LOCOMOTION AND

MOVEMENT
 INTRODUCTION
Movement is one of the significant features of living beings. Animals and plants exhibit
a wide range of movements. Streaming of protoplasm in the unicellular organisms like
Amoeba is a simple form of movement. Movement of cilia, flagella and tentacles are
shown by many organisms. Human beings can move limbs, jaws, eyelids, tongue, etc.
Some of the movements result in a change of place or location. Such voluntary
movements are called locomotion. Walking, running, climbing, flying, swimming are
all some forms of locomotory movements. Locomotory structures need not be
different from those affecting other types of movements. For example, in
Paramoecium, cilia helps in the movement of food through cytopharynx and in
locomotion as well. Hydra can use its tentacles for capturing its prey and also use them
for locomotion. We use limbs for changes in body postures and locomotion as well. The
above observations suggest that movements and locomotion cannot be studied
separately. The two may be linked by stating that all locomotions are movements but
all movements are not locomotions.
 INTRODUCTION
 Movement is one of the significant features of living beings.

MOVEMENT – Change in POSITION.

ANIMAL
MOVEMENT
PLANT

LOCOMOTION – Change in LOCATION. Locomotion requires a perfect coordinated

activity of muscular ,skeletal and neural activity.

 Some of the movements result in change of place or location.

 Such voluntary movements are called locomotion.

 INTRODUCTION

 Lcomotory structures need not to be different from those

affecting other type of movements.
 Method of locomotion performed by animal vary with habitates
and demand of situation. However, locomotion is generally for
search of food, shelter, mate, suitable breeding grounds,
favourable climatic conditions or to escape from
enemies/predators.
 INTRODUCTION

 Lcomotory structures need not to be different from those

affecting other type of movements.
 Method of locomotion performed by animal vary with habitates
and demand of situation.

*All locomotions are movements but all movements are not

locomotions.
 TYPES OF MOVEMENT
Cells of the human body exhibit three main types of movement
1) Amoeboid Movement
Some specialised cells in our body like macrophages and leucocytes in blood exhibit
amoeboid movement. It is effected by pseudopodia formed by the streaming of
protoplasm (as in Amoeba). Cytoskeletal elements like microfilaments are also
involved in amoeboid movement.
 TYPES OF MOVEMENT
2) Ciliary Movement
Ciliary movement occurs in most of our internal tubular organs which are lined by
ciliated epithelium. The coordinated movements of cilia in the trachea help us in
removing dust particles and some of the foreign substances inhaled alongwith the
atmospheric air. Passage of ova through the female reproductive tract is also facilitated
by the ciliary movement.
 TYPES OF MOVEMENT
3) Muscular Movement
Movement of our limbs, jaws, tongue, etc, require muscular
movement. The contractile property of muscles are effectively
used for locomotion and other movements by human beings and
majority of multicellular organisms. Locomotion requires a
perfect coordinated activity of muscular, skeletal and neural
systems. In this chapter, you will learn about the types of
muscles, their structure, mechanism of their contraction and
important aspects of the skeletal system.
 OTHER MOVEMENTS

OTHER MOVEMENT: Flagellar movement – Helps in

swimming of spermatozoa, maintenance of water current
in canal system of sponges and in locomotion of Protozoans
like Euglena.
 MUSCLE
 Study of muscles known as Myology.

 Myology also known as Sarcology.

 All muscles of body develop from mesoderm (Exception – IRIC ,

CILIARY BODY MUSCLES AND MYOEPITHELIUM MUSCLES)

Muscle is a specialised tissue of mesodermal origin. About 40-

50 per cent of the body weight of a human adult is
contributed by muscles. They have special properties like
excitability, contractility, extensibility and elasticity.
 TYPES OF MUSCLES

Three types of muscles are found in the

body on the basis of their location.
(i) skeletal muscles.
(ii) Visceral muscles.
(iii) Cardiac muscles.
 TYPE OF MUSCLES
Based on their location three types of muscles are identified
Skeletal muscles are closely associated
with the skeletal components of the body.
They have a striped appearance under the
microscope and hence are called striated
muscles. As their activities are under the
voluntary control of the nervous system,
they are known as voluntary muscles too.
They are primarily involved in locomotory
actions and changes of body postures.
SKELETAL MUSCLE

Skeletal muscle/Striated muscle/Voluntary muscle –Limbs –primarily associated

with locomotory actions and changes of body postures.
 TYPE OF MUSCLES
Based on their location three types of muscles are identified

Visceral muscles are located in the inner walls of

hollow visceral organs of the body like the
alimentary canal, reproductive tract, etc. They do
not exhibit any striation and are smooth in
appearance. Hence, they are called smooth muscles
(nonstriated muscle). Their activities are not under
the voluntary control of the nervous system and are
therefore known as involuntary muscles. They
assist, for example, in the transportation of food
through the digestive tract and gametes through the
VISCERAL MUSCLE genital tract.

