University of Manchester

School of Electrical and Electronic

Engineering

EEEN 10024 – Circuit Analysis

Course Overview
&
Basics of Circuit Analysis

2018-2019

Dr Ognjen Marjanovic

EEEN10024 Circuit Analysis – Course Overview & Basics of Circuit Analysis

School of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, University of Manchester

Contents
1. Course Overview ...................................................................................................................... 4

1.1 Course Unit Scope ......................................................................................................................... 4

1.2 Assessment and Feedback ............................................................................................................ 5

1.3 Reading List ................................................................................................................................... 6

1.4 Contact Details .............................................................................................................................. 6

2. Circuit Variables and Elements.................................................................................................. 7

2.1 Circuit Variables ............................................................................................................................ 7

2.1.1 Voltage ................................................................................................................................... 7

2.1.2 Current ................................................................................................................................... 7

2.1.3 Power and Energy .................................................................................................................. 8

2.2 Circuit Elements .......................................................................................................................... 10

2.2.1 Ideal Basic Circuit Element ................................................................................................... 10

2.2.2 Sign Convention ................................................................................................................... 10

2.2.3 Sign of Power ....................................................................................................................... 12

2.2.4 Power Balance...................................................................................................................... 16

2.2.5 Electrical Sources ................................................................................................................. 17

2.3 Electrical Resistance .................................................................................................................... 25

2.3.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 25

2.3.2 Ohm’s law ............................................................................................................................ 25

2.3.3 Conductance ........................................................................................................................ 27

2.3.4 Power Calculation for a Resistor .......................................................................................... 28

2.3.5 Voltage Polarity of a Resistor ............................................................................................... 30

3. Kirchoff’s Laws ....................................................................................................................... 31

3.1 Preliminaries and Motivation ..................................................................................................... 31

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EEEN10024 Circuit Analysis – Course Overview & Basics of Circuit Analysis

School of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, University of Manchester

 3.2 Kirchoff’s Current Law................................................................................................................. 33

3.3 Kirchoff’s Voltage Law................................................................................................................. 35

4. Resistive Networks ................................................................................................................. 43

4.1 Resistors in Series ....................................................................................................................... 43

4.2 Resistors in Parallel ..................................................................................................................... 45

4.3 Voltage and Current Divider Rules .............................................................................................. 53

4.3.1 Voltage Divider Rule............................................................................................................. 53

4.3.2 Current Divider Rule............................................................................................................. 58

EEEN10024 Circuit Analysis – Course Overview & Basics of Circuit Analysis

School of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, University of Manchester

1. Course Overview
1.1 Course Unit Scope

Electrical Quantities and Circuit Variables: charge, current, voltage, resistance, power energy and
unit.

Circuit Modelling: sources, circuit elements, Ohm's Law, Kirchhoff's Laws.

Circuit Reduction Techniques: series, parallel, voltage divider, current divider, voltage and current
source conversions.

Circuit Analysis Techniques: mesh current analysis, node voltage analysis.

Circuit Theorems: maximum power transfer, superposition.

Circuit Theorems: Thevenin and Norton.

Energy Storage Circuit Elements: characteristics of inductance and capacitance.

Transients: natural response of RL, natural response of RC, time constants.

Transients: forced response of RL and RC, natural response of RLC.

Complex Number Theory: complex plane, polar forms, conversions from polar to rectangular and
vice versa.

AC Circuits: sinusoidal waveforms, phase, R.M.S average values.

AC Circuits: phasors, impedance, Kirchoff's laws.

AC Circuits: circuit analysis using node voltages, loop currents and branch currents.

AC Circuits: complex power calculations, real/reactive power calculations

EEEN10024 Circuit Analysis – Course Overview & Basics of Circuit Analysis

School of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, University of Manchester

1.2 Assessment and Feedback

 Unseen Written Examination (70% of the unit assessment)

o Duration: 2 hours
o Calculators are permitted

 Laboratory –Based Coursework (12% of the unit assessment)

o 2 laboratory sessions (DC circuits, AC circuits)
o Laboratory duration: 3 hours each (6 hours in total)
o Assessed via in-lab submission (DC circuits) and the online submission in
Blackboard (AC circuits)
o Laboratory assignments are weighted 6% each (12% in total)

 Coursework Assignment (8% of the unit assessment)

o Private study assessment
o Submission in Blackboard using Excel-based form

 Tutorials (10% of the unit assessment)

o 2 tutorial questions per week
o Tutorials form 10% of the unit assessment

EEEN10024 Circuit Analysis – Course Overview & Basics of Circuit Analysis

School of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, University of Manchester

1.3 Reading List

There are many books that cover the material of this course unit.

Recommended books are given as follows (several copies are available in the Library):

 "Electric Circuits" by Nilsson and Riedel

 “Introduction to Electric Circuits” by Dorf and Svoboda

Also, you may find the following book useful for general topics in electrical and electronic
engineering:

 “Electrical Technology” by Hughes

Please note that you DO NOT have to get the latest edition of these books. Circuit analysis theory has
not changed significantly in the last 50 years.

1.4 Contact Details

Lecturer: Dr Ognjen Marjanovic

Office: Sackville Street Building, Floor E, Room E1a

E-Mail: [email protected]

EEEN10024 Circuit Analysis – Course Overview & Basics of Circuit Analysis

School of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, University of Manchester

2. Circuit Variables and Elements
2.1 Circuit Variables
The basic variables in an electrical circuit are current and voltage. These variables describe,
respectively, the flow of charge through the elements of a circuit and the energy required to cause
charge to flow.

2.1.1 Voltage
Energy is expanded when positive or negative charges are separated. The voltage is the rate of change
in energy per unit of charge resulting from this separation:

dE
V  dE  V  dQ
dQ
where:

 V is the voltage in Volts (V),

 E is the energy in Joules (J),

 Q is the charge in Coulombs (C).

2.1.2 Current
The current measures the rate of charge flow:

dQ
I  dQ  I  dt
dt
where:

 I is the current in Amperes or Amps (A),

 Q is the charge in Coulombs (C),

 t is the time in seconds (s).

EEEN10024 Circuit Analysis – Course Overview & Basics of Circuit Analysis

School of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, University of Manchester

Example 2.1

Electric charge equal to 3 Coulombs flows through a given point in a circuit every 2 seconds.
Calculate the current flowing through that point in the circuit.

