoms.

Friction forces are the result of the microscopic pits that are part of the structure of
even polished surfaces. When two surfaces are in contact, the highest points on the
surface actually weld together. This welding provides part of the friction force. To move
two surfaces across each other you must first break these welds, rather like an Olympic
bob sled team rocking the sled at the start of the downhill run. If you continue pulling one
surface across the other, they effectively bump up and down over the microscopic crests
and troughs. This microscopic vertical motion provides a second component of the
friction force.
The combination of these effects gives rise to a friction force that acts in a direction
parallel to the interface between the two surfaces with a magnitude that depends on the
characteristics of the surfaces (e.g. roughness), and is proportional to the normal force
acting on the body.

Figure 4.41 FN
A vector diagram
showing the forces
Ffriction Fpull
acting on a block.

mg

Forces on vehicles
We can now apply Newton’s laws to analyse the forces involved in changing the velocity of
vehicles in different situations.

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Coasting with no pressure on the accelerator

Figure 4.42
A force diagram
for a car
decelerating due
to friction and air
resistance.

The forces on a car with its engine idling include a drag force due to air friction and a
forward force produced by the road acting on the tyre. If these forces balance, there is no
acceleration and the car cruises at constant velocity. If the drag force exceeds the reaction
force on the tyres, the car slows.

Pressing on the accelerator

Figure 4.43 weight
The forces acting NET FORCE
air resistance
on a car which is
accelerating. in direction
of motion
friction
road on tyre on road
tyre
reaction force

The engine acts to create a force on the tyre. The reaction force of the road on the tyre,
if it is greater than the opposing frictional forces, accelerates the car. There is a positive
acceleration. What occurs if the force on the tyre is less than or equal to friction?

Passing over an icy patch on the road

Figure 4.44 weight
The forces NET FORCE
air resistance
acting on a car
skidding on ice. opposite to
motion

reaction force

Because of lack of friction with the road, the force provided by the engine on the tyre spins the
wheel, but does not propel the car forward. Lack of friction also means lack of control by the
driver. The resulting acceleration is a small negative one.

Climbing a hill
The component of the weight of the car down the hill, which depends on the angle of
elevation of the hill, is in the opposite direction to the motion. Acceleration is positive if
the vector sum of this component and friction is less than the force of the road on the
tyre. When is acceleration zero? negative?

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Figure 4.45 a
normal or reaction force force of road
The forces acting on car tyres force of road on car tyre
on a vehicle
climbing a hill
showing a the
reaction force
force of tyre on road
acting on a single
tyre, and b the
air resistance
component forces and friction b component of gravity down slope
of gravity
producing a force
down the slope.
component
weight (mg) of gravity
perpendicular
to slope

weight due to gravity

E x e r ci s e

4.43 Do similar analyses as above for:

a pressing on the brakes b descending a hill.

Following a curve in the road

If a car is to change its direction, a force must be applied in that direction. The force
required to cause an object to move in a circle is called a centripetal force. If the car is
travelling at a constant speed, the centripetal force required to make the car round the
curve of a given radius depends on the mass and the velocity of the car.
mv 2
Fcentripetal = r
• The tighter the curve the larger the centripetal force needed to successfully drive
around it.
• The faster the car’s speed the larger the force needed to round the curve.
• The more massive the car the larger the force needed to round the curve.
This centripetal force can be provided in several ways. The simplest is through the
fiction force between the road and car tyres. The reaction force of the road on the tyre acts
toward the centre of the curve and produces a change in the velocity in that direction.
The force may also be provided by banking the corner. In this case the component of
gravity acting down the slope provides the necessary centripetal force.

Figure 4.46
constant velocity
View from above
of the forces
acting on a car
following a
curve.
centripetal force provided
by road acting on tyres

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E x e r ci s e s

4.44 An object moving in circular motion is undergoing constant change in velocity

(but not speed). Show that the centripetal acceleration is directed towards the
centre of the circle.
Hint: a = ∆v/t = (vf – vi)/t. Draw two vectors on a circle to represent yf and vi
and do the vector subtraction diagrammatically.

4.45 A vehicle of mass 1200 kg is moving in a level, circular path of radius 100 m with
a constant speed of 10 m s–1.
a Calculate the kinetic energy of the vehicle.
b Calculate the force of friction between the car’s tyres and the surface of
the road.

4.3 Force and Change in Momentum

Students learn to:
• define momentum as: p = mv
• define impulse as the product of force and time
• explain why momentum is conserved in collisions in terms of Newton’s Third Law of Motion.

Previously we looked at how forces produce changes in the motion, and particularly in
the acceleration of objects. We saw that to get something moving we have to exert a
force on it. This force produces an acceleration, which results in a change in velocity
of the object.
Motion can be analysed in a different way. Consider the combined effect of force
and time producing a velocity. The product force × time is called the impulse (I) of
the force.
Impulse = F ∆t

The units of impulse have no special name and are written N s.

E x ample
P roble m
a A light hammer hits the head of a nail and exerts a force of 10 N for 0.3 seconds. What is
the impulse produced by the hammer on the nail?
b If a heavy hammer that exerts a force of 30 N on the nail is now used, how long should it
be in contact with the nail to produce the same impulse?
S olution
a Impulse due to the light hammer:
I = F ∆t = 10 N × 0.3 s = 3.0 N s
b Impulse due to heavy hammer:
I = F ∆t = 3.0 N × ∆t
Therefore:
3.0 N s 3.0 N s
∆t = F = 30 N = 0.1 s

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 Moving About

Force–time diagram
We can place instruments on interacting bodies so that we can measure how the force on
the body changes with time. For example, we could place an electronic force measuring
device in a ping-pong ball and drop it on the floor. If we observe what happens in this
collision with the floor we find that the force acting on the ball due to the floor is not
constant.
• The force is zero just before the ball first makes contact with the floor.
• At this time the ball has a maximum velocity downward.
• The force increases to a maximum which occurs when the ball comes to a stop before
reversing its direction.
• The force then decreases, reaching zero again as the ball leaves the floor.
The area under a force–time graph represents the impulse of that force as shown in
Figure 4.47.
Figure 4.47
A force–time
diagram for a impulse = F ∆t
ping-pong ball
colliding with
Force (N)

the floor.

∆t Time (s)
v
v=0
v

E xample 1
P roble m
What is the impulse of a constant force of 4.0 N over an interval of 10 s?
S olution
As Figure 4.48 shows, the impulse of the force over the 10 s interval is:
I = F ∆t = 4.0 N × 10 s = 40 N s
Figure 4.48
The area under
the force–time
graph is the
impulse of the
force. In this
graph a constant
force acts for 10 s.

E xample 2
P roble m
What is the impulse of a force of 1.0 N for 4 s, which increases to 4.0 N over a further 6 s?

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S olution
In this graph the impulse of the force over the 10 s interval is:
1
I = F ∆t = (1.0 N × 10 s) + 2 × 3 N × 6 s)

I = 10 N s + 9 N s = 19 N s
Figure 4.49
The area under the
force–time graph
is the impulse of
the force. In this
example a variable
force is shown.

