Honey LINGUISTICS 217 ___ Prof. M. Sajid Iqbal appears in the text (Tom: "How do you like my new Mercedes Vito’ Marry: "It is a nice van, which I'm also thinking of buying".). eftad! 4. Conjunction: specifies the relationship between clauses, or sentences. Most frequent. relations of sentences are: addition (and, moreover e.g. "Moreover, the chocolate fountains are not just regular fountains, they more’ like rivers full of chocolate and sweets."), temporality (afterwards, next e.g, "He bought her perfume at a local perfume shop and afterwards moved toward a jewelry store.") and causality ( because, since). 5. Lexical cohesion: denotes links between words which carry meaning: verbs, nouns, adjectives. Two types of lexical cohesion are differentiated, namely: reiteration and collocation. Reiteration adopts various forms, particularly synonymy, repetition, hyponymy or antonymy (. Collocation is the way in which certain words occur together, which is why it is easy to make out what will follow the first item. FIO IOCR I Wd. bselnw - @vW PRAGMATICS “The social situation is the most powerful determinant of social behavior.” (William Labov) Sernantics and Pragmatics are both the study of meanings But i. Semantics meaning is fixed with no context. These are the meaning of words found in dictionaries. ii. (Pragmatics meaning is in context. It deals with the 0X speaker’s meaning than the sentence meaning. ) Pragmatics’ is the combination of two words “Pragmatic”? means “Practical or real” and “tics” means “scientific study”. Hence, Qragmatics is the _ scientific study of the meanings of words in their social ,-(practical) context.) eel oe \ Pragmatics is the study of meaning of words, phrases and. full sentences in social context. It is the-study of invisible meaning. It is different from semantics which deals with the objective meanings of words that can be found in dictionaries. Liferat + |DVCTonony svuamicu wit CarHoney LINGUISTICS 248 Prof. M. Sajid Iqbal It recognizes those meanings when they are not actually said. Speakers depend on a lot of shared: assumptions and expectations. ¢.g. “Baby and Toddler sale” means “Not selling children but selling clothes for babies” Carlos says: LOLS . Bs ely. Cawn “Pragmatics is the art of analysis of the unsaid” Pragmatics and Sociolinguistics: , ot! ( Pragmatics is the study of meaning in context whereas sociolinguistics is another dimension where the meanings are derived from the social context of thé speaker. ___ It studies the factors that govern our choice of language in social interactions and the effects of our choice on others. These factors always influence our selection of sounds, grammatical construction and vocabulary according to the situation of the speech. It also telis us about the social constraints which are taught ‘to us at a very early age. For . example, The British use to say “Please” in most of their conversation, Ww. bsely. com : The interpretation of what meanings the speaker wanted to convey using particular words is often influenced by factors such as the listeners’ assumptions or the context, | In pragmatics — two types of context. can be | differentiated: | 1. Linguistic context and 2. Physical context. a : 1. Linguistic Context: tata - bs Q a Linguistic context is sometimes also called co-text. The co-text of a word is the set of other words used in the same Phrase or sentence, Sip suit caer oe onuie et eg. T get to the bank to cash a cheque. | Bank is homonym. By looking at other words in the sentence | We know which type of bank is intended, 2. Physical Context: . | The physical context is the location of a given word, the |. Situation in which it is used, as well as timing, all of which aid | Proper understating of the words, Our understanding of what | We read and hear is tied to the physical context, particularly the time and place. WW. Bgelh. com Physical context includes: seein ( : Car Where the conversation takes place?What objects are present? ~~ What actions are taking place? ® Epistemic Context: : It is the background knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer. © Linguistic Context: These are the utterances spoken previously to the current utterances. e y Social Context: It includes social relationship & settings of the speaker and the hearer. There are numerous frequently used words which ” depend on the physical.context for their correct understanding, such as: there, that, it, or tomorrow. Terms: like that are known as deictic expressions. ‘@ _ Deictics: : The term ‘deictic' means 'pointing' and we often use gestures to point to things or people while talking. We can use deictics in any context, . © Deinis: quote - bs eth. Coun It is a Greek word which means “pointing” via language. There are some words in the language that cannot be interpreted at all unless the physical context is known. “here, there, this, that, now, then, yesterday, come “ , pronouns, such as “I, you, him, her, them “. Depending on what such words refer to they can be classified as - i. Person deixis: “0 pselw com Expressions used to point to a person are called person deixis. e.g him, they, you; ii. Spatial deixis: ~__ : Words used to point to a location are called place or spatial deixis, e.g there, here; and a f iii. Time or Temporal deixis: 3 Expressions used to point to a time are called time oF temporal deixis. e.g then, in an hour, tomorrow. Reference: Reference is an act by which a speaker uses language t© enable a listener to identify something. e.g. Can I look at