Answer:

1.5 A

Example 2.2

There is a voltage drop of 10 Volts from point a to point b in a given circuit. How much energy is
required to move 4 C of positive electric charge from point b to point a?

Answer:

40 J

2.1.3 Power and Energy

Power is the rate at which energy is expanded or absorbed:

dE
P  dE  P  dt
dt
where:

 P is the power in Watts (W),

 E is the energy in Joules (J),

 t is the time in seconds (s).

Now we can derive the equation for power in the context of electrical systems as follows:

dE dE dQ
P  
dt dQ dt

EEEN10024 Circuit Analysis – Course Overview & Basics of Circuit Analysis

School of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, University of Manchester

We can use definitions of voltage and current given in sections 2.1.1 and 2.1.2, respectively, in order
to formulate power in terms of these circuit variables:

dE dQ
P   P  VI
dQ dt
Note that this equation for power applies to any circuit element. So it applies equally to resistors,
inductors, capacitors, motors, generators, batteries etc.

Example 2.3

Voltage across a circuit element is equal to 25V and the current flowing through the circuit element is
equal to 4A. What is the power associated with this circuit element?

Answer:

P  25V  4A  100W

EEEN10024 Circuit Analysis – Course Overview & Basics of Circuit Analysis

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2.2 Circuit Elements

2.2.1 Ideal Basic Circuit Element

An ideal basic circuit element is characterised by the following three properties:

1. It has only two terminals, which are points of connection to other circuit components

2. It is mathematically described in terms of voltage and/or current

3. It cannot be divided into other elements

This circuit element is not physically realisable. That is the reason why we call it ideal. Nevertheless,
it allows us to build fairly simply models of the real-world circuits that produce reasonably accurate
results. Also, it is basic because it cannot be divided into other elements (property 3 above).

The symbol used for ideal basic circuit element is given as follows:

Note that the polarity for the voltage is given by the positive and negative sign placed next to the two
terminals of an ideal basic circuit element. Also, the reference direction for the current is shown by
the arrow placed on top of the corresponding conductor through which that current flows.

2.2.2 Sign Convention

Probably one of the most confusing concepts in the circuit analysis theory is the fact that the
assignments of the reference polarity for voltage and the reference direction for current are entirely
arbitrary. However, once you have decided a particular assignment convention for voltage polarity
and current direction you must then stick to it.

We will use the so-called “passive sign convention” which can be stated as follows:

When the reference current direction for an element is in the same direction as the voltage
drop, use a positive sign in any expression relating the voltage and the current.

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EEEN10024 Circuit Analysis – Course Overview & Basics of Circuit Analysis

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Example 2.4

Observe the following ideal basic circuit element:

Following the passive sign convention (described on previous page), the current is indicated to ‘flow
into’ the positive terminal of the circuit element and ‘flow out’ of the negative terminal of the circuit
element. Because the reference direction of current is in the same direction as the voltage drop we
should use positive sign in any expression which relates this voltage and this current:

PX  ()VX  I X
Example 2.5

Observe now the following ideal basic circuit element:

In this particular example reference direction of the current is opposite to the direction of the voltage
drop, i.e. it is in direction of voltage rise. Therefore, we should use negative sign in any expression
which relates this voltage and this current:

PX  ()VX  I X

Trick

Note the voltage polarity sign of the terminal of the circuit element into which the reference current
flows. That is the sign you should use in any expression which relates this voltage and this current.

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EEEN10024 Circuit Analysis – Course Overview & Basics of Circuit Analysis

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2.2.3 Sign of Power
In many cases it is rather obvious whether a given circuit element is generating power or consuming it.
For example, if we have a circuit that is comprised of a single voltage source and many resistors then
we know that all of the resistors consume power (resistors always consume power) and the single
voltage source in that circuit is producing the electric power. However, if there are several voltage
sources and/or current sources in a circuit then it may be the case that some of these are actually
consuming power, e.g. battery charging or electric machine working as motor, whilst the other
sources are producing power, e.g. discharging battery or electric machine working as a generator. This
information will not be available, however, until we have solved the circuit and found out the correct
voltage polarity as well as the positive direction of the electric currents in that circuit.

In order to determine whether a given circuit element is producing or consuming electric power we
need to apply passive sign convention and be very mindful of the sign. If the calculated power is
positive then that circuit element is consuming electric power. If the power is negative, then the
circuit element is producing power.

Physical interpretation of the passive sign convention is that as the positive charge is ‘moving’ from
higher to lower voltage it is loosing energy. Similarly, the positive charge is gaining/storing energy as
it is ‘moving’ from lower to higher voltage level. Analogous to this example is a ball that when falling
from higher to lower altitude it is losing its potential energy. Conversely, when raised from lower to
higher altitude potential energy of the ball is increased.

Example 2.6

Determine the power associated with the following circuit element:

Answer:

Note that the positive current is flowing into the negative terminal of the circuit element. Therefore:

PX  ()VX  I X  ()7V  3A  21W

Now we note that the power is negative, which means that this circuit element is producing 21 Watts
of electric power.
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EEEN10024 Circuit Analysis – Course Overview & Basics of Circuit Analysis

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Example 2.7

Determine the power associated with the following circuit element:

Answer:

Note that the negative current is flowing into the negative terminal of the circuit element. We could
now do calculation of the power, leaving the negative numerical value of current with the direction as
indicated above. BUT we could also reverse its direction so that it appears as though positive current
flows into the positive terminal of the voltage source. So we can re-draw the above diagram as
follows:

Therefore:

PX  ()VX  I X  ()6V  4mA  24mW

This time the power is positive, which means that this circuit element is consuming 24 miliWatts of
electric power.

Note that you would get identical result if you left negative current flowing into negative terminal of
the circuit element (you would still get positive power because multiplication of two negative
numbers results in a positive number).

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EEEN10024 Circuit Analysis – Course Overview & Basics of Circuit Analysis

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Example 2.8

Determine the power associated with the following circuit element:

Answer:

In this case the positive current is flowing into the positive terminal of the circuit element. Therefore:

PX  ()VX  I X  ()8V  7A  56W

Once again the power is positive, which indicates that this circuit element is consuming 56 Watts of
electric power.

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EEEN10024 Circuit Analysis – Course Overview & Basics of Circuit Analysis

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Example 2.9

Determine the power associated with the following circuit element.