E x e r ci s e s

4.46 Sue hits a cricket ball with a bat. She exerts a force of 20 N for 0.15 s. What is
the impulse of the force?
4.47 The following graph represents the force applied to an object versus time.
What was the total impulse applied to the object?

10
9
8
7
6
Force (N)

5
4
3
2
1
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Time (s)

Linear momentum
The impulse (F ∆t) can be directly related to the change in velocity during the period
the force is applied. If we assume that the mass of the object remains fixed, since F = ma
and a ∆t = ∆v
F ∆t = ma ∆t = m ∆v = m(vfinal – vstart)
The product of mass and velocity is called momentum (symbol p):
p = mv
Momentum is related to velocity and like velocity it is a vector that has both a
magnitude and direction. The units of momentum are not given any special name, but
are stated in kg m s–1.
The momentum of an object therefore depends on both the mass of the object and
its velocity.

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E x ample
P roble m
A 20 000 kg coal truck is travelling at 100 km h–1. A passing motorbike has a mass of 500 kg
and is travelling at 105 km h–1. Which vehicle has the largest momentum?
S olution
The truck will have a momentum of:
100 × 1000
20 000 kg × 60 × 60
m s–1 = 5.6 × 105 kg m s–1

1000
1 km h–1 = 60 × 60

Therefore the car will have a momentum of:

105 × 1000
500 kg × 60 × 60
m s–1 = 1.5 × 104 kg m s–1

The truck has the larger momentum even although it is travelling more slowly than the car.

E x e r ci s e s
4.48 What is the momentum of a 100 kg man running at 8.0 m s–1?

4.49 What has the greater momentum: a 1.0 kg mass moving at 60 m s–1 or a 10.0 kg
mass moving at 5.0 m s–1?

4.50 What is the momentum of a 20 g bullet moving at 300 m s–1?

Impulse and change of momentum

An impulse produces a change in momentum. The following relation applies since in
some cases the mass may change as well as the velocity of the body
Impulse = ∆(mv) = ∆p
I = ∆(mfinalvfinal – mstartvstart) = ∆p
E x ample
P roble m
Figure 4.50 shows the magnitude of a force acting on a 1.0 kg object on a smooth, level
surface during a 10 s interval.
Figure 4.50 10
The force acting 9
on a 1 kg mass. 8
7
6
Force (N)

5
4
3
2
1
0
0 2 4 6 8 10
Time (s)

a Calculate the change in momentum of the object during the 10 s interval.

b If the object was initially moving with a velocity of 10 m s–1, and has a mass of 10 kg, what
is its new velocity?

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S olution
a Impulse = ∆(mv) = ∆p = F ∆t = area under the graph
Area under the curve is made up of two triangles and a rectangle:
area under triangle 0 < t < 4 s + area of rectangle 4 s < t <6 s + area of
triangle 6 s < t < 10 s
1 1
I= (8 N × (4 s – 0 s)) + 8 N × (6 s – 4 s) + (8 N × (10 s – 6 s))
2 2
= 48 N s

b Initial momentum of the object mvstart = 10 kg × 10 m s–1

= 100 kg m s–1
The final momentum = mvfinal = 10 kg × vfinal
∆p = 10 kg × vfinal – 100 kg m s–1 = I = 48 N s
10 kg × vfinal = 48 N s +100 kg m s–1
148
vfinal = m s–1 = 14.8 m s–1
10

E x e r ci s e

4.51 The following graph shows the magnitude of a force acting on a 5.0 kg object on
a smooth, level surface during a 10 s interval.

10
9
8
7
6
Force (N)

5
4
3
2
1
0
0 2 4 6 8 10
Time (s)

a Calculate the change in momentum of the object during the 10 s interval.

b If the object was initially moving with a velocity of 20 m s–1, and has a
mass of 5.0 kg, what is its new velocity?

Conservation of momentum
Suppose we have a group of objects. These objects may be everyday things, such as a flock
of birds, flying together, a school of porpoises, cars in collision or a wall of bricks. They
may also be microscopic particles, such as atoms forming a slice of chocolate cake!
We can consider the motion of this group or system of objects using Newton’s second
law. We can represent the system of particles by a mass equal to the mass of the system
positioned at the centre of mass of the object.
Newton’s second law states:
Fnet = mof systemacentre of mass
The total momentum of the group of objects is the vector sum of all the individual
momenta of the particles within the system:
pnet = p1 +p2 +p3 … = Σpi

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The forces acting on the objects which make up the system are of two kinds:
• those between objects or particles in the system (e.g. gravity, electrostatic, magnetic
etc.); these are internal forces
• those applied from outside the system (e.g. pushing, prodding or pulling forces).
The internal forces effectively cancel each other out and cannot cause the total
momentum of the system to change. The total momentum of the system can be changed
only if there are outside forces acting on the system!
Impulse due to external forces = ∆pnet
What if there are no externally applied forces? There can be no change in the total
momentum of the system. In other words:
The total momentum of a group or system of objects is always the same unless the system
is acted on by some external force.
This is known as the law of conservation of momentum.
In simple terms this means that no matter how a group of moving objects may collide
amongst themselves. their total momentum remains the same. The momentum of any
individual object will change, both in direction and in size, but the vector sum of the
momenta is constant. This is represented by:
m1u1 + m2u2 + … = m1v1 + m2v2 + …

E x ample
P roble m
A 2.0 kg object collides with a 3.0 kg stationary object on a smooth level surface. After the
collision the objects stick together and move with a speed of 2.0 m s–1. What was the initial
speed of the 2.0 kg object?

2 kg 3 kg 5 kg 2 m s–1

S olution
Recognise that the system is made up of two objects.
Before the collision: total momentum = 2 kg × v + 3 kg × 0 m s–1
After collision: total momentum = (2 kg + 3 kg) × 2 m s–1
There are no outside forces acting on the system so the law of conservation of momentum
applies:
total momentum before = total momentum after
2v kg m s–1+ 0 kg m s–1 = (2 + 3) × 2 kg m s–1
10
v = 2 = 5 m s–1

Momentum and Newton’s third law

Problems previously considered in terms of Newton’s third law (the law of action and
reaction) can now be viewed in terms of momentum.
The cannon and cannon ball can now be considered as a system or group of objects.
The total momentum of the system before firing the powder is zero. After firing the total
momentum is given by:
p = mcannonvcannon + mballvball

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The law of conservation of momentum tells us that the total momentum remains constant:
total momentum before = total momentum after
0 = mcannonvcannon + mballvball
If the cannon has a mass of 500 kg and the ball a mass of 20 kg, and if the velocity of
the ball is 100 m s–1:
0 = 500 kg × vcannon + 20 kg × 100 m s–1
2000 kg m s–1
vcannon = – 500 kg
= –4 m s–1

The negative sign tells you that the cannon goes in the opposite direction to the
cannon ball. It recoils!

