SECOND QUARTER The main role of DNA is to store information

on how other molecules should be arranged.

LESSON 1-ORIGIN OF LIFE Genetic sequences in DNA are essentially
instructions on how amino acids should be
Life on Earth began more than 3 billion years arranged in proteins. Cairns-Smith suggests
ago, evolving from the most basic of that mineral crystals in clay could have
microbes into a dazzling array of complexity arranged organic molecules into organized
over time. But how did the first organisms patterns.
on the only known home to life in the
universe develop from the primordial soup? 5 Deep-Sea Vents
The deep-sea vent theory suggests that life
7 Electric Spark may have begun at submarine hydrothermal
Electric sparks can generate amino acids and vents, spewing key hydrogen-rich molecules.
sugars from an atmosphere loaded with Their rocky nooks could then have
water, methane, ammonia and hydrogen, as concentrated these molecules together and
was shown in the famous Miller-Urey provided mineral catalysts for critical
experiment reported in 1953, suggesting reactions.
that lightning might have helped create the
key building blocks of life on Earth in its
early days. Over millions of years, larger and
more complex molecules could form.

Even now, these vents, rich in chemical and

thermal energy, sustain vibrant ecosystems.

4 Chilly Start
Although research since then has revealed Ice might have covered the oceans 3 billion
the early atmosphere of Earth was actually years ago, as the sun was about a third less
hydrogen-poor, scientists have suggested luminous than it is now. This layer of ice,
that volcanic clouds in the early atmosphere possibly hundreds of feet thick, might have
might have held methane, ammonia and protected fragile organic compounds in the
hydrogen and been filled with lightning as water below from ultraviolet light and
well. destruction from cosmic impacts. The cold
might have also helped these molecules to
6 Community Clay survive longer, allowing key reactions to
The first molecules of life might have met on happen.
clay, according to an idea elaborated by
organic chemist Alexander Graham Cairns-
Smith at the University of Glasgow in
Scotland.

3 RNA World
Nowadays DNA needs proteins in order to
form, and proteins require DNA to form, so
These surfaces might not only have how could these have formed without each
concentrated these organic compounds other? The answer may be RNA, which can
together, but also helped organize them into store information like DNA, serve as an
patterns much like our genes do now. enzyme like proteins, and help create both
DNA and proteins.
 Other scientists have even suggested that
life might have hitchhiked on comets from
other star systems. However, even if this
Later DNA and proteins succeeded this "RNA concept were true, the question of how life
world," because they are more efficient. RNA began on Earth would then only change to
still exists and performs several functions in how life began elsewhere in space.
organisms, including acting as an on-off
switch for some genes. The question still
remains how RNA got here in the first place. CELL STRUCTURE
And while some scientists think the molecule Cell is the smallest working unit of all living
could have spontaneously arisen on Earth, organisms on our planet earth, which is
others say that was very unlikely to have capable of performing life functioning. Hence
happened. it can also be defined as a fundamental unit
of life. The term cell was first observed and
2 Simple Beginnings identified by an English physicist Robert
Instead of developing from complex Hook in the year 1665.There were many
molecules such as RNA, life might have theories developed for cell. Later in the year
begun with smaller molecules interacting 1839 a two German scientist – Schwann
with each other in cycles of reactions. These and Schleiden provided few basic principles
might have been contained in simple of cell.
capsules akin to cell membranes, and over
time more complex molecules that There are many cells in an individual, which
performed these reactions better than the performs several functions throughout the
smaller ones could have evolved, scenarios life. The different types of cell include-
dubbed "metabolism-first" models, as prokaryotic cell, plant and animal cell. The
opposed to the "gene-first" model of the size and the shape of the cell range from
"RNA world" hypothesis. millimeter to microns, which are generally
based on the type of function that it
performs. A cell generally varies in their
shapes. A few cells are in spherical, rod, flat,
concave, curved, rectangular, oval and etc.
These cells can only be seen under
microscope.

Cell Theory

 Every living organism is made up of a

single cell (unicellular) (or) many cells
(multicellular) and all types of cells
have certain structures in common
1 Panspermia like: genetic material and plasma
Perhaps life did not begin on Earth at all, but membrane.
was brought here from elsewhere in space, a  Cell is the smallest living thing.
notion known as panspermia. For instance,  Each cell arises only from pre-existing
rocks regularly get blasted off Mars by cells.
cosmic impacts, and a number of Martian
meteorites have been found on Earth that
some researchers have controversially
suggested brought microbes over here,
potentially making us all Martians originally.
Prokaryotic Cell Structure Eukaryotic Cell Structure

They are the first organisms to be present on They are the cells with the presence of true
our planet earth. Organisms, with this cell nucleus. Organisms, with this cell type are
type are known by the term prokaryotic known by the term eukaryotic organisms
organisms (or) prokaryotes. Bacteria, blue (or) eukaryotes. Animals, plants and other
green algae and E.coli are few examples of organisms excluding bacteria, blue green
this category. Prokaryotic cells are single- algae and E.coli have been grouped into this
celled organisms, with the absence of category. Eukaryotic cells are more complex
nucleus and comprises of capsule, cell wall, than prokaryotic cells. These organisms have
cell membrane, cytoplasm, nucleiod, membrane bound nucleus with many cell
ribosome, plasmids, pili and flagella. organelles to perform several cellular
functions within the system.

Prokaryotic Cell Structure

They are the first organisms to be present on

our planet earth. Organisms, with this cell
type are known by the term prokaryotic
organisms (or) prokaryotes. Bacteria, blue
green algae and E.coli are few examples of
this category. Prokaryotic cells are single-
celled organisms, with the absence of
nucleus and comprises of capsule, cell wall,
cell membrane, cytoplasm, nucleiod,
ribosome, plasmids, pili and flagella.