Answer:

In this case the negative current is flowing into the positive terminal of the circuit element. Now we
have an option of leaving the current with negative numerical value and the direction as indicated in
diagram above. So we calculate the power by prefixing it with the positive sign because the current is
entering positive terminal of the circuit element but we enter the numerical value of current as
negative quantity:

PX  ()VX  I X  ()3mV  5mA  15W

Now the power is negative, which indicates that this circuit element is producing 15 microWatts of
electric power.

Alternatively, we can reverse the direction of current and, therefore, change the sign of its numerical
value (as we did in Example 2.7). So then we would have positive current flowing into the negative
terminal of the voltage source. So we can re-draw the above diagram as follows:

Therefore:

PX  ()VX  I X  ()3mV  5mA  15W

Please do note that the result remains the same regardless of whether we change direction of current in
order to ensure that it has positive numerical value.

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2.2.4 Power Balance

Very important property of electric circuits is that the total power generated at any point in time must
equal the total power consumed. Mathematically, this can be expressed as follows:

NS NL

P  P
k 1
k
j1
j 0

for any circuit that has NS circuit elements producing power and NL elements consuming power. Note
that in this mathematical expression generated power is assumed to have the sign opposite to that of
the power consumed. In fact, in this course unit we will allocate negative sign to the generated power
and positive sign to dissipated/consumed power.

Example 2.10

Diagram below shows simplified model of the electrical power interconnection between the United
Kingdom and France represented using two circuit elements directly connected to each other. For this
circuit, calculate the power associated with each circuit element and clearly specify which one is
producing and which one is consuming.

Answer:

Power associated with ‘France’ is given by:

PFRA  ()400 kV  2 kA  800 MW

Notice the negative sign because the reference current is entering negative terminal of the ‘France’
circuit element.
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EEEN10024 Circuit Analysis – Course Overview & Basics of Circuit Analysis

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Power associated with the ‘United Kingdom’ circuit element is given by:

PUK  ()400 kV  2 kA  800 MW

Notice the positive sign because the reference current enters positive terminal of the ‘United
Kingdom’ circuit element.

Therefore France is producing 800 MW of power whilst the United Kingdom is consuming 800 MW
of power:

PUK  PFRA  800 MW  800 MW  0 MW

2.2.5 Electrical Sources

Electrical source is a device that can convert non-electrical energy into electrical energy and vice-
versa. Examples of electrical sources include a battery (converting chemical energy to/from electrical
energy) and dynamo (converting mechanical energy to/from electrical energy).

Interesting feature of many electrical sources that is heavily utilised in real-world engineering
applications is that they are reversible. In other words, the same device can work as electrical
generator (producing electricity) and also as consumer of electrical energy. For example, a battery can
supply electrical power to a circuit to which it is connected but it can also be charged up during which
time it appears as electrical load. The same is true with electrical machines. BUT this is not the
feature of all electrical sources.

In this course unit we will deal with two models of electrical sources, which are introduced in the
following two sub-sections.

Ideal Voltage Source

An ideal voltage source is a circuit element that maintains a prescribed voltage across its terminals
regardless of the current flowing in those terminals.

The voltage prescribed across the voltage source’s terminals may be independent (constant) or it may
be dependent on some other voltage or current in a given circuit. In this course unit we will deal with
independent sources but it is important for you to be aware of the dependent source type because it is
used to model various electrical and electronic devices (such as analogue amplifiers).

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Symbols for the independent and dependent voltage sources are given as follows:

Independent Dependent

Voltage Source Voltage Source

Note that the voltage polarity of a voltage source is described by the very symbol used to represent it
in a circuit.

In the case of dependent voltage sources there is a further sub-division that specifies the type of
variable which preconditions the prescribed voltage of the dependent voltage source. Namely, there
are voltage-controlled voltage sources and current-controlled voltage sources. As the names suggests,
voltage-controlled voltage sources have their prescribed voltage dependent on a voltage across some
other component of a given circuit. On the other hand, current-controlled voltage sources have their
prescribed voltage dependent on a current in some other element in a given circuit.

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Ideal Current Source

An ideal current source is a circuit element that maintains a prescribed current through its terminals
regardless of the voltage across those terminals.

Similarly to voltage sources, we can differentiate between independent current sources and dependent
current sources. In this course unit we will deal with independent current sources whose prescribed
current is given as constant and independent of any other variable in a given circuit.

Symbols for the independent and dependent current sources are given as follows:

Independent Dependent

Current Source Current Source

Note that the direction of current associated with a current source is specified by the direction of the
arrow inside the very symbol representing that current source.

Similarly to dependent voltage sources, dependent current sources also have two possible sub-types,
which are voltage-controlled current source and current-controlled current source. In the case of
current-controlled current source the prescribed current is dependent on a current in some other
component of a given circuit. In the case of voltage-controlled current source the prescribed current is
dependent on a voltage across some other component of a given circuit.

Comment on Ideal Sources

Note that in real-life there are no ideal voltage or current sources. However, use of such ideal circuit
elements facilitates modelling of real-world devices and systems which are often represented using a
combination of ideal voltage/current sources and other basic circuit elements (e.g. resistors).

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EEEN10024 Circuit Analysis – Course Overview & Basics of Circuit Analysis

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Comment on Polarity/Direction

As mentioned in previous sub-sections, the issue of assigning voltage polarity of a voltage source is
uniquely determined by definition as is the direction of current in the case of a current source. More
specifically, the very symbols used to represent voltage sources and current sources indicate voltage
polarity and current direction, respectively.

However, the direction of current in the case of voltage source and the polarity of voltage across a
current source are not necessarily known in advance (particularly in the cases where there are several
electrical sources). So initially we make a guess for these and then solve a circuit using techniques
that we will cover on this course. Once we have solved a circuit we may find that some of these
quantities have negative values. We may then wish to reverse their direction/polarity in order to get
positive values of current/voltage. But such reversal is not necessary as indicated in examples 2.7 and
2.9 on pages 13 and 15 where it was shown that the sign of power remains the same regardless of
whether we perform this change of polarity/direction in order to obtain positive values for
voltage/current.

Reversal of polarity/direction is illustrated in the following example.

Example 2.11

Change the polarities of voltages and directions of currents in order to render their numerical values
positive for the circuit shown in diagram below.