E x ample
P roble m
Two identical cars of mass 1000 kg travelling at 20 m s–1 collide head on and lock together on
impact.
a What is the total momentum of the two cars before collision?
b What is the total momentum of the cars after impact?
S olution
Step 1 Draw a diagram (Figure 4.51). Indicate which direction is positive. (Positive direction
is from left to right.)
a Total initial momentum = 1000 kg × 20 m s–1 + 1000 kg × (–20 km s –1)
= 0 kg m s–1
b Apply the law of conservation of momentum:
total momentum after collision = total momentum before collision
= 0 kg m s–1

Figure 4.51 20 m s–1 20 m s–1

The head-on
collision of
two cars.

positive

v?

Newton’s third law: Action and reaction

We have so far discussed how forces affect the motion of the object to which the force is
applied. If I push a car, the car accelerates according to Newton’s first and second laws,
but what happens to me? In normal circumstances not very much. However, if I remove
friction by standing on roller skates or ice, I find that as the car accelerates slowly in one
direction I accelerate rapidly in the opposite direction! This must indicate that the car is
exerting a force on me also.
Newton’s third law of motion, often called the law of action and reaction, states:
Whenever one object exerts a force on a second object, the second object exerts an equal
and opposite force on the first.
Or put more simply:
To every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.

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A simple way to see the effect of this reaction force is to push against a heavy table with
the edge of your hand. The hand gets distorted and dented due to the reaction force of the
table on the hand.
Many other examples of action and reaction forces are visible in the world (Figure 4.52).
In dealing with problems involving forces, we must be very careful to distinguish
• which forces act on the object, and what exerts these forces
• which forces are exerted by the object and on what.
It is helpful to get into the habit of writing ‘by …’ ‘on …’ beside a force on a diagram.
For example in Figure 4.52:
• the cannon ball is accelerated as a result of the force produced by the cannon and
gunpowder acting on the cannon ball
• the car is accelerated through the force produced by the road acting on the tyres
• the rocket is accelerated through the force produced by the exhaust gas acting on
the rocket.
Figure 4.52
Examples of
action and
reaction forces.

cannon recoils ball moves to right

to left

Froad on car

Fcar on road
Froad on car
stationary
Fcar on road
stationary

Frocket on gas Fgas on rocket

E x e r ci s e s

4.52 A Hyundai Excel of mass 940 kg and travelling at 50 km h–1 east collides with a
stationary Holden Commodore (mass 1385 kg). The cars lock together. With
what velocity and in what direction do they move?
4.53 A Landcruiser of mass 2170 kg crashes into a cliff at 100 km h–1.
a If momentum is conserved and the cliff doesn’t move, what is the
momentum of the Landcruiser after the collision?
b If the Landcruiser comes to a stop when it hits the cliff, is momentum
conserved? Why was the law of conservation of momentum seemingly
violated in this instance?
4.54 A Ford Falcon (mass 1540 kg) travelling north at 110 km h–1 has a head-on
collision with a Toyota Camry (mass 1325 kg). The cars lock together and skid
north at 10 km h–1. What was the original velocity of the Camry?
4.55 A train of 15 tonnes travelling at 90 km h–1 runs into the back of another train of
12 tonnes travelling at 70 km h–1. After the collision, the train in front continues
forward at 85 km h–1. What is the final velocity of the train at the rear?

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A c tivitie s

4.7 Undertake Experiment 4.3 Conservation of momentum using a linear air track.

4.8 Undertake Experiment 4.4 Conservation of momentum using a dynamics

trolley.

4.4 Kinetic Energy and Moving Vehicles

Students learn to:
• define that a moving object possesses kinetic energy and that work done on that object can increase
that energy
• describe that energy
• define the law of conservation of energy.

Energy and work

If we look at the world around us we can identify things that are capable of doing work,
that is, exerting a force to move an object.
• A truck about to collide with a stationary car clearly will shortly exert a large force on
that car and move it some distance.
• A bomb about to explode will shortly exert very large forces on nearby bricks and cause
them to move.
• A compressed spring or stretched elastic will be capable of exerting a force on a mass
attached to its end, and moving that mass.
All of these objects are capable of doing work, even though they are not yet doing
any work.
This ability to do work is referred to as the energy associated with the body.
Energy is the capacity of a body for doing work.
The energy of a body can also be thought of as stored work. When you do work on a
body, that work is stored in the form of energy. Because of this energy the body can do
work on something else.
We can identify many forms of energy that allow bodies to do work. In physics we
identify energies associated directly with the motion of objects as mechanical energy.
Mechanical energy includes kinetic energy and potential energy.
Examples of kinetic energy are:
• energy of motion (a fast moving heavy truck will do work in a collision)
• energy of rotation.
Examples of potential energy are:
• energy associated with shape (a compressed spring can do work on a mass attached
to it)
• energy associated with position (gravitational force does work as an object falls).
Other forms of energy are less clearly linked to motion and at first were not identified
as a form of energy. These include chemical energy, nuclear energy, electrical energy,
thermal (heat) energy, light energy and sound energy. All forms of energy are measured in
the same units, joules. Table 4.5 shows some typical energy values associated with
everyday phenomena.

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Table 4.5 Typical energy values

Activity Typical energy value in joules

Lifting a brick to head height from ground 50 J used
Throwing a brick as hard as you can 75 J used
Climbing a ladder 1 500 J used
Eating a biscuit 300 000 J gained
Drinking a glass of soft drink 300 000 J gained
Boiling a kettle 700 000 J used
Eating chips 1 000 000 J gained
Energy released in burning 1 litre of petrol 40 000 000 J released
Energy needed for jumbo jet to take off 1 500 000 000 000 J used

Kinetic energy
It is clear that fast moving objects can exert forces on other bodies during collisions. These
forces can do work. What exactly is the form of the energy associated with moving bodies
and known as kinetic energy? How is it related to the characteristics of the motion?
1
KE = 2 mv2
This result is known as the work–energy theorem. It states that the total work done on an
object is equal to its change in kinetic energy. It holds whether the net force is constant or not.
The net work done on an object is equal to the change in its kinetic energy.
1 1
W = Fs = 2 mv2 – 2 mu2

W = ∆KE

A word about vector and scalar notation

Energy, like work, is a scalar. You don’t talk about energy being produced in a given
direction. You only talk about the amount of energy. When you refer to equations in
which energy is involved you do not use vector notation to refer to velocity or
displacement. In particular you write:
v 2 (not v 2)
x 2 (not x 2)
E x ample
P roble m
A truck with a mass of 5000 kg is moving at 10 m s–1. What is the initial kinetic energy of the
truck?
S olution
1 1
KEstart = 2 mv2 = 2 × 5000 kg × 10 m s–1 × 10 m s–1 = 2.5 × 105 J

P roble m
Two identical cars of mass 1000 kg travelling at 20 m s–1 collide head on and lock together on
impact. After the collision the cars are stationary.
a How much kinetic energy is lost in the collision?
b Where does this energy go?
S olution
1 1
a KEbefore = 2 m1v21 + 2 m2v22

1 1
= 2 × 1000 × 202 + 2 × 1000 × (–20)2 = 400 000 J or 400 kJ

KEafter = 0 J
Change in KE = 0 – 400 kJ = –400 kJ

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b In a crash we see that:

• the cars are deformed
• sparks are produced
• sound is produced
• wreckage carves holes in the road.
These event all remove kinetic energy from the system.

