Discrete Structures and Optimization Unit - 1

Propositional Logic

The rules of logic give precise meaning to mathematical

statements. These rules are used to distinguish between valid and invalid
mathematical arguments.
Propositions
A proposition is a declarative sentence that is either true or false,
but not both.

 Propositional logic the area of logic that deals with propositions.

 Propositional variables that represent propositions: p, q, r, s.
 Truth values T, F
 Proposition is a declarative statement that is either true or false
but not both.
 Connectives are used to combine the propositions.

About Connectives in Propositional logic-

Logical Connectives-

Connectives are the operators that are used to combine one or more
propositions.

In propositional logic, there are 5 basic connectives-

 Name of Connective Connective Word Symbol

Negation Not ⌉ or ∼ or ‘ or –

Conjunction And 𝖠

Disjunction Or ∨

Conditional If-then →

Bi-conditional If and only if ↔

Negation-

If p is a proposition, then negation of p is a proposition which is-

  True when p is false
 False when p is true.
Truth Table-

p ∼p

F T

T F

Example-
If p : It is raining
outside. Then,
Negation of p is-
∼p : It is not raining outside.
Conjunction-

If p and q are two propositions, then conjunction of p and q is a

proposition which is-
 True when both p and q are true

 False when both p and q are false

Truth Table-

p q p𝖠q
 F F F

F T F

T F F

T T T

Example-

If p and q are two propositions where-

 p:2+4=6
 q : It is raining
outside. Then, conjunction
of p and q is-
p 𝖠 q : 2 + 4 = 6 and it is raining outside

3. Disjunction-
If p and q are two propositions, then disjunction of p and q is a
proposition which is-
 True when either one of p or q or both are true
 False when both p and q are false
Truth Table-

p q p∨q
 F F F

F T T

T F T

T T T

Example-
If p and q are two propositions where-
 p:2+4=6
 q : It is raining
outside Then, disjunction of
p and q is-
p ∨ q : 2 + 4 = 6 or it is raining outside

Conditional-
If p and q are two propositions, then-
 Proposition of the type “If p then q” is called a conditional or
implication proposition.
 It is true when both p and q are true or when p is false.
 It is false when p is true and q is false.
Truth Table-

6 .
 p q p→q

F F T

F T T

T F F

T T T

Examples-
If a = b and b = c then a = c.
 If I will go to Australia, then I will earn more money.
Biconditional-
If p and q are two propositions, then-
 Proposition of the type “p if and only if q” is called a biconditional or
bi- implication proposition.
 It is true when either both p and q are true or both p and q are false.

 It is false in all other cases.

Truth Table-

p q p↔q
 F F T

F T F

T F F

T T T

Examples-
 He goes to play a match if and only if it does not rain.
 Birds fly if and only if sky is clear.
The common binary connectives are:

p𝖠q Conjunction p and q

p∨ q Disjunction p or q

p→q Implication if p then q

p↔ Bi-conditional p if and only if q

qp ⊕ Exclusive or p x-or q
not or p nor q
qp↓
not and p n-and q
q
p | q or p ↑ q
In the conditional p → q, p is the antecedent and q is the consequent. The
conditional p → q is often read informally as “p implies q”.

Converse, Contra-positive and Inverse

  The proposition q → p is called the converse of p →q. The contra-
positive of p → q is the proposition ¬q → ¬p. The proposition ¬p → ¬q
is called the inverse of p → q.
 We will see that of these three conditional statements formed from p
→ q, only the contra-positive always has the same truth value as p →
q.
EXAMPLE: What are the contra-positive, the converse, and the inverse of
the conditional- statement? “The home team wins whenever it is raining?”
Solution:

“If it is raining, then the home team wins.”

The contra-positive of this conditional statement is
“If the home team does not win, then it is not raining.”
The converse is - “If the home team wins, then it is raining.”
The inverse is - “If it is not raining, then the home team does not win.”

Bi-
conditionals
DEFINITION 4
Let p and q be propositions. The bi-conditional statement p ↔ q is the
proposition “p if and only if q.” The bi-conditional statement p ↔ q is true
when p and q have the same truth values, and is false otherwise. Bi-
conditional statements are also called bi-implications.

The Truth Table for the Bi-conditional p ↔ q

Truth Table for the Bi-conditional p ↔

q
p q p↔q

T T T
T F F
F T F

F T

The statement p ↔ q is true when both the conditional statements are

p → q and q → p are true and is false otherwise.

Example: Let p be the statement “You can take the flight,” and let q be the
statement “You buy a ticket.” Then p ↔ q is the statement

Answer “You can take the flight if and only if you buy a ticket.”
Precedence of Logical Operator
Operator precedence is an ordering of logical operators designed to allow
the dropping of parenthesis in logical expression.

Precedence of Logical
Operators
Operator Precedence

¬ 1

𝖠 2

∨ 3

→ 4

↔ 5

Logic and Bit Operations

 A bit is a symbol with two possible values, 0 (zero) and 1 (one).
 A bit can be used to represent a truth value, because there are two
truth values, true and false.
 A variable is called a Boolean variable if its value is either true or false.
Trut Bit

h
Bit Operators OR, AND, and XOR
Valu
x y x∨y x𝖠y x⊕y
e
T 1 0 0 0 0 0

F 0 0 1 1 0 1

1 0 1 0 1
DEFINITION 1 1 1 1 0
A bit string is a sequence of zero or
more bits. The length of this string is the number of bits in the string.
EXAMPLE Find the bitwise OR, bitwise AND, and bitwise XOR of the bit
strings 01 1011 0110 and 11 0001 1101.
Solution: The bitwise OR, bitwise AND, and bitwise XOR are:

01 1011 0110
11 0001 1101
11 1011 1111 Bitwise OR
01 0001 0100 Bitwise AND
10 1010 1011 Bitwise XOR

Propositional Equivalences
Tautologies and

contradictions

A compound proposition that is always true, regardless of the truth values of the
individual propositions involved, is called a tautology.

Example: 𝑝 ∨ ¬𝑝 is a tautology.
A compound proposition that is always false, regardless of the truth values of the
individual propositions involved, is called a contradiction.

Example: 𝑝 𝖠 ¬𝑝 is a contradiction.
A compound statement that is neither a tautology nor a contradiction is called a
contingency.
Logical Equivalences
 Compound propositions that have the same truth values in all
possible cases are called logically equivalent.
 The compound propositions p and q are called logically equivalent if
p ↔ q is a tautology. The notation p ≡ q denotes that p and q are
logically equivalent.

Examples of Tautology & De Morgan’s Laws.

Contradiction.

p ¬p p ∨ ¬p p 𝖠 ¬p
¬(p 𝖠 q) ≡ ¬p ∨ ¬q
Logica T F T F
l
F T T F
equiva ¬(p ∨ q) ≡ ¬p 𝖠 ¬q
l ence

 The two algebraic expressions equal if they have the same value
for each possible value of the input variables.
 For example, for all real numbers 𝑥, the left side and the right side
have the same value. 𝑥 2 − 1 = (𝑥 + 1) (𝑥 − 1)
 The two compound statements 𝑝 and 𝑞 “equal” if they always
share the same truth value. 𝑝 ≡ 𝑞 means that 𝑝 ↔ 𝑞 is a
tautology.
 In these equivalences, T denotes the compound proposition that is
always true and F denotes the compound proposition that is always
false.

Logical Equivalences
Equivalence Name
p𝖠T≡p Identity laws
p∨F≡p
p∨T≡T Domination laws
p𝖠F≡F
p∨p≡p Idempotent laws
p𝖠p≡p
¬(¬p) ≡ p Double negation law
p∨q≡q∨p Commutative laws
p𝖠q≡q𝖠p
(p ∨ q) ∨ r ≡ p ∨ (q ∨ Associative laws
r)
(p 𝖠 q) 𝖠 r ≡ p 𝖠 (q 𝖠
r)
p ∨ (q 𝖠 r) ≡ (p ∨ q) 𝖠 Distributive laws
(p
∨ r)
p 𝖠 (q ∨ r) ≡ (p 𝖠 q) ∨
(p
𝖠 r)
¬(p 𝖠 q) ≡ ¬p ∨ ¬q De Morgan’s laws
¬(p ∨ q) ≡ ¬p 𝖠 ¬q
p ∨ (p 𝖠 q) ≡ p Absorption laws
p 𝖠 (p ∨ q) ≡ p
p ∨ ¬p ≡ T Negation laws
p 𝖠 ¬p ≡ F

Logical Equivalences
involving
Conditional Statements.
p → q ≡ ¬p ∨ q

p → q ≡ ¬q →

¬p p ∨ q ≡ ¬p →

q
p 𝖠 q ≡ ¬(p → ¬q)

¬(p → q) ≡ p 𝖠 ¬q
(p → q) 𝖠 (p → r) ≡ p → (q

𝖠 r) (p → r) 𝖠 (q → r) ≡ (p ∨
q) → r
(p → q) ∨ (p → r) ≡ p → (q Logical Equivalences Involving
∨ r) (p → r) ∨ (q → r) ≡ (p 𝖠 Bi-conditional Statements.
q) →r p ↔ q ≡ (p → q) 𝖠 (q → p)

p ↔ q ≡ ¬p ↔ ¬q

p ↔ q ≡ (p 𝖠 q) ∨ (¬p 𝖠 ¬q)

¬(p ↔ q) ≡ p ↔ ¬q

Using De Morgan’s Laws

The two logical equivalences known as De Morgan’s laws are particularly
important. In particular, the equivalence ¬ (p ∨ q) ≡ ¬p 𝖠 ¬q tells us that
the negation of a disjunction is formed by taking the conjunction of the
negations of the component propositions.

Example Show that ¬ (p ∨ (¬p 𝖠 q)) and ¬p 𝖠 ¬q are logically equivalent by

developing a series of logical equivalences.

Sol ¬ (p ∨ (¬p 𝖠 q)) ≡ ¬p 𝖠 ¬ (¬p 𝖠 q) 2nd De Morgan law

≡ ¬p 𝖠 [¬ (¬p) ∨ ¬q] 1st De Morgan law

≡ ¬p 𝖠 (p ∨ ¬q) double negation law

≡ (¬p 𝖠 p) ∨ (¬p 𝖠 ¬q) 2nd distributive law

≡ F ∨ (¬p 𝖠 ¬q) because ¬p 𝖠 p ≡ F

≡ (¬p 𝖠 ¬q) ∨ F commutative law for disjunction

≡ ¬p 𝖠 ¬q identity law for F

Normal Form
  Suppose, A (P1, P2, ... , P n) is a statements formula where P1, P2, ...,
P6 are the atomic variables if we consider all possible assignments of
the truth value to P1, P2, ..., P n and obtain the resulting truth values
of the formula A then we get the truth table for A, such a truth table
contains 2^6 rows.
 The formula may have the truth value T for all possible assignments
of the truth values to the variables P1, P2... P n. In this case, A is
called identically true or tautology.
 If A has the truth value T for at least one combination of truth values
assigned to P1, P2... P n then A is called Satisfiable.

Disjunctive Normal Product in place of Conjunction

form Conjunctive Sum in place of Disjunction

Normal form

Types of Normal form

1) Disjunctive Normal form

A product of the variable and their negations in a formula is called an

elementary product. Similarly, a sum of the variables and their negations
is called as an elementary sum.

Some statements hold for elementary sums and product:

1. For any elementary product, the necessary condition is false is when

it contains at least one pair of a factor in which one is the negation
of the other.
2. For any elementary sum, the necessary condition is true when it
contains at least one pair of factors in which one is the negations of
the other.

2) Conjunctive Normal Form

The conjunctive normal form of a given formula is the one which contains
the product of elementary sums (that formula is equivalent in the given
formula).

3) Principle Disjunctive normal form

Suppose, P and Q is two variables. We construct all possible formulas
which consist of a conjunction of P or in negation and conjunction of Q or
its negation. Now of the formulas should contain both a variable and its
negation. For two variables P and Q there is 2^2 such formula.
These formulas are called min-terms or Boolean conjunction of P and Q
from the truth tables of theses min-terms, it is clear that no two min-terms
are equivalent. Each min-term has the truth value T for exactly one
combination of the truth value of the variables P and Q.
For a given formula an equivalent formula consisting of a disjunction of
min- terms only is known as its principle disjunction normal form. Such a
normal form is also said to be the sum-product canonical form.

4) Principle conjunctive normal form

Given a number of variables max-term of these variables is a formula

which consists of disjunction in which each variable or its negations but
not both appear only once.

Observe that the max-term are the duals of min-terms. Therefore each
of the max-term has the truth value F for exactly one combination of the
truth values of the variables.

The principle of conjunctive normal form or the product-sum canonical

form, the equivalent formula consists of only the conjunction of the max-
terms only.
Predicates and Quantifiers

Predicates

A predicate is an expression of one or more variables defined on some specific

domain. A predicate with variables can be made a proposition by either
assigning a value to the variable or by quantifying the variable.

For Example: Let P (x) denote the statement “x > 3.” What are the truth
values of P (4) and P (2)?
Solution: We obtain the statement P ―4‖ by setting x = 4 in the statement “x
> 3.” Hence, P ―4‖, which is the statement “4 > 3,” is true. However, P ―2‖,
which is the statement “2 > 3,”is false.

The following are some examples of predicates −

 Let E(x, y) denote "x = y"

 Let X(a, b, c) denote "a + b + c = 0"
 Let M(x, y) denote "x is married to y"

Well Formed Formula

Well Formed Formula is a predicate holding any of the following −

 All propositional constants and propositional variables are WFF.
 If x is a variable and Y is a WFF, ∀X y and ∃x Y are also WFF. Truth
value and false values are WFF.

Quantifiers
The variable of predicates is quantified by quantifiers.
There are two types of quantifier in predicate logic − Universal Quantifier and
Existential Quantifier.

Denoted by Quantifiers Denoted by

symbol ∀ symbol ∃

Universal Quantifier Existential Quantifier

Universal Quantifier
Universal quantifier states that the statements within its scope are true for
every value of the specific variable. It is denoted by the symbol ∀.

∀x P(x) is read as for every value of x, P(x) is true.

Statement When True? When False?

∀x P(x) P (x) is true for every x There is an x for which P
(x) is false.
∃x P(x) There is an x for which P
(x) is true. P (x) is false for every x.

Example Let P (x) be the statement “x + 1 > x.” What is the truth value of the
quantification ∀ x P (x), where the domain consists of all real numbers?
Solution: Because P (x) is true for all real numbers x, the quantification ∀
x P (x) is True.

Existential Quantifier

Existential quantifier states that the statements within its scope are
true for some values of the specific variable. It is denoted by the symbol ∃.
∃x P(x) is read as for some values of x, P(x) is true.
Example
Let P (x) be the statement “x > 3” .What is the truth value of the
quantification ∃x P (x), where the domain consists of all real numbers?
Solution: x > 3 is true, when x = 4—the existential quantification of P (x), which is
∃x P (x), is true.
Precedence of Quantifiers
The quantifier’s ∀ and ∃ have higher precedence than all logical operators from
propositional calculus.
For example, ∀x P (x) ∨ Q(x) is the disjunction of ∀x P (x) and Q(x). In
other words, it means (∀x P (x)) ∨ Q(x) rather than ∀x (P (x) ∨ Q(x)).

Negating Quantified Expressions

Consider the negation of the statement
“Every student in your class has taken a course in calculus.”
This statement is a universal quantification, namely,∀x P(x), where P(x) is
the statement “x has taken a course in calculus” and the domain consists
of the students in your class.
 The negation of this statement is “It is not the case that every
student in your class has taken a course in calculus.”
 This is equivalent to “There is a student in your class who has not
taken a course in calculus.”
 And this is simply the existential quantification of the negation of the
original propositional function, namely, ∃x ¬P (x).
De Morgan’s laws for quantifiers

Negation Equivalent When Is Negation True? When False?

Statement

¬∃x P (x) ∀x ¬P (x) For every x, P (x) is false. There is an x

for which
P(x) is true.
¬∀x P (x) ∃x ¬P (x) There is an x for which
P (x) is true for
P(x) is false. every x.

Example What are the negations of the statements “There is an honest

politician”.
Solution: Let H (x) denote “x is honest.” Then the statement “There is an honest
politician” is represented by ∃x H(x), where the domain consists of all politicians.
The negation of the statement is ¬∃x H(x), which is equivalent to ∀x¬ H(x).
“Every politician is dishonest.”
Nested Quantifiers

Nested quantifiers, where one quantifier is within the scope of another, such as:
∀x ∃y (x + y = 0). Everything within the scope of a quantifier can be
thought of as a propositional function.
For example, ∀x ∃y(x + y = 0) is the same thing as ∀x Q(x), where Q(x) is
∃y P (x, y), where P (x, y) is x + y = 0.
Understanding Statements Involving Nested Quantifiers
For example, assume that the domain for the variables x and y consists of all real
numbers.
 The statement ∀x ∀y(x + y = y + x) says that x + y = y + x for all real
numbers x and y. (Commutative law)
 Likewise, the statement ∀x ∃y (x + y = 0) says that for every real
number x there is a real number y such that x+ y = 0. (Additive
Inverse)
 Similarly, the statement ∀x ∀y ∀z(x+(y+ z) = (x + y) + z) (Associative law)
Example: Let Q(x, y) denote “x + y = 0.” What are the truth values of the
quantifications ∃y ∀x Q(x, y) and ∀x ∃y Q(x, y), where the domain for all
variables consists of all real numbers?
Solution: The quantification ∃y ∀x Q(x, y) denotes the proposition. “There
is a real number y such that for every real number x, Q(x, y‖.”
Quantification of two variables

Statement When True? When False?

∀x ∀y P(x, P(x, y) is true for every There is a pair x, y for which P(x,
y) pair x, y. y) is false.
∀y ∀x P(x,
y)

∀x ∃y P(x, For every x there is a y There is an x such that P(x, y) is

y) for which P (x, y) is true. false for every y.

∃x ∀y P(x, There is an x for which P For every x there is a y for

y) (x, y) is true for every y. which P (x, y) is false.