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Answer:

In this example there are two quantities with negative values. Firstly, one of the current sources has
negative value so its current direction can be reversed:

Also, the voltage source has negative value of voltage so its polarity can be reversed:

Active and Passive Circuit Elements

An active circuit element models a device capable of generating electrical energy. Examples include
battery and dynamo. On the other hand, passive circuit elements model those devices that cannot
generate electrical energy. Examples of passive devices include resistors, inductors and capacitors, all
of which will be covered in this course unit.

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Example 2.12

In this example we will look at whether various combinations of voltage and current sources are valid
or not.

The first circuit that we will look at consists of two independent voltage sources:

Note that both voltage sources have the same voltage values and polarities across them, namely 7V.
Therefore, this is valid interconnection of voltage sources.

In the next circuit we have a very similar situation to the previous one. However, this time the polarity
of one of the voltage sources is reversed:

Now we have inconsistent values of voltage between points A and B that depend on which voltage
source we consider. Therefore this is invalid interconnection of voltage sources

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Next circuit is comprised of two current sources:

Note that both current sources have the same prescribed current and therefore this is valid
interconnection.

In the next circuit we again have two current sources:

However, this time the values of the currents flowing through each current source are not consistent
with each other. Therefore, this is invalid interconnection.

The final circuit in this example consists of a single voltage source and a single current source:

Note that this is valid interconnection because voltage source specifies the voltage between terminals
A and B regardless of the current flowing through them whilst the current source specifies the current
flowing through terminals A and B regardless of the voltage between them.

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EEEN10024 Circuit Analysis – Course Overview & Basics of Circuit Analysis

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Example 2.13

Consider the following circuit and calculate the power associated with each of the circuit elements:

Answer:

Let us firstly calculate the power associated with the voltage source. Note that the reference current,
direction of which is determined by the arrow inside the current source symbol, is entering voltage
source through the positive terminal. Therefore the sign for the power associated with the voltage
source will be positive:

P4V  ()4 V  3 A  ()12 W

Because the power associated with the voltage source is positive that means the voltage source is
consuming power.

Now we know that the total power dissipated in a given circuit must equal the total power generated.
In this particular circuit we only have two elements of which one is dissipating 12 Watts of electrical
power. Therefore the power associated with the current source must equal:

P3A  P4 V  ()12 W

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2.3 Electrical Resistance

2.3.1 Introduction
Electrical resistance is the capacity of a material to impede the flow of electric charges or current. It
arises as a result of inevitable collisions between moving electrons and other particles. Such collisions
ultimately result in heat generation and whilst in some applications resistance may be beneficial (e.g.
heaters and toasters) there are many others where it is considered a nuisance (e.g. energy losses in
electrical power transmission lines, heat generation in microprocessors and electrical machines).

Resistance is dependent on a given material. Metals such as copper and aluminium have small values
of resistance, making them good choices for electric conductors. On the other hand the resistance of
rubber or paper is very high making them good electric insulators.

The circuit element used to model resistive behaviour is called a resistor. Its circuit symbol is given as
follows:

Resistor is characterised by the value of resistance and the symbol used for resistor is a capital letter R.

2.3.2 Ohm’s law

Relationship between the voltage across a resistor and the current flowing through it is determined by
the so-called Ohm’s law, named after German physicist Georg Simon Ohm who established its
validity early in the 19th century. Ohm’s Law is one of few fundamental laws that we will use
extensively in this course unit. Thankfully, it is very easy to remember and is formulated using a
single algebraic relationship:

VR VR
VR  I R  R  R  IR 
IR R
where:

 VR is the voltage across a resistor,

 IR is the current flowing through a resistor,

 R is the value of the resistor’s resistance measured in Ohms (Ω).

Note the simplicity of this relationship. In words, voltage across the resistor is directly proportional to
the current flowing through a resistor and the constant of their proportionality is given by the
resistance.
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The relationship between the voltage and the current described by the Ohm’s Law can be graphically
represented as follows:

In this particular example shown above the resistance is equal to 5 Ω.

Example 2.14

Use the values in the table below to construct a circuit model for the device consisting of a single
resistor. What is the value of its resistance?

Voltage Current (A)

(mV)

12 3

15 3.75

17 4.25

18 4.5
Answer:

4 mΩ

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Example 2.15

Draw the graph that illustrates relationship between the voltage across the 20 Ω resistor and the
current flowing through that 20 Ω resistor.

Answer:

2.3.3 Conductance
The reciprocal of the resistance is referred to as conductance. It is symbolised by the letter G and is
measured in Siemens (S). The relationship between resistance and conductance is simply given by the
following formula:

1
G
R

So, for example, an 8Ω resistor has a conductance value of 0.125 S.

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2.3.4 Power Calculation for a Resistor
As mentioned in section 2.1.3 the power calculation for any circuit element is given by:

P  VI
In the case of a resistor we can utilise Ohm’s Law in order to express power either in terms of current
and resistance:

PR  VR  I R  I R  R   I R  PR  I 2R  R

Or we can express power in terms of voltage and resistance:

V VR2
PR  VR  I R  VR  R  PR 
R R

Regardless of the formula that you use it is extremely important to remember that the power
associated with a resistor is ALWAYS POSITIVE indicating that a resistor ALWAYS CONSUMES
POWER.

Example 2.16

Consider a circuit given below:

For this circuit calculate the current flowing through the resistor and the power dissipated in the
resistor.

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Answer:

We can find the current flowing through this resistor by applying Ohm’s Law:

VR 5V
IR    0.25 A
R 20 
We can find power dissipated in this resistor using any of the following three formulas:

PR  VR  I R  5 V  0.25 A  1.25 W

VR2 5 V 
2
PR    1.25 W
R 20 

PR  I 2R  R  0.25 A  20   1.25 W
2

Example 2.17

Consider a circuit given below:

For this circuit calculate the voltage across the resistor and the power dissipated in the resistor.

Answer:

We can find the voltage across this resistor by applying Ohm’s Law:

VR  I R  R  VR  2 A  3   6 V

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We can find power dissipated in this resistor using any of the following three formulas:

PR  VR  I R  6 V  2 A  12 W

V 2 6 V 
2
PR  R   12 W
R 3

PR  I 2R  R  2 A  3   12 W
2

2.3.5 Voltage Polarity of a Resistor

Let us recap the issue surrounding the voltage polarity in the cases of voltage sources and current
sources. In the case of a voltage source the voltage polarity is specified by the very symbol used to
describe that circuit element. On the other hand, in the case of a current source the voltage polarity is
unknown and has to be guessed first before the circuit is solved. Once the circuit is solved then the
polarity may be changed.

