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GENERAL THEORY OF TRANSMISSION LINES

Fig: 1.1.1 A long line, with the elements of one of the infinitesimal
sections shown.
From the Fig 1.1.1 consider an infinite length transmission line also an small
element ds which located at a distance of s from the receiving end (Z ). The
R
sending end voltage and current are 𝐸𝑆 and 𝐼𝑆 . The receiving end voltage and
current are E and I . The current and voltage at any point is E and I
R R
The voltage in the length ds is dE.
dE = I Zds
𝑑𝐸
= IZ ………(1)
𝑑𝑠

The current in the length ds is

dI = E Y ds
𝑑𝐼
= EY ....................................................................(2)
𝑑𝑠
Diff equ (1) and (2)
𝑑2 𝐸 𝑑𝐼
From equ(1)…… =Z
𝑑𝑠 2 𝑑𝑠
𝑑2 𝐼 𝑑𝐸
From equ(2)…… =Y
𝑑𝑠 2 𝑑𝑠
𝑑𝐼 𝑑𝐸
Sub the values of and in above equ
𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑠
𝑑2 𝐸
= Z EY
𝑑𝑠 2
𝑑2 𝐼
= Y IZ
𝑑𝑠 2

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𝑑2 𝐸
- Z EY = 0 (3)
𝑑𝑠 2
𝑑2 𝐼
- Y IZ = 0 (4)
𝑑𝑠 2
These are the differential equations of transmission line.
From equ(3),
𝑑2
( - Z Y) E = 0
𝑑𝑠 2
(m2 - Z Y) E = 0
(m2 - Z Y) = 0
m2 = Z Y
m=±√𝑍𝑌
The general solution can be written as E = A 𝑒 √𝑍𝑌 s + B 𝑒 −√𝑍𝑌 s
………(5) From equ(4),
𝑑2
( - Z Y) I = 0
𝑑𝑠 2
(m2 - Z Y) I = 0
(m2 - Z Y) = 0
m2 = Z Y
m=±√𝑍𝑌
The general solution can be written as
I = C 𝑒 √𝑍𝑌 s + D𝑒 −√𝑍𝑌 s ………(6)
where A, B, C, D are arbitrary constants
We need to find the values of A, B, C, D
By using the condition s=0
I = IR
E = ER
Use this condition in equ (5) and (6) From equ (5),
ER = A 𝑒 √𝑍𝑌 (0) + B 𝑒 −√𝑍𝑌 (0)
ER = A + B
From equ (6), IR = C + D …….(7)
Diff equ (5) and (6) with.r.to 's'
From equ(5)
𝑑𝐸
= A √𝑍𝑌𝑒 √𝑍𝑌 s + B (-√𝑍𝑌) 𝑒 −√𝑍𝑌 s
𝑑𝑠
[using this formula, eax = a eax ]
𝑑𝐸
= A √𝑍𝑌𝑒 √𝑍𝑌 s - B √𝑍𝑌𝑒 −√𝑍𝑌 s
𝑑𝑠
𝑑𝐸
= IZ , sub in above equ
𝑑𝑠

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IZ = A √𝑍𝑌𝑒 √𝑍𝑌 s - B √𝑍𝑌𝑒 −√𝑍𝑌 s

A √𝑍𝑌 𝑒 √𝑍𝑌 s − B √𝑍𝑌 𝑒 −√𝑍𝑌 s
I=
𝑍
𝑌 𝑌
I= A √ 𝑒 √𝑍𝑌 s - B √ 𝑒 −√𝑍𝑌 s ..........(8)
𝑍 𝑍

√𝑍𝑌 𝑌
( =√ )
𝑍 𝑍
From equ (6),
𝑑𝐼
= C√𝑍𝑌𝑒 √𝑍𝑌 s + D √𝑍𝑌𝑒 −√𝑍𝑌 s
𝑑𝑠
E Y= C√𝑍𝑌𝑒 √𝑍𝑌 s + D √𝑍𝑌𝑒 −√𝑍𝑌 s
𝑑𝐼
( =EY)
𝑑𝑠
C √𝑍𝑌 𝑒 √𝑍𝑌 s − D √𝑍𝑌 𝑒 −√𝑍𝑌 s
E=
𝑌
𝑍 𝑍
E = C √ 𝑒 √𝑍𝑌 s - D √ 𝑒 −√𝑍𝑌 s ..........(9)
𝑌 𝑌