your Chomsky ? ovamicu wiur CarChomsky refers to something. The key process here is | called inference. | However, in pragmatics it is assumed that words do not I refer to anything by themselves. It is people who in order to ' p the communicated idea perform an act of identifying what the speaker meant. This act is called reference. Another act involved in the analysis of discourse so as } to make an association between what is said and what must be meant is inference. It is often used in connection with anaphora. Anaphora is subsequent mentioning of a formerly } introduced item, as in the following sentences: | I went to a shop. It was close. | @ SPEECHACT THEORY: Lgtots -bseln. cove | Speech Act theory was giyen by Austin in 1962 in his book ‘How to Do Things with Words’. The major premise of which is that language is ds much a mode of action as it is a means of conveying information. As John Searle puts it, “All ; linguistic communication involves linguistic acts.” Pragmatics deals with utterances as performing actions. The use of language to perform some act is called speech act. Speech act theory attempts to explain how speakers use language to accomplish intended actions and how hearers infer intended meaning from what is said. . : “[ promise I'll be there tomorrow.” * This could be a threat or a promise, depending on whether his presence. tomorrow is a disadvantage or an advantage to the listener. Contrast the sentence above with: “If you don’t behave, I promise you there’s going to be trouble.” This sentence says it’s a “promise,” but it’s a “threat.” . (Searle Speech Acts 58) Crystal describes “Speech Act” As “A theory where the effect of an utterance is beh in relationship to the speaker and listener’s vior” A Locutionary Act: bord: bSelh* Cow The act of producing a recognizable, grammatical utterance in the language is called a locutionary act. An Illocutionary Act: « Illocutionary acts show what the speakers intend to do uttering a sentence. - suaimicu wirarealThe attempt to accomplish some communicative purpose is called an illocutionary act. a. Husband: That’s the phone. b. Wife: I’m in the bathroom. b. Husband: Okay. wororw- bs ln - Com Its illocutionary acts are: . @i) a refusal to comply with the request (ii) a request to her husband to answer the Per-locutionary Acts: The effect produced by the utterance in a given context. Perlocutionary acts show the effect of speaker's utterance on the hearer. There are five basic types of illocutionary acts or ~ speech act expressions. It should be noted that while phonology, syntax, and » semantics focus on the locutionary act, pragmatics focuses on phone instead. the illocutionary act, the aspect of the speech act which specifies what the language is being used for in a given situation, In other words, a locutionary act_has meaning; it is produces an understandable utterance, An illocutionary act has i force; it is informed with a certain tone, attitude, feeling, motive, or intention to achieve a purpose. A _perlocutionary act has_consequence; it has an effect upon the addressee. By describing an imminently dangerous. situation (locutionary component) in a tone that is designed to have the force of a warning (illocutionary component), the addresser may actually frighten the addressee into moving (perlocutionary component). These three components, then, are not altogether separable. lo locelh Searle’s classification SS Q Conn John R. Searle’s classification: Types of Hocutionary Acts : Assertive: like claims and suggestions Directive: requests and commands Expressive: thanks and apologies Comissive: promises and vows Declarative: decrees and declarations 1, Representatives: » suaimicu wit Calthe truth of the expressed proposition e.g. I went to the Affandi painting exhibition. There are about twenty painting on display. Some are very classic and extraordinarily awesome. e.g. guarantee, promise, swear etc. es: ¢ e is a speech act that is to.cause the hearer to take a particular action 1) I need/ want that car. 2) Give me your pen. ROVSUS -osely Orr 3) Could you give me your pen, please? | 4) May I have some soda? Is there any milk left? 5) This has to be done over. What about the renovation? 3. Commisive: Commissive is a speech act that commits a speaker to some future action (promises, refuses) e.g. Maybe I can do that tomorrow. Don’t worry, I’ll be there. — . 4, Expressives: na Lovoun- ose my “8M Expressive is a speech act that expresses on the speaker's attitudes and emotions towards the proposition. a e.g. I am very disappointed. . What a great day!!! Oh my, that’s terrible, Www: yseln-: cam The speaker expresses an attitude about any state of affairs. Expressives express the psychological state. e.g. apologize, congratulate, thank, welcome etc. 5. Declarations: . The speaker alters the external state of affairs or situation, singly by making the utterance. Declarations effect immediate changes in the institutional state of affairs. e.g. I deny. You are fired. She is abandoned: Politeness: i Politeness is showing awareness of another person’s face. Your face is your public self-image. Face — threatening: - act represents a threat to another person’s self image. Whenever you say something that lessens the possible treat to another's face, it is called a face ~ saving act. : —_ are considered successful only if they Speech acts ae ees Satisfy several criteria, known as “felicity conditions”. Felicity Representative is a speech act that ‘commits a speaker to | VLaIicu witit Car