In the case of a resistor the voltage polarity is always and uniquely determined by the direction of
positive current flowing through that resistor. This is because resistors always dissipate power and,
therefore, the positive current ALWAYS enters positive terminal of a resistor. However, unless there
is a single voltage/current source present in a circuit, it is not generally clear which way does the
current flow through a given resistor. Therefore, we initially make a guess for the current direction
and then allocate voltage polarity for each resistor by assuming that the current is positive and,
therefore, it ALWAYS enters positive terminal of a resistor. If, once we solve the circuit, the current
turns out to be negative then we need to reverse the polarity of the voltage across that resistor.

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3. Kirchoff’s Laws
In this section we will be covering two extremely important laws that are the fundamental building
blocks of most if not all subsequent circuit analysis techniques. These laws are Kirchoff’s Current
Law (KCL) and Kirchoff’s Voltage Law (KVL).

However, before we introduce these two laws we will provide some preliminary definitions and
motivating discussion in the following sub-section.

3.1 Preliminaries and Motivation

This course unit is primarily involved with the techniques used to solve a given electric circuit. By
solving a given circuit we mean:

 calculating the voltage across every element in a given circuit

 calculating the current flowing in every element

However, using the knowledge that we have acquired so far (including Ohm’s law) we are generally
unable to solve any circuit that is comprised of more than one resistor and/or more than one voltage
source and/or more than one current source. In general, for such circuits we have too many unknown
variables and not enough equations relating them. Therefore, unless we can formulate further
equations relating such variables we will end up with infinite number of possible solutions to a given
circuit analysis problem.

Let us look at the following example:

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RECAP: please note the polarity of voltages across each of the resistors. As explained on page
30 (section 2.3.5), the voltage polarity of the resistor is uniquely determined by the
direction of the positive current that flows through that resistor. In this particular
example we can observe that each current, which is assumed initially to have positive
value, enters positive terminal of each corresponding resistor and exits its negative
terminal.

This circuit consists of one independent voltage source and 3 resistors. Also note that we have 4
nodes, which are labelled A, B, C and D.

We will cover nodes in more detail later on in the course but for now you may assume that nodes are
the points that interconnect two or more circuit elements.

So, assuming that we are given resistance values for each of the resistors and the source voltage, there
are 7 circuit variables whose values we need to find out in order to solve the circuit. These variables
are:

 currents IS, IR1, IR2 and IR3;

 voltages VR1, VR2 and VR3.

However, in this particular example we only have 3 equations given by the Ohm’s Law:

VR1  I R1  R1

VR 2  I R 2  R 2

VR 3  I R 3  R 3

Therefore, we have more unknows than the equations, which means that we cannot find unique values
of those 7 circuit variables listed above. In order to solve the circuit we require additional 4 equations
relating circuit variables. This is where the introduction of new relationships that result from
Kirchoff’s Current Law and Kirchoff’s Voltage Law allows us to specify additional equations relating
known and unknown circuit variables in order to solve the circuit.

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3.2 Kirchoff’s Current Law

Kirchoff’s Current Law is given as follows:

The algebraic sum of all the currents entering any node in a circuit is equal to zero.

Mathematically, this can be expressed as:

I
k 1
k  0A

for a node that connects N different circuit branches together.

In this description of the KCL it is assumed that all the currents have their directions given such that
they enter a node and the sign of their numerical values indicates whether the current is flowing in or
out of the node. So if the currents entering the node are given positive sign then the currents exiting
the node are given negative sign, or vice versa.

Alternative and equivalent description of the Kirchoff’s Current Law puts constraint on all currents to
have positive numerical values BUT their directions are dependent on whether they are entering or
leaving the node in question:

The sum of all the currents entering any node must equal the sum of all the currents exiting that
node.

Mathematically, this alternative description of the Kirchoff’s Current Law can be formulated as:

K J

I
k 1
k  Ij
j1

for a node that has K currents entering it and J currents leaving it.

Kirchoff’s Current Law should be quite intuitive as it simply says that the inflow of charge at any
node must equal the outflow of charge at that very point:

INFLOW  OUTFLOW  INFLOW  OUTFLOW  0

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So let us look back at our example introduced in the previous sub-section:

Now we can apply Kirchoff’s Current Law to relate various currents in this circuit:

At node A:

IS  I R1  IS  I R1  0

At node B:

I R1  I R 2  I R1  I R 2  0

At node C:

IR 2  IR3  IR 2  IR3  0

At node D:

I R 3  IS  I R 3  IS  0

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Note that these four equations given above are not independent. In fact, you can deduce any one of
them from the remaining three. In general, in a circuit with N nodes you can only write N-1
independent equations using KCL.

In this particular example, we will use the first three equations:

I S  I R1  0

I R1  I R 2  0

IR 2  IR3  0

Remember that we had 7 unknowns and initially we had 3 equations. Now we can add these 3 new
equations. However, we are still missing one more equation. This equation will be obtained by
applying Kirchoff’s Voltage Law (KVL) introduced in the next section.

3.3 Kirchoff’s Voltage Law

Kirchoff’s Voltage Law is stated as follows:

The algebraic sum of all the voltage drops around any closed path in a circuit is equal to zero.

Mathematically, KVL can be formulated as follows:

V
k 1
k 0

for a closed path that contains N circuit elements, each of which has a voltage drop or rise across it.
Note that similarly to KCL, here we make a distinction between voltage rise and voltage drop using
sign convention.

In this course unit we will associate positive sign with the voltage drop and negative sign with the
voltage rise, which is following Passive Sign Convention.

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As stated on page 11 there is an easy-to-remember trick to help implement such sign convention.
Namely, put the sign for the voltage that is the same as the sign next to the terminal into which the
current flows. So let us look again at our example that is comprised of one voltage source and three
resistors:

In order to apply Kirchoff’s Voltage Law we need to ‘move’ clockwise or counter-clockwise around
the only closed loop in this circuit by picking any of the four nodes.