Eukaryotic Cell General Features

 The size of a eukaryotic cell ranges

from 10-100 microns. Few eukaryotic
cells vary in their size.
 They are large, advanced,
multicellular and have membrane
bound organelles.
 They reproduce both by sexually and
by asexually.
 Mode of nutrients - Autotrophic and
heterotrophic.
 Kingdom protozoa, algae, fungi,
Plantae and Animalia are organisms
Prokaryotic Cell General Features
with eukaryotic cell.
 The size of a cell ranges from 1-10 Plant Cell Structure
microns. Few prokaryotic cells vary in
their size. A plant cells are eukaryotic cells, with the
 They are single-celled (unicellular), presence of true nucleus, multicellular large
which forms a colony or filamentous. and advanced membrane bound organelles.
 The shape of the cell includes These plant cells are quite different from
spherical, rod and flat shaped animal cells like in shape and other few
organisms. organelles which are only found in animal
 Mode of nutrients-- few organisms are cells but are absent in plant cells.
photosynthetic (performing food with
the help of sunlight), feed on living
things and dead things.
 They reproduce asexually by the
process called binary fission,
transformation, conjugation,
transduction.
 cell and also plays a vital role in
reproduction.

Nuclear membrane: The bilayer

membrane, which protects the nucleus by
surrounding around it and acts as a barrier
between the cell nucleus and other organs of
a cell.

Nucleolus: It is an important membrane

found inside the nucleus. It plays a vital role
in the production of cell's ribosome.

Chromosomes: It is made up of DNA and

stored in the nucleus, which contains the
Animal Cell Structure instructions for traits and characteristics.

Endoplasmic reticulum: It helps in the

Animal cells are eukaryotic cells, with the
movement of materials around the cell. It
presence of true nucleus; multicellular large
contains an enzyme that helps in building
and advanced membrane bound organelles.
molecules and in manufacturing of proteins.
Like plant cells, animal cells have same
The main function of this organelle is storage
organelles except the cell wall, chloroplasts,
and secretion.
number of vacuoles and many more. Due to
the absence of cell wall the shape of an
Ribosome: It plays a vital role in protein
animal cell is irregular. Based on structure
synthesis.
and functions, animal cells comprise of:
Mitochondria: They are double membrane,
filamentous organelles, which play a vital
role in generating and transforming the
energy. Mitochondria play a vital role in
various functions of the cell metabolisms
including oxidative phosphorylation.

Golgi Bodies: It helps in the movement of

materials within the cell.

Lysosomes: It is also called as suicidal bags

as it helps in cell renewal and break down
old cell parts.

Vacuoles: It helps plants in maintaining its

Cell Structure and Function shape and it also stores water, food, wastes,
etc.
Cell wall: It helps in protecting the plasma
membrane and plays a vital role in Chloroplast: They are the site of
supporting and protecting the cells. It is a photosynthesis, which are present in
thick outer layer made of cellulose. chlorophyll bacteria, blue-green algae, etc.

Cell membrane: It is a double layered, thin

barrier, surrounding the cell to control the MAIN FUCNTIONS OF CELL
entry and exit of certain substances.
STRUCTURE AND SUPPORT
Cytoplasm: It is a membrane, which
protects the cell by keeping the cell
Like a classroom is made of bricks, every
organelles separate from each other. This
organism is made of cells. While some cells
helps to keep a cell in stable. Cytoplasm is
such as the collenchyma and sclerenchyma
the site, where many vital biochemical
are specifically meant for structural support,
reactions take place.
all cells generally provide the structural basis
Nucleus: They are the membrane bound
of all organisms. For instance, skin is made
organelles, which are found in all eukaryotic
up of a number of skin cells. Vascular plants
cells. It is the very important organelle of a
have evolved a special tissue called xylem,
cell as it controls the complete activity of a
which is made of cells that provide structural
support.
GROWTH

In complex organisms, tissues grow by

simple multiplication of cells. This takes
place through the process of mitosis in which
the parent cell breaks down to form two
daughter cells identical to it. Mitosis is also
the process through which simpler organisms
reproduce and give rise to new organisms.

TRANSPORT

Cells import nutrients to use in the various

chemical processes that go on inside them.
These processes produce waste a cell needs
to get rid of. Small molecules such as
oxygen, carbon dioxide and ethanol get
across the cell membrane through the
process of simple diffusion, which is
regulated with a concentration gradient
across the cell membrane. This is known as
passive transport. However, larger
molecules, such as proteins and
polysaccharides, go in and out of a cell
through the process of active transport in
which the cell uses vesicles to excrete or
absorb larger molecules.

ENERGY PRODUCTION

An organism's survival depends upon the

thousands of chemical reactions that cells
carry out relentlessly. For these reactions,
cells require energy. Most plants get this
energy through the process of
photosynthesis whereas respiration is the
mechanism that provides energy to animal
cells.

METABOLISM

Metabolism includes all the chemical

reactions that take place inside an organism
to keep it alive. These reactions can be
catabolic or anabolic. The process of energy
production by breaking down molecules
(glucose) is known as catabolism. Anabolic
reactions, on the other hand, use energy to
make bigger substances from simpler ones.
REPRODUCTION
Reproduction is vital for the survival of a
species. A cell helps in reproduction through
the processes of mitosis (in more evolved
organisms) and meiosis. In mitosis cells
simply divide to form new cells. This is
termed as asexual reproduction.
Meiosis takes place in gametes or
reproductive cells in which there is a mixing
of genetic information. This causes daughter
cells to be genetically different from the
parent cells. Meiosis is a part of sexual
reproduction.