∃x ∃y P(x, There is a pair x, y for P (x, y) is false for every pair x, y

y) which P (x, y) is true.
Translating Mathematical Statements into
Statements Involving Nested Quantifiers
Mathematical statements expressed in English can be translated into
logical expressions.
Example
Translate the statement “The sum of two positive integers is always
positive” into a logical expression.
Solution
“For all positive integers x and y, x + y is positive.” Consequently, we can
express this statement as: ∀x ∀y((x > 0) 𝖠 (y > 0) → (x + y > 0)), where the
domain for both variables consists of all integers.
Translating from Nested Quantifiers into English
Example Translate the statement ∀x(C(x) ∨ ∃y(C(y) 𝖠 F (x, y))) into
English, where C―x‖ is “x has a computer,” F ―x, y‖ is “x and y are friends,”
and the domain for both x and y consists of all students in your school.
Solution Every student in your school has a computer or has a friend who
has a computer.

Every Theorem in Mathematics, or any subject for that matter, is

supported by underlying proofs. These proofs are nothing but a set of
arguments that are conclusive evidence of the validity of the theory.
The arguments are chained together using Rules of Inferences to deduce new
statements and ultimately prove that the theorem is valid.

Important Definitions :

1. Argument – A sequence of statements, premises, that end

with a conclusion.
2. Validity – A deductive argument is said to be valid if and only if it
takes a form that makes it impossible for the premises to be true and
the conclusion nevertheless to be false.
3. Fallacy – An incorrect reasoning or mistake which leads to
invalid arguments.
Structure of an Argument :
As defined, an argument is a sequence of statements called premises
which end with a conclusion.

Rules of Inference :
Simple arguments can be used as building blocks to construct more
complicated valid arguments. Certain simple arguments that have been
established as valid are very important in terms of their usage. These
arguments are called Rules of Inference.
The most commonly used Rules of Inference are tabulated below
Similarly, we have Rules of Inference for quantified statements –

how Rules of Inference can be used to deduce conclusions from given

arguments or check the validity of a given argument.
Example : Show that the hypotheses
“It is not sunny this afternoon and it is colder than
yesterday”, “We will go swimming only if it is sunny”,
“If we do not go swimming, then we will take a canoe trip”,
and “If we take a canoe trip, then we will be home by
sunset”
lead to the conclusion
“We will be home by sunset”.
The first step is to identify propositions and use propositional variables to
represent them.

To deduce the conclusion we must use Rules of Inference to construct a

proof using the given hypotheses.

Resolution Principle :
To understand the Resolution principle, first we need to know certain definitions.
For example,

We can use the resolution principle to check the validity of arguments or deduce
conclusions from them. Other Rules of Inference have the same purpose, but
Resolution is unique. It is complete by it’s own. You would need no other
Rule of Inference to deduce the conclusion from the given argument.
To do so, we first need to convert all the premises to clausal form. The next
step is to apply the resolution Rule of Inference to them step by step until it
cannot be applied any further.
For example, consider that we have the following premises –

Note:Implecations can also be visualised on octagon as,

It shows how implecation changes on changing order of there exists and

for all symbols.
Set and Relations
Set
Sets are used to group objects together.

DEFINITION 1 A set is an unordered collection of objects, called elements

or members of the set. A set is said to contain its elements. We write a ∈ A
to denote that a is an element of the set A. The notation a ∈ A denotes that
a is not an element of the set A.

It is common for sets to be denoted using uppercase letters. Lowercase

letters are usually used to denote elements of sets.
EXAMPLE 1 The set V of all vowels in the English alphabet can be written as V =
{a, e, i, o, u}.
EXAMPLE 2 The set O of odd positive integers less than 10 can be expressed by O
= {1, 3, 5, 7, 9}.
DEFINITION 2 Two sets are equal if and only if they have the same elements.
Therefore, if A and B are sets, then A and B are equal if and only if ∀x(x ∈ A ↔ x
∈ B). We write A = B if A and B are equal sets.
EXAMPLE The sets {1, 3, 5} and {3, 5, 1} are equal, because they have the
same elements.

THE EMPTY SET

There is a special set that has no elements. This set is called the empty
set, or null set, and is denoted by ∅.

Venn diagrams

In Venn diagrams the universal set U, which contains all the objects
under consideration, is represented by a rectangle.
EXAMPLE 7 Draw a Venn diagram that represents V, the set of vowels in
the English alphabet.
 U

Venn diagram for the Set of Vowels

Subsets
It is common to encounter situations where the elements of one set are
also the elements of a second set.
DEFINITION 3: The set A is a subset of B if and only if every element of A
is also an element of B. We use the notation A ⊆ B to indicate that A is a
subset of the set B.

We see that A ⊆ B if and only if the quantification ∀x(x ∈ A → x ∈ B) is true.

 Showing that A is a Subset of B To show that A ⊆ B, show that if x

belongs to A then x also belongs to B.
 Showing that A is Not a Subset of B To show that A ⊆ B, find a
single x ∈ A such that x ∈ B.

A B
A

Venn diagram Showing that A is a Subset of B.

THEOREM 1 For every set S, (i) ∅ ⊆ S and (ii) S ⊆ S.

Proof: Let S be a set. To show that ∅ ⊆ S, we must show that ∀x(x ∈∅→ x
∈ S) is true. Because the empty set contains no elements, it follows that x
∈ ∅ is always false. It follows that the conditional statement x ∈∅→ x ∈ S
is always true,
because its hypothesis is always false and a conditional statement with a
false hypothesis is true. Therefore, ∀x(x ∈∅→ x ∈ S) is true.
Showing Two Sets are Equal
To show that two sets A and B are equal, show that A ⊆ B and B ⊆ A.
The Size of a Set
DEFINITION 4 Let S be a set. If there are exactly n distinct elements in S
where n is a non negative integer, we say that S is a finite set and that n is
the cardinality of
S. The cardinality of S is denoted by |S|.

EXAMPLE Let A be the set of odd positive integers less than 10. Then |A| = 5.
Power Sets
DEFINITION 6 Given a set S, the power set of S is the set of all subsets of
the set S. The power set of S is denoted by P(S).
EXAMPLE What is the power set of the set {0, 1, 2}?
Solution: The power set P({0, 1, 2}) is the set of all subsets of {0, 1, 2}.
Hence, P({0, 1, 2}) = {∅,{0},{1},{2},{0, 1},{0, 2},{1, 2},{0, 1, 2}}.

Cartesian Products
The order of elements in a collection is often important. Because sets are
unordered, a different structure is needed to represent ordered
collections. This is provided by ordered n-tuples.
DEFINITION 7 The ordered n-tuple (a1, a2... a n) is the ordered collection
that has a1 as its first element, a2 as its second element... and a n as its nth
element.
DEFINITION 8 Let A and B be sets. The Cartesian product of A and B, denoted by A
× B, is the set of all ordered pairs (a, b), where a ∈ A and b ∈ B.

Hence, A × B = {(a, b) | a ∈ A 𝖠 b ∈ B}.

EXAMPLE What is the Cartesian product of A = {1, 2} and B = {a, b, c}?

Solution: The Cartesian product A × B is A × B = {(1, a), (1, b), (1, c), (2,
a), (2, b), (2, c)}.

Cartesian products A × B and B × A are not equal, unless A = ∅ or B = ∅ or A = B.

DEFINITION 9 The Cartesian product of the sets A1, A2,...,A n, denoted by A1 × A2
×···× An, is the set of ordered n-tuples (a1, a2,...,a n), where a i belongs to Ai
for i = 1, 2,...,n.

In other words, A1 × A2 ×···× A n = {(a1, a2,...,a n) | a i ∈ Ai for i = 1, 2,...,n}.

EXAMPLE What is the Cartesian product A × B × C, where A = {0, 1}, B = {1,
2}, and C = {0, 1, 2} ?
Solution: A × B × C = {(0, 1, 0), (0, 1, 1), (0, 1, 2), (0, 2, 0), (0, 2, 1), (0, 2, 2),
(1, 1, 0),
(1, 1, 1),(1, 1, 2), (1, 2, 0), (1, 2, 1), (1, 2, 2)}.
Operations on Sets
The basic set operations are:
1. Union of Sets: Union of Sets A and B is defined to be the set of all
those elements which belong to A or B or both and is denoted by
A𝖴B.

1. A𝖴B = {x: x ∈ A or x ∈ B}
Example: Let A = {1, 2, 3}, B= {3, 4, 5, 6}
A𝖴B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}.
2. Intersection of Sets: Intersection of two sets A and B is the set of all
those elements which belong to both A and B and is denoted by A ∩ B.

1. A ∩ B = {x: x ∈ A and x ∈ B}
Example: Let A = {11, 12, 13}, B = {13,
14, 15} A ∩ B = {13}.

3. Difference of Sets: The difference of two sets A and B is a set of all

those elements which belongs to A but do not belong to B and is
denoted by A - B.

1. A - B = {x: x ∈ A and x ∉ B}

Example: Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4} and B = {3, 4, 5, 6} then A - B = {3, 4} and B - A = {5,

6}
4. Complement of a Set: The Complement of a Set A is a set of all those
elements of the universal set which do not belong to A and is denoted by
Ac.

Ac = U - A = {x: x ∈ U and x ∉ A} = {x: x ∉ A}

Example: Let U is the set of all natural

numbers. A = {1, 2, 3}
Ac = {all natural numbers except 1, 2, and 3}.

5. Symmetric Difference of Sets: The symmetric difference of two sets A

and B is the set containing all the elements that are in A or B but not in
both and is denoted by A ⨁ B i.e.

1. A ⨁ B = (A 𝖴 B) - (A ∩ B)
Example: Let A = {a, b, c,
d} B = {a, b, l, m}
A ⨁ B = {c, d, l, m}

Set Identities

Idempotent laws: A 𝖴 A = A A∩A=A

Associative laws: (A 𝖴 B) 𝖴 C = A 𝖴 (B 𝖴C) (A ∩ B) ∩ C = A ∩ (B ∩
C)
Commutative A𝖴B=B𝖴A A∩B=B∩A
laws:
Distributive laws: A 𝖴 (B ∩ C) = (A 𝖴 B) ∩(A A ∩ (B 𝖴 C) = (A ∩ B) 𝖴
𝖴 (A ∩ C)
C)
Identity laws: A 𝖴∅= A A∩U=A
A∩U= A𝖴U=U
A
Complement A 𝖴 A`= A ∩ A` = ∅
laws: U U` = ∅ ∅` = U
Involution laws: (A`)` = A
De Morgan’s (A 𝖴 B)` = A` ∩ B` (A ∩ B)` = A` 𝖴 B`
laws:

EXAMPLE Use set builder notation and logical equivalences to establish the
first De Morgan law A ∩ B =A 𝖴 B.

Solution: A ∩ B = {x | x /∈ A ∩ B} definition of complement

= {x | ¬(x ∈ (A ∩ B))} definition of does not belong symbol

= {x | ¬(x ∈ A 𝖠 x ∈ B)} definition of intersection
= {x | ¬(x ∈ A) ∨ ¬(x ∈ B)} first De Morgan law

= {x | x /∈ A ∨ x /∈ B} by definition of does not belong symbol

= {x | x ∈ A ∨ x ∈ B} definition of complement

= {x | x ∈ A 𝖴 B} definition of union
=A𝖴B

A membership table for the distributive property

A B C B𝖴C A ∩ (B 𝖴 C) A∩B A∩C (A ∩ B) 𝖴 (A ∩C)

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1
1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

EXAMPLE Let A, B, and C be sets. Show

that A 𝖴 (B ∩ C) = (C 𝖴 B) ∩ A.

Solution: A 𝖴 (B ∩ C) = A ∩ (B ∩ C) First De Morgan law

= A ∩ (B 𝖴 C) Second De Morgan law

= (B 𝖴 C) ∩ A Commutative law
= (C 𝖴 B) ∩ A by the commutative law for unions.

Generalized Unions and Intersections

Unions and intersections of sets satisfy associative laws, the sets A 𝖴 B 𝖴 C and A
∩ B ∩ C are well defined; that is, the meaning of this notation is
unambiguous when A, B, and C are sets.

FIGURE The Union and Intersection of A, B, and C.

DEFINITION 6 The union of a collection of sets is the set that contains those
elements that are members of at least one set in the collection.
DEFINITION 7 The intersection of a collection of sets is the set that
contains those elements that are members of all the sets in the collection.
A1 ∩ A2 ∩···∩ A n to denote the intersection of the sets A1, A2... A n.
Relations

Introductio

An ordered pair of elements a and b, where a is designated as the first element

and b as the second element, is denoted by (a, b). In particular, (a, b) = (c,
d) if and only if a = c and b = d. Thus (a, b) = (b, a) unless a = b.

Definition 1 Let A and B be sets. A binary relation or, simply, relation

from A to B is a subset of A × B.

(i) (a, b) ∈ R; we then say “a is R-related to b”, written a R b.

(ii) (a, b) /∈ R; we then say “a is not R-related to b”, written a R b.

If R is a relation from a set A to itself, that is, if R is a subset of A2 = A × A,
then we say that R is a relation on A.

EXAMPLE Set inclusion ⊆ is a relation on any collection of sets. For, given

any pair of set A and B, either A ⊆ B or A ⊆ B.

Inverse Relation
Let R be any relation from a set A to a set B. The inverse of R, denoted by
R−1, is the relation from B to A which consists of those ordered pairs
which, when reversed, belong to R; that is,

R−1 = {(b, a)|(a, b) ∈ R}

For example, let A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {x, y, z}. Then the

inverse of R = {(1, y), (1, z), (3, y)} is R−1 = {(y, 1), (z, 1),
(y, 3)}
Representation of Relations
Relations can be represented in many ways. Some of which are as follows:
1. Relation as a Matrix: Let P = [a1,a2,a3,.......am] and Q = [b1,b2,b3......bn] are
finite sets, containing m and n number of elements respectively. R is a
relation from P to Q. The relation R can be represented by m x n matrix M
= [Mij], defined as

Mij = 0 if (ai,bj) ∉ R

1 if (ai,bj )∈ R

Example

1. Let P = {1, 2, 3, 4}, Q = {a, b, c, d}

2. and R = {(1, a), (1, b), (1, c), (2, b), (2, c), (2, d)}.
The matrix of relation R is shown as fig:
2. Relation as a Directed Graph: There is another way of picturing a
relation R when R is a relation from a finite set to itself.
Example
1. A = {1, 2, 3, 4}
2. R = {(1, 2) (2, 2) (2, 4) (3, 2) (3, 4) (4, 1) (4, 3)}

3. Relation as an Arrow Diagram: If P and Q are finite sets and R is a

relation from P to Q. Relation R can be represented as an arrow diagram
as follows.
Draw two ellipses for the sets P and Q. Write down the elements of P and
elements of Q column-wise in three ellipses. Then draw an arrow from the
first ellipse to the second ellipse if a is related to b and a ∈ P and b ∈ Q.

Example
 1. Let P = {1, 2, 3, 4}
2. Q = {a, b, c, d}
3. R = {(1, a), (2, a), (3, a), (1, b), (4, b), (4, c), (4, d)
The arrow diagram of relation R is shown in fig:

4. Relation as a Table: If P and Q are finite sets and R is a relation from

P to Q. Relation R can be represented in tabular form.
Make the table which contains rows equivalent to an element of P and
columns equivalent to the element of Q. Then place a cross (X) in the
boxes which represent relations of elements on set P to set Q.
Example
1. Let P = {1, 2, 3, 4}
2. Q = {x, y, z, k}
3. R = {(1, x), (1, y), (2, z), (3, z), (4, k)}.
The tabular form of relation as shown in fig:
Composition of Relations
Let A, B, and C be sets, and let R be a relation from A to B and let S be a
relation from B to C. That is, R is a subset of A × B and S is a subset of B
× C. Then R and S give rise to a relation from A to C indicated by R◦S and
defined by:

1. a (R◦S)c if for some b ∈ B we have aRb and bSc.

2. is,

3. R ◦ S = {(a, c)| there exists b ∈ B for which (a, b) ∈ R and (b, c) ∈ S}

The relation R◦S is known the composition of R and S; it is sometimes
denoted simply by RS.
Let R is a relation on a set A, that is, R is a relation from a set A to itself.
Then R◦R, the composition of R with itself, is always represented. Also, R◦R
is sometimes denoted by R2. Similarly, R3 = R2◦R = R◦R◦R, and so on. Thus
Rn is defined for all positive n.
Example1: Let X = {4, 5, 6}, Y = {a, b, c} and Z = {l, m, n}. Consider
the relation R1 from X to Y and R2 from Y to Z.
R1 = {(4, a), (4, b), (5, c), (6, a), (6, c)}

R2 = {(a, l), (a, n), (b, l), (b, m), (c, l), (c, m), (c, n)}
Find the composition of relation (i) R1 o R2 (ii) R1 1o R -1

Solution:

(i) The composition relation R1 o R2 as shown in fig:

R1 o R2 = {(4, l), (4, n), (4, m), (5, l), (5, m), (5, n), (6, l), (6, m), (6, n)}

(ii) The composition relation R1o1 R -1

as shown in fig:

R1o R1-1 = {(4, 4), (5, 5), (5, 6), (6, 4), (6, 5), (4, 6), (6, 6)}
Composition of Relations and Matrices
There is another way of finding R◦S. Let MR and MS denote respectively the
matrix representations of the relations R and S. Then
Example
1. Let P = {2, 3, 4, 5}. Consider the relation R and S on P
defined by 2. R = {(2, 2), (2, 3), (2, 4), (2, 5), (3, 4), (3,
5), (4, 5), (5, 3)}
3. S = {(2, 3), (2, 5), (3, 4), (3, 5), (4, 2), (4, 3), (4, 5), (5, 2), (5, 5)}.
4.
5. Find the matrices of the above relations.