√𝑍𝑌 𝑍
( =√ )
𝑌 𝑌
At, s=0 , E = ER and I = IR
sub this values in (8) and (9)
from equ (8),
𝑌 𝑌
IR = A √ - B √ .........(10)
𝑍 𝑍
from equ (9),
𝑍 𝑍
ER = C √ - D √ ........(11)
𝑌 𝑌
from equ (7),
B = ER - A
To find the value of A sub B value in equ (10)
𝑌 𝑌
IR = A √ - (ER - A) √
𝑍 𝑍

𝑌 𝑌 𝑌
IR = A √ - ER√ + A√
𝑍 𝑍 𝑍

𝑌 𝑌
IR + ER√ = 2A √
𝑍 𝑍

𝑌 𝑌
2A √ = IR + ER√
𝑍 𝑍

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𝑌
IR + ER √
𝑍
A=
𝑌
2√𝑍

𝑌
IR ER √
𝑍
A= 𝑌
+ 𝑌
2√ 2√
𝑍 𝑍

𝑍
IR √𝑌 ER
A= +
2 2
𝑍
(√ = 𝑍𝑜 )
𝑌
IR 𝑍𝑜 ER
A= +
2 2
IR 𝑍𝑜 ER
A= +
2 2
By using this formula, V = IR
E = IZ
𝐸
I=
𝑍
𝐸𝑅
IR=
𝑍𝑅
sub IR value in A,
𝐸𝑅 𝑍𝑜 ER
A= +
𝑍𝑅 2 2
ER 𝑍𝑜
A= [1 + ] .........(12)
2 𝑍𝑅
sub equ (12) in (7),
ER 𝑍𝑜
𝐸𝑅 = [1 + ]+B
2 𝑍𝑅
ER 𝑍𝑜
B = 𝐸𝑅 − [1 + ]
2 𝑍𝑅
ER 𝑍𝑜 ER
B = 𝐸𝑅 − − .
2 𝑍𝑅 2
ER 𝑍𝑜 ER
B= − .
2 𝑍𝑅 2
ER 𝑍𝑜
B= [1 − ] .........(13)
2 𝑍𝑅
from equ (7),
IR = C + D
D = IR - C
sub the above value in (11),
𝑍 𝑍
ER = C √ - (IR - C) √
𝑌 𝑌

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𝑍 𝑍 𝑍
ER = C √ - IR√ + C √
𝑌 𝑌 𝑌

𝑍 𝑍
ER = 2C √ - IR√
𝑌 𝑌

𝑍 𝑍
2C √ = ER + IR√
𝑌 𝑌
𝑍
ER + IR √𝑌
C=
𝑍
2√
𝑌

𝑍
ER IR √𝑌
C= +
𝑍 𝑍
2√𝑌 2√𝑌
ER IR
C= +
𝑍 2
2√
𝑌
ER IR
C= +
2𝑍𝑜 2
(ER = IR 𝑍𝑅 )
sub ER value in C,
IR 𝑍𝑅 IR
C= +
2𝑍𝑜 2
IR 𝑍𝑅
C= [1+ ] .......(14)
2 𝑍𝑂
D = IR - C
IR 𝑍𝑅
D = IR - [1+ ]
2 𝑍𝑂
IR IR 𝑍𝑅
D = IR - -
2 2 𝑍𝑂
IR IR 𝑍𝑅
D= -
2 2 𝑍𝑂
IR 𝑍𝑅
D= [1- ] ............(15)
2 𝑍𝑂
sub the A, B, C,D values in (5) and (6),
from equ (5), E = A 𝑒 √𝑍𝑌 s + B 𝑒 −√𝑍𝑌 s
ER 𝑍𝑜 ER 𝑍𝑜
E= [1 + ] 𝑒 √𝑍𝑌 s + [1 − ] 𝑒 −√𝑍𝑌 s .........(16)
2 𝑍𝑅 2 𝑍𝑅
ER 𝑍𝑅 + 𝑍𝑜 ER 𝑍𝑅 − 𝑍𝑜
E= [ ] 𝑒 √𝑍𝑌 s + [ ] 𝑒 −√𝑍𝑌 s
2 𝑍𝑅 2 𝑍𝑅
ER 𝑍𝑅 + 𝑍𝑜 𝑍𝑅 − 𝑍𝑜 𝑍𝑅
E= [ ][ 𝑒 √𝑍𝑌𝑆 + [ ][ ] 𝑒 −√𝑍𝑌𝑆 ]
2 𝑍𝑅 𝑍𝑅 𝑍𝑅 + 𝑍𝑜
ER 𝑍𝑅 + 𝑍𝑜 𝑍𝑅 − 𝑍𝑜
E= [ ][ 𝑒 √𝑍𝑌𝑆 + [ ] 𝑒 −√𝑍𝑌𝑆 ] .......(17)
2 𝑍𝑅 𝑍𝑅 + 𝑍𝑜