E x e r ci s e s

4.56 A car with a mass of 1500 kg is moving at 20 m s–1. What is its kinetic energy?
4.57 A 10 g bullet has a speed of 1.0 km s–1.
a What is its kinetic energy?
b What would be its kinetic energy if its speed were halved?
c What would be its kinetic energy if its speed were doubled?
4.58 A car of mass 1000 kg accelerates from 0 m s–1 to 20 m s–1 over a distance of 100 m.
a What is its kinetic energy at the 100 m mark?
b What work is done by the engine?
4.59 A truck with a mass of 10 000 kg is moving at 20 m s–1 (72 km h–1). Its brakes
apply a braking force of 2000 N.
a What is its initial kinetic energy?
b What distance will it take to stop?
4.60 A fully laden truck with a mass of 18 000 kg is moving at 27.7 m s–1 (100 km h–1).
Its brakes apply a maximum braking force of 5000 N.
a What minimum distance will it take to stop?
b What work is done stopping the truck?
4.61 A car of mass 1000 kg accelerates from 15 m s–1 to 25 m s–1 in 5.0 s.
a What is the initial kinetic energy of the car?
b What is the final kinetic energy of the car?
c How much work is done by the engine?
d What is the driving force of the engine?

Conservation of energy
If we consider all forms of energy, including heat energy, sound energy, electrical energy,
chemical energy etc., we find that the total energy of a closed system remains fixed. Energy
can never be created nor destroyed, it can only be changed from one form to another.
This fundamental law is known as the law of conservation of energy, which can be
stated as follows:
The total energy of a closed system is constant. Energy can be changed from one form to
another, and transferred between one body in the system and another, but the total
amount of energy remains fixed.
This means that if we look at a collision and identify all the forms of energy present at
the start of the experiment and all the forms in which energy is present at the end, the
total energy must remain unchanged.

Potential energy (stored energy)

A falling object increases in speed and therefore in kinetic energy. Since energy is always
conserved, there must be a loss in energy to compensate. We have to do work against the
Earth’s gravitational field to lift an object. (Fs = mgs) The object gains in stored energy as it
is elevated. This energy is converted into kinetic energy when the object falls. This stored
energy is called potential energy.

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Figure 4.53
Transformation of
energy.

PE to KE
PE to KE + electrical

If we compress or stretch a spring we do work on it. When we release the spring it

returns to its original shape, and does work on any object attached to it.
If we lift a mass from the floor to a hook, we have to do work on the mass against the
force of gravity. If we release the object from the hook it accelerates, gaining kinetic energy.
When the spring was compressed it had stored energy associated with it. That energy
can be released to do useful work. When the mass was on the hook it had stored energy
associated with its position. That energy can be released as the object falls resulting in an
increase in kinetic energy.
We refer to stored energy that can be released to do useful work as potential energy.
Two main types of potential energy are associated with mechanical energy:
gravitational potential energy and spring potential energy.
Gravitational potential energy
If we slowly lift an object with mass m through a vertical height h we must exert a force:
Flift = mg
This force performs an amount of work given by:
W = Flift × h = mgh
Since the object may have had some stored or potential energy at the start of the
experiment, we can talk only of the change in potential energy.
The increase in stored or potential energy is therefore ∆PE = mgh.

E x e r ci s e s

4.62 What work is done raising a 10 kg mass through a vertical height of 10 m?

4.63 A ball of mass 200 g is at rest at point A on a smooth level surface.
What will be its gain in potential energy when it is moved to point D?
C D

2m

A B

4m 4m 2m

4.64 A 54 kg physics student climbs a 100 m hill.

a What is the increase in the student’s gravitational potential energy?
b What is the source of this energy?

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Energy trans formations

Moving about involves energy changes, but no energy is ever lost. It is always conserved.
Fuel—petrol, LPG—contains potential energy locked in chemical bonds and released by
combustion. The vehicle’s engine converts this chemical energy to kinetic energy in the
pistons, although much is transformed to sound and heat, reducing the efficiency of the
energy transfer.
In a collision, kinetic energy is lost as the vehicles involved slow or stop. Sometimes all
of it is lost, but where does it go? One only has to observe a collision to deduce the answer.
The sound can be heard quite a distance away and long after the crash the effects can be
seen in the mangled bodies of the cars, potential energy of deformation.
There is also some heat, but this effect is difficult to distinguish from the heat of the
engine and it dissipates quickly. If the kinetic energy is great enough, the vehicle is
damaged so badly it is unrecognisable or a ‘write off’.

E x e r ci s e

4.65 Analyse all the energy transformations in collisions making generalisations

and justify these from events you have witnessed in real life or in the media.

4.5 Vehicle Safety

Students learn to:
• define the inertia of a vehicle as its tendency to remain in uniform motion or at rest
• discuss reasons why Newton’s First Law of Motion is not apparent in many real-world situations
• assess the reasons for the introduction of low speed zones in built-up areas and the addition of air
bags and crumple zones to vehicles with respect to the concepts of impulse and momentum
• evaluate the effectiveness of some safety features of motor vehicles.

Applications of physics to the design and development of motor vehicles has led to a
concurrent increase in the safety of vehicles. In 1979 you were twice as likely to be
hospitalised as a result of a serious crash in your new car as you would be today.
Manufacturers use model crashes to test automobile prototypes during the development
phase. The New Car Assessment Program (NCAP) uses crash test dummies to predict the
likely injuries in head-on collisions with a concrete wall at 56 km h–1 and offset collisions
with an aluminium pad at 64 km h–1. This modelling has led to design changes.
Figure 4.54
A NCAP car
crash

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Iner tia
In analysing a typical collision, the principles of inertia and change in momentum are
most important. For instance, when an automobile stops the passengers continue forward
unless a force stops them. This force may be due to impact with the steering wheel or
windscreen, and in a sudden stop head or chest injuries can result. A seat belt prevents
the body moving forward so it stops when the car stops. Of course, seat belt webbing can
stretch during a crash, so modern cars have seat belts with pretensioners or locks. Many
excellent activities involving seat belts can be found in a resource called Belt Up
distributed at no charge to all NSW high schools by the RTA some years ago.
When you try to put on a seat belt, you may notice that it adjusts if you pull it slowly,
but locks if you pull it too quickly. This is because of the inertial reel.
There are several types of seat belts: lap belts in older cars or in the centre back seat of
some late models, lap-sash in most modern cars, and harnesses used by racing drivers
and in better child seats.
Air bags also prevent inertia from propelling the upper body into the steering wheel.
Sensors monitor the rate of deceleration and decide if a crash is occurring. An explosive
device inflates the air bag fully in an astounding 0.055 second, which pins the upper torso
to the seat. A reduced force acts to decelerate the body over a longer period of time than if
no airbag is fitted. This results in lesser injuries to the upper torso.
In a rear-end collision, whiplash can result because the car is pushed forward while the
body’s speed does not change. The head and neck move backward with reference to the
vehicle, snapping back suddenly. Properly positioned head restraints are instrumental in
preventing this kind of injury.