6. Use matrices to find the following composition of the relation R and S.

7. (i)RoS (ii)RoR (iii)SoR
Solution: The matrices of the relation R and S are a shown in fig:

(i) To obtain the composition of relation R and S. First multiply MR with

MS to obtain the matrix MR x MS as shown in fig:
The non zero entries in the matrix MR x MS tells the elements related in RoS. So,
Hence the composition R o S of the relation R and S is
1. R o S = {(2, 2), (2, 3), (2, 4), (3, 2), (3, 3), (4, 2), (4, 5), (5, 2), (5, 3), (5,
4), (5, 5
)}.
(ii) First, multiply the matrix MR by itself, as shown in fig

Hence the composition R o R of the relation R and S is

1. R o R = {(2, 2), (3, 2), (3, 3), (3, 4), (4, 2), (4, 5), (5, 2), (5, 3), (5, 5)}

(iii) Multiply the matrix MS with MR to obtain the matrix MS x MR as shown in fig:

The non-zero entries in matrix MS x MR tells the elements related in S o R.

Hence the composition S o R of the relation S and R is
1. S o R = {(2, 4) , (2, 5), (3, 3), (3, 4), (3, 5), (4, 2), (4, 4), (4, 5), (5, 2), (5,
3), (5,
4), (5, 5)}.
Types of Relations
1. Reflexive Relation: A relation R on set A is said to be a reflexive if (a, a)
∈ R for every a ∈ A.

Example: If A = {1, 2, 3, 4} then R = {(1, 1) (2, 2), (1, 3), (2, 4), (3, 3), (3, 4), (4,
4)}. Is
a relation reflexive?

Solution: The relation is reflexive as for every a ∈ A. (a, a) ∈ R, i.e. (1, 1),
(2, 2), (3, 3), (4, 4) ∈ R.

2. Irreflexive Relation: A relation R on set A is said to be irreflexive if (a, a)

∉ R for every a ∈ A.

Example: Let A = {1, 2, 3} and R = {(1, 2), (2, 2), (3, 1), (1, 3)}. Is the
relation R reflexive or irreflexive?

Solution: The relation R is not reflexive as for every a ∈ A, (a, a) ∉ R, i.e.,

(1, 1) and (3, 3) ∉ R. The relation R is not irreflexive as (a, a) ∉ R, for
some a ∈ A, i.e., (2, 2) ∈ R.

3. Symmetric Relation: A relation R on set A is said to be symmetric iff (a, b) ∈ R

- (b, a) ∈ R.
Example: Let A = {1, 2, 3} and R = {(1, 1), (2, 2), (1, 2), (2, 1), (2, 3), (3,
2)}. Is a
relation R symmetric or not?
Solution: The relation is symmetric as for every (a, b) ∈ R, we have (b, a)
∈ R, i.e., (1, 2), (2, 1), (2, 3), (3, 2) ∈ R but not reflexive because (3, 3) ∉
R.
Example of Symmetric Relation:
1. Relation ⊥r is symmetric since a line a is ⊥r to b, then b is ⊥r to a.
 2. Also, Parallel is symmetric, since if a line a is ∥ to b then b is also ∥ to a.
Antisymmetric Relation: A relation R on a set A is antisymmetric iff (a, b)
∈ R and (b, a) ∈ R then a = b.

Example1: Let A = {1, 2, 3} and R = {(1, 1), (2, 2)}. Is the relation R
antisymmetric?
Solution: The relation R is antisymmetric as a = b when (a, b) and (b,
a) both belong to R.
Example2: Let A = {4, 5, 6} and R = {(4, 4), (4, 5), (5, 4), (5, 6), (4, 6)}.
Is the relation R antisymmetric?
Solution: The relation R is not antisymmetric as 4 ≠ 5 but (4, 5) and (5,
4) both belong to R.

5. Asymmetric Relation: A relation R on a set A is called an Asymmetric

Relation if for every (a, b) ∈ R implies that (b, a) does not belong to R.

6. Transitive Relations: A Relation R on set A is said to be transitive iff (a,

b) ∈ R and (b, c) ∈ R ⟺ (a, c) ∈ R.

Example1: Let A = {1, 2, 3} and R = {(1, 2), (2, 1), (1, 1), (2, 2)}. Is the
relation transitive?
Solution: The relation R is transitive as for every (a, b) (b, c) belong to R,
we have (a, c) ∈ R i.e, (1, 2) (2, 1) ∈ R ⇒ (1, 1) ∈ R.

Note1: The Relation ≤, ⊆ and / are transitive, i.e., a ≤ b, b ≤ c then a ≤ c

(ii) Let a ⊆ b, b ⊆ c then a ⊆ c
(iii) Let a/b, b/c then a/c.

Note2: ⊥r is not transitive since a ⊥r b, b ⊥r c then it is not true that a ⊥r c. Since

no line is ∥ to itself, we can have a ∥ b, b ∥ a but a ∦ a.
Thus ∥ is not transitive, but it will be transitive in the plane.

7. Identity Relation: Identity relation I on set A is reflexive, transitive

and symmetric. So identity relation I is an Equivalence Relation.
Example: A= {1, 2, 3} = {(1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3)}
8. Void Relation: It is given by R: A →B such that R = ∅ (⊆ A x B) is a null
relation. Void Relation R = ∅ is symmetric and transitive but not reflexive.

9. Universal Relation: A relation R: A →B such that R = A x B (⊆ A x B) is a

universal relation. Universal Relation from A →B is reflexive, symmetric
and transitive. So this is an equivalence relation.
CLOSURE PROPERTIES
A relation with property P will be called a P-relation. The P-closure of an
arbitrary relation R on A, written P (R), is a P-relation such that

R ⊆ P (R) ⊆ S for every P-relation S containing R, For the reflexive,

symmetric, and transitive closures of R.
Reflexive and Symmetric Closures
Suppose P is a property such that there is at least one P-relation
containing R and that the intersection of any P-relations is again a P-
relation.

P (R) = ∩(S | S is a P-relation and R ⊆ S‖ P ―R‖ from the “top-down,” that

is, as the intersection of relations. A = {(a, a)| a ∈ A} is the diagonal or
equality relation on A.
Theorem: Let R be a relation on a set A. Then:
(i) R 𝖴 A is the reflexive closure of R.

(ii) R 𝖴 R−1 is the symmetric closure of R.

In other words, reflexive(R) is obtained by simply adding to R those
elements (a, a) in the diagonal which do not already belong to R, and
symmetric(R) is obtained by adding to R all pairs (b, a) whenever (a, b)
belongs to R.

Transitive Closure Let R be a relation on a set A. R2 = R◦R and R n =

R n−1◦R. The following theorem applies:
Theorem: R∗ is the transitive closure of R.
Theorem: Let R be a relation on a set A with n elements.
Then Transitive(R) = R 𝖴 R^2 𝖴 ... 𝖴 R n
EXAMPLE Consider the relation R = {(1, 2), (2, 3), (3, 3)} on A = {1, 2, 3}. Then:
R^2
= R◦R = {(1, 3), (2, 3), (3, 3)} and R^3 = R^2◦R = {(1, 3), (2, 3), (3, 3)}

Transitive (R) = {(1, 2), (2, 3), (3, 3), (1, 3)}
EQUIVALENCE RELATIONS

Consider a nonempty set S. A relation R on S is an equivalence relation if R

is reflexive, symmetric, and transitive. That is, R is an equivalence relation
on S if it has the following three properties:

1) For every a ∈ S, a R a.
2) If a R b, then b R a.
3) If a R b and b R c, then a R c.
S is an equivalence relation; that is:
(1) a = a, for every a ∈ S.
(2) If a = b, then b = a.
(3) If a = b, b = c, then a = c.
Equivalence Relations and Partitions
This subsection explores the relationship between equivalence relations
and partitions on a non-empty set S.
Partition P of S is a collection {Ai} of nonempty subsets of S with the
following two properties:

(1) Each a ∈ S belongs to some Ai.

(2) If Ai = A j then Ai ∩ A j = ∅.
Theorem: Let R be an equivalence relation on a set S. Then S/R is a partition of S.
(i) For each a in S, we have a ∈ [a].
(ii) [a]=[b] if and only if (a, b) ∈ R.

(iii) If [a] = [b], then [a] and [b] are disjoint.

Conversely, given a partition {Ai} of the set S, there is an equivalence
relation R on S such that the sets Ai are the equivalence classes.
EXAMPLE
Consider the relation R = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (2, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3)} on S = {1, 2, 3}.
One can show that R is reflexive, symmetric, and transitive, that is, that R is an
equivalence relation. Also: [1]={1, 2}, [2]={1, 2}, [3]={3}
Observe that [1] = [2] and that S/R = {[1], [3]} is a partition of S.
Partial Order Relations
A relation R on a set A is called a partial order relation if it satisfies the
following three properties:

1. Relation R is Reflexive, i.e. aRa ∀ a∈A.

2. Relation R is Antisymmetric, i.e., aRb and bRa ⟹ a = b.

3. Relation R is transitive, i.e., aRb and bRc ⟹ aRc.

Example1: Show whether the relation (x, y) ∈ R, if, x ≥ y defined on the set
of +ve integers is a partial order relation.
Solution: Consider the set A = {1, 2, 3, 4} containing four +ve integers.
Find the relation for this set such as R = {(2, 1), (3, 1), (3, 2), (4, 1), (4,
2), (4, 3), (1, 1), (2, 2),
(3, 3), (4, 4)}.
Reflexive: The relation is reflexive as for every a ∈ A. (a, a) ∈ R, i.e. (1, 1),
(2, 2), (3, 3), (4, 4) ∈ R.
Antisymmetric: The relation is antisymmetric as whenever (a, b) and (b,
a) ∈ R, we have a = b.

Transitive: The relation is transitive as whenever (a, b) and (b, c) ∈ R, we

have (a, c) ∈ R.

Example: (4, 2) ∈ R and (2, 1) ∈ R, implies (4, 1) ∈ R.

As the relation is reflexive, antisymmetric and transitive. Hence, it is a

partial order relation.
Example2: Show that the relation 'Divides' defined on N is a partial order relation.

Solution:
Reflexive: We have a divides a, ∀ a∈N. Therefore, relation 'Divides' is reflexive.
Antisymmetric: Let a, b, c ∈N, such that a divides b. It implies b divides a
iff a = b. So, the relation is antisymmetric.

Transitive: Let a, b, c ∈N, such that a divides b and b divides c.

Then a divides c. Hence the relation is transitive. Thus, the relation being
reflexive, antisymmetric and transitive, the relation 'divides' is a partial
order relation.

Example3: (a) The relation ⊆ of a set of inclusion is a partial ordering or

any collection of sets since set inclusion has three desired properties:

1. A ⊆ A for any set A.

2. If A ⊆ B and B ⊆ A then B = A.

3. If A ⊆ B and B ⊆ C then A ⊆ C

(b) The relation ≤ on the set R of real no that is Reflexive,

Antisymmetric and transitive.

(c) Relation ≤ is a Partial Order Relation.

n-Ary Relations
By an n-ary relation, we mean a set of ordered n-tuples. For any set S, a
subset of the product set Sn is called an n-ary relation on S. In particular, a
subset of S3 is called a ternary relation on S.
Partial Order Set (POSET):
The set A together with a partial order relation R on the set A and is
denoted by (A, R) is called a partial orders set or POSET.
Total Order Relation

Consider the relation R on the set A. If it is also called the case that for all,
a, b ∈ A, we have either (a, b) ∈ R or (b, a) ∈ R or a = b, then the relation R
is known total order relation on set A.

Example: Show that the relation '<' (less than) defined on N, the set of +ve
integers is neither an equivalence relation nor partially ordered relation
but is a total order relation.
Solution:
Reflexive: Let a ∈ N, then a < a
⟹ '<' is not reflexive.

As, the relation '<' (less than) is not reflexive, it is neither an equivalence
relation nor the partial order relation.

But, as ∀ a, b ∈ N, we have either a < b or b < a or a = b. So, the relation is

a total order relation.
Equivalence Class
Consider, an equivalence relation R on a set A. The equivalence class of an
element a ∈ A, is the set of elements of A to which element a is related. It
is denoted by [a].
Example: Let R be an equivalence relations on the set A = {4, 5, 6, 7}
defined by R = {(4, 4), (5, 5), (6, 6), (7, 7), (4, 6), (6, 4)}.
Determine its equivalence classes.
Solution: The equivalence classes are as follows:
{4} = {6} = {4, 6}
{5} = {5}
{7} = {7}.

Circular Relation
Consider a binary relation R on a set A. Relation R is called circular if (a,
b) ∈ R and (b, c) ∈ R implies (c, a) ∈ R.

Example: Consider R is an equivalence relation. Show that R is reflexive

and circular.
Solution: Reflexive: As, the relation, R is an equivalence relation. So,
reflexivity is the property of an equivalence relation. Hence, R is reflexive.

Circular: Let (a, b) ∈ R and (b, c) ∈ R

⇒ (a, c) ∈ R (∵ R is transitive)
⇒ (c, a) ∈ R (∵ R is
symmetric) Thus, R is Circular.
Compatible Relation
A binary relation R on a set A that is Reflexive and symmetric is called
Compatible Relation.
Every Equivalence Relation is compatible, but every compatible relation
need not be an equivalence.
Example: Set of a friend is compatible but may not be an equivalence relation.
Friend Friend
a → b, b → c but possible that a and c are not friends.
Counting

Counting problems arise throughout mathematics and computer science.

For example, we must count the successful outcomes of experiments and
all the possible outcomes of these experiments to determine probabilities
of discrete events.
Basic Counting Principles
Product rule
Basic Counting
Principles Sum rule

THE PRODUCT RULE

If the events occur one after the other, then all the events can occur in the
order indicated in: n1 · n2 · n3 · ...ways.
EXAMPLE
How many different license plates can be made if each plate contains a
sequence of three uppercase English letters followed by three digits?

Solution: By the product rule there are a total of 26·26·26·10·10·10 =

17,576,000 possible license plates.
THE SUM RULE
Suppose some event E can occur in m ways and a second event F can
occur in n ways, and suppose both events cannot occur simultaneously.
Then E or F can occur in m + n ways.
EXAMPLE Suppose a college has 3 different history courses, 4 different
literature courses, and 2 different sociology courses.
Solution: (a) The number m of ways a student can choose one of each kind
of courses is: m = 3(4)(2) = 24
(b) The number n of ways a student can choose just one of the courses is:
n = 3 +4 + 2 = 9

(1) Sum Rule Principle: Suppose A and B are disjoint sets.

Then n (A 𝖴 B) = n(A) + n(B)

(2) Product Rule Principle: Let A × B be the Cartesian product of sets A and
B. Then n (A × B) = n (A) · n (B)
MATHEMATICAL FUNCTIONS
Two important mathematical functions frequently used are:

Factorial Function
The product of the positive integers from 1 to n inclusive is denoted by n!,
read “n factorial.” Namely:
n! = 1 · 2 · 3 · ... · (n−2)(n−1)n = n(n−1)(n−2) · ... · 3 · 2 · 1
Accordingly, 1! = 1 and n! = n (n − l) !. It is also convenient to define 0! = 1.

EXAMPLE: 3! = 3·2·1 = 6, 4! = 4·3·2·1 = 24, 5 = 5·4! =5(24) = 120.

Binomial Coefficients: The symbol ―n r‖, read “n C r” or “n Choose r,”
where r and n are positive integers with r ≤ n, is defined as follows:

= n(n − 1)···(n − r + 1/ r(r − 1)... 3·2·1 or = n! / r! (n − r)!

Binomial Coefficients and Pascal’s Triangle
The numbers (n r) are called binomial coefficients, since they appear as
the coefficients in the expansion of (a + b) ^n.
The Subtraction Rule (Inclusion–Exclusion for Two Sets)

If a task can be done in either n1 ways or n2 ways, then the number of

ways to do the task is n1 + n2 minus the number of ways to do the task
that are common to the two different ways.
The subtraction rule is also known as the principle of inclusion exclusion,
especially when it is used to count the number of elements in the union of
two sets.

Formula: |A1 𝖴 A2|=|A1|+|A2|−|A1 ∩ A2|. THE

DIVISION RULE
There are n/d ways to do a task if it can be done using a procedure that
can be carried out in n ways, and for every way w, exactly d of the n ways
correspond to way w.
Division rule in terms of sets: “If the finite set A is the union of n pair wise
disjoint subsets each with d elements, then n = |A|/d.”
The Pigeonhole Principle
Pigeonhole principle, which states that if there are more pigeons than
pigeonholes, then there must be at least one pigeonhole with at least two
pigeons in it.
THEOREM 1 THE PIGEONHOLE PRINCIPLE If k is a positive integer and k + 1
or more objects are placed into k boxes, then there is at least one box
containing two or more of the objects.

(a) (b)
Figure there are more Pigeons than Pigeonholes
Proof: We prove the pigeonhole principle using a proof by contraposition.
Suppose that none of the k boxes contains more than one object. Then the
total number of objects would be at most k. This is a contradiction,
because there is at least k + 1 objects. The pigeonhole principle is also
called the Dirichlet drawer principle.
COROLLARY 1 A function f from a set with k + 1 or more elements to a set
with k elements is not one-to-one.
EXAMPLE Among any group of 367 people, there must be at least two with
the same birthday, because there are only 366 possible birthdays.
The Generalized Pigeonhole Principle
THEOREM 2 If N objects are placed into k boxes, then there is at least one
box containing at least N/k objects.

Proof: Suppose that none of the boxes contains more than N/k − 1 objects.
Then, the total number of objects is at most
K ( [ N/k ] – 1) < k ( ( N/ k + 1 ) –1) = N , where the inequality N/k < (N/k)
+ 1 has been used.
EXAMPLE
What is the minimum number of students required in a discrete
mathematics class to be sure that at least six will receive the same grade,
if there are five possible grades, A, B, C, D, and F?

Solution: The smallest integer N such that N/5 = 6. The smallest such
integer is N = 5 · 5 + 1 = 26.

Permutations and
Combinations Permutations
A permutation of a set of distinct objects is an ordered arrangement of
these objects. An ordered arrangement of r elements of a set is called an r-
permutation.
EXAMPLE Let S = {1, 2, 3}. The ordered arrangement 3, 1, 2 is a
permutation of S. The ordered arrangement 3, 2 is a 2-permutation of S.
The number of r-permutations of a set with n elements is denoted by P (n,
r). P (n, r) using the product rule.
THEOREM 1 If n is a positive integer and r is an integer with 1 ≤ r ≤ n, then
there are P (n, r) = n (n − 1)(n − 2)···(n − r + 1) r-permutations of a set
with n distinct elements.

n − (r − 1) = n − r + 1 ways to choose the r th element. By the product

rule, there are n (n − 1) (n − 2)···(n − r + 1) r-permutations of the set.