from equ (6), I = C 𝑒 √𝑍𝑌 s + D𝑒 −√𝑍𝑌 s

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IR 𝑍𝑅 IR 𝑍𝑅
I= [1+ ] 𝑒 √𝑍𝑌 s + [1- ] 𝑒 −√𝑍𝑌 s ........(18)
2 𝑍𝑂 2 𝑍𝑂
IR 𝑍𝑂 + 𝑍𝑅 IR 𝑍𝑂 − 𝑍𝑅
I= [ ] 𝑒 √𝑍𝑌 s + [ ] 𝑒 −√𝑍𝑌 s
2 𝑍𝑂 2 𝑍𝑂
IR 𝑍𝑂 + 𝑍𝑅 IR 𝑍𝑂 − 𝑍𝑅 𝑍𝑅
I= [ ] [ 𝑒 √𝑍𝑌𝑆 + [ ] [ ] 𝑒 −√𝑍𝑌𝑆 ]
2 𝑍𝑂 2 𝑍𝑂 𝑍𝑂 + 𝑍𝑅
IR 𝑍𝑂 + 𝑍𝑅 IR 𝑍𝑅 − 𝑍𝑂
I= [ ] [ 𝑒 √𝑍𝑌𝑆 − [ ] 𝑒 −√𝑍𝑌𝑆 ] ........(19)
2 𝑍𝑂 2 𝑍𝑅 + 𝑍𝑂
equ (17) and (19) are the first form of voltage and current.
equ (16) may be rearranged as
ER 𝑍𝑜 𝑍𝑜
E= [[ 1 + ] 𝑒 √𝑍𝑌𝑆 + [ 1 − ] 𝑒 −√𝑍𝑌𝑆 ]
2 𝑍𝑅 𝑍𝑅
ER 𝑍𝑜 𝑍𝑜
E= [ 𝑒 √𝑍𝑌𝑆 + 𝑒 √𝑍𝑌𝑆 + 𝑒 −√𝑍𝑌𝑆 − 𝑒 −√𝑍𝑌𝑆 ]
2 𝑍𝑅 𝑍𝑅
ER 𝑍𝑜
E= [ 𝑒 √𝑍𝑌𝑆 + 𝑒 −√𝑍𝑌𝑆 + [𝑒 √𝑍𝑌𝑆 − 𝑒 −√𝑍𝑌𝑆 ]]
2 𝑍𝑅
for example,
𝑒 𝜃 + 𝑒 −𝜃
cosh 𝜃 =
2
𝑒 𝜃 − 𝑒 −𝜃
sinh 𝜃 =
2
sub in above equ,
ER 2. 𝑍𝑜
E= [ 2cosh√𝑍𝑌𝑆 + sinh√𝑍𝑌𝑆]
2 𝑍𝑅
ER 𝑍𝑜
E = ER cosh√𝑍𝑌𝑆 + sinh√𝑍𝑌𝑆
𝑍𝑅
𝐸𝑅
ZR =
𝐼𝑅
sub the ZR value in above equ,
ER 𝑍𝑜
E = ER cosh√𝑍𝑌𝑆 + 𝐸 sinh√𝑍𝑌𝑆
[ 𝐼 𝑅]
𝑅
𝐼𝑅 ER 𝑍𝑜
E = ER cosh√𝑍𝑌𝑆 + sinh√𝑍𝑌𝑆
𝐸𝑅
E = ER cosh√𝑍𝑌𝑆 + 𝐼𝑅 𝑍𝑜 sinh√𝑍𝑌𝑆 ........(21)
The same procedure will be followed for the current equ,
equ (18) will be,
𝐸𝑅
I = IR cosh√𝑍𝑌𝑆 + sinh√𝑍𝑌𝑆 ........(22)
𝑍𝑂
equ (21) and (22) are the second form of voltage and current at any point on
a transmission line.