A c tivitie s

4.9 Research inertial reel safety belts and assess their function.
a What strategy will you use for data collection?
b Demonstrate coherence and logical progression by correctly using
scientific principles in your answer.
4.10 Assess the difference between a lap, lap-sash and harness seatbelt in terms of
reducing the effects of inertia in a collision. Justify any conclusions.

Impulse and momentum

When a vehicle changes speed, its momentum also changes. The change of momentum is
the impulse:
Impulse = mv–mu = Ft
mv – mu
or F= t
In a crash, the change in speed occurs over a very short time. Using this mathematical
model, we can deduce that the force on the car and its occupants is great. If we can
reduce the change in speed or increase the time it takes to change, we can reduce
the force.
To reduce the force and therefore the injury, modifications can be made to the driving
conditions or to the vehicle itself. Traffic calming devices, such as speed humps and
roundabouts, and lower speed limits are attempts to reduce impulse by reducing speed
changes. As well, by lowering the speed of the car, stopping times, and therefore the
distances needed to react and stop in case of an emergency or unexpected obstruction,
are shorter. Police use modern technologies such as radar and speed cameras to enforce
speed limits.

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Cars are designed using computer models to reduce the effects of a crash. Modern cars
are built with crumple zones at the front, which are designed to collapse in a crash, while
a rigid cage protects the passengers. As the front is collapsing, absorbing the energy as
deformation, the time it takes for the cage to go from v to zero is increased, decreasing the
force on the occupants. Safer vehicles maintain the structural integrity of the cage, often
employing side impact protection. Air bags also increase the time it takes for the upper
torso to change momentum. In general, heavier cars suffer less damage in a collision due
to conservation of momentum, because most of the velocity change is experienced by the
smaller vehicle.
Bull bars on vans and four wheel drives can be more of a hazard than a help. Rigid bars
do little to decrease force and are a danger to pedestrians in a city environment. Bull bars
that telescope inward work in much the same way as crumple zones and are preferable.

E x e r ci s e

4.66 How long does it take to stop a vehicle with a deceleration of –22 m s–2
travelling at
a 50 km h–1 b 60 km h–1
c 80 km h –1 d 110 km h–1?

The spreadsheet ‘Motion’ on the CD-ROM contains several worksheet exercises on

graphical interpretation of motion as well as an activity on car braking distance at
different speeds. Answer worksheets are included. The Spreadsheet ‘Vector’ can be used
to add or subtract two vectors.

Modelling motion
Computer models can be used to simulate a variety of effects.
When a car is being designed, computers can be used to model the effect of head-on
collisions or rear impacts, so allowing a safer car to be developed. These models
incorporate our understanding of Newton’s laws of motion, the laws of conservation of
energy and momentum and the way in which materials deform and absorb energy.
You can construct simple computer models using spreadsheets to calculate the braking
distance of a car using the basic equations of motion. More complex models can be
developed allowing for the frictional forces acting in different weather conditions, or as a
result of balding tyres.
Curves present a special case in road design, and a mathematical model called the
Highway Makers Equation is used by road designers to bank curves for specific speeds in
order to overcome inertia, which tends to keep the vehicle moving in a straight line.
Police use computer models to reconstruct accidents. The measurements of the point
of impact, skid marks and the amount of damage to the vehicle can all help to reconstruct
the initial speed of the vehicle.

Friction
A car moves forward because of friction with the road and this friction is indispensable in
order to maintain driver control of the vehicle. If there is little or no friction, the vehicle
skids off in whatever direction inertia, or other external forces, take it. In the rain, oil rises
to the surface of the road causing a slick surface. In heavy rain, a speeding car can
aquaplane on the watery layer. Ice is another frictionless hazard. Tyres have been
designed with a tread that channels the water away from under the wheel.
Also, if a driver slams on the brakes, the wheels can lock and friction from the skid can
melt the outer layer of the tyre. A frictionless surface again occurs causing loss of control.

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The Anti-lock Braking System (ABS), developed for landing aircraft, senses the wheel
locking and releases and applies the brakes many times a second to maintain maximum
braking efficiency and driver control. In dry conditions, stopping distance is decreased by
10–20%. More so in wet conditions.

A c tivitie s

4.11 Research, using secondary information, or plan and execute an experiment (or
both) to investigate the potential danger presented by loose objects in a vehicle.
a Determine the appropriate way each aspect of the problem may be
researched.
b Assess the reliability of first hand and secondary information and data by
considering information from various sources.

4.12 Choose one technology for avoiding or reducing the effect of a collision and
assess its benefit. Present your finding to the class in any appropriate format:
speech, video debate, demonstration, computer presentation, poster, or model.
a Summarise and collate information from a range of resources.
b Compare the accuracy of information presented in the mass media with
similar information in scientific journals.
How can you determine if your results are valid?

EXPERIMENTS

Experiment 4.1 Using a ticker timer

A im
The purpose of this experiment is to become proficient at using and interpreting the
results from a ticker timer.
M at e rial s
• ticker timer
• clamp
• ruler
• paper ribbon
• carbon paper
• 12 V power supply
• 2 banana plug wires
M e t hod
1 Clamp the ticker timer to a lab bench and connect to power supply. Attach carbon
paper to the timer, insert a ribbon and adjust the tension screw so that the timer makes
visible dots on the paper, without skipping, when the paper is pulled through.
2 Pull a 30 cm piece of ribbon paper through the timer at a slow, constant speed. Mark
and set aside.
3 Pull another paper ribbon through quickly but at a constant speed. Mark and set aside.
4 Pull another paper ribbon through while accelerating. Mark and set aside.
C alc ulation s
The timer operates on a mains frequency of 50 Hz. Therefore the time between dots is
approximately 0.02 s.
1 Mark off 11 evenly spaced dots on tape 1. Measure the distance between the first and
last dots marked.
2 The time taken is given by 10 intervals × 0.02 s = 0.2 s.

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3 Use s = vt to calculate the velocity.

4 Repeat for tape 2.
5 On tape 3 mark off 11 dots near the beginning of the tape and 11 dots nearer the end.
6 Calculate the average velocity during each interval.
7 Count the dots between the centre of each interval, subtract one and multiply by 0.02 s
v–u
8 Calculate the acceleration using a = .
t
C on clu s ion
a What is the velocity of the slow tape?
b What is the velocity of the fast tape?
c What is the acceleration of the third tape?