COROLLARY If n and r are integers with 0 ≤ r ≤ n,

then P (n, r) = n! / (n − r)!
Proof: When n and r are integers with 1 ≤ r ≤ n, by Theorem 1
we have P (n, r) = n (n − 1) (n − 2)···(n − r + 1) = n!/(n − r)!

n! / (n − 0)! = n!/n! = 1 whenever n is a nonnegative integer

EXAMPLE How many ways are there to select a first-prize winner, a second-
prize winner, and a third-prize winner from 100 different people who have
entered a contest?
Solution: Number of 3-permutations of a set of 100
elements. P (100, 3) = 100 · 99 · 98 = 970,200.

Combinations
An r-combination of elements of a set is an unordered selection of r
elements from the set. Thus, an r-combination is simply a subset of the set
with r elements.
EXAMPLE Let S be the set {1, 2, 3, 4}. Then {1, 3, 4} is a 3-combination from S.
The number of r-combinations of a set with n distinct elements is denoted
by C (n, r).
THEOREM 2 The number of r-combinations of a set with n elements, where
n is a nonnegative integer and r is an integer with 0 ≤ r ≤ n, equals C ―n, r‖
= n! / r! (n − r)!
EXAMPLE How many poker hands of five cards can be dealt from a
standard deck of 52 cards? Also, how many ways are there to select 47
cards from a standard deck of 52 cards?

Solution: C (52, 5) = 52! / (5! 47!)

First divide the numerator and denominator by 47! to
obtain C (52, 5) = (52 · 51 · 50 · 49 · 48) / (5 · 4 · 3 ·
2 · 1 ) = 2,598,960.
COROLLARY 2: Let n and r be non-negative integers with r ≤ n. Then C (n,
r) = C(n, n − r).
DEFINITION 1 A combinatorial proof of an identity is a proof that uses
counting arguments to prove that both sides of the identity count the same
objects but in different ways or a proof that is based on showing that there
is a bi-ejection between the sets of objects counted by the two sides of the
identity.
EXAMPLE How many ways are there to select five players from a 10-
member tennis team to make a trip to a match at another school?
Sol: Number of such combinations is C (10, 5) = 10! / 5! 5! = 252.

Combinations and Permutations with and without

Repetition.
Type Repetition Allowed? Formula

r-permutations No n! / (n − r)!

r-permutations No n! / r! ( n − r)!
r-permutations Yes nr

r-combinations Yes (n + r − 1)! /r! (n −

1)!

Mathematical Induction
The process to establish the validity of an ordinary result involving natural
numbers is the principle of mathematical induction.
Working Rule
Let n0 be a fixed integer. Suppose P (n) is a statement involving the
natural number n and we wish to prove that P (n) is true for all n ≥n0.

1. Basic of Induction: P (n0) is true i.e. P (n) is true for n = n0.

2. Induction Step: Assume that the P (k) is true for
n = k. Then P (K+1) must also be true.
Then P (n) is true for all n ≥n0.
Example 1:
Prove the follo2wing by Mathematical
Induction: 1 + 3 + 5 +. + 2n - 1 = n2.
Solution: let us assume that.
P (n) = 1 + 3 + 5 +..... + 2n - 1
= n2. For n = 1, P (1) = 1 = 12 =
1
t is true for n = 1 ........... (i)
Induction Step: For n = r,
P (r) = 1 + 3 + 5 +..... +2r-1 = r2 is true. ............. (ii)
Adding 2r + 1 in both sides
P (r + 1) = 1 + 3 + 5 +. +2r-1 + 2r +1
= r2 + (2r + 1) = r2 + 2r +1 = (r+1)2............. (iii)

As P(r) is true. Hence P (r+1) is also

true. From (i), (ii) and (iii) we conclude
that.
1 + 3 + 5 +..... + 2n - 1 =n2 is true for n = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 Hence Proved.
Example 2:

12 + 22 + 32 +.......+ n2 =

Solution: For n = 1,

P (1) = 12 = =1

It is true for n = 1.
Induction Step: For n = r, ............. (i)

P (r) = 12 + 22 + 32 +........ + r2 = is true. ....... (ii)

Adding (r+1)2 on both sides, we get

P (r+1) = 12 + 22 + 32 +.......+ r2+ (r+1)2 = + (r+1)2

As P (r) is true, hence P (r+1) is
true. From (i), (ii) and (iii) we
conclude that

12 + 22 + 32 +......+ n2= is true for n = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5Hence Proved.

Example3: Show that for any integer n

11n+2 + 122n+1 is divisible by 133.
Solution:
Let P (n) = 11n+2+122n+1
For n = 1,
P (1) = 113+123=3059=133 x 23

So, 133 divide P (1) ............ (i)

Induction Step: For n = r,
P (r) = 11r+2+122r+1=133 x s....... (ii)
Now, for n = r + 1,
P (r+1) = 11r+2+1+122(r)+3=11[133s-122r+1] + 144. 122r+1
= 11 x 133s + 122r+1.133=133[11s+122r+1]=133 x t .(iii)

As (i), (ii), and (iii) all are true, hence P (n) is divisible by 133.
PROVING RESULTS ABOUT SETS
Mathematical induction can be used to prove many results about sets.

a•
X

X
59 . S
 a•

X𝖴 {a}
T

FIGURE:
Generating subsets of a set with k+1elements.Here T = S 𝖴 {a}.

Strong Induction and Well-Ordering

Strong induction, which can often be used when we cannot easily prove a
result using mathematical induction.
To prove that P (n) is true for all positive integers n, where P (n) is a
propositional function, we complete two steps:
BASIS STEP: We verify that the proposition P (1) is
true. INDUCTIVE STEP: Conditional statement [P (1) 𝖠

P (2) 𝖠···𝖠 P (k)] → P (k + 1) is true for all positive

integers k.
Using Strong Induction in Computational Geometry A polygon is called
convex if every line segment connecting two points in the interior of the
polygon lies entirely inside the polygon. (A polygon that is not convex is
said to be non- convex.)

a c a
db e
b d c f
FIGURE Convex and Non-convex Polygons.
THEOREM 1 A simple polygon with n sides, where n is an integer with n ≥
3, can be triangulated into n − 2 triangles.
LEMMA 1 Every simple polygon with at least four sides has an interior diagonal.
Proof (of Theorem 1): We will prove this result using strong induction. Let
T (n) be the statement that every simple polygon with n sides can be
triangulated into n − 2 triangles.
BASIS STEP: T (3) is true because a simple polygon with three sides is a
triangle. Consequently, every simple polygon with n = 3 has can be
triangulated into n − 2 = 3 − 2 = 1triangle.

INDUCTIVE STEP: For the inductive hypothesis,T(j ) is true for all integers j
with 3 ≤ j ≤ k. That is, we assume that we can triangulate a simple polygon
with j sides into j − 2 triangles whenever 3 ≤ j ≤ k. To complete the
inductive step, we must show that when we assume the inductive
hypothesis, P (k + 1) is true, that is, that every simple polygon with k + 1
sides can be triangulated into (k + 1) − 2 = k − 1 triangles.
Proofs Using the Well-Ordering Property
The validity of both the principle of mathematical induction, strong
induction follows from a fundamental axiom of the set of integers, the well-
ordering property.

EXAMPLE Use the well-ordering property to prove the division algorithm.

Recall that the division algorithm states that if a is an integer and d is a
positive integer, then there are unique integers q and r with 0 ≤ r<d and a
= d q + r.
Solution: Let S be the set of nonnegative integers of the form a – d q,
where q is an integer. This set is nonempty because –d q can be made as
large as desired (taking q to be a negative integer with large absolute
value).
By the well-ordering property, S has a least element r = a
− dq0. The integer r is nonnegative. It is also the case that
r<d.
Recursively Defined Functions
BASIS STEP: Specify the value of the function at zero.
RECURSIVE STEP: Give a rule for finding its value at an integer from its
values at smaller integers.
Such a definition is called a recursive or inductive definition.
EXAMPLE Suppose that f is defined recursively by f
(0) = 3, f (n + 1) = 2f (n) + 3.Find f (1), f (2), and f
(4).
Solution: f (1) = 2f (0) + 3 = 2 · 3 + 3 = 9,
f (2) = 2f (1) + 3 = 2 · 9 + 3 = 21,f (4) = 2f (3) + 3 = 2 · 45 + 3 = 93.
Probability
The word 'Probability' means the chance of occurring of a particular event.
It is generally possible to predict the future of an event quantitatively
with a certain probability of being correct. The probability is used in
such cases where the outcome of the trial is uncertain.
Probability Definition:
The probability of happening of an event A, denoted by P(A), is defined as

Thus, if an event can happen in m ways and fails to occur in n ways and
m+n ways is equally likely to occur then the probability of happening of
the event A is given by

And the probability of non-happening of A is

Note:

1. The probability of an event which is certain to occur is one.

2. The probability of an event which is impossible to zero.

3. If the probability of happening of an event P(A) and that

of not happening is P(A), then
P(A)+ P(A) = 1, 0 ≤ P(A) ≤ 1,0≤ P―A‖≤1.
Important Terms related to Probability:

1. Trial and Event: The performance of an experiment is called a trial, and

the set of its outcomes is termed an event.
Example: Tossing a coin and getting head is a trial. Then the event is
{HT, TH, HH}

2. Random Experiment: It is an experiment in which all the possible

outcomes of the experiment are known in advance. But the exact
outcomes of any specific performance are not known in advance.
Example:
1. Tossing a Coin
2. Rolling a die

3. Drawing a card from a pack of 52 cards.

4. Drawing a ball from a bag.

3. Outcome: The result of a random experiment is called an Outcome.

Example: 1. Tossing a coin is an experiment and getting head is called
an outcome.
2. Rolling a die and getting 6 is an outcome.
4. Sample Space: The set of all possible outcomes of an experiment is
called sample space and is denoted by S.
Example: When a die is thrown, sample space is S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}
It consists of six outcomes 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6
Note1: If a die is rolled n times the total number of outcomes will be 6
n
. Note2: If 1 die rolled n times then n die rolled 1 time.
5. Complement of Event: The set of all outcomes which are in sample
space but not an event is called the complement of an event.

6. Impossible Events: An event which will never be happened.

Example1: Tossing double-headed coins and getting tails in an
impossible event.
Example2: Rolling a die and getting number > 10 in an impossible outcome.
P (impossible outcome) =0
7. Sure Outcome/Certain Outcome: An Outcome which will
definitely be happen
Example1: Tossing double-headed coins and getting heads only.
Example2: Rolling a die and getting number
< 6 P (sure outcome) = 1
{1, 2, 3, 4, 5 6} is called sure
event P (sure outcome) = 1

8. Possible Outcome: An outcome which is possible to occur is called

Possible Outcome.
Example1: Tossing a fair coin and getting a head on it.
Example2: Rolling a die and getting an odd number.
9. Equally Likely Events: Events are said to be equally likely if one of
them cannot be expected to occur in preference to others. In other
words, it means each outcome is as likely to occur as any other
outcome.
Example: When a die is thrown, all the six faces, i.e., 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6
are equally likely to occur.

10. Mutually Exclusive or Disjoint Events: Events are called mutually

exclusive if they cannot occur simultaneously.
Example: Suppose a card is drawn from a pack of cards, then the
events getting a jack and getting a king are mutually exclusive
because they cannot occur simultaneously.

11. Exhaustive Events: The total number of all possible outcomes

of an experiment is called exhaustive events.
Example: In the tossing of a coin, either head or tail may turn up.
Therefore, there are two possible outcomes. Hence, there are two
exhaustive events in tossing a coin.

12. Independent Events: Events A and B are said to be independent

if the occurrence of any one event does not affect the occurrence of
any other event.
P (A ∩ B) = P (A) P (B).
Example: A coin is tossed thrice, and all 8 outcomes are equally
likely A: "The first throw results in heads."
B: "The last throw results in
Tails." Prove that event A and B are
independent. Solution:
13. Dependent Event: Events are said to be dependent if occurrence of
one affect the occurrence of other events.
Addition Theorem
Theorem1: If A and B are two mutually exclusive events,
then P(A 𝖴B)=P(A)+P(B)
Proof: Let the n=total number of exhaustive
cases n1= number of cases
favorable to A. n2= number of
cases favorable to B.
Now, we have A and B two mutually exclusive events. Therefore, n1+n2 is
the number of cases favorable to A or B.

Example: Two dice are tossed once. Find the probability of getting an
even number on first dice or a total of 8.
Solution: An even number can be got on a die in 3 ways because any one
of 2, 4, 6, can come. The other die can have any number. This can
happen in 6 ways.

∴ P (an even number on Ist die) =

A total of 8 can be obtained in the following cases:
{(2,6),(3,5),(4,4),(5,3),(6,2)}

∴ P (a total of 8) =

∴ Total Probability =
Theorem2: If A and B are two events that are not mutually exclusive,
then P(A 𝖴B)=P(A)+P(B)- P (A∩B).
Proof: Let n = total number of exhaustive
cases n1=number of cases
favorable to A n2= number of
cases favorable to B
n3= number of cases favorable to both A and B
But A and B are not mutually exclusive. Therefore, A and B can occur
simultaneously. So,n1+n2-n3 is the number of cases favorable to A or B.

Therefore, P(A 𝖴B)=

But we have, P(A)= , P(B) = and P

(A∩B)= Hence, P(A 𝖴B)=P(A)+P(B)- P

(A∩B).
Example1: Two dice are tossed once. Find the probability of getting an
even number on first dice or a total of 8.
Solution: P(even number on Ist die or a total of 8) = P (even number on
Ist die)+P (total of 8)= P(even number on Ist die and a total of 8)

∴ Now, P(even number on Ist die)=

Ordered Pairs showing a total of 8 = {(6, 2), (5, 3), (4, 4), (3, 5), (2, 6)} = 5

∴ Probability; P(total of 8) =

P(even number on Ist die and total of 8) =

∴ Required Probability =

Example2: Two dice are thrown. The events A, B, C, D,

E, F A = getting even number on first die.

B= getting an odd number on the first
die. C = getting a sum of the number on
dice ≤ 5
D = getting a sum of the number on dice > 5 but less
than 10. E = getting sum of the number on dice ≥ 10.
F = getting odd number on one of the dice.
Show the following:
1. A, B are a mutually exclusive event and Exhaustive Event.
2. A, C are not mutually exclusive.
3. C, D are a mutually exclusive event but not Exhaustive Event.
4. C, D, E are a mutually exclusive and exhaustive event.
5. A'∩B' are a mutually exclusive and exhaustive event.
6. A, B, F are not a mutually exclusive event.
Solution:
 A:
(2,1),(2,2),(2,3),(2,4),(2,5),(2,6)
(4,1),(4,2),(4,3),(4,4),(4,5),(4,6)
(6,1),(6,2),(6,3),(6,4),(6,5),(6,6)
B: (1,1),
(1,2),(1,3),(1,4),(1,5),(1,6)
(3,1),(3,2),(3,3),(3,4),(3,5),(3,6)
(5,1),(5,2),(5,3),(5,4),(5,5),(5,6)
C: (1,1),(1,2),(1,3),(1,4),(2,1),(2,2),(2,3),(3,1),(3,2),(4,1)
D: (1,5),(1,6),(2,4),(2,5),(2,6)
(3,3),(3,4),(3,5),(3,6)
(4,2),(4,3),(4,4),(4,5)
(5,1),(5,2),(5,3),(5,4)
(6,1),(6,2),(6,3)

E: (4,6),(5,5),(5,6),(6,5),(6,6),(6,4)
F:
(1,2),(1,4),(1,6)
(2,1),(2,3),(2,5)
(3,2),(3,4),(3,6)
(4,1),(4,3),(4,5)
(5,2),(5,4),(5,6)
(6,1),(6,3),(6,5)
1. (A∩B) =∅ and (A𝖴B)=S
A, B are a mutually exclusive and exhaustive event.

2. (A∩C) are not mutually

exclusive ―2,1‖,―2,3‖,―4,1‖≠ ∅

3. C∩D are a mutually exclusive but not exhaustive

event. C∩D=∅ C𝖴 D≠S

4. C∩D=∅,D∩E=∅, C∩E=∅ are mutually exclusive and exhaustive event.

5. A'∩B' =(A𝖴B)' are a mutually exclusive and exhaustive event.
6. (A∩B) =∅ are a mutually exclusive
A, B, F are not mutually exclusive events.

Multiplication Theorem
Theorem: If A and B are two independent events, then the probability
that both will occur is equal to the product of their individual
probabilities.
P(A∩B)=P(A)xP(B)
Proof: Let event
A can happen is n1ways of which p are
successful B can happen is n2ways of which q
are successful
Now, combine the successful event of A with successful event of
B. Thus, the total number of successful cases = p x q
We have, total number of cases = n1 x
n2. Therefore, from definition of
probability

P (A and B) =P(A∩B)=

We have P(A) = ,P(B)=

So, P(A∩B)=P(A)xP(B)
If, there are three independent events A, B and C, then
P(A∩B∩C)=P((A∩B)∩C)= P(A∩B)xP(C)
=P(A) x P(B) x P(C).
In general, if there are n independent events, then

Example: A bag contains 5 green and 7 red balls. Two balls are drawn. Find the
probability that one is green and the other is red.

Solution: P(A) =P(a green ball)

= P(B) =P(a red ball)
=
 By Multiplication Theorem

P(A) and P(B) = P(A) x

P(B) =

CONDITIONAL PROBABILITY

Suppose E is an event in a sample space S with P (E) > 0. The probability

that an event A occurs once E has occurred or, specifically, the
conditional probability of A given E. written P (A|E), is defined as follows: P
(A|E) = P (A ∩ E) / P (E)

Theorem: Suppose S is an equi-probable space and A and E are events. Then

P (A|E) = number of elements in A ∩ E / number of elements in E = n (A ∩

E) / n (E)

Example: A couple has two children; the sample space is S = {bb, b g, g b,

g g} with probability 1/4 for each point. Find the probability p that both
children are boys if it is known that: (i) at least one of the children is a
boy; (ii) the older child is a boy.