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PHYSICAL SIGNIFICANCE OF TRANSMISSION LINE (or)

INFINITE LINE (or) THE TWO STANDARD FORM FOR INPUT
IMPEDANCE OF THE TRANSMISSION LINE TERMINATED BY
AN IMPEDANCE ZR.
From the Fig 1.1.2 the equation for the current and voltage may be written
for the sending end current 'IS' of a line of length 'l' is,

Fig: 1.1.2 A length l taken from an infinite line

The sending current equation is given by,

𝐸𝑅
IS = IR cosh√𝑍𝑌. 𝑙 + sinh√𝑍𝑌. 𝑙 [ER = IR 𝑍𝑅 ]
𝑍𝑂

Sub ER value in above equ,

IR 𝑍𝑅
IS = IR cosh√𝑍𝑌. 𝑙 + sinh√𝑍𝑌. 𝑙
𝑍𝑂
𝑍𝑅
IS = IR [cosh√𝑍𝑌. 𝑙 + sinh√𝑍𝑌. 𝑙] .......(1)
𝑍𝑂

The sending voltage equation is given by,

ES = ER cosh√𝑍𝑌. 𝑙 + IR 𝑍𝑂 sinh√𝑍𝑌. 𝑙
[ER = IR 𝑍𝑅 ]
𝐸𝑅
[IR = ]
𝑍𝑅

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Sub IR value in above equ,

ER 𝑍𝑂
ES = ER cosh√𝑍𝑌. 𝑙 + sinh√𝑍𝑌. 𝑙
𝑍𝑅
𝑍𝑂
ES = ER [cosh√𝑍𝑌. 𝑙 + sinh√𝑍𝑌. 𝑙] .......(2)
𝑍𝑅

Since, We know that,

Propagation Constant γ = √𝑍𝑌
𝑍
Characteristic Impedance 𝑍𝑂 = √
𝑌

Sub γ value in equ (1) and (2),

From equ (1),
𝑍𝑅
IS = IR [cosh γ𝑙 + sinh γ𝑙] .......(3)
𝑍𝑂

From equ (2),

𝑍𝑂
ES = ER [cosh γ𝑙 + sinh γ𝑙] .......(4)
𝑍𝑅
𝐸𝑆
Input Impedance 𝑍𝑆 = [E = IZ]
𝐼𝑆
𝑍𝑂
ER [cosh γ𝑙+ 𝑍𝑅
sinh γ𝑙]
𝑍𝑆 = 𝑍
IR [cosh γ𝑙+ 𝑍 𝑅 sinh γ𝑙]
𝑂

𝑍𝑅 cosh γ𝑙+ 𝑍𝑂 sinh γ𝑙

𝑍𝑅
𝑍𝑆 = 𝑍𝑅 [ 𝑍𝑂 cosh γ𝑙+𝑍𝑅 sinh γ𝑙 ]
𝑍𝑂

ER = IR 𝑍𝑅
𝐸𝑅
ZR =
𝐼𝑅
𝑍𝑅 cosh γ𝑙+ 𝑍𝑂 sinh γ𝑙 𝑍𝑂
𝑍𝑆 = 𝑍𝑅 [ 𝑋 ]
𝑍𝑅 𝑍𝑂 cosh γ𝑙+𝑍𝑅 sinh γ𝑙
𝑍𝑅 cosh γ𝑙+ 𝑍𝑂 sinh γ𝑙
𝑍𝑆 = 𝑍𝑂 [ ] …….(5)
𝑍𝑂 cosh γ𝑙+𝑍𝑅 sinh γ𝑙

This is the first standard form of input impedance of the transmission line.
𝑒 𝜃 + 𝑒 −𝜃
Cosh𝜃 =
2
𝑒 𝜃 − 𝑒 −𝜃
Sinh𝜃 =
2

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Sub the above formula in equ (5),