Let us start with node A and move clockwise. So moving clockwise from node A we first encounter
resistor R1. Because the current IR1 is flowing into the positive terminal of the resistor R1 we will
allocate positive sign for the voltage drop across the resistor R1:

 VR1

Now we move via node B and encounter second resistor, R2. Once again we observe the sign next to
the terminal into which IR2 flows and because this is positive terminal we again allocate positive sign
for the voltage drop across the resistor R2. So now our equation is expanded as follows:

 VR1  VR 2

We continue via node C and come across the third resistor, namely R3. Once again, we observe the
sign of the terminal into which the corresponding current flows. Once again, this is positive sign and
therefore the equation relating the voltages around the closed path is expanded as follows:

 VR1  VR 2  VR 3
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Finally, we need to complete the closed path by returning to node A via voltage source. Now here we
observe that the current IS actually enters negative terminal of the voltage source. Therefore, we need
to allocate negative sign to VS:

 VR1  VR 2  VR 3  VS  0

So now we have additional equation that relates voltages around the only closed path in the circuit. As
a result, we do now have 7 equations with 7 unknowns allowing us to solve the circuit.

Example 3.1

Apply KCL in order to determine the current IX in the circuit below:

Answer:

We can firstly allocate two nodes to this circuit diagram and then apply KCL at either of the two
nodes:

Now we can apply KCL at node A:

INFLOW  OUTFLOW  0  3A  I X  0  I X  3A

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Alternatively, we can apply KCL at node B:

INFLOW  OUTFLOW  0  I X  3A  0  I X  3A

Example 3.2

Apply KCL in order to determine the current IX in the circuit below:

Answer:

So now we can apply KCL at node A:

INFLOW  OUTFLOW  0  6A  1A  I X   0  I X  5A

Alternatively, we can apply it at node B:

INFLOW  OUTFLOW  0  I X  1A  6A  0  I X  5A

Notice that we obtain the same answer regardless of whether we apply Kirchoff’s Current Law at
node A or node B.

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Example 3.3

Apply KVL in order to determine the voltage VX in the circuit below:

Answer:

We can move around this circuit in either clockwise or counter-clockwise direction. So let us move in
clockwise direction starting with the negative terminal of the 12 V voltage source. The resulting KVL
equation is given as follows:

 12V  VX  0  VX  12V
Alternatively, we could move in counter-clockwise direction, starting for example with the positive
terminal of the 12 V voltage source. The resulting KVL equation would then be as follows:

12V  VX  0  VX  12V

Example 3.4

Apply KVL in order to determine the voltage VX in the circuit below:

Answer:

So we will move around the loop and add voltages as we encounter them. BUT we need to be careful
about the sign and use the trick mentioned before: put the sign that is the same as the polarity of the
first terminal you encounter.
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So let us move clockwise starting with positive terminal of the 8V voltage source. The resulting KVL
equation is given as:

8V  2V  VX  0  VX  10V
Alternatively, we can move counter-clockwise starting, for example, with the negative terminal of the
2V voltage source:

 2V  8V  VX  0  VX  10V
Notice that we will obtain the same answer regardless of whether we move clockwise or counter-
clockwise around the circuit.

Example 3.5

Apply KVL in order to determine the voltage across the 1A current source in the circuit shown below:

Answer:

Now here we have a slight complication in that we are not provided with the voltage polarity of the
current source. So here we need to initially ‘guess’ the polarity of the current source. Then we will
find the actual voltage, denoted as VX, and if it turns out to be negative using the polarity that we have
initially set then we know that we could reverse the polarity in order to get positive numerical value
for that voltage.

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So let us guess the polarity of the voltage across the current source as follows:

Now we can go in the clockwise direction starting with the positive terminal of the current source.
Resulting KVL equation is given as follows:

 VX  6V  0  VX  6V
Alternatively, we could have gone counter-clockwise and starting, for example, at the positive
terminal of the 6V voltage source. Then the KVL equation would be given as follows:

 6V  VX  0  VX  6V
In either case we have got the correct result.

Now let us assume that we have guessed voltage polarity of the current source differently and let us
designate it as VY in order to differentiate it from VX:

Once again we can start at any point in the circuit and move either clockwise or counter-clockwise. So
let us start at the negative terminal of the current source and move clockwise. Then the KVL equation
will be given as follows:

 VY  6V  0  VY  6V

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Alternatively, we could move counter-clockwise starting at, for example, positive terminal of the 6V
voltage source. Resulting KVL equation would then be given as follows:

6V  VY  0  VY  6V

So we would get identical result which is giving us negative voltage VY. This negative voltage
indicates that we did not assign polarity of VY correctly, which is absolutely fine and can easily
happen since we made a guess initially without really knowing what its true polarity might be. So now
we can reverse the polarity and get positive voltage:

Note that this reversal is not necessary and that all the results would remain the same regardless of
whether you reverse the polarity in order to get positive voltage or not.

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4. Resistive Networks
In this section we will focus on the circuits that are comprised of a single voltage source or a single
current source and a number of resistors connected using various topologies.

4.1 Resistors in Series

The first type of resistor network covered in this section which is arguably the simplest one is the so-
called series-connected resistive network. Example of such network we have already looked at in
sections 3.1-3.3 and we re-draw it here:

Two circuit elements are connected in series if they are the only two circuit elements that are
connected to each other via a single node. For example, in diagram above, the voltage source and the
resistor R1 are the only two circuit elements connected to each other using node A.

The key characteristic of the circuit elements connected in series is that the same current flows
through each of them. So in this particular example:

IS  I R1  I R 2  I R 3

Note that the same current will flow through ANY circuit elements connected in series (voltage
sources, current sources, resistors, inductors, capacitors).

As a result of this property, the total resistance of the resistors connected in series can be easily
obtained by simply adding their individual resistances. In the case of the circuit shown above this
results in:

R TOTAL  R1  R 2  R 3

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In general, the mathematical formula for N resistors connected in series is:

N
R TOTAL   R k
k 1

Note that the total resistance of the series-connected resistive network is always larger than the largest
resistor in the series connection.

So now we can re-draw the circuit, replacing three resistors with a single one that has resistance equal
to the sum of the three individual resistors:

Observing the circuit diagram above it is now quite straight forward to calculate the current flowing in
this circuit using the Ohm’s Law:

VS
IS 
R TOTAL

Note that by combining resistors we have lost most of the information regarding individual resistors
such as the voltage drops across each of them although we do know the current flowing through each
of them (which is the same as the source current IS calculated above).