Solution: Here the reduced space consists of three elements, {bb, b g, g

b}; hence p = 1/3
Here the reduced space consists of only two elements {b b, b g}; hence p = ½
Multiplication Theorem for Conditional
Probability Theorem: P (A ∩ B) = P (A) P (B|A)
The multiplication theorem gives us a formula for the probability that
events A and B both occur. It can easily be extended to three or more
events A1, A2...A m; that is,

P (A1 ∩ A2 ∩··· Am) = P (A1) · P (A2|A1)··· P (Am|A1 ∩ A2 ∩···∩ Am−1)

INDEPENDENT EVENTS

Definition 7.2: Events A and B are independent if P(A ∩ B) = P(A)P(B);

otherwise they are dependent.

P (A ∩ B) = P (A) P (B) implies both P (B|A) = P (B) and P (A|B) = P (A)

EXAMPLE A fair coin is tossed three times yielding the equi-probable
space. S = {HHH, HHT, HTH, HTT, THH, THT, TTH, TTT}
Solution Consider the events: A = {first toss is heads} = {HHH, HHT,
HTH, HTT} B = {second toss is heads) = {HHH, HHT, THH, THT}
C = {exactly two heads in a row} = {HHT, THH}

P (A) = 4 /8 = 1 / 2, P (B) = 4 / 8 = 1 / 2, P (C) = 2 / 8 = 1/4

P (A ∩B) = P ({HHH, HHT}) = 1 / 4, P (A ∩C) = P ({HHT}) = 1 / 8, P (B ∩ C)

= P ({HHT, THH}) = 1 / 4
INDEPENDENT REPEATED TRIALS, BINOMIAL DISTRIBUTION
Definition: Let S be a finite probability space. By the space of n
independent repeated trials, we mean the probability space S n consisting
of ordered n-tuples of elements of S, with the probability of an n-tuples
defined to be the product of the probabilities of its components:
P ((S1, S2,..., S n)) = P (S1)P (S2) . . . P (S n)

RANDOM VARIABLES
Definition: A random variable X is a rule that assigns a numerical value to
each outcome in a sample space S.
EXAMPLE A pair of fair dice is tossed. The sample space S consists of the
36 ordered pairs (a, b) where a and b can be any of the integers from 1 to
6.
Solution: Let x assign to each point in S the sum of the numbers; then x is
a random variable with range space
Rx = {2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12}
Let y assign to each point the maximum of the two numbers; then y is a
random variable with range space
R y = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}
Probability Distribution of a Random Variable
Theorem: Let S be an equiv.-probable space, and let f be the distribution of
a random variable X on S with the range space Rx = {x1, x2,...,x t}.
P i = f (x i) = No. of points in S whose image is x i /No. of points in S
EXAMPLE Let X be the random variable in Example 7.13 which assigns the
sum to the toss of a pair of dice. Note n(S) = 36, and Rx = {2, 3,..., 12}.
Solution: Using Theorem, we obtain the distribution f of X as
follows: f (2) = 1/36, since there is one outcome (1, 1) whose
sum is 2.
f (3) = 2/36, since there are two outcomes, (1, 2) and (2,1), whose sum is 3.
f (4) = 3/36, since there are three outcomes, (1, 3), (2, 2) and (3, 1), whose sum
is
4.
Similarly, f (5) = 4/36, f (6) = 5/36... f (12) = 1/36. Thus the distribution
of X follows:

x 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

F(x) 1/36 2/36 3/36 4/36 5/36 6/36 7/36 8/36 7/36

Binomial Distribution
Theorem: Consider the binomial distribution B (n, p). Then:
(i) Expected value E(X) = μ = n p.

(ii) Variance V a r(X) = σ2 = n p q.

(iii) Standard deviation σ = √n p q.
EXAMPLE
The probability that a man hits a target is p = 1/5. He fires 100 times. Find
the expected number μ of times

Solution: Man will hit the target and the standard deviation σ.
Here p = 1/5 and so q = 4/5. Hence
μ = n p = 100 *1/5 = 20 and σ = √n p q =√ 100 *1/5 *4/5 = 4
Bayes' theorem in Artificial
intelligence Bayes' theorem:
Bayes' theorem is also known as Bayes' rule, Bayes' law, or Bayesian
reasoning, which determines the probability of an event with uncertain
knowledge.
In probability theory, it relates the conditional probability and marginal
probabilities of two random events.
Bayes' theorem was named after the British mathematician Thomas Bayes.
The Bayesian inference is an application of Bayes' theorem, which is
fundamental to Bayesian statistics.
It is a way to calculate the value of P(B|A) with the knowledge of P(A|B).
Bayes' theorem allows updating the probability prediction of an event by
observing new information of the real world.
Example: If cancer corresponds to one's age then by using Bayes'
theorem, we can determine the probability of cancer more accurately with
the help of age.
Bayes' theorem can be derived using product rule and conditional
probability of event A with known event B:
As from product rule we can write:
1. P(A ⋀ B)= P(A|B) P(B) or

Similarly, the probability of event B with known event A:

 1. P(A ⋀ B)= P(B|A) P(A)
Equating right hand side of both the equations, we will get:

The above equation (a) is called as Bayes' rule or Bayes' theorem. This
equation is basic of most modern AI systems for probabilistic inference.
It shows the simple relationship between joint and conditional probabilities. Here,
P(A|B) is known as posterior, which we need to calculate, and it will be
read as Probability of hypothesis A when we have occurred an evidence B.
P(B|A) is called the likelihood, in which we consider that hypothesis is true,
then we calculate the probability of evidence.
P(A) is called the prior probability, probability of hypothesis before
considering the evidence
P(B) is called marginal probability, pure probability of an evidence.
In the equation (a), in general, we can write P (B) = P(A)*P(B|Ai), hence the
Bayes' rule can be written as:

Where A1, A2, A3, ...... , An is a set of mutually exclusive and exhaustive events.
Applying Bayes' rule:
Bayes' rule allows us to compute the single term P(B|A) in terms of P(A|B),
P(B), and P(A). This is very useful in cases where we have a good
probability of these three terms and want to determine the fourth one.
Suppose we want to perceive the effect of some unknown cause, and want
to compute that cause, then the Bayes' rule becomes:
Example-1:
Question: what is the probability that a patient has diseases meningitis
with a stiff neck?
Given Data:
A doctor is aware that disease meningitis causes a patient to have a stiff
neck, and it occurs 80% of the time. He is also aware of some more facts,
which are given as follows:
o The Known probability that a patient has meningitis disease is 1/30,000.
o The Known probability that a patient has a stiff neck is 2%.
Let a be the proposition that patient has stiff neck and b be the proposition
that patient has meningitis. , so we can calculate the following as:
P(a|b) = 0.8
P(b) =
1/30000
P(a)= .02

Hence, we can assume that 1 patient out of 750 patients has meningitis
disease with a stiff neck.
Example-2:

Question: From a standard deck of playing cards, a single card is

drawn. The probability that the card is king is 4/52, then calculate
posterior probability P(King|Face), which means the drawn face card
is a king card.
Solution:

P(king): probability that the card is King= 4/52=

1/13 P(face): probability that a card is a face
card= 3/13
P(Face|King): probability of face card when we assume it is a
king = 1 Putting all values in equation (i) we will get:

Application of Bayes' theorem in Artificial intelligence:

Following are some applications of Bayes' theorem:
o It is used to calculate the next step of the robot when the already
executed step is given.
o Bayes' theorem is helpful in weather forecasting.
o It can solve the Monty Hall problem.
Group Theory

Group

Let G be a non-void set with a binary operation * that assigns to each ordered pair
(a, b) of elements of G an element of G denoted by a * b. We say that G is a
group under the binary operation * if the following three properties are
satisfied:

1) Associativity: The binary operation * is associative i.e. a*(b*c)=(a*b)*c , ∀ a,b,c

∈G
2) Identity: There is an element e, called the identity, in G, such that a*e=e*a=a,
∀a∈G

3) Inverse: For each element a in G, there is an element b in G, called an

inverse of a such that a*b=b*a=e, ∀ a, b ∈ G

Note: If a group has the property that a*b=b*a i.e., commutative law holds
then the group is called an abelian.
Properties of Groups:
The following theorems can understand the elementary features of
Groups: Theorem1:-
1. Statement: - In a Group G, there is only one identity element
(uniqueness of identity) Proof: - let e and e' are two identities in G and
let a ∈ G

∴ ae = a ⟶(i)
∴ ae' = a ⟶(ii)
R.H.S of (i) and (ii) are equal ⇒ae =ae'
Thus by the left cancellation law, we obtain e= e'
There is only one identity element in G for any a ∈ G. Hence the theorem is
proved.

2. Statement: - For each element a in a group G, there is a unique element

b in G such that ab= ba=e (uniqueness if inverses)

Proof: - let b and c are both inverses of a a∈ G

Then ab = e and ac = e
∵ c = ce {existence of identity element}
⟹ c = c (ab) {∵ ab = e}
⟹ c = (c a) b
⟹ c = (ac) b { ∵ ac = ca}
⟹ c = eb
⟹ c = b { ∵ b = eb}
Hence inverse of a G is
unique. Theorem 2:-
1. Statement: - In a Group G,(a-1)-1=a,∀ a∈ G

Proof: We have a a-1=a-1 a=e

Where e is the identity element of
G Thus a is inverse of a-1∈ G

i.e., (a-1)-1=a,∀ a∈ G

2. Statement: In a Group G,(a b-1)=b-1 a-1,∀ a,b∈ G

Proof: - By associatively we

have (b-1 a-1)ab=b-1 (a-1 a)b

⟹(b-1 a-1)ab=b-1 (e)b {∵a-1 a=e}
⟹(b-1 a-1)ab=b-1 b {∵eb=b}
⟹(b a )ab=e,
-1 -1
{∵b-1 b=e}

Similarly
(ab) (b-1 a-1)=a(b b-1) a-1
⟹(ab) (b-1 a-1)=a (e) a-1
⟹(ab) (b-1 a-1)=a a-1
⟹(ab) (b-1 a-1)=e {∵aa-1=e}
Thus ( b-1 a-1)ab=(ab)(b-1 a-1)=e
∴ b-1 a-1 is the inverse of
ab i.e., b-1 a-1= a b-1
Hence the theorem is
proved. Theorem3:-
In a group G, the left and right cancellation laws hold i.e.
(i) ab = ac implies b=c

(ii) ba=ca implies b=c

Proof

(i) Let ab=ac

Premultiplying a-1 on both sides we
get a-1 (ab)=a-1 (ac)
⟹ (a-1a) b=(a-1 a)c
⟹eb=ec
⟹b=c
Hence
Proved.
(ii) Let ba=ca
Post-multiplying a-1 on both sides
⟹(ba) a-1=(ca) a-1
⟹b(aa-1 )=c(aa-1 )
⟹be=ce
⟹b=c
Hence the theorem is proved.
Finite and Infinite Group:
A group (G, *) is called a finite group if G is a finite set.
A group (G, *) is called a infinite group if G is an infinite set.
Example1: The group (I, +) is an infinite group as the set I of integers is an
infinite set.
Example2: The group G = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7} under multiplication modulo
8 is a finite group as the set G is a finite set.
Order of Group:
The order of the group G is the number of elements in the group G. It is
denoted by |G|. A group of order 1 has only the identity element, i.e., ({e}
*).
A group of order 2 has two elements, i.e., one identity element and one
some other element.

Example1: Let ({e, x}, *) be a group of order 2. The table of operation is

shown in fig:

* e x

e e x

x x e

The group of order 3 has three elements i.e., one identity element and two
other elements.
Symmetric Group S n

A one-to-one mapping σ of the set {1, 2...n} onto itself is called a permutation. σ =
1 2 3_ _ _ n
j1 j2 j3_ _ _ j n

The set of all such permutations is denoted by S n, and there are n! = n (n − 1) ·

...
· 2 · 1 of them.
Subgroup
If a non-void subset H of a group G is itself a group under the operation of
G, we say H is a subgroup of G.
Theorem: - A subset H of a group G is a subgroup of G if:

o the identity element a∈ H.

o H is closed under the operation of G i.e. if a, b∈ H, then a, b∈ H and
 o H is closed under inverses, that is if a∈ H then a-1∈ H.

Cyclic Subgroup:-
A Subgroup K of a group G is said to be cyclic subgroup if there exists an
element x∈ G such that every element of K can be written in the form xn for
some n ∈Z.

The element x is called generator of K and we write K=

<x> Cyclic Group:-
In the case when G=, we say G is cyclic and x is a generator of G. That is, a
group G is said to be cyclic if there is an element x∈ G such that every
element of G can be written in the form xn for the some n∈ Z.

Example: The group G= {1, -1, i,-i} under usual multiplication is a finite
cyclic group with i as generator, since i1=i,i2=-1,i3=-i and i4=1
Abelian Group:
Let us consider an algebraic system (G,*), where * is a binary operation
on G. Then the system (G,*) is said to be an abelian group if it satisfies all
the properties of the group plus a additional following property:

(1) The operation * is commutative

i.e., a * b = b * a ∀ a,b ∈G

Example: Consider an algebraic system (G, *), where G is the set of all non-
zero real numbers and * is a binary operation defined by

Show that (G, *) is an abelian group.

Solution:

Closure Property: The set G is closed under the operation *, since a * b =

is
a real number. Hence, it belongs to G.
Associative Property: The operation * is associative. Let a,b,c∈G, then we have

Identity: To find the identity element, let us assume that e is a +ve real
number. Then e * a = a, where a ∈G.

Thus, the identity element in G is 4.

Inverse: let us assume that a ∈G. If a-1∈Q, is an inverse of a, then a * a-1=4

Thus, the inverse of element a in G is

Commutative: The operation * on G is commutative.

Thus, the algebraic system (G, *) is closed, associative, identity element,

inverse and commutative. Hence, the system (G, *) is an abelian group.
Product of Groups:
Theorem: Prove that if (G1,*1)and (G2,*2) are groups, then G = G1 x G2 i.e.,
(G, *) is a group with operation defined by (a1,b1)*( a2,b2 )=(a1,*1,a2, b1 *2 b2).
Proof: To prove that G1 x G2 is a group, we have to show that G1 x G2 has
the associativity operator, has an identity and also exists inverse of every
element.

Associativity. Let a, b, c ∈ G1 x G2,then

So, a * (b * c) = (a1,a2 )*((b1,b2)*(c1,c2))
= (a1,a2 )*(b1 *1 c1,b2 *2 c2)
= (a1 *1 (b1 *1 c1 ),a2 *2 (b2 *2 c2)
= ((a1 *1 b1) *1 c1,( a2 *2 b2) *2 c2)
= (a1 *1 b1,a2 *2 b2)*( c1,c2)
= ((a1,a2)*( b1,b2))*( c1,c2)
= (a * b) * c.
Identity: Let e1 and e2 are identities for G1 and G2 respectively. Then, the
identity for G1 x G2 is e=(e1,e2 ).Assume same a ∈ G1 x G2

Then, a * e = (a1,a2)*( e1,e2)

= (a1 *1 e1,a2 *2 e2)
= (a1,a2)=a
Similarly, we have e * a =
a.
Inverse: To determine the inverse of an element in G1 x G2, we will
determine it component wise i.e.,
a-1=(a1,a2)-1=(a1 -1,a2 -1 )

Now to verify that this is the exact inverse, we will compute a * a-1 and

a-1*a. Now, a * a-1=(a1,a1 2 )*(a

2
-1
,a -1
)
= (a1 *1 a1 ,a2 *2 a2 )=(
-1 -1

e1,e2)=e Similarly, we have a-1*a=e.

Thus, (G1 x G2,*) is a group.
In general, if G1,G2,....Gn are groups, then G = G1 x G2 x. x Gn is also a group.
Cosets:
Let H be a subgroup of a group G. A left coset of H in G is a subset of G
whose elements may be expressed as xH={ xh | h ∈ H } for any x∈ G. The
element x is called a representation of the coset. Similarly, a right coset of
H in G is a subset that may be expressed as Hx= {hx | h ∈H } , for any x∈G.
Thus complexes xH and Hx are called respectively a left coset and a right
coset.
If the group operation is additive (+) then a left coset is denoted as x + H={x+h | h
∈H} and a right coset is denoted by H + x = {h+x | h ∈ H}
Normal SubGroup
Let G be a group. A subgroup H of G is said to be a normal subgroup of G
if for all h∈ H and x∈ G, x h x-1∈ H

If x H x-1 = {x h x-1| h ∈ H} then H is normal in G if and only if xH x-1⊆H, ∀ x∈ G

Statement: If G is an abelian group, then every subgroup H of G is normal in G.

Proof: Let any h∈ H, x∈ G,
then x h x-1= x (h x-1)
x h x-1= (x x-1)
h x h x-1 = e h
x h x-1 = h∈ H

Hence H is normal subgroup of G.

Group Homomorphism:
A homomorphism is a mapping f: G→ G' such that f (xy) =f(x) f(y), ∀ x, y ∈
G. The mapping f preserves the group operation although the binary
operations of the group G and G' are different. Above condition is called
the homomorphism condition.
Kernel of Homomorphism: - The Kernel of a homomorphism f from a group
G to a group G' with identity e' is the set {x∈ G | f(x) =e'}
The kernel of f is denoted by Ker f.
If f: G→G' is a homomorphism of G intoG', then the image set of f is the
range, denoted by f (G), of the map f. Thus

Im (f) = f (G) = {f(x)∈ G'| x ∈G}

If f (G) =G', then G' is called a homomorphic image of
G. Note: - A group homomorphism

Isomorphism:
Let (G1,*) and (G2,0) be two algebraic system, where * and 0 both are
binary operations. The systems (G1,*) and (G2,0) are said to be isomorphic
if there exists an isomorphic mapping f: G1→G2

When two algebraic systems are isomorphic, the systems are structurally
equivalent and one can be obtained from another by simply remaining the
elements and operation.