𝑒γl + 𝑒−γl 𝑒γl − 𝑒−γl
𝑍𝑅 ( )+ 𝑍𝑂 ( )
2 2
𝑍𝑆 = 𝑍𝑂 [ γl
𝑒 +𝑒 −γl γl
𝑒 −𝑒 −γl ]
𝑍𝑂 ( )+ 𝑍𝑅 ( )
2 2

2𝑍𝑂 𝑍𝑅 (𝑒 γl + 𝑒−γl )+ 𝑍𝑂 (𝑒 γl − 𝑒 −γl )

𝑍𝑆 = [ ]
2 𝑍𝑂 (𝑒 γl + 𝑒 −γl )+ 𝑍𝑅 (𝑒 γl − 𝑒 −γl )

𝑍𝑅 𝑒 γl + 𝑍𝑅 𝑒−γl + 𝑍𝑂 𝑒 γl − 𝑍𝑂 𝑒 −γl
𝑍𝑆 = 𝑍𝑂 [ ]
𝑍𝑂 𝑒 γl + 𝑍𝑂 𝑒 −γl + 𝑍𝑅 𝑒γl − 𝑍𝑅 𝑒 −γl

𝑒 𝛾𝑙 [𝑍𝑅 + 𝑍𝑂 ]+𝑒 −𝛾𝑙 [𝑍𝑅 − 𝑍𝑂 ]

𝑍𝑆 = 𝑍𝑂 [ ]
𝑒 𝛾𝑙 [𝑍𝑅 + 𝑍𝑂 ]−𝑒−𝛾𝑙 [𝑍𝑅 − 𝑍𝑂 ]
𝑍𝑅 − 𝑍 𝑂
𝑒 𝛾𝑙 + 𝑒 −𝛾𝑙 [ ]
[𝑍𝑅 + 𝑍𝑂 ] 𝑍𝑅 + 𝑍 𝑂
𝑍𝑆 = 𝑍𝑂 [𝑍 [ 𝑍 −𝑍 ]
𝑅 + 𝑍𝑂 ] 𝑒 𝛾𝑙 − 𝑒 −𝛾𝑙 [𝑍𝑅 + 𝑍𝑂 ]
𝑅 𝑂

𝑍 −𝑍
𝑒 𝛾𝑙 + 𝑒 −𝛾𝑙 [𝑍𝑅 + 𝑍𝑂 ]
𝑅 𝑂
𝑍𝑆 = 𝑍𝑂 [ 𝑍 − 𝑍 ] ………(6)
𝑒 𝛾𝑙 − 𝑒 −𝛾𝑙 [𝑍𝑅 + 𝑍𝑂 ]
𝑅 𝑂

This is the second standard form of input impedance of the transmission line.
WAVELENGTH AND VELOCITY OF PROPAGATION
WAVELENGTH:

Fig: 1.1.3 Propagation of current from sending and towards

receiving end
The distance with which the wave changes its phase by 2π radians is known
as wavelength.

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In Fig 1.1.3 the distance from the sending end to point 8 is thus one
wavelength. The distance the wave travels along the line where the phase
angle is changing to 2π radians is known as wavelength.
It is denoted by λ,
2π
λ= ……(1)
𝛽

and also we know,

𝑣
λ=
𝑓

v = λ.f
v- velocity
f- frequency
2π
v= .f
𝛽
ω
v= ………(2)
𝛽
2π
[λ= ]
𝛽

[ω = 2πf ]
VELOCITY OF PROPAGATION:

The velocity of propagation along the line depends on the change in the phase
along the line. Therefore, this velocity is called phase velocity or wave
velocity.
𝑉 𝐼
γ = ln ( 1 ) = ln ( 1 )
𝑉2 𝐼2

In general,
γ = α+jβ
γ =√𝑍𝑌 …………(1)
where,
Z = R+jωL
Y = G+jωC ………(2)

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Sub equ (2) in equ (1)

γ =√(𝑅 + 𝑗𝜔𝐿)(𝐺 + 𝑗𝜔𝐶 )

γ =√𝑅𝐺 + 𝑗𝜔𝑅𝐶 + 𝑗𝜔𝐿𝐺 − 𝜔 2 𝐿𝐶

α+jβ =√𝑅𝐺 − 𝜔 2 𝐿𝐶 + 𝑗(𝜔𝑅𝐶 + 𝜔𝐿𝐺 )