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4.2 Resistors in Parallel
Alternative to series-connected resistive network is the parallel-connected resistive network. Example
of such network that is comprised of just two resistors connected to voltage source is shown below:

Any two or more circuit elements are connected in parallel if they are connected to the same pair of
nodes. One key characteristic of the circuit elements connected in parallel is that they have the same
voltage applied across their terminals.

So in the example shown above we can clearly observe that each of the three circuit elements (voltage
source as well as the two resistors) is connected to the same pair of nodes (namely nodes A and B).
Therefore the three circuit elements are connected in parallel and, as a result, the voltage applied
across the voltage source and across the resistor R1 and across the resistor R2 is the same, namely VS.

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Now let us calculate the total resistance of the two resistors connected in parallel. We will use the
property that the circuit elements connected in parallel have the same voltage applied across them.
But first we will label the individual currents in the circuit diagram:

So now we can express each of the two resistor currents as follows:

VS
I R1 
R1

VS
IR 2 
R2

We also know, using Kirchoff’s Current Law, that:

I S  I R1  I R 2

Finally, we define total resistance of the parallel-connected network, using Ohm’s Law, as:

VS
R TOTAL 
IS

Therefore:

VS VS VS
R TOTAL   
IS I R1  I R 2 VS VS

R1 R 2

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Now we can divide both the numerator and the denominator by the source voltage VS:

VS 1
R TOTAL  
VS VS 1 1
 
R1 R 2 R1 R 2

In general, for N resistors connected in parallel the mathematical formula is:

1
R TOTAL  N
1
R
k 1 k

Note that the total resistance is always smaller than the smallest resistor in the parallel connection.

It is clear that the formula for calculating total resistance of the parallel connection is more
complicated than that of the series connection. However, if one was to use conductance instead of
resistance then the formula would simplify considerably:

N
G TOTAL   G k
k 1

where:

1
Gk 
Rk

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We will often find examples where we have only two resistors connected in parallel. In these
circumstances the total equivalent resistance can be calculated using simplified formula:

1 1 R1  R 2
R 1 // R 2    R 1 // R 2 
1 1 R1  R 2 R1  R 2

R1 R 2 R1  R 2

Note that we used symbol “//” to denote “in parallel with”.

Please take special note that this formula ONLY applies if we have 2 resistors in parallel. So do not
try it blindly on any parallel combination!

Another special case is if two resistors connected in parallel have the same values of the resistance,
denoted as R:

1 1 R
R // R    R // R 
1 1 2 2

R R R

In fact, if there are N resistors with identical resistance, denoted as R, connected in parallel then the
total resistance is equal to:

1 1 R
R TOTAL  N
  R
//
R// ...
//R

1 N
R N times N
k 1 R

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Example 4.1

Consider the resistive network shown below:

Determine the ratio between R1 and R2 such that the total resistance of this network is equal to 20%
of the resistance R1.

Answer:

The first task is to derive general formula for the two resistors connected in parallel and with the ‘ratio
constraint’ between them given as follows:

R 2  K  R1

So in this case the total resistance is equal to:

K  R1  R1 K
R 1 // R 2  R 1 // K  R 1    R1
K  R1  R1 K  1

So in order to get the total resistance of the network equal to 20% of R1 the ratio has to satisfy the
following condition:

K 1 K 1
0.2  R 1   R1    K
K 1 5 K 1 4
So R2 has to be 4 times smaller than R1.

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Example 4.2

Calculate the total resistance of the network shown below:

Answer:

The first task is to identify any obvious series or parallel connection in this network.

We can see that the 2Ω resistor and the 4Ω resistor are connected in series and can therefore be
combined first, resulting in the following simplified circuit diagram:

Now we can see that the two remaining resistors are clearly in parallel with each other and can be
combined into one, resulting in the total resistance of the network equal to:

6  6
R TOTAL  6 // 6   3
6  6

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Example 4.3

Calculate the total resistance of the network shown below:

Answer:

Once again, we are trying to identify resistors that are obviously connected either in series or in
parallel. So we can see that the 3Ω and the 6Ω resistors are connected in series. Also, the 17Ω and the
1Ω resistors are connected in series.

Therefore, the overall network can be re-drawn as follows:

Now we can see that the 18Ω resistor is in parallel with the 9Ω resistor and so they can be combined
into the equivalent resistance:

18  9
18 // 9   6
18  9
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As a result, the network can now be re-drawn as follows:

Now we can observe that the 2Ω resistor and the 6Ω resistor are connected in series. So they can be
simply combined and the resulting network now looks as follows:

Finally, we can combine the 24Ω resistor and the 8Ω resistor into the single resistance:

24  8
24 // 8   6
24  8

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And so the original rather complicated resistive network can be reduced into the following single-
resistor circuit:

4.3 Voltage and Current Divider Rules

Using the Ohm’s Law as well as the KCL and KVL it is possible to derive some further formulas that
allow us to relatively quickly calculate either individual voltages or individual currents.

4.3.1 Voltage Divider Rule

In the case of series-connected resistive networks we can utilise the fact that the current flowing
through each of the resistors is the same and, therefore, derive the formula that allows us to directly
calculate the voltage for each individual resistor.

So let us start with an example consisting of a single voltage source and two resistors connected in
series:

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Note that we have allocated polarities of the resistor voltages according to the passive sign convention.
Since resistors always dissipate electrical energy then the positive current always flows into the
positive terminal of a resistor. Also, in this case there is only one electrical source, namely the voltage
source, which therefore has to be producing electrical power and so the positive current is flowing out
of the positive terminal of the voltage source and also flows into the negative terminal of the voltage
source.

We can use Kirchoff’s Voltage Law in order to determine the relationship between the resistor
voltages and the source voltage. Moving clock-wise around the circuit and starting at the negative
terminal of the voltage source we obtain the following expression relating the voltages of the three
circuit elements:

 VS  VR1  VR 2  0 V  VS  VR1  VR 2

Also, using Ohm’s Law we can get expression for each resistor voltage:

VR1  I  R1

VR 2  I  R 2
Now we can combine these expressions in order to get:

VR1 I  R1 VR1 R1
  
VS I  R 1  R 2  VS R1  R 2 

VR 2 I  R2 VR 2 R2
  
VS I  R 1  R 2  VS R1  R 2 

So, the ratio between individual resistances and the total resistance of the series-connected resistive
network is the same as the ratio of the individual voltages across resistors and the total voltage applied
across the overall series-connected resistive network.