Example: Let (A1,*) and (A2,⊡) be the two algebraic systems as shown in
fig. Determine whether the two algebraic systems are isomorphic.

Solution: The two algebraic system (A1,*) and (A2,⊡) are isomorphic and
(A2,⊡) is an isomorphic image of A1, such that
 f( a)=1
f (b)=w
f (c)=
w2
Automorphism:
Let (G1,*) and (G2,0) be two algebraic system, where * and 0 both are
binary operations on G1 and G2 respectively. Then an isomorphism from
(G1,*) to (G2,0) is called an automorphism if G1= G2
Rings:
An algebraic system (R, +,) where R is a set with two arbitrary binary
operations + and ., is called aring if it satisfies the following conditions

1. (R, +) is an abelian group.

2. (R,·) is a semigroup.

3. The multiplication operation, is distributive over the addition operation

+i.e.,
a (b+c)=ab +ac and (b+c)a = ba + ca for all a, b, c ∈ R.

Example1: Consider M be the set of all matrices of the type over

integers under matrix addition and matrix multiplication. Thus M form a
ring.
Example2: The set Z9 = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8} under the operation addition and
multiplication modulo 9 forms a ring.
Types of Rings:

1. Commutative Rings: A ring (R, +,) is called a commutative ring if it holds

the commutative law under the operation of multiplication i.e., a. b = b. a,
for every a, b∈ R

Example1: Consider a set E of all even integers under the operation of

addition and multiplication. The set E forms a commutative ring.
2. Ring with Unity: A ring (R, +,) is called a ring with unity, if it has a
multiplicative identity i.e,
Example: Consider a set M of all 2 x 2 matrices over integers under
matrix multiplication and matrix addition. The set M forms a ring
with unity

3. Ring with Zero Divisions: If a.b=0, where a and b are any two non-
zero elements of R in the ring (R, +) then a and b are called divisions of
zero and the ring (R, +) is called ring with zero division.

4. Rings without Zero Division: An algebraic system (R, +) where R is a

set with two arbitrary binary operation + and is called a ring without
divisors of zero if for every a, b ∈R, we have a.b≠0 ⟹a≠0 and b ≠0

SubRings:
A subset A of a ring (R, +) is called a subring of R, if it satisfies following
conditions: (A, +) is a subgroup of the group (R,+)
A is closed under the multiplication operation i.e., a.b ∈A,for every a,b ∈A.
Example: The ring (I, +) of integers is a subring of ring (R, +) of real numbers.
Note:
1. If R is any ring then {0} and R are subrings of R.
2. Sum of two subrings may not be a subring.
3. Intersection of subring is a subring.
SemiGroup
Let us consider, an algebraic system (A, *), where * is a binary operation
on A. Then, the system (A, *) is said to be semi-group if it satisfies the
following properties:

1. The operation * is a closed operation on set A.

2. The operation * is an associative operation.

Example: Consider an algebraic system (A, *), where A = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9 }, the set
of positive odd integers and * is a binary operation means multiplication.
Determine whether (A, *) is a semi-group.
Solution: Closure Property: The operation * is a closed operation because
multiplication of two +ve odd integers is a +ve odd number.

Associative Property: The operation * is an associative operation on set A.

Since every a, b, c ∈ A, we have
(a * b) * c = a * (b * c)
Hence, the algebraic system (A, *), is a semigroup.
Subsemigroup:
Consider a semigroup (A, *) and let B ⊆ A. Then the system (B, *) is called
a subsemigroup if the set B is closed under the operation *.
Example: Consider a semigroup (N, +), where N is the set of all natural
numbers and + is an addition operation. The algebraic system (E, +) is a
subsemigroup of (N, +), where E is a set of +ve even integers.
Free Semigroup:

Consider a non empty set A = {a1,a2, an}.

Now, A* is the set of all finite sequences of elements of A, i.e., A*
consist of all words that can be formed from the alphabet of A.

If α,β,and,γ are any elements of A*, then α,(β. γ)=( α.β).γ.

Here ° is a concatenation operation, which is an associative operation
as shown above.
Thus (A*,°) is a semigroup. This semigroup (A*,°) is called the free
semigroup generated by set A.
Product of Semigroup:
Theorem: If (S1,*)and (S2,*) are semigroups, then (S1 x S2*) is a semigroup, where
* defined by (s1',s2')*( s1'',s2'')=(s1'*s1'',s2'*s2'' ).
Proof: The semigroup S1 x S2 is closed under the operation
*. Associativity of *.Let a, b, c ∈ S1 x S2
So, a * (b * c) = (a1,a2 )*((b1,b2)*(c1,c2))
= (a1,a2 )*(b1 *1 c1,b2 *2 c2)
= (a1 *1 (b1 *1 c1 ),a2 *2 (b2 *2 c2)
= ((a1 *1 b1) *1*1,( a2 *2 b2) *2 c2)
= (a1 *1 b1,a2 *2 b2)*( c1,c2)
= ((a1,a2)*( b1,b2))*( c1,c2)
= (a * b) * c.
Since * is closed and associative. Hence, S1 x S2 is a semigroup.
Monoid:
Let us consider an algebraic system (A, o), where o is a binary operation
on A. Then the system (A, o) is said to be a monoid if it satisfies the
following properties:

1. The operation o is a closed operation on set A.

2. The operation o is an associative operation.

3. There exists an identity element, i.e., the operation o.
Example: Consider an algebraic system (N, +), where the set N = {0,
1, 2, 3, 4...}.The set of natural numbers and + is an addition
operation. Determine whether (N, +) is a monoid.

Solution: (a) Closure Property: The operation + is closed since the sum of
two natural numbers.
(b) Associative Property: The operation + is an associative property since
we have (a+b)+c=a+(b+c) ∀ a, b, c ∈ N.
(c) Identity: There exists an identity element in set N the operation +. The
element 0 is an identity element, i.e., the operation +. Since the operation +
is a closed, associative and there exists an identity. Hence, the algebraic
system (N, +) is a monoid.
SubMonoid:
Let us consider a monoid (M, o), also let S ⊆M. Then (S, o) is called a
submonoid of (M, o), if and only if it satisfies the following properties:

1. S is closed under the operation o.

2. There exists an identity element e ∈ T.
Example: Let us consider, a monoid (M, *), where * s a binary operation
and M is a set of all integers. Then (M1, *) is a submonoid of (M, *) where
M1 is defined as M1={ai│i is from 0 to n,a positive integer,and a∈M}.

Homomorphism

A mapping f from a group G into G` is called a homomorphism if, for every a , b ∈

G, f(a b) = f(a) (b)
If f is one to one and onto, then f is called an isomorphism; and G and G`
are said to be isomorphic, G ~G`.

Theorem: Suppose f: G → G` is a homomorphism with kernel K. Then

K is a normal subgroup of G, and the quotient group G/K is isomorphic to
f (G).
Example: Let G be the group of real numbers under addition, and let G` be
the group of positive real numbers under multiplication. The mapping f: G
→ G` defined by f (a) = 2^a is a homomorphism

f (a + b) = 2^a+b = 2^a2^b = f(a) f(b)

f is one to one and onto; hence G and G` are isomorphic.
Rings, Integral Domains, and Fields
Let R be a non-empty set with two binary operations, an operation of
addition (denoted by +) and an operation of multiplication (denoted by
juxtaposition). Then R is called a ring if the following axioms are satisfied:

[R1] For any a, b, c ∈ R, we have (a + b) + c = a + (b + c).

[R2] There exists an element 0 ∈ R, called the zero element, such that for every a
∈ R, a + 0 = 0 + a = a.

[R3] For each a ∈ R there exists an element -

a ∈ R. [R4]For any a , b ∈ R.

[R5] For any a , b, c ∈ R.

[R6] For any a, b, c ∈ R. a + (b + c) = a b + a c, (b + c) a = b a + c a.
Special Kinds of Rings: Integral Domain and fields
Definition: A commutative ring R is an integral domain if R has no zero
divisors, that is, if a b = 0 implies a = 0 or b = 0.
Definition: A commutative ring R with an identity element 1 (not equal to
0) is a field if every non-zero a ∈ R is a unit, that is, has a multiplicative
inverse. A field is necessarily an integral domain; for if
a b = 0 and a = 0.
Example: The rational numbers Q and the real numbers R each form a field
with respect to the usual operations of addition and multiplication.
Ideals
A subset J of a ring R is called an ideal in R if the following three properties hold:
(i) 0 ∈ J.
(ii) For any a, b ∈ J, we have a − b ∈ J.

(iii) For any r ∈ R and a ∈ J, we have r a, a r ∈ J.

Theorem: Let J be an ideal in a ring R. Then the cosets {a + J | a ∈ R}
form a ring under the cosets operations
(a + J) + (b + J) = a + b + J and (a + J) (b + J) = a b + J
This ring is denoted by R/J and is called the quotient ring.
Example: Let R be any ring. Then {0} and R are ideals. In particular, if R
is a field, then {0} and R are the only ideals.
Ring Homeomorphisms
A mapping f from a ring R into a ring R is called a ring homomorphism or,
simply, homomorphism if, for every a, b ∈ R,

f (a + b) = f (a) + f (b), f (a b) = f (a)f (b) In addition, if f is one-to-one and

onto, then f is called an isomorphism; and R and R are said to be
isomorphic, written R ∼= R

Theorem: Let f: R → R be a ring homomorphism with kernel K.

Then K is an ideal in R, and the quotient ring R/K is isomorphic to f (R).
Divisibility in Integral Domains

An element u ∈D is called a unit if u divides 1, if u has a multiplicative

inverse. An element b ∈ D is called an associate of

a ∈ D if b = u a for some unit u ∈ D.

An integral domain D is called a unique factorization domain (UFD), if

every non- unit a ∈ D.

Example
The ring Z of integers is the classical example of a unique factorization
domain. The units of Z are 1 and −1.

The only associates of n ∈ Z are n and −n. The irreducible elements of Z

are the prime numbers.
POLYNOMIALS OVER A FIELD
This section investigates polynomials whose coefficients come from some
integral domain or field K.
Theorem: Let K be an integral domain. Then K[t] under the operations of
addition and multiplication of polynomials is a commutative ring with an
identity element 1.
Proposition: Let K be an integral domain and let f and g be polynomials over K.
(i) K[t] is an integral domain.

(ii) The units of K[t] are the units in K.

(iii) If g divides f , then deg(g) ≤ deg(f ) or f ≡ 0.
(iv) If g divides f and f divides g, then f (t) = k g(t) where k is a unit in K.

(v) If d and d are monic polynomials such that d divides d and d divides d,
then d = d
Graph Theory

Graph:

Graph G consists of two things:

1. A set V=V(G) whose elements are called vertices, points or nodes of G.

2. A set E = E(G) of an unordered pair of distinct vertices called edges of G.
3. We denote such a graph by G(V, E) vertices u and v are said to be
adjacent if there is an edge e ={u, v}.
4. In such a case u and v are called the endpoint of e={u, v} and e
are said to connect u and v.
Degree of a Vertex:
The degree of a vertex is the number of edges incident on a vertex v. The
self-loop is counted twice. The degree of a vertex is denoted by d(v).
Example1: Consider the graph G shown in fig. Determine the degree of
each vertex.

Solution: The degree of each vertex is as

follows: d(a)=3; d(b)=5; d(c) =
2; d(d)=2.
Example2: Verify that the sum of the degrees of all the vertices is even for
the graph shown in fig:

Solution: The sum of the degrees of all the vertices is:

=d (v1)+d(v2 )+d(v3 )+d(v4 )+d(v5 )+d(v6 )+d(v7 )+d(v8)
= 2+3+3+3+3+4+2+2=22, which is even.
Example3: Verify that there are even numbers of vertices of odd degrees in
the graph shown in fig:

Solution: The number of vertices of degree odd is 8, and each has a degree
three in the above graph. Hence, we have even number of vertices of odd
degrees.

96 .
Path:
A path of length n is a sequence of n+1 vertices of a graph in which each
pair of vertices is an edge of the graph.

1. A Simple Path: The path is called simple one if no edge is repeated

in the path, i.e., all the vertices are distinct except that first vertex
equal to the last vertex.

2. An Elementary Path: The path is called elementary one if no

vertex is repeated in the path, i.e., all the vertices are distinct.

3. Circuit or Closed Path: The circuit or closed path is a path in

which starts and ends at the same vertex, i.e., v0=vn.

4. Simple Circuit Path: The simple circuit is a simple path which is a circuit.
Example: Consider the graph shown in fig: Give an example of the following:

1. A simple path fromV1 to V6.

2. An elementary path from V1 to V6.

3. A simple path which is not elementary from V1 to V6.

4. A path which is not simple and starting fromV2.
5. A simple circuit starting from V1

6. A circuit which is not simple and starting from V2.

Solution:
1. A simple path fromV1 to
V6. V1,V2,V3,V4,V5,V6.

2. An elementary path from V1 to

V6. V1,V2,V3,V5,V4,V6.

3. A simple path which is not elementary from V1

to V6. V1,V2,V3,V5,V2,V4,V6.

4. A path which is not simple and starting

fromV2. V2,V3,V4,V5,V3,V4,V6.

5. A simple circuit starting

fromV1. V1,V2,V4,V6,V5,V3,V1

6. A circuit which is not simple and starting

from V2. V2,V3,V1,V2,V5,V4,V2.
Pendant Vertex: A vertex with degree one is called a Pendant Vertex.
Pendant Edge: The only edge which is an incident with a pendant vertex is
called the Pendant Edge.
Odd Vertex: A vertex having degree odd is called an odd vertex.
Even Vertex: A vertex having a degree even is called an even vertex.
Incident Edge: An edge is called incident with the vertices is connects.
Adjacent Vertices: Two vertices are called adjacent if an edge links them. If
there is an edge (u, v), then we can say vertex u is adjacent to vertex v, and
vertex v is adjacent to vertex u.
Example: Consider the graph as shown in fig:

Determine the following:

1. Pendant Vertices
2. Pendant Edges

3. Odd vertices
4. Even Vertices

5. Incident Edges
6. Adjacent Vertices

Solution:
 1. The vertex V5is the pendant vertex.
2. The edge (V4,V5) or e5 is the pendant edge.

3. The vertices V3 and V5 are odd vertices.

4. The vertices V1, V2,and V4 are even vertices.

5. The edge e1 is an incident on V1, and

V2. The edge e2 is an incident on V1
and V3. The edge e3 is an incident on
V2 and V3. The edge e4 is an incident
on V3 and V4. The edge e5 is an
incident on V4 and V5.

6. The vertex V1 is adjacent to V2 and

V3. The vertex V2 is adjacent to V1
and V2. The vertex V3 is adjacent to
V1 and V4 The vertex V4 is adjacent
to V3 and V5 The vertex V5 is
adjacent to V4.
Self-Loop: A self-loop is an edge e if it has the same endpoint.
The graph shown in fig contains the self-loop at vertex b,i.e.,
e=(b, b). Isolated Vertex: A vertex with degree 0 is called Isolated
Vertex.
Cut Set: Consider a graph G=(V, E).A cut set for G is the smallest set of
edges such that the removal of the set, disconnected the graph whereas
the removal of any proper subset of this set left a connected subgraph.
Example: Consider the graph shown in fig. Determine the cut set for this group.

Solution: For this graph, the edge set {(V1,V5),(V7,V5)} is a cut set. After the
removal of the set, we have left with a disconnected subgraph. While after
the removal of any of its proper subset, we have left with a connected
subgraph.
Cut Points or Cut Vertices: Consider a graph G=(V, E). A cut point for a
graph G is a vertex v such that G-v has more connected components than G
or disconnected.
The subgraph G-v is obtained by deleting the vertex v from graph G and
also deleting the entire edges incident on v.
Example: Consider the graph shown in fig. Determine the
subgraphs (i)G-v1 (ii) G-v3 (iii) G-v5
Solution:
1. The subgraph G-v1 is shown in fig

2. The subgraph G-v3 is shown in fig

3. The subgraph G-v5 is shown in fig

Bridge (Cut Edges): Consider a graph G=(V, E).A bridge for a graph G, is an
edge e such that G-e has more connected components than G or
disconnected.
Example: Consider the graph shown in fig. Determine the subgraphs
(i) G-e1 (ii) G-e3 (iii) G-e4

Solution:
1. The subgraph G-e1 is shown in fig

2. The subgraph G-e3 is shown in fig

3. The subgraph G-e4 is shown in fig
Types of Graphs:

1. Null Graph: A null graph is defined as a graph which consists only the
isolated vertices.
Example: The graph shown in fig is a null graph, and the vertices are
isolated vertices.

2. Undirected Graphs: An Undirected graph G consists of a set of vertices,

V and a set of edge E. The edge set contains the unordered pair of vertices.
If (u, v)∈E then we say u and v are connected by an edge where u and v
are vertices in the set V.
Example: Let V = {1, 2, 3, 4} and E = {(1, 2), (1, 4), (3, 4), (2, 3)}.Draw the graph.
104 .
Solution: The graph can be drawn in several
ways. Two of which are as follows:

3. Multigraph: If in a graph multiple edges between the same set of vertices

are allowed, it is known as Multigraph. In other words, it is a graph having
at least one loop or multiple edges.
4. Directed Graphs: A directed graph or digraph G is defined as an
unordered pair (V, E), where V is the set of points called vertices and E is
the set of edges. Each edge in the graph G is assigned a direction and is
identified with an ordered pair (u, v), where u is the initial vertex, and v is
the end vertex.
Example: Consider the graph G = (V, E) as shown in fig. Determine the
vertex set and edge set of graph G.

Solution: The vertex and edge set of graph G =(V, E) is as follow

G={{1,2,3},{(1,2),(2,1),(2,2),(2,3),(1,3)}}.
5. Undirected Complete Graph: An undirected complete graph G=(V,E)
of n vertices is a graph in which each vertex is connected to every
other vertex i.e., and edge exist between every pair of distinct vertices.
It is denoted by Kn.A

complete graph with n vertices will have edges.