Squaring on both sides,
(α + jβ)2 = 𝑅𝐺 − 𝜔2 𝐿𝐶 + 𝑗(𝜔𝑅𝐶 + 𝜔𝐿𝐺 )
α2 + β2 – 2jαβ = 𝑅𝐺 − 𝜔2 𝐿𝐶 + 𝑗(𝜔𝑅𝐶 + 𝜔𝐿𝐺 )
Equating real and imaginary parts,
α2 + β2 = 𝑅𝐶 − 𝜔2 𝐿𝐺 ………(3)
2αβ = 𝜔𝑅𝐶 + 𝜔𝐿𝐺
2αβ = 𝜔 (𝑅𝐶 + 𝐿𝐺 ) ……….(4)
From equ (3),
α2 = 𝑅𝐺 − 𝜔2 𝐿𝐶 + β2 ………(5)
Squaring equ (4),
4α2 β2 = 𝜔2 (𝑅𝐶 + 𝐿𝐺 )2 ………(6)
Sub equ (5) in equ (6)
4(𝑅𝐺 − 𝜔2 𝐿𝐶 + β2 )β2 = 𝜔2 (𝑅𝐶 + 𝐿𝐺 )2
4(𝑅𝐺β2 − 𝜔2 𝐿𝐶 β2 + β4 ) = 𝜔2 (𝑅𝐶 + 𝐿𝐺 )2
𝜔2
𝑅𝐺β2 − 𝜔2 𝐿𝐶 β2 + β4 = (𝑅𝐶 + 𝐿𝐺 )2
4
𝜔2
𝑅𝐺β2 − 𝜔2 𝐿𝐶 β2 + β4 - (𝑅𝐶 + 𝐿𝐺 )2 = 0
4
𝜔2
β4 + β2 (𝑅𝐺 − 𝜔2 𝐿𝐶 ) - (𝑅𝐶 + 𝐿𝐺 )2 = 0 …….(7)
4

The above equation os of the form of a𝑥 4 +b𝑥 2 +c = 0

−𝑏±√𝑏2 −4𝑎𝑐
𝑥2=
2𝑎
𝜔2
a=1, b= 𝑅𝐺 − 𝜔2 𝐿𝐶 , c= - (𝑅𝐶 + 𝐿𝐺 )2
4

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ω2
−(RG− ω2 LC)±√(RG− ω2 LC)2 −4 (− (RC+LG)2 )
2 4
β =
2

Neglect the negative value,

(ω2 LC−RG )+√(RG− ω2 LC)2 + (ω2 (RC+LG)2 )
β2 =
2

(ω2 LC−RG)+√(RG− ω2 LC)2 +(ω2 (RC+LG)2 )

β=√ ……..(8)
2

Sub β2 value in equ (5),

(ω2 LC−RG)+√(RG− ω2 LC)2 +(ω2 (RC+LG)2 )
α2 = RG − ω2 LC+ ( )
2

2 (RG−ω2 LC)+ (ω2 LC−RG)+√(RG− ω2 LC)2 +(ω2 (RC+LG)2 )

α2 =
2
(RG−ω2 LC)+√(RG− ω2 LC)2 +(ω2 (RC+LG)2 )
α2 =
2

(RG−ω2 LC)+√(RG− ω2 LC)2 +(ω2 (RC+LG)2 )

α=√ ……(9)
2

In a perfectly matched line R=0 and G=0,

Sub the above condition in β.
From equ (8),

(ω2 LC)+√(− ω2 LC)2

β=√
2

β = ω √LC
The velocity of propagation of a ideal line is,
ω
v=
β
ω
v=
ω √LC
1
v=
√LC

The velocity of propagation is constant for a given L and C

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PHYSICAL SIGNIFICANCE OF TRANSMISSION LINE (or) INFINITE

LINE (or) THE TWO STANDARD FORM FOR INPUT IMPEDANCE
OF THE TRANSMISSION LINE TERMINATED BY AN IMPEDANCE
ZR.
Equation for the current and voltage may be written for the sending end current
'IS' of a line of length 'l' is,