Experiment 4.2 Acceleration

A im
The purpose of this experiment is to gather first hand information about situations in
which acceleration is positive and negative.
Gather first-hand information by:
a using appropriate data collection techniques,
b employing appropriate technologies including data loggers and sensors.
M at e rial s
1 Use one of the following 4 sets of equipment:
• ticker timer, paper tape, power supply, banana plug wires
• light gate with calibration strip and computer
• CBR with data logger and graphics calculator or computer
• blinkies and video camera
2 A selection of the following equipment, depending on the technology used:
• retort stand, clamp and bosshead
• slotted mass carrier
• sticky tape
• dynamics trolley
• linear air track with accessories
• soft bumper
• ball
M e t hod
Ti c k e r t i m e r
1 Clamp the ticker timer so that it is supported on the edge of the bench and connect it
to the 12 V AC power supply. Make sure the carbon paper is facing down.
2 Obtain a 1.5 m length of the paper ribbon and thread one end through the ticker timer.
Tape the 20 g mass to this end.
3 Turn the power on and release the mass. Turn the power off when it hits the floor.
4 Attach the tape to the back of a dynamics trolley. Place a bumper at the other end of the
lab table or floor. Give the trolley a sharp push so that it hits the bumper.
5 Remove the bumper and repeat, giving the trolley a weak push.
6 Repeat placing the trolley on a ramp going downhill.
7 Repeat giving the trolley a sharp push up the hill.
8 Try any other situation that comes to mind.
Light gates and computer
1 Attach the mass carrier to the calibration strip and mount the light gate on the retort
stand. Drop the strip through the light gate.
2 Repeat steps 4 to 8 with a light gate, calibration strip, linear air track and glider.

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CBR and data logger

1 Throw the ball up and let it fall, positioning the CBR under it or above it to track the
motion up and down.
2 Roll the ball against the wall tracking the velocity of the motion with the CBR.
3 Repeat steps 5 through 8 with the CBR.
C alc ulation s
Ti c k e r t i m e r
Use the method described in Experiment 4.1 to calculate the acceleration of the falling
mass at the beginning and again at the end of the tape of the colliding trolley, near the
end of the tape of the slowing trolley, and the trolley going uphill and down.
Digital methods
Use the programs to find the different accelerations during the different situations.
C on clu s ion s
An acceleration in the direction of travel, as indicated by dots spaced further apart or by a
positive slope on a speed–time graph, is a positive acceleration. A decrease in
acceleration, deceleration (dots closer together or negative slope), or an acceleration in
the opposite direction to travel is a negative acceleration.
Label and analyse each situation indicating by vector diagrams whether the
acceleration is positive or negative by the direction of the arrows. Use the length of the
vector to indicate the magnitude of the acceleration

Experiment 4.3 Conservation of momentum using a

linear air track
A im
The purpose of this experiment is to compare the momentum of a system before and after
a collision.
M at e rial s
• balance
• linear air track and accessories
• tape
• timing gates and power supplies, leads; or a computer
M e t hod
magnets mounted on gliders
S N N S

air track

distance between
timing gates distance between
centre of track
timing gates

1 Tape cards to two identical gliders so that they are able to activate the timing gates.
Place magnets inside each glider so that they will repel each other. Record the mass of
the gliders using the balance.
2 Arrange pairs of timing gates so that they are on either side of the gliders placed in the
middle of the track. Have an equal distance between each pair of gates and record this
distance.
3 Hold the gliders stationary in the centre of the track and then release them. It will take
practice to do this without exerting a force on the gliders.

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4 Record the time of each glider to pass through the gates. Repeat several times and take
the mean of your results.
5 Repeat with different-sized gliders.
R e s ult s
mass distance time time time time mean
(kg) (m) (s) (s) (s) (s) time (s)
Glider 1
Glider 2
Glider 3
Glider 4

C alc ulation s
1 Calculate the average momentum of each glider. How do the momenta of each pair of
results compare? Be careful to consider direction in your results.
Momentum (kg ms–1)
Glider 1
Glider 2
Glider 3
Glider 4

2 Are these collisions elastic or inelastic? You will need to make more calculations to
answer this.
C on clu s ion
Are your results in agreement with Newton’s laws?

Experiment 4.4 Conservation of momentum using a

dynamics trolley
A im
The purpose of this experiment is to compare the momentum of a dynamics cart before
and after a collision with a stationary mass.
M at e rial s
Each group will need:
• 0.50 kg, 1.0 kg masses
• 2 banana plug wires
• 12 V power supply
• access to a balance
• dynamics trolley
• retort, clamp and bosshead
• sticky tape
• ticker timer and paper
M e t hod
1 Record the mass of the dynamics cart.
2 Arrange the loaded cart as indicated in the diagram. Clamp the ticker timer on a long
bench (or floor) and connect it to the 12 V AC power supply. Make sure the carbon
paper is facing down.
3 Obtain a 1.5 m length of the paper ribbon and thread one end through the ticker timer.
Tape this end to the dynamics cart.
4 Turn the power on and release the cart.

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paper ribbon
ticker timer

trolley

5 After the trolley has travelled about 0.4 m drop a 0.50 kg mass onto it. (from just above
the cart so that it has no horizontal motion).
6 Repeat with a 1.0 kg mass and others if available.
C alc ulation s a n d r e s ult s
For each collision:
• mass of dynamics cart before collision = ________ kg
• mass of dynamics cart after collision = ________ kg.
1 Examine the tape and determine the speed from sections just before and just after the
collision. A typical result is shown.

• initial speed of trolley before collision = ____________ m s–1

• final speed of trolley after collision = ____________ m s–1
2 Determine the initial and final momenta.
C on clu s ion
Considering variations due to experimental error, was momentum conserved in these
collisions?

Experiment 4.5 A study of uniform motion

A im
The purpose of this experiment is to make quantitative observations of the motion of a
ball bearing on a smooth surface.
M at e rial s
• ramp and ball bearing
• 5 stopwatches
• metre rule
M e t hod
Students work in groups of six.
1 Set up a ramp as illustrated in the diagram so that, when it is released from the top, the
ball bearing will take at least 5.0 s to travel 1.0 m on the table. The metre rule should be
parallel to the ramp.
2 Release the ball bearing by holding it at the top with a ruler in front and moving the
ruler quickly down so that it does not push on the ball bearing.
3 Students measure the time taken for the ball bearing to travel from the bottom of the
ramp to points at 20 cm intervals. Practise steps 2 and 3 until your group gets
consistent times.
4 Take five sets of results and determine the mean time for each recorder.
ball bearing

metre rule
ramp

0 20 40 60 80 100
(cm)

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R e s ult s
Run 1 Run 2 Run 3 Run 4 Run 5 Run Displacement
time (s) time (s) time (s) time (s) time (s) time (s) (cm)
0
20
40
60
80
100

C alc ulation s
1 Plot displacement (y-axis) against time (x-axis) for your results.
2 Draw a straight line (of best fit) through the points. Determine the slope of the line.
What is its significance?
C on clu s ion
1 Was the motion of the ball bearing uniform?
2 List factors that contribute to the variation in your results.
E x t r a work
1 Repeat the experiment with a glass marble.
2 Repeat the original experiment at a different slope.

Experiment 4.6 Conservation of momentum with

collisions apparatus
A im
The purpose of this experiment is to investigate the momentum changes during a collision.
T h e or y
The application of the law of conservation of momentum to a collision between a moving
object of mass m1 and velocity u1 and a stationary object of mass m2 is given by:
m1u1 = m1v1 + m 2v2
If m1 = m2
then u1 = v1 + v2
The horizontal distance travelled by a falling object depends on the initial velocity and
the height through which it falls. In this experiment, the height is constant so the velocity
vectors are proportional to the horizontal distances travelled.
M at e rial s
Each group of students will need:
• adhesive tape
• carbon paper, thin white paper
• collisions set: ramp, stand, ball bearings and plumb bob
• retort, clamp and bosshead
• ruler
M e t hod
1 Clamp the apparatus to the bench. Place paper on the floor beneath the ramp. Adjust
the height of the ramp so that the ball bearing will land on the paper when released
from the top of the ramp. Place carbon paper under the paper with the carbon
facing up.
2 Use the bob to mark the zero position under the screw support.
3 Place a ball bearing at the top of the ramp. Keep it in place with a ruler. To release the
ball bearing move the ruler in a direction down the ramp.