Example: Draw Undirected Complete Graphs k4and k6.
Solution: The undirected complete graph of k4 is shown in fig1 and that of
k6is shown in fig2.
6. Connected and Disconnected Graph:
Connected Graph: A graph is called connected if there is a path from any
vertex u to v or vice-versa.
Disconnected Graph: A graph is called disconnected if there is no path
between any two of its vertices.
Example: Consider the graph shown in fig. Determine whether the graphs are
(a) Disconnected Graph

(b) Connected Graph.

Also, write their connected components.

Solution:
(i) The graph is shown in fig is a Disconnected Graph, and its
connected components are
{V1,V2,V3,V4},{V5,V6,V7,V8} and {V9,V10}.
(ii) The graph shown in fig is a Disconnected Graph and its connected
components are
{V1,V2},{V3,V4},{V5,V6},{V7,V8},{V9,V10}and {V11,V12}.
(iii) The graph shown in fig is a connected graph.

7. Connected Component: A subgraph of graph G is called the

connected component of G, if it is not contained in any bigger
subgraph of G, which is connected. It is defined by listing its
vertices.
Example: Consider the graph shown in fig. Determine its connected components.
Solution: The connected components of this graph is {a, b, c}, {d, e, f}, {g, h ,i}
and
{j}.

8. Directed Complete Graph: A directed complete graph G = (V, E) on n

vertices is a graph in which each vertex is connected to every other vertex
by an arrow. It is denoted by Kn.
Example: Draw directed complete graphs K3 and K5.
Solution: Place the number of vertices at the appropriate place and then
draw an arrow from each vertex to every other vertex as shown in fig:
9. Complementary Graph: The complement of a graph G is defined to be a
graph which has the same number of vertices as in graph G and has two
vertices connected if and only they are not related in the graph.
Example: Consider the graph G shown in fig. Find the complement of this graph.

Solution: The complement of the above graph is shown in Fig:

10. Labeled Graphs: A graph G=(V, E) is called a labeled graph if its
edges are labeled with some name or data. So, we can write these
labels in place of an ordered pair in its edges set.
Example: The graph shown in fig is labeled graphs.
G= {{a, b, c, d}, {e1,e2,e3,e4}}
11.Weighted Graphs: A graph G=(V, E) is called a weighted graph if each
edge of graph G is assigned a positive number w called the weight of the
edge e.
Example: The graph shown in fig is a Weighted Graph.

Degree of a Vertex
The degree of a vertex v in a graph G, written deg (v), is equal to the
number of edges in G which contain v, that is, which are incident on v.
Bipartite Graphs
DEFINITION: A simple graph G is called bipartite if its vertex set V can be
partitioned into two disjoint sets V1 and V2 such that every edge in the
graph connects a vertex in V1 and a vertex in V2.

 C6 is bipartite, as shown in Figure, because its vertex set can be

partitioned into the two sets V1 and V2.
  V1 = {v1, v3, v5} and V2 = {v2, v4, v6}, and every edge of C6 connects a
vertex in V1 and a vertex in V2.
Complete Bipartite Graphs: The complete bipartite graphs K2,3, K3, 3, and are
displayed in Figure

K2, 3 K3, 3

New Graphs from Old

DEFINITION: A sub-graph of a graph G = (V, E) is a graph.

H = (W, F), where W ⊆ V and F ⊆ E. A sub-graph H of G is a proper sub-

graph of G if H = G.
DEFINITION: Let G = (V, E) be a simple graph.
The sub-graph induced by a subset W of the vertex set V is the graph (W,
F), where the edge set F contains an edge in E if and only if both endpoints
of this edge are in W.

The graph G is a sub-graph of K5. If we add the edge connecting c and e to G, W =

{a, b, c, e}.

A Sub-graph of K5
DEFINITION
The union of two simple graphs G1 = (V1, E1) G2 = (V2, E2) is the simple graph
with vertex set V1 𝖴 V2 and edge set E1 𝖴 E2. The union of G1 and G2 is
denoted by G1 𝖴 G2.
EXAMPLE: Find the union of the graphs G1 and G2.
Solution: The vertex set of the union G1 𝖴 G2 is the union of the two
vertex sets as: {a, b, c, d, e, f}.
a b c a b c a b c

d e d f d e f
G1 (a) G2 (b) G1𝖴 G2

FIGURE (a) The Simple Graphs G1 and G2; (b) Their Union G1 𝖴
G2 .
Isomorphism of Graphs
The simple graphs G1 = (V1, E1) and G2 = (V2, E2) are isomorphic.

 If there exists a one-to-one and onto function f from V1 to V2 with

the property that a, b are adjacent in G1.
 If and only if f (a) and f (b) are adjacent in G2, for all a, b in
V1. Such a function f is called an isomorphism.
 Two simple graphs that are not isomorphic are called non-isomorphic.
Example: Show that the graphs G = (V, E) and H = (W, F), displayed in figure, are
isomorphic.

u1 u2 v1 v2 The graphs G and H

u3 u4 v3
v4
Paths
A path is a sequence of edges that begins at a vertex of a graph and
travels from vertex to vertex along edges of the graph.
  Let n be a nonnegative integer and G an undirected graph.
 A path of length n from u to v in G is a sequence of n edges e1,...,e n of G.
 The path is a circuit if it begins and ends at the same vertex, that is,
if u = v, and has length greater than zero.
Connectedness in Undirected Graphs

 An undirected graph is called connected if there is a path between

every pair of distinct vertices of the graph.
 An undirected graph that is not connected is called disconnected.
H2
b d e
H1

a c H The Graph H and Its

Connected Components H1, H2, and H3.
Connectedness in Directed Graphs
A directed graph is strongly connected if there is a path from a to b and
from b to a whenever a and b are vertices in the graph.
A directed graph is weakly connected if there is a path between every two
vertices in the underlying undirected graph.
FIGURE: The directed graphs G and H.

a b
c Figure: The Directed Graphs G and H

d e
Paths and Isomorphism
A path in a multi-graph G consists of an alternating sequence of vertices
and edges of the form
v0, e1, v1, e2, v2 ... e n−1, v n−1, e n, v n , where each edge e i contains the vertices
v i−1 and vi (which appear on the sides of e i in the sequence). The number n
of edges is called the length of the path. The path is said to be closed if v 0
= v n. Otherwise, we say the path is from v 0, to v n or between v 0 and v n, or
connects v0 to v n.
Isomorphic Graphs
Graphs G (V, E) and G (V ∗, E∗) are said to be isomorphic if there exists a
one-to- one correspondence f : V → V ∗ such that {u, v} is an edge of G if
and only if {f (u), f (v)} is an edge of G∗.

Figure: A and T are isomorphic graphs

Theorem: There is a path from a vertex u to a vertex v if and only if there
exists a simple path from u to v.
Connectivity, Connected Components
A graph G is connected if there is a path between any two of its vertices.

The graph in Figure (a) is connected, but the graph in Figure (b) is not
connected since, for example, there is no path between vertices D and E.

 The graph G in Fig. 8-8(b) has three connected components,

the sub- graphs induced by the vertex sets {A, C, D}, {E, F}, and
{B}.
  The vertex B in Figure (b) is called an isolated vertex since B
does not belong to any edge or, in other words, deg (B) = 0.
Therefore, as noted, B itself forms a connected component of
the graph.
Euler and Hamilton Paths
DEFINITION 1 An Euler circuit in a graph G is a simple circuit containing
every edge of G. An Euler path in G is a simple path containing every
edge of G. C

A DDD D

B
Figure: Multi-graph Model of the Town of Konigsberg
THEOREM 1: A connected multi-graph with at least two vertices has an
Euler circuit if and only if each of its vertices has even degree.
THEOREM 2: A connected multi-graph has an Euler path but not an Euler
circuit if and only if it has exactly two vertices of odd degree.

b a g f e
a

d c b c d

G1 G2
Figure: Two Undirected Graph

a b c d

H1 H2 Figure: Two directed graph

d c a b
Hamilton Paths and Circuits
DEFINITION: A simple path in a graph G that passes through every vertex
exactly once is called a Hamilton path, and a simple circuit in a graph G
that passes through every vertex exactly once is called a Hamilton circuit.

That is, the simple path x0, x1...x n−1, x n in the graph G = (V, E) is a
Hamilton path if V = {x0, x1,...,x n−1, x n} and xi = x j for 0 ≤ i<j ≤ n, and the
simple circuit x 0, x1,...,x n−1, x n, x0 (with n > 0) is a Hamilton circuit if x0,
x1,...,x n−1, x n is a Hamilton path.

A B
Labeled and Weighted graphs
A graph G is called a labeled graph if its edges and/or vertices are
assigned data of one kind or another. In particular, G is called a weighted
graph if each edge e of G is assigned a non negative number w (e) called
the weight or length of v.
A1 A2 6 A3
3 2 2 7 2
1
3
P 22 Q

4 A4 6 A5 4 A6

The weight (or length) of a path in such a weighted graph G is defined to

be the sum of the weights of the edges in the path. One important problem
in graph theory is to find a shortest path, that is, a path of minimum
weight (length),
between any two given vertices. The length of a shortest path between P
and Q in figure is 14; one such path is
(P, A1, A2, A5, A3, A6, Q)
Complete, Regular, and Bipartite graphs
There are many different types of graphs. This section considers three of
them: complete, regular, and bipartite graphs.
Complete Graphs
A graph G is said to be complete if every vertex in G is connected to every
other vertex in G. Thus a complete graph G must be connected. The
complete graph with n vertices is denoted by Kn. Figure shows the graphs
K1 through K4.
Regular Graphs
A graph G is regular of degree k or k-regular if every vertex has degree k.
In other words, a graph is regular if every vertex has the same degree.
K1 = Isolated vertex K2 = Line Segment

K3 K4

0-Regular 1-Regular
Bipartite Graphs
A graph G is said to be bipartite if its vertices V can be partitioned into two
subsets M and N such that each edge of G connects a vertex of M to a
vertex of N.
By a complete bipartite graph, we mean that each vertex of M is connected
to each vertex of N; this graph is denoted by K m, n where m is the number of
vertices in M and n is the number of vertices in N, and, for standardization,
we will assume m ≤ n.

Figure shows the graphs K2, 3,

K3, 3, and K2, 4, clearly the graph K m, n has m n edges.
Tree Graphs

 A graph T is called a tree if T is connected and T has no cycles.

Examples of trees are shown in Figure.
 A forest G is a graph with no cycles; hence the connected
components of a forest G are trees.
 A graph without cycles is said to be cycle-free. The tree
consisting of a single vertex with no edges is called the degenerate
tree.
Theorem: Let G be a graph with n > 1 vertices. Then the following are equivalent:
(i) G is a tree.

(ii) G is a cycle-free and has n − 1 edges.

(iii) G is connected and has n − 1 edges.

This theorem also tells us that a finite tree T with n vertices must have
n − 1 edges. For example, the tree in

Fig. 8-17(a) has 9 vertices and 8 edges, and the tree in Figure has 13
vertices and 12 edges.
Spanning Tree
A subgraph T of a connected graph G is called spanning tree of G if T is a
tree and T include all vertices of G.

Minimum Spanning Tree:

Suppose G is a connected weight graph i.e., each edge of G is assigned a
non- negative number called the weight of edge, then any spanning tree T
of G is assigned a total weight obtained by adding the weight of the edge in
T.
A minimum spanning tree of G is a tree whose total weight is as small as possible.
Kruskal's Algorithm to find a minimum spanning tree: This algorithm finds
the minimum spanning tree T of the given connected weighted graph G.

1. Input the given connected weighted graph G with n vertices

whose minimum spanning tree T, we want to find.

2. Order all the edges of the graph G according to increasing weights.

3. Initialize T with all vertices but do include an edge.
 4. Add each of the graphs G in T which does not form a cycle until n-1
edges are added.
Example1: Determine the minimum spanning tree of the weighted graph
shown in fig:

Solution: Using kruskal's algorithm arrange all the edges of the weighted
graph in increasing order and initialize spanning tree T with all the six
vertices of G. Now start adding the edges of G in T which do not form a
cycle and having minimum weights until five edges are not added as there
are six vertices.

Edges Weights Added or Not

(B, E) 2 Added
(C, D) 3 Added
(A, D) 4 Added
(C, F) 4 Added
(B, C) 5 Added
(E, F) 5 Not added
(A, B) 6 Not added
(D, E) 6 Not added
(A, F) 7 Not added
.
Step1:

Step2:

Step3:

Step4:
Step5:

Step6: Edge (A, B), (D, E) and (E, F) are discarded because they will form
the cycle in a graph.
So, the minimum spanning tree form in step 5 is output, and the total cost is 18.
Example2: Find all the spanning tree of graph G and find which is the
minimal spanning tree of G shown in fig:

Solution: There are total three spanning trees of the graph G which are
shown in fig:
To find the minimum spanning tree, use the KRUSKAL'S ALGORITHM. The
minimal spanning tree is shown in fig:

Edges Weights Added or Not

(E, F) 1 Added
(A, B) 2 Added
(C, D) 2 Added
(B, C) 3 Added
(D, E) 3 Added
(B, D) 6 Not Added

The first one is the minimum spanning having the minimum weight = 11.
127 .
Planner Graphs
A graph or multi-graph which can be drawn in the plane so that its edges
do not cross is said to be planar.

A B

The complete graph with four vertices K4 is usually pictured with

crossing edges as in Figure A, it can also be drawn with non-crossing
edges as in Figure B; hence K4 is planar. Tree graphs form an important
class of planar graphs.
Maps, Regions
A particular planar representation of a finite planar multi-graph is called a
map. The map is connected if the underlying multi-graph is connected. A
given map divides the plane into various regions.
Non-planar Graphs, Kuratowski’s Theorem

1. Consider first the utility graph; that is, three houses A1, A 2 and A3 are
to be connected to outlets for water, gas and electricity, B1, B2 and B3,
as in Figure.
2. Observe that this is the graph K3, 3 and it has p = 6 vertices and q = 9 edges.

 Suppose the graph is planar. By Euler’s formula a

planar representation has r = 5 regions. Observe
that no three vertices are
 connected to each other; hence the degree of each region must
be 4 or more and so the sum of the degrees of the regions
must be 20 or more.
 Consider next the star graph in Figure. This is the complete
graph K5 on p = 5 vertices and has q = 10 edges.10 = q ≤ 3p −
6 = 15 − 6 = 9 which is impossible. Thus K5 is non-planar.
Graph Coloring
A coloring of a simple graph is the assignment of a color to each vertex of
the graph so that no two adjacent vertices are assigned the same color.

B B
C D C E

A G A
D
F
E
FIGURE 2 Dual Graphs of the Maps in Figure 1

DEFINITION: The chromatic number of a graph is the least number of

colors needed for a coloring of this graph. The chromatic number of a
graph G is denoted by χ (G).

THEOREM 1 THE FOUR COLOR THEOREM The chromatic number of a

planar graph is no greater than four.
Rooted trees

 A rooted tree T is a tree graph with a designated vertex r called the

root of the tree.
 Consider a rooted tree T with root r. The length of the path from the
root r to any vertex v is called the level (or depth) of v, and the
maximum vertex level is called the depth of the tree.
 Those vertices with degree 1, other than the root r, are called the
leaves of T, and a directed path from a vertex to a leaf is called a
branch.
The tree has five leaves, d, f, h, i, and j. Observe that: level (a) = 1, level
(f) = 2, level (j) = 3. Furthermore, the depth of the tree is 3.

 The fact that a rooted tree T gives a direction to the edges means
that we can give a precedence relationship between the vertices.
 Specifically, we will say that a vertex u precedes a vertex v or that v
follows u if there is a (directed) path from v to u.
 In particular, we say that v immediately follows u if (u, v) is an edge,
that is, if v follows u and v is adjacent to u.
EXAMPLE
Suppose Marc and Erik are playing a tennis tournament such that the first
person to win two games in a row or who wins a total of three games wins
the tournament. Find the number of ways the tournament can proceed.
Solution: The rooted tree in Figure (b) shows the various ways that the
tournament could proceed. There are 10 leaves which correspond to the
10 ways that the tournament can occur:
MM, MEMM, MEMEM, MEMEE, MEE, EMM, EMEMM, EMEME, EMEE, EE

Specifically, the path from the root to the leaf describes who won which
games in the particular tournament.
Ordered Rooted Trees
Consider a rooted tree T in which the edges leaving each vertex are
ordered. Then we have the concept of an ordered rooted tree.
Boolean algebra

Boolean

Functions

Boolean algebra provides the operations and the rules for working with the set {0,
1}.The complement of an element, denoted with a bar, is defined by bar 0
= 1and bar 1 = 0.
The Boolean sum, denoted by + or by OR, has the following
values: 1+ 1 = 1, 1 + 0 = 1, 0 + 1 = 1, 0 + 0 = 0
The Boolean product, denoted by · or by AND, has the following
values: 1· 1 = 1, 1 · 0 = 0, 0 · 1 = 0, 0 · 0 = 0
EXAMPLE 1 Find the value of 1 · 0 + (0 + 1).
Solution: 1 · 0 + (0 + 1) = 0 + 1 = 0 + 0 = 0.
EXAMPLE 2 Translate 1 · 0 + (0 + 1) = 0, the equality into a logical equivalence.
Solution:

 Translate each 1 into a T, 0 into an F,

 Boolean sum into a disjunction, each Boolean product into a
conjunction, and each complementation into a negation.

(T 𝖠 F) ∨ ¬ (T ∨ F) ≡ F
Boolean Expressions and Boolean Functions

 Let B = {0, 1}. Then B n = {(x1, x2... x n) | xi ∈ B for 1 ≤ i ≤ n} is the

set of all possible n-tuples of 0s and 1s.
 The variable x is called a Boolean variable if it assumes values only
from B, that is, if its only possible values are 0 and 1.
 A function from B n to B is called a Boolean function of degree n.