The sending current equation is given by,

𝐸𝑅
IS = IR cosh√𝑍𝑌. 𝑙 + sinh√𝑍𝑌. 𝑙 [ER = IR 𝑍𝑅 ]
𝑍𝑂

Sub ER value in above equ,

IR 𝑍𝑅
IS = IR cosh√𝑍𝑌. 𝑙 + sinh√𝑍𝑌. 𝑙
𝑍𝑂
𝑍𝑅
IS = IR [cosh√𝑍𝑌. 𝑙 + sinh√𝑍𝑌. 𝑙] .......(1)
𝑍𝑂

The sending voltage equation is given by,

ES = ER cosh√𝑍𝑌. 𝑙 + IR 𝑍𝑂 sinh√𝑍𝑌. 𝑙
[ER = IR 𝑍𝑅 ]
𝐸𝑅
[IR = ]
𝑍𝑅

Sub IR value in above equ,

ER 𝑍𝑂
ES = ER cosh√𝑍𝑌. 𝑙 + sinh√𝑍𝑌. 𝑙
𝑍𝑅

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𝑍𝑂
ES = ER [cosh√𝑍𝑌. 𝑙 + sinh√𝑍𝑌. 𝑙] .......(2)
𝑍𝑅

Since, We know that,

Propagation Constant γ = √𝑍𝑌
𝑍
Characteristic Impedance 𝑍𝑂 = √
𝑌

Sub γ value in equ (1) and (2),

From equ (1),
𝑍𝑅
IS = IR [cosh γ𝑙 + sinh γ𝑙] .......(3)
𝑍𝑂

From equ (2),

𝑍𝑂
ES = ER [cosh γ𝑙 + sinh γ𝑙] .......(4)
𝑍𝑅
𝐸𝑆
Input Impedance 𝑍𝑆 = [E = IZ]
𝐼𝑆
𝑍𝑂
ER [cosh γ𝑙+ sinh γ𝑙]
𝑍𝑅
𝑍𝑆 = 𝑍
IR [cosh γ𝑙+ 𝑍 𝑅 sinh γ𝑙]
𝑂

𝑍𝑅 cosh γ𝑙+ 𝑍𝑂 sinh γ𝑙

𝑍𝑅
𝑍𝑆 = 𝑍𝑅 [ 𝑍𝑂 cosh γ𝑙+𝑍𝑅 sinh γ𝑙 ]
𝑍𝑂

ER = IR 𝑍𝑅
𝐸𝑅
ZR =
𝐼𝑅
𝑍𝑅 cosh γ𝑙+ 𝑍𝑂 sinh γ𝑙 𝑍𝑂
𝑍𝑆 = 𝑍𝑅 [ 𝑋 ]
𝑍𝑅 𝑍𝑂 cosh γ𝑙+𝑍𝑅 sinh γ𝑙
𝑍𝑅 cosh γ𝑙+ 𝑍𝑂 sinh γ𝑙
𝑍𝑆 = 𝑍𝑂 [ ] …….(5)
𝑍𝑂 cosh γ𝑙+𝑍𝑅 sinh γ𝑙

This is the first standard form of input impedance of the transmission line.
𝑒 𝜃 + 𝑒 −𝜃
Cosh𝜃 =
2
𝑒 𝜃 − 𝑒 −𝜃
Sinh𝜃 =
2

Sub the above formula in equ (5),

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𝑒γl + 𝑒−γl 𝑒γl − 𝑒−γl

𝑍𝑅 ( 2
)+ 𝑍𝑂 (
2
)
𝑍𝑆 = 𝑍𝑂 [ γl
𝑒 +𝑒 −γl γl
𝑒 −𝑒 −γl ]
𝑍𝑂 ( 2
)+ 𝑍𝑅 (
2
)

2𝑍𝑂 𝑍𝑅 (𝑒 γl + 𝑒−γl )+ 𝑍𝑂 (𝑒 γl − 𝑒 −γl )

𝑍𝑆 = [ ]
2 𝑍𝑂 (𝑒 γl + 𝑒 −γl )+ 𝑍𝑅 (𝑒 γl − 𝑒 −γl )

𝑍𝑅 𝑒 γl + 𝑍𝑅 𝑒−γl + 𝑍𝑂 𝑒 γl − 𝑍𝑂 𝑒 −γl
𝑍𝑆 = 𝑍𝑂 [ ]
𝑍𝑂 𝑒 γl + 𝑍𝑂 𝑒 −γl + 𝑍𝑅 𝑒γl − 