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4 Allow a minimum five runs with a single ball bearing to determine an average
value for the initial velocity vector u1 by marking the impact positions if necessary.
5 Place one ball bearing at the end of the ramp so that it is level and in direct line with
the ramp. Place the other ball bearing at the top of the ramp. Keep it in place with a
ruler. To release the ball bearing move the ruler in a direction down the ramp. Allow a
minimum five runs with a single ball bearing to determine an average value for each of
the final velocity vectors v1 and v2 by marking the impact positions if necessary.
6 Repeat step 5 by adjusting the position of the target ball bearing to produce a glancing
position.
R e s ult s
Add the velocity vectors v1 and v2 for each set of results and compare to u1. This can be
done directly on the paper.
C on clu s ion
Within experimental variations, how does the initial momentum compare to the final
momentum?

Review Questions and Problems

1 The following velocity–time graph shows the motion of an object moving in a
straight line on a level surface.
10

8
Velocity (m s—1)

0
0 2 4 6 8 10
Time (s)

a Find the velocity of the object at time t = 8.0 s.

b Find the displacement of the object at time t = 5.0 s.
c Find the acceleration of the object at time t = 6.0 s.
d Find the displacement of the object from time t = 5.0 s to time t = 7.0 s.
e Find the acceleration of the object at time t = 9.0 s

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2 The following acceleration–time graph shows the motion of an object moving in

a straight line on a level surface over a 50 s time period. At time t = 0 the object
is stationary.

Acceleration (m s—2)
4
3
2
1

0 10 20 30 40 50
Time (s)

a At which time in the first 50 seconds is the velocity a maximum?

b What is the velocity at time t = 10 s?
c What is the displacement at time t = 10 s?
d What is the object doing from time t = 20 s to time t = 35 s?

3 A car accelerates from rest at 5.0 m s–2 for 4.0 seconds, then accelerates at
2 m s–2 for a further 5.0 seconds. The car maintains constant velocity for
3.0 seconds and then brakes uniformly stopping in a further 10.0 seconds.
The motion is in a straight line on a level surface.
a Draw the velocity–time graph for the motion of the object over the
22.0 second interval.
b Determine the acceleration during the section when the brakes were
applied.
c Find the displacement at times t = 4.0 s, 9.0 s, 12.0 s and 22.0 s.

4 The following diagram shows a section of ticker-timer tape. The timer vibrates
at 50 Hz.

O P Q

0 1 2 3 4 5
cm

a Estimate the velocity of the tape at point P.

b Assuming constant acceleration, estimate the acceleration of the tape
over the interval OPQ.
5 Explain the difference between a scalar and a vector.
6 Which of the following are scalar and which are vector quantities:
a 2.4 m b 10 s c 10 km N d 30 m s–1 E e 100 g
7 Draw a diagram to represent the vector 10 m s–1 NE on a scale of 1 cm to 5 m.
8 What is the difference in meaning between displacement and distance?
9 A boat travels 80 km due north in 10 hours then 60 km due west in 6.0 hours.
a Determine the average speed of the boat (in km h–1) in the 16 hour period.
b Determine the magnitude and direction of the displacement of the boat
from its starting position after 16 hours.
c Determine the magnitude (in km h–1) and direction of the average velocity
of the boat in the 16 hour period.
10 The following graph represents the displacement versus time of an object
moving along a level surface in a straight line.

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Displacement (m)
Time (s)
10 20 30 40 50

–2

–4

a What is the object’s displacement from the reference position at time 0?

b What is the magnitude of the object’s velocity at time t = 5 s?
c What is the magnitude of the object’s velocity at time t = 15 s?
d During which time intervals is the object stationary?
e What is the object’s maximum displacement from its starting position?
11 An object accelerates uniformly from rest for 4.0 s, at which time its velocity is
20 m s–1. It continues at 20 m s–1 for 6.0 s, then decelerates uniformly, stopping in
5.0 s.
a Draw the velocity–time graph for the motion of the object.
b Using the graph determine the displacement at time 15 s.
c Calculate the acceleration during the period t = 10 s to t = 15 s.
12 An object moving at 20 m s–1 N increases its velocity to 30 m s–1 N in 5 s. What is
its acceleration?
13 An object moving at 30 m s–1 N changes its velocity to 30 m s–1 E in 5 s.
a What is its change in velocity?
b What is its acceleration?
14 An object moving at 30 m s–1 N changes its velocity to 40 m s–1 E in 10 s.
a What is its change in velocity?
b What is its acceleration?
15 A jet is travelling at a speed of 600 km h–1 at an angle of 30° to the ground.
a What is the horizontal component of its speed?
b What is the vertical component of its speed?
c How high would it climb in 30 s at this speed and rate of climb?
16 An aircraft flying at 500 km h–1 N in level flight encounters a wind of 150 km h–1
blowing from the SW.
a If no corrections are made, what will be speed of the aircraft relative to
the ground?
b What will be the direction of the aircraft’s speed?
c What correction to the flight path would the pilot need to make to
maintain the original flight path?
17 A train travels due east at 40 m s–1 in rain that is blown towards the east by the
wind. A stationary onlooker notices that the path of each drop makes an angle
of 30° with the vertical. The passengers on the train note that the rain leaves
vertical tracks on the windows. Determine the speed of the raindrops relative
to the horizontal.
18 Two ships, A and B, leave a port at the same time. Ship A moves at 40 km h–1 in
the direction north east. Ship B moves at 45 km h–1 in a direction 40° south of east.
a What is the magnitude and direction of the velocity of ship A relative to
the velocity of ship B?
b At what time will they be 250 km apart?

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19 a What is the mass of an object weighing 490 N?

b A small stone of mass 125 g is falling with a constant speed of 19 m s–1 in
water. What is the force of the water on the stone?
20 An object of mass 100 kg is suspended from a beam by a rope as shown in the
following diagram. Calculate the tension in the rope.

100 kg

21 An astronaut of mass 75 kg in a spacesuit of mass 20 kg lands on Mars where

g = 3.8 m s–2. What would be the weight of the astronaut and spacesuit on Mars?
22 An object of mass 10 kg is acted upon by two forces, F1 = 6.0 N and F2 = 8.0 N, as
shown in the following diagram. Calculate the acceleration of the object.