Visceral muscles /Smooth muscles or Nonstriated muscle/Involuntary muscles –

internal organs .
 TYPE OF MUSCLES
Based on their location three types of muscles are identified

As the name suggests, Cardiac muscles are the

muscles of heart. Many cardiac muscle cells
assemble in a branching pattern to form a cardiac
muscle. Based on appearance, cardiac muscles are
striated. They are involuntary in nature as the
nervous system does not control their activities
directly.

CARDIAC MUSCLES

Cardiac muscles –By appearance –Striated but functionally involuntary as

nervous system does not control their activities directly.
 SKELATAL MUSCLE -STRUCTURE

Epimysium

Muscle bundles or Fascicle

Skeletal muscle

Perimysium

Endomysium

Myofibril

Muscle fibre
 SKELATAL MUSCLE -STRUCTURE

Each organised skeletal muscle

in our body is made of a number
of muscle bundles or fascicles
held together by a common
collagenous connective tissue
layer called fascia. Each muscle
bundle contains a number of
muscle fibres .

Figure 20.1 Diagrammatic cross sectional view of a muscle showing muscle bundles and muscle fibres
 STRUCTURE OF MUSCLE FIBRE
 Skeletal muscle fibre is cylindrical or
tubular in shape and it is long and
Opening of
T - tubules
Sarcoplasmic
T - tubules
Unbranched.
reticulum Nucleus

Each muscle fibre is lined by the

SARCOSOME
plasma membrane called
(Mitochondria) sarcolemma enclosing the
sarcoplasm. Muscle fibre is a
Myofibrils
syncitium as the sarcoplasm
Sarcoplasm
Sarcolemma contains many nuclei. The
endoplasmic reticulum, i.e.,
sarcoplasmic reticulum of the
muscle fibres is the store house of
calcium ions.
 STRUCTURE OF MUSCLE FIBRE
Myofibrils

LONGITUDINAL AXIS

A characteristic feature of the muscle fibre is

the presence of a large number of parallelly
arranged filaments in the sarcoplasm called
myofilaments or myofibrils.
 STRUCTURE OF MYOFIBRIL

Each myofibril has alternate dark

Myofibril
and light bands on it. A detailed
study of the myofibril has
Muscle fibre
established that the striated
appearance is due to the
distribution pattern of two
important proteins – Actin and
Myosin.
 STRUCTURE OF MUSCLE FIBRE
LONGITUDINAL AXIS

Myofibril
Muscle fibre

I band/ Light band/

Isotropic band – ACTIN FILAMENT MYOSIN FILAMENT
Actin filament A band/ Dark band/ Anisotropic band – Actin and
(ACTIN PROTEIN) Myosin filament (MYOSIN + ACTIN PROTEIN)
The light bands contain actin and is called I-band or Isotropic band, whereas the
dark band called ‘A’ or Anisotropic band contains myosin. Both the proteins are
arranged as rod-like structures, parallel to each other and also to the longitudinal
axis of the myofibrils. Actin filaments are thinner as compared to the myosin
filaments, hence are commonly called thin and thick filaments respectively.
 STRUCTURE OF MUSCLE FIBRE

ACTIN FILAMENT MYOSIN FILAMENT

In the centre of each ‘I’ band is an elastic fibre called ‘Z’ line which bisects it. The thin
filaments are firmly attached to the ‘Z’ line. The thick filaments in the ‘A’ band are also
held together in the middle of this band by a thin fibrous membrane called ‘M’ line.
The ‘A’ and ‘I’ bands are arranged alternately throughout the length of the myofibrils.
STRUCTURE OF MUSCLE FIBRE – MYOFIBRIL - SARCOMERE
The portion of the myofibril between two successive ‘Z’ lines is considered as the functional unit of
contraction and is called a sarcomere.