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Generalisation of the Voltage Divider Rule

Let us consider a more general case where there are N resistors connected in series:

In the general case Voltage Divider Rule specifies the voltage across the kth resistor voltage, denoted
as VRk:

VRk I  Rk VRk Rk
  
VS I  R 1  R 2  R 3  ...  R N  VS R TOTAL

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Example 4.4

Consider the circuit given below:

Determine the ratio of the resistors in order to ensure that VR1 = VR2 = VR3 = VR4.

Answer:

Using Voltage Divider Rule, we know that:

VR1 R1 VR 2 R2
 
VS R1  R 2  R 3  R 4  VS R1  R 2  R 3  R 4 

VR 3 R3 VR 4 R4
 
VS R1  R 2  R 3  R 4  VS R1  R 2  R 3  R 4 

Therefore, in order to ensure that all the resistor voltages are equal to each other, it is necessary to
ensure that all the resistors are equal to each other:

R1  R 2  R 3  R 4  V1  V2  V3  V4

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Example 4.5

Consider the circuit shown below:

Determine the ratio between R1 and R2 in order to ensure that the voltage across R2 is equal to 10%
of the source voltage VS.

Answer:

Note that:

VR 2 R2

VS R 1  R 2 

Therefore:

1 R2
  R1  9  R 2
10 R 1  R 2 

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4.3.2 Current Divider Rule
In the case of parallel-connected resistive networks we can utilise the fact the voltage across each of
the resistors is the same in order to derive the formula that allows us to directly calculate the current
flowing through each individual resistor.

Our first example is given as follows:

Note that the two resistors are connected in parallel and that the voltage across R1 is equal to the
voltage across R2:

I R1  R1  I R 2  R 2
But also note that the voltage across either of the resistors is also equal to the voltage across the
current source, denoted as VS and is equal to:

VS  IS  R TOTAL  I R1  R1  I R 2  R 2

Therefore, individual resistor currents are given by:

R TOTAL R TOTAL
I R1  I S  I R 2  IS 
R1 R2

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Generalisation of the Current Divider Rule

Let us consider a more general case where there are N resistors connected in parallel:

In general, the Current Divider Rule specifies the current flowing through the kth resistor, denoted as
IRk:

R TOTAL
I Rk  IS 
Rk

Example 4.6

Calculate the current through each individual resistor for the circuit shown in the figure below:

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Answer:

The first step is to calculate the total resistance of this network:

1
R TOTAL 
1 1 1
 
6  12  4 

1
R TOTAL   2
1
2

Now we can calculate individual currents as follows:

R TOTAL
I R1  6 A   2A
6

R TOTAL
IR 2  6 A   1A
12 

R TOTAL
IR3  6 A   3A
4

Notice that the smallest current flows through the largest resistor, as expected. Similarly, largest
current flows through the smallest resistor, namely IR3. In fact the ratio of the resistances is equal to
reciprocal ratio of the currents.

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Example 4.7

Calculate the current flowing through each of the resistors in the network shown in the figure below.
Also, calculate the power associated with each circuit element:

Answer:

Our first step is to define individual currents flowing through the resistors and to provide their
directions. Please note that the directions of the currents are allocated at random at this stage although
when we only have a single electrical source the direction is somewhat obvious.

Once we solve the circuit we may find that some of the currents are negative. Then we can reverse the
direction of these negative currents in order to transform their respective values into positive ones.

Now the next step is to combine the 1.6Ω resistor, 4Ω resistor and 6Ω resistor. Note that 4Ω resistor
and 6Ω resistor are connected in parallel so their overall resistance is:

46
4 //6    2.4 
46

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Resulting circuit looks as follows:

Now we can combine 1.6Ω resistor and 2.4Ω resistor, which are clearly connected in series. So the
resulting circuit looks as follows:

Now we can find individual currents I2 and I3 using the current divider rule:

R TOTAL 16  // 4  3.2 
I 2  I1   10 A   I 2  10 A   2A
16  16  16 

R TOTAL 16  // 4  3.2 
I 3  I1   10 A   I 3  10 A  8A
4 4 4

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Note that once we calculate I2 we can then easily calculate I3 by applying Kirchoff’s Current Law:

I3  I1  I 2  10 A  2 A  8 A

Now we also need to calculate currents I4 and I5. In order to do this we need to expand the network
and focus on I3, I4 and I5:

So now using current divider rule we can calculate individual currents:

4  // 6  2.4 
I 4  I3   I4  8 A   4.8 A
4 4

4  // 4  2.4 
I5  I3   I3  8 A   3.2 A
6 6

Now that we know each of the currents we can calculate the power dissipated in each of the resistors
as follows:

P16  I 22  16   2 A  16   64 W
2

P1.6  I32  1.6   8 A  1.6   102.4 W

2

P4  I 24  4   4.8 A  4   92.16 W

2

P6  I52  6   4.8 A  4   61.44 W

2

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However, we also need to find the power associated with the current source. One method of
calculating this power is to firstly determine the voltage across the current source. This voltage is
designated as VS and we initially guess its polarity as follows:

Now we can derive KVL equation that relates VS and the voltage drop across the 16Ω resistor by
moving clockwise in the circuit loop that includes the current source and the 16Ω resistor:

 VS  I 2  16   0 V  VS  32 V

Negative sign of the voltage across the current source indicates that we did not guess the polarity
correctly. That is fine because all we need to do now is reverse that polarity as follows:

Now we can calculate the power associated with the current source. Please note that the positive
current I1 is entering negative terminal of the current source first. Therefore, the sign of the power
associated with the current source is also negative:

P10A  32 V  10 A  320 W

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Negative sign indicates that the current source is producing electrical power, which is expected
because all the other circuit elements (resistors) are dissipating power. Therefore, in order for any
current to flow in any part of this circuit the current source has to produce the amount of electrical
power that is dissipated by the resistors.

In fact the total power dissipated by the resistors must equal the power produced by the current source:

P16  P1.6  P4  P6  64 W  102.4 W  92.16 W  61.44 W  320W

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