F1 = 6.0 N

10 kg F2 = 8.0 N

23 A truck carrying a 400 kg box descends a steep hill and slows from a speed of
30 m s–2 to 15 m s–2 in 15 seconds.
a What is the acceleration of the box?
b What is the magnitude and direction of the force acting on the box?
24 A net horizontal force of 5.0 N acts on a 10 kg mass initially at rest on a smooth
horizontal surface. How long until the mass acquires a speed of 10 m s–1?
25 An object of mass 0.50 kg falls in air. Its acceleration is measured to be
9.5 m s–2. Calculate the frictional force of the air.
26 An elevator rises with an acceleration of 2.0 m s–2. A passenger of mass 60 kg is
inside the elevator.
a What is the magnitude of the resultant force acting on the passenger?
b What is the magnitude of the force that the floor of the elevator exerts on
the passenger?
27 The following graph gives the velocity–time relation for an object of mass
10.0 kg which slides along a rough, horizontal surface, coming to rest in 5.0 s.
8

6
V elocity (m s–1)

0
1 2 3 4 5
Time (s)

a What was the acceleration of the object during the 5.0 s interval?
b What was the magnitude of the frictional force of the surface on the block?

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28 The force exerted by the propeller of a given boat on the water is plotted
against the boat’s speed.

50
40

Force (kN)
30
20
10
0
2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0
Speed (m s–1)

a If the boat is to be driven at 4.0 m s–1, what force will need to be supplied
by the propeller?
b If the maximum force exerted by the propeller is 80 kN what is the probable
maximum speed for the boat?
29 A trolley is pulled along a smooth horizontal surface by a force that gives it an
acceleration of 6.0 m s–2. A 0.50 kg mass is then added to the trolley and the
same force applied giving an acceleration of 4.0 m s–2.
a Calculate the mass of the trolley.
b Calculate the magnitude of the force.
30 A 50 kg girl slides down a vertical rope with an acceleration of 5.8 m s–2. What is
the magnitude of the tension in the rope?
31 A train consists of three carriages and a locomotive. The mass of the
locomotive is 14 tonnes and each carriage is 12 tonnes. The locomotive exerts a
driving force of 50 kN on the rails. The frictional force on each carriage and the
locomotive is 1.25 kN.
a Calculate the acceleration of the train.
b Calculate the tension in the coupling of the last carriage.
32 A balloon of mass 1000 kg with a 100 kg box attached is descending vertically
with an acceleration of 2.0 m s–2 when the 100 kg box is released.

a = 2.0 m s–2

1000 kg
100 kg

What will be the resultant acceleration of the balloon?

33 A man of mass 85 kg stands in a bosun’s chair of mass 15 kg and supported by a
light rope passing over a pulley.

a What force does the man need to exert on the rope to ascend at constant
speed?
b If the man wishes to ascend at 1.2 m s–2 what force does he need to exert
on the rope?

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34 An object of mass 2.0 kg is pulled by a constant force along a frictionless

surface as shown in the diagram. The object starts from rest. After 3.0 s its
speed is 9.0 m s–1.
2.0 kg

a What is the object’s acceleration?

b What will be its speed after 5.0 s?
c What was the magnitude of the force acting on the object?

35 A 5.0 kg mass slides along a rough horizontal surface coming to rest after 20 s
as shown in the following graph.

8
Velocity (m s–1)

0
4 8 12 16 20
Time (s)

Calculate the value of the frictional force acting on the mass.

36 A 102 kg man is standing on scales in an elevator. What is the reading on the

scales when
a the elevator is rising at a constant speed of 4.0 m s–1?
b the elevator decelerates uniformly from a speed of 4.0 m s–1 up to a stop
in 2.0 s?

37 Two identical cars of mass 1000 kg each are travelling in opposite directions,
one at 30 km h–1 and the other at 40 km h–1. They become locked together on
impact. What is their speed after impact?

38 The following graph shows the magnitude of a force acting on a 1.0 kg object on
a smooth, level surface during a 10 s interval.

8
7
6
Force (N)

5
4
3
2
1

0 2 4 6 8 10
Time (s)

Calculate the change in momentum of the object during the 10 s interval.

39 A glider of mass 200 g is moving on an air track at 0.25 m s–1 when a 50 g mass is
dropped onto it. What will be the speed of the glider and mass?

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40 A glider of mass 300 g has 50 g of dough on it when it is hit by a 0.50 g air rifle
slug. The slug is embedded in the dough and the glider moves off. The glider
takes 2.94 s to travel 0.50 m between two electronic gates on the air track.
Determine the initial speed of the slug.

41 A 10 kg mass, initially stationary, is pulled 5.0 m along a rough surface with a

force of 100 N. A constant frictional force of 20 N acts on the mass.

10 kg
20 N 100 N

a What is the net force acting on the mass?

b Determine the kinetic energy of the mass at the 5.0 m mark.
42 A dynamics cart of mass 1.0 kg pulls a tape through a ticker timer that is
vibrating at 50 Hz. An object is dropped onto the cart. The diagram shows the
tape drawn to scale.

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

Scale (cm)

Calculate the mass of the object dropped onto the dynamics cart.
43 The following diagram represents two carriages on a horizontal track. The 2.0
tonne carriage collides with the stationary 1 tonne carriage and during impact
the carriages lock together.
5.0 m s–1
stationary 2.0 tonne
1.0 tonne

a What will be the speed of the carriages after impact?

b In a separate situation, the carriages collide with speeds as indicated in
the following diagram. During impact the carriages lock together. What
will be the speed of the carriages after impact?

5.0 m s—1
2.0 m s—1
2.0 tonne
1.0 tonne

44 The following graph represents the magnitude of the force exerted by a racquet
on a 55 g ball as a function of time. The ball is initially at rest.
a What is the maximum force exerted on the ball?
b What is the average force exerted on the ball?
c What is the speed of the ball immediately after impact?

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80
70
60

Force (N)
50
40
30
20
10

0 20 40 60 80 100
Time (s)

45 A car increases its speed from 20 km h–1 to 100 km h–1. By what factor does its
kinetic energy increase?
46 During a severe hailstorm hailstones of average mass 5.0 g are driven vertically
with an average speed of 25 m s–1 onto a horizontal roof. The hailstones do not
bounce on impact.
a Calculate the impulse delivered to the roof by a hailstone.
b Calculate the average force per unit area (pressure) on the roof if, on
average, 25 hailstones hit each square metre per second.
47 A trolley of mass 2.0 kg moving with a velocity of 6.0 m s–1 collides with a
stationary trolley of mass 1.0 kg. The trolleys lock together on impact.
a What is the speed of the combined trolleys after impact?
b How much kinetic energy is lost in the collision?
48 A 200 g ball of speed 40.0 m s–1 has an elastic collision with a stationary ball.
After the collision the 200 g ball moves in its original direction with a speed of
10.0 m s–1. What is the mass of the stationary ball?
49 The following graph shows the momenta of two objects X and Y, of masses
2.0 kg and 1.0 kg, respectively. The objects collide at time t = 6.0 s. The
momentum of Y is shown after the collision.

8
X
(kg m s–1)

6
4
2
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Force (N)

0
Momentum

Time (s)
–2
Y
–4
–6
Y
–8

a Calculate the momentum of X after the collision.

b Calculate the velocity of X after the collision.
c Is the collision elastic or inelastic? Explain.

246