 Sarcomere = 1A band + two half I band

 The Length of Sarcomere is 2.5 µm. (I band = 1µm, A band = 1.5µm )

Muscle fibre is the anatomical unit of muscle. Each

muscle fibre has many parallelly arranged myofibrils.
Each myofibril contains many serially arranged units
1 A band
called sarcomere which are the functional units.

Z - line Z - line

half I band half I band

SARCOMERE
Cytoplasmic segment of striated muscle fibres is termed as sarcomere.
STRUCTURE OF MUSCLE FIBRE – MYOFIBRIL - SARCOMERE

Muscle fibre is the anatomical unit of muscle. Each

muscle fibre has many parallelly arranged myofibrils.
Each myofibril contains many serially arranged units
called sarcomere which are the functional units.

Cytoplasmic segment of striated muscle fibres is termed as sarcomere.

 STRUCTURE OF MYOFIBRIL – H - ZONE
In a resting state, the edges of thin filaments on either side of the thick
filaments partially overlap the free ends of the thick filaments leaving the
central part of the thick filaments. This central part of thick filament, not
overlapped by thin filaments is called the ‘H’ zone.

H - ZONE Myosin filament

Actin filament
SARCOMERE
 STRUCTURE OF MUSCLE FIBRE – MYOFIBRIL

1 Myosin filament is surrounded by 6 Actin filaments & 1

Actin filament is surrounded by 3 Myosin filaments.

Myosin

Actin

MAYOFIBRIL
STRUCTURE OF CONTRACTILE PROTEIN – ACTIN FILAMENT
ACTIN FILAMENT IS COMPOSED OF THREE PARTS
1. F - actin
2. Tropomyosin
3. Troponin
SARCOMERE

Troponin
Tropomyosin

F-actin
Figure 20.3 (a) An actin (thin) filament
 ACTIN FILAMENT – 1. F-actin
1. F-actin

Figure 20.3 (a) An actin (thin) filament F-actin

Myosin attachment site

G-actin (MONOMER)

F-actin (POLYMER)-2 in number

 Each actin (thin) filament is made up of two “F” (filamentous) actins helically wound to
each other

 Each F-actin is a polymer of monomeric “G” (Globular) actins.

 ACTIN FILAMENT – 2. TROPOMYOSIN

2.Tropomyosin ( Globular protein)

Figure 20.3 (a) An actin (thin) filament

Tropomyosin

TROPOMYOSIN (Globular protein) -Two filaments of another protein,

tropomyosin also run close to the “F” actins throughout its length.
 ACTIN FILAMENT – 3. TROPONIN

3. Troponin (Complex protein)

Troponin

Figure 20.3 (a) An actin (thin) filament

Troponin is made up of three subunit.

(a) Troponin I (Inhibitory site)
(b) Troponin T (Tropomyosin site)
(c) Troponin C (Ca+2 binding site)
 A complex protein Troponin is distributed at regular intervals on the tropomyosin.
ACTIN FILAMENT – 3. TROPONIN
STRUCTURE OF CONTRACTILE PROTEIN – ACTIN FILAMENT

In the resting state a subunit of troponin masks the

active binding sites for myosin on the actin filaments.
STRUCTURE OF CONTRACTILE PROTEIN –MYOSIN FILAMENT
SARCOMERE

MYOSIN FILAMENT (POLYMER)

 Each myosin (thick) filament is also a polymerised

protein.

 Many monomeric proteins called Meromyosins MYOSIN MONOMER (Meromyosin)

constitute one thick filament.
 MYOSIN FILAMENT -MEROMYOSIN

 Each meromyosin has two important parts, a

globular head with a short arm and a tail, the former
being called the heavy meromyosin (HMM) and the
latter, the light meromyosin (LMM).

HMM

LMM

Head
Short arm
Tail
 MYOSIN FILAMENT –MEROMYOSIN –CROSS ARM
The HMM component, i.e.; the head and short arm projects outwards at regular
distance and angle from each other from the surface of a polymerised myosin
filament and is known as cross arm.

HMM

Head
Cross arm
Short arm

Tail

M -line
 MYOSIN FILAMENT -MEROMYOSIN

The globular head is an active ATPase enzyme and

has binding sites for ATP and active sites for actin.