EXAMPLE: The function F (x, y) = x y from the set of ordered pairs of

Boolean variables to the set {0, 1} is a Boolean function of degree 2 with
F (1, 1) = 0, F (1,
0) = 1, F (0, 1) = 0, and F (0, 0) = 0.
We display these values of F in Table.

x y F(x, y)
1 1 0
1 0 1
0 1 0
0 0 0

The Boolean expressions in the variables x1, x2...x n are defined recursively
as 0, 1, x1, x 2...x n are Boolean expressions;
If E1 and E2 are Boolean expressions, then E1, (E1E2), and (E1 + E2) are Boolean
expressions.
Identities of Boolean algebra
Law of the double complement: x`` = x
Idempotent laws: x + x = x, x · x = x
Identity laws: x + 0 = x, x · 1 = x
Domination laws: x + 1 = 1, x · 0 = 0
Commutative laws: x + y = y + x, x y =
yx
Associative laws: x + (y + z) = (x + y) + z, x (y z) = (x
y)z Distributive laws: x + y z = (x + y)(x + z), x(y + z) =
x y + x z De Morgan’s laws: (x y) = x + y, (x + y) = x y
Absorption laws: x + x y = x, x (x +
y) = x Unit property: x + x = 1

Zero property x x = 0
EXAMPLE: Prove the absorption law x(x + y) = x using the other identities
of Boolean algebra.
Solution: x(x + y) = (x + 0) (x + y) Identity law for the Boolean sum
= x + 0 · y Distributive law

= x + y · 0 Commutative law
=x+0 Domination law
=x Identity law
Duality
The dual of a Boolean expression is obtained by interchanging Boolean
sums and Boolean products and interchanging 0s and 1s.

EXAMPLE: Find the duals of x(y + 0) and x · 1 + (y + z).

Solution: Interchanging · signs and + signs and interchanging 0s and 1s.

The duals are x + (y · 1) and (x + 0) (y z), respectively.
The Abstract Definition of a Boolean Algebra
DEFINITION: A Boolean Algebra is a set B with two binary operations ∨ and
𝖠, elements 0 and 1, and a unary operation such that these properties
hold for all x, y, and z in B:

Identity laws: x ∨ 0 = x, x 𝖠 1 = x

Complement laws: x ∨ x = 1, x 𝖠 x
=0
Associative laws: (x ∨ y) ∨ z = x ∨ (y ∨ z), (x 𝖠 y) 𝖠 z = x 𝖠

(y 𝖠 z) Commutative laws: x ∨ y = y ∨ x, x 𝖠 y = y 𝖠 x

Distributive laws: x ∨ (y 𝖠 z) = (x ∨ y) 𝖠 (x ∨ z), x 𝖠 (y ∨ z) = (x 𝖠 y) ∨ (x 𝖠 z)

Sum-of-Products Expansions
EXAMPLE: Find Boolean expressions that represent the functions F (x, y, z )
and G(x, y, z).

x y z F G
1 1 1 0 0
1 1 0 0 1
1 0 1 1 0
1 0 0 0 0
0 1 1 0 0
0 1 0 0 1
0 0 1 0 0
0 0 0 0 0

Solution: An expression that has the value 1 when x = z = 1 and y = 0, and

the value 0 otherwise, is needed to represent F.
To represent G, we need an expression that equals 1 when x = y = 1 and z = 0, or x
= z = 0 and y = 1.
DEFINITION: A literal is a Boolean variable or its complement.
A Min-term of the Boolean variables x1, x2,..., x n is a Boolean product y1y2 ···
y n, where y i = xi or y i = x i. Hence, a min-term is a product of n literals,
with one literal for each variable.
EXAMPLE: Find a min-term that equals 1 if x1 = x3 = 0 and x2 = x4 = x5 = 1,
and equals 0 otherwise.
Solution: The midterm x1x2x3x4x5 has the correct set of values.
Functional Completeness

 Each min-term is the Boolean product of Boolean variables or their

complements.
 Shows that every Boolean function can be represented using the
Boolean operators ·, +, and −. Because every Boolean function can
be represented using these operators we say that the set {·, +, −} is
functionally complete.
We can eliminate all Boolean sums using the identity x + y = x y.
Optimization

Linear Programming

 Problems which seek to maximize (or, minimize) profit (or, cost)

form a general class of problems called optimization problems.
 A special but a very important class of optimization is linear
programming problem.
A linear programming (LP) problem is an optimization problem that can
be written
Maximize: c x

Subject to: Ax ≤ b
Where A is a given q × n matrix, c is a given row vector of length n, and b is
a given column vector of length q.
Linear programming problem
A linear programming problem is one that is concerned with finding the
optimal value (maximum or minimum) of a linear function of several
variables (called objective function) subject to the conditions that:
1. The variables are non-negative and satisfy a set of linear inequalities (called
linear constraints).
2. Variables are sometimes called decision variables and are non-negative.
Objective function: Linear function Z = ax+ by, where a, b are constants,
which has to be maximized or minimized is called a linear objective
function.
Constraints: The linear inequalities or equations or restrictions on the
variables of a linear programming problem are called constraints.
Optimization problem: A problem which seeks to maximize or minimize a
linear function subject to certain constraints as determined by a set of
linear inequalities is called an Optimization problem.
The common region determined by all the constraints including the non-
negative constraints x ≥ 0, y ≥ 0 of a linear programming problem is called
feasible region (or solution region) for the problem.

1. Points within and on the boundary of the feasible region represent

feasible solutions of the constraints.
2. Any point outside the feasible region is an infeasible
solution. Optimal Solution
Any point in the feasible region that gives the optimal value (maximum or
minimum) of the objective function is called an optimal solution.
Theorem 1 Let R be the feasible region (Convex Polygon) for a linear
programming problem and let Z = ax+ by be the Objective function. When
Z has an optimal value (maximum or minimum), where the variables x and
y are subject to constraints described by linear inequalities, this optimal
value must occur at a corner point (vertex) of the feasible region.
Theorem 2 Let R be the feasible region for a linear programming problem
and let Z = ax+ by be the Objective function. If R is bounded, then the
objective function Z has both a maximum and a minimum value on R and
each of these occurs at a corner point (vertex) of R. A corner point of a
feasible region is a point in the region which is the intersection of two
boundary lines.
X ≥ 0
Constraints Y ≥ 0

Bounded and Unbounded

A feasible region of a system of linear inequalities is said to be bounded.

 If it can be enclosed within a circle. Otherwise, it is called unbounded.

 Unbounded means that the feasible region does not extend
indefinitely in any direction.
Corner Point Method (Steps)
1. Find the feasible region of the linear programming problem
and determine its corner point either by inspection or by
solving the two equations of the lines intersecting at that point.
2. Evaluate the objective function Z = ax+ by at each corner point.
Let M and m, respectively denote the largest and smallest
values of these points.
3. When the feasible region is bounded, M and m are the
maximum and minimum value of Z.
4. In case feasible region is unbounded, we have:
a) M is the maximum value of Z, if the open half plane determined by ax
+ by > M has no point in common with the feasible region.
Otherwise, Z has no maximum value.
 b) Similarly, m is the minimum value of Z, if the open half plane
determined by ax + by > M has no point in common with the
feasible region. Otherwise, Z has no minimum value.
Corner Point Solution
The optimal solution to LPP, if it exists, occurs at the corners of the
feasible region.
The method includes the following steps:

 Step 1: Find the feasible region of the LPP.

 Step 2: Find the co-ordinates of each vertex of the feasible region.
These co-ordinates can be obtained from the graph or by solving the
equation of the line s.
 Step 3: At each vertex (corner point) compute the value of the
objective function.
 Step 4: Identify the corner point at which the value of the objective
function maximum (or minimum depending on the LP).
 The co-ordinates of this vertex are the optimal solution and the value
of Z is the optimal value.
Different types of linear
programming Example: Maximize y
-x + y ≤ 1
3x +2y ≤
12
2x +3y ≤
12 x, y ≥ 0
 The feasible integer points are shown in red, and the red dashed
lines indicate their convex hull, which is the smallest convex
polyhedron that contains all of these points.
  The blue lines together with the coordinate axes define the
polyhedron of the LP relaxation, which is given by the inequalities
without the integrality constraint.
 The goal of the optimization is to move the black dotted line as far
upward while still touching the polyhedron. The optimal solutions
of the integer problem are the points and which both have an
objective value of 2.
 The unique optimum of the relaxation is with objective value of
2.8. If the solution of the relaxation is rounded to the nearest
integers, it is not feasible for the ILP.

IP polytypic with LP relaxation

LINEAR PROGRAMMING – SIMPLEX METHOD

 If the linear programming problem has larger number of variables,

the suitable method for solving is Simplex Method.
The Simplex method also helps the decision maker/manager to identify
the following:
 Redundant Constraints
  Multiple Solutions
 Unbounded Solution
 Infeasible Problem
Basics of Simplex Method
The basic of simplex method is explained with the following linear programming
problem.
Example:
Maximize
60x1 + 70x2
Subject to:
2x1 + x2 ≤ 300
3x1 + 4x2 ≤ 509
4x1 + 7x2 ≤ 812
x1, x2 ≥ 0
Solution: First we introduce the variables s3, s4,
s5 ≥ 0 So that the constraints becomes equations,
thus
2x1 + x2 + s3 = 300
3x1 + 4x2 + s4 = 509
4x1 + 7x2 +s5 = 812
Corresponding to the three constraints, the variables s3, s4, s5 are called as
slack variables.
There are two types of solutions they are basic and basic feasible, which are
discussed as follows:
Basic Solution

 We may equate any two variables to zero in the above system of

equations, and then the system will have three variables.
 Thus, if this system of three equations with three variables is
solvable such a solution is called as basic solution.
 The variables s3, s4, and s5 are known as basic variables where
as the variables x1, x2 are known as non-basic variables.
Basic Feasible Solution

 A basic solution of a linear programming problem is called as basic

feasible solutions if it is feasible it means all the variables are non-
negative.
 The solution s3=300, s4=509 and s5=812 is a basic feasible solution.

Simplex Method Computation

Consider the following linear programming
problem Maximize
60x1 + 70x2

Subject to:
2x1 + x2 + s3 = 300
3x1 + 9x2 + s4 = 509
4x1 + 7x2 +s5 = 812
x1, x2, s3, s4, s5 ≥
0 The profit Z = 60x1 + 70x2 i.e. Maximize 60x1
+ 70x2
The standard form can be summarized in a compact table form as

CB Basic CJ 6 70 0 0 0
0
Variables XB x1 x2 s3 s4 s5
0 s3 300 2 1 1 0 0
0 s4 509 3 4 0 1 0
0 s5 812 4 7 0 0 1

Z -60 -70 0 0 0 0

Consider the first equation 2x1 + x2 + s3 =

300 2x1 + s3 = 300 – x2 (x1 = 0, s3 ≥ 0)
300 - x2 ≥ 0 i.e. x2 ≤ 300
Second equation: 3x1 + 9x2 + s4 =
509 3x1 + s4 = 509 - 4x2 (x1 = 0, s4
≥ 0)
509 – 9x2 ≥ 0

So, x 2 ≥ 509/9
Third equation: 4x1 + 7x2 +s5 =
812 4x1 + s5 = 812 - 7x2 (x1 = 0, s5 ≥
0)
812 - 7x2 ≥ 0
So, x2 ≥ 812/7
Therefore the three equations: x2 ≤ 300, x 2 ≥ 509/9, x2 ≥
812/7 Thus x2=Min (x2 ≤ 300, x 2 ≥ 509/9, x2 ≥ 812/7)
So, x2=Min (x2 ≤ 300/1, x 2 ≥ 509/9, x2 ≥ 812/7) = 116
Therefore x2 = 116, if x2=116, you may be note from the third
equation 7x2 +s5 = 812 i.e. s5=0 So, x2 = 812/7 = 116
Thus, the variable s5 becomes non-basic in the next
iteration. The other two basic variables are
S3=300 - x2 = 184
S4=509 - 4*116 =
45

Using the following rules the Table 2 is computed from the Table 1.

i. The revised basic variables are s3, s4 and x2. Accordingly, we make
CB1=0, CB2=0 and CB3=70.
ii. As x2 is the incoming basic variable we make the coefficient of x2
one by dividing each element of row-3 by 7. Thus the numerical
value of the element corresponding to x1 is 4/7, corresponding to s5
is 1/7 in Table 2.
iii. The incoming basic variable should appear only in the third row. So
we multiply the third-row of Table 2 by 1 and subtract it from the
first-row of Table 1 element by element. Thus the element
corresponding to x2 in the first-row of Table 2 is 0.
Therefore the element corresponding to x1 is 2-1*4/7=10/7 and the element
corresponding to s5 is 0-1*1/7=-1/7

In this way we obtain the elements of the first and the second row in
Table 2. In Table 2 the numerical values can also be calculated in a similar
way.

CB Basic CJ 60 70 0 0 0
Variables XB x1 x2 s3 s4 s5
0 s3 184 10/7 1 1 0 -1/7
0 s4 45 5/7 4 0 1 -4/7
0 s5 116 4/7 7 0 0 1/7

Zj–Cj -140/7 0 0 0 70/7

z1 - c1 = 10/7*0 + 5/7*0 + 70*4/7 - 60 = -

140/7 z5 – c5 = -1/7*0 - 4/7*0 + 1/7*70 -
0 = 70/7
i. Now we apply rule (1) to Table 2. Here the only negative zj-c j is
z1-c1 = - 140/7
Hence x1 should become a basic variable at the next iteration.
 ii. This minimum occurs corresponding to s4, it becomes a non basic
variable in next iteration.

CB Basic Cj 60 70 0 0 0
Variables XB x1 x2 s3 s4 s5
0 s3 94 10/7 1 1 -2 1
0 s4 63 5/7 4 0 7/5 -4/5
0 s5 80 4/7 7 0 -4/5 3/5

Zj–Cj 0 0 0 28 -6

1. Now we apply rule (1) to Table 2. Here the only negative Z j-C j is
z1-c1 = - 140/7
2. We compute the minimum of the ratio

Min (180/10/7, 45/5/7, 116/4/7) = Min (644/5, 63, 203) = 63

This minimum occurs corresponding to s4; it becomes a non basic

variable in next iteration.
1. z 5 – c5 < 0 should be made a basic variable in the next iteration.
2. Now compute the minimum
ratios Min (94/1, 80/3/5) = 94
Since y25 = -4/5 < 0, the corresponding ratio is not taken for
comparison. The variable s3 becomes non basic in the next
iteration.

CB Basic CJ 60 70 0 0 0
Variables XB x1 x2 s3 s4 s5
0 s3 94 10/7 1 1 2 1
0 s4 691/5 5/7 4 4/5 -1/5 0
0 s5 118/5 4/7 7 -3/5 2/5 0

Zj–Cj 0 0 6 16 0
Thus, the objective function is maximized for x1 = 691/5 and x2=118/5 and the
maximum value of the objective function is 9944.
Key Terms
Basic Variable: Variable of a basic feasible solution has n non-negative value.
Non Basic Variable: Variable of a feasible solution has a value equal to zero.
Artificial Variable: A non-negative variable introduced to provide basic
feasible solution and initiate the simplex procedures.
Slack Variable: A variable corresponding to a ≤ type constraint is a non-
negative variable introduced to convert the inequalities into equations.
Surplus Variable: A variable corresponding to a ≥ type constraint is a
non- negative variable introduced to convert the constraint into equations.
Basic Solution: System of m-equation and n-variables i.e. m<n is a solution
where at least n-m variables are zero.
Basic Feasible Solution: System of m-equation and n-variables i.e. m<n is
a solution where m variables are non-negative and n-m variables are zero.
Optimum Solution: A solution where the objective function is minimized
or maximized.
DUAL LINEAR PROGRAMMING PROBLEMS
For every linear programming problem there is a corresponding
linear programming problem called the dual.
Dual Problem Formulation
If the original problem is in the standard form then the dual problem can be
formulated using the following rules:
  The number of constraints in the original problem is equal to the
number of dual variables. The number of constraints in the dual
problem is equal to the number of variables in the original problem.
 The original problem profit coefficients appear on the right hand side
of the dual problem constraints.
 If the original problem is a maximization problem then the dual
problem is a minimization problem. Similarly, if the original problem
is a minimization problem then the dual problem is a maximization
problem.
 The original problem has less than or equal to ―≤‖ type of constraints
while the dual problem has greater than or equal to ―≥‖ type
constraints.
 The coefficients of the constraints of the original problem which
appear from left to right are placed from top to bottom in the
constraints of the dual problem and vice versa.
Simple Way of Solving Dual Problem
Minimize: P = x1 +
2x2 Subject to: x1 +
x2 ≥ 8
2x1 + x2
≥12 X1 ≥1
Solution: Step 1: Set up the P-matrix and its transpose

1 1 8 1 2 1 1
2 1 12 1 1 0 2
1 0 1 8 12 1 0
1 2 0

Step 2: Form the objective function and constraints for the dual
w1 + 2w 2 + w 1 ≤ 1
 w1 + w 2 + w 1 ≤ 2
Z = 8w1 = 12w 2
+2

Step 3: Construct the initial simplex tableau for the dual

w1 W2 W3 S1 S2 g z
1 2 1 1 0 0 1
1 1 0 0 1 0 2
-8 -12 -1 0 0 1 0
The most negative number in the bottom row to the left of the last column
is -12. This establishes the pivot column. The smallest non- negative ratio
is ½.
Step 4: Pivoting
Pivoting about the 2 we get:

w1 W2 W3 S1 S2 g z
1 2 1 1 0 0 1
1/2 0 - - 1 0 3/2
-2 0 1/2 1/2 0 1 6
5 6

w1 W2 W3 S1 S2 g z
1/2 1 1/2 1/2 0 0 1/2
1 1 0 0 1 0 2
-8 -12 -1 0 0 1 0
The most negative entry in the bottom row to the left of the last
column is -2 Pivoting about the 1/ 2

w1 W2 W3 S1 S2 g z
1/2 1 1/2 1/2 0 0 1/2
1/2 0 - - 1 0 3/2
-2 0 1/2 1/2 0 1 6
5 6
Therefore, the optimum solution providing by x1 = 8 and x2 = 0

w1 W2 W3 S1 S2 g z
1 2 1 1 0 0 1
0 -1 -1 -1 1 0 1
0 4 7 8 0 1 8

Therefore, the optimum solution providing by x1 = 8 and x2 = 0.The minimum

value is 8.