Actin binding site Head

ATP binding site
 MECHANISM OF MUSCLE CONTRACTION

Sliding filament theory

Mechanism of muscle contraction is best explained by

the sliding filament theory which states that contraction
of a muscle fibre takes place by the sliding of the thin
filaments over the thick filaments.
 MECHANISM OF MUSCLE CONTRACTION

 Muscle contraction is initiated by a

signal sent by the central nervous
system (CNS) via a motor neuron.

 A motor neuron along with the muscle

fibres connected to it constitute a motor
unit.
Motor neuron

Muscle fibre
MECHANISM OF MUSCLE CONTRACTION

The junction between a

motor neuron and the
sarcolemma of the
muscle fibre is called the
neuromuscular junction
or motor-end plate.
 MECHANISM OF MUSCLE CONTRACTION
Nerve impulse
Action potential
T tubule

Sarcoplasmic
Reticulum
Ach receptor
(Calcium store house)
Synaptic vesicle
L-tubule
(Acetylcholine)

*A neural signal reaching this junction releases a neurotransmitter

(Acetylcholine) which generates an action potential in the sarcolemma.
* This spreads through the muscle fibre and causes the release of calcium ions
into the sarcoplasm.
 MECHANISM OF MUSCLE CONTRACTION

Increase in Ca ++ level leads to the binding of calcium with a

subunit of troponin on actin filaments and thereby remove the
masking of active sites for myosin.
 MECHANISM OF MUSCLE CONTRACTION
Actin
filament
P ADP
Myosin
filament

Cross bridge Myosin head

Formation of cross bridge

Utilizing the energy from ATP hydrolysis, the myosin head now binds
to the exposed active sites on actin to form a cross bridge
MECHANISM OF MUSCLE CONTRACTION

Actin
filament
P ADP
Myosin
filament

Cross bridge Myosin head

Breaking of cross bridge Formation of cross bridge

P
ADP

Sliding/rotation
 MECHANISM OF MUSCLE CONTRACTION
Actin
filament
P ADP
Myosin
filament

Cross bridge Myosin head

Breaking of cross bridge Formation of cross bridge

P
ADP

Sliding/rotation
 The myosin, releasing the ADP and Pi goes back to its relaxed state. A new ATP binds and
the cross-bridge is broken.

 The ATP is again hydrolysed by the myosin head and the cycle of cross bridge formation
and breakage is repeated causing further sliding.
 MECHANISM OF MUSCLE CONTRACTION
 This pulls the
attached actin
filaments towards the
centre of “A” band.
The “Z” line attached
to these actins are
also pulled inwards
thereby causing a
shortening of the
sarcomere, i.e.,
contraction.
 MECHANISM OF MUSCLE CONTRACTION

During shortening of the muscle (contraction), the “I” bands get

reduced, whereas the “A” bands retain the length.

A-Band
MECHANISM OF MUSCLE CONTRACTION
 MECHANISM OF MUSCLE CONTRACTION

 The process continues till the Ca++ ions are pumped back to the sarcoplasmic cisternae
resulting in the masking of actin filaments.

 This causes the return of “Z” lines back to their original position, i.e., relaxation.
 MECHANISM OF MUSCLE CONTRACTION- ROLE OF ATP
Actin
filament
P ADP
Myosin
filament

Cross bridge Myosin head

Breaking of cross bridge Formation of cross bridge

P
ADP

Sliding/rotation

*During the process of muscle contraction cycle - 2 ATP entre in this cycle but only one
utilized .
 MECHANISM OF MUSCLE CONTRACTION

During muscle contraction

*Thin filament slide over thick filament.
*Z- Line move towards center.
*H zone decrease or disappear.
*Length of sarcomere decreases.
*Length of I- band decreases.
*The length of A band remains unchanged.
*Contractile muscle fibers – Actin and Myosin.
*Regulatory muscle fibers – Troponin and Tropomyosin.
*Ions for muscle stimulation – CALCIUM AND SODIUM.
*Ions for muscle contraction –CALCIUM AND MAGNESIUM.
NOTE : In muscle contraction there is no change in length of Actin & Myosin
rather Actins slides over myosin and hence length of sarcomere decreases.
 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN RED AND WHITE MUSCLE
Red (slow) muscle White (fast) muscle
Myoglobin content is high. So, it Myoglobin content is less So, it is
is red pale
Sarcoplasmic reticulum is less Sarcoplasmic reticulum is more
extensive extensive

Blood vessels are more Blood vessels are less extensive

extensive
Mitochondria are more in Mitochondria are less in number
number
 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN RED AND WHITE MUSCLE
Red (slow) muscle White (fast) muscle
Depends on aerobic respiration for ATP Depends on anaerobic respiration for
production so also called aerobic ATP production.

Response is slow with long latent Response is rapid with short latent
period period

This muscle is involved in prolonged This muscle is not involved in

and continued activity as it undergoes prolonged and continued activity as it
sustained contraction relaxes immediately

Fatigue occurs slowly Fatigue occure quickly

 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN RED AND WHITE MUSCLE

Muscle contains a red coloured oxygen storing pigment called

myoglobin. Myoglobin content is high in some of the muscles
which gives a reddish appearance. Such muscles are called the
Red fibres. These muscles also contain plenty of mitochondria
which can utilise the large amount of oxygen stored in them for
ATP production. These muscles, therefore, can also be called
aerobic muscles. On the other hand, some of the muscles possess
very less quantity of myoglobin and therefore, appear pale or
whitish. These are the White fibres. Number of mitochondria are
also few in them, but the amount of sarcoplasmic reticulum is
high. They depend on anaerobic process for energy.
 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN DIFFERENT MUSCLES

Skeletal Muscles Visceral Muscles Cardiac Muscles

Cylindrical Spindle shaped Cylindrical

Unbranched Unbranched Branched

Multi Nucleated Uninucleated Uninucleated

Light and Dark band present Light and Dark band absent Light and Dark band present
 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN DIFFERENT MUSCLES

Skeletal Muscles Visceral Muscles Cardiac Muscles

Intercalated disc absent Intercalated disc absent Intercalated disc present

Controlled by CNS Controlled by ANS Controlled by Both CNS + ANS

Blood supply abundant Less Richly Blood supply Richly Blood supply

Soon fatigue Donot get fatigue Never fatigued

SMOOTH MUSCLES AND IT’S TYPES
SMOOTH MUSCLES AND IT’S TYPES
CARDIAC MUSCLES
 PROPERTIES OF MUSCLES
Paralysis

 Supply of motor nerve impulse completely cut off. So function of

muscle contraction is stopped.
Shivering

 Involuntary contraction of muscles to make body warm.

Fatigue

Repeated activation of the muscles can lead to the accumulation of

lactic acid due to anaerobic breakdown of glycogen in them, causing
fatigue.
 PROPERTIES OF MUSCLES
The reaction time of the fibres can vary in different
Speed of muscles.
 Skeletal muscle = 0.1 sec. per contraction per cycle
 Cardiac muscle = 0.8 sec. per contraction per cycle
 Smooth muscle = 46 sec. per contraction per cycle
Rigor Mortis
Permanent rigidity of muscle after death due to lack of fresh supply of ATP. It
helps to identify time science death.

 E.D.T.A. (Ethylene Diamine tetra acetic acid) injected inside muscle combined with Ca+ and stops
contraction.

 Muscle and nerve excitability is reduced by K+.

 During muscle contraction chemical energy changed into mechanical energy.

 Over stretching of ligament is called sprain.

 PROPERTIES OF MUSCLES

Phosphogens
These are highly energy N-based compounds which are found in
the muscles. In the invertebrates arginine phosphate and in the
vertebrate creatine phosphate act as a phosphogens. These
compounds provide energy during contraction.
Muscle contraction
Creatine phosphate + ADP Creatine + ATP
at rest stage
 GOLDEN KEY POINTS
Cori cycle

 Lactic acid accumulated in muscles during sustained contraction.

 Formed lactic acid transported in blood as blood lactate to liver where it
changes into liver glycogen which is changed in to glucose.

GLYCONEOGENASIS
Liver glycogen Muscle glycogen

ATP ATP
 DISORDERS
Myasthenia gravis:
Auto immune disorder affecting neuromuscular junction leading to
fatigue, weakening and paralysis of skeletal muscle.
Tetany:
Rapid spasms (wild contractions) in muscle due to low Ca++ in
body fluid.
Tetany
(Spasm - a sudden involuntary muscular contraction)

Muscular dystrophy:
Progressive degeneration of skeletal muscle mostly due to genetic
dystrophin disorder.
 ALL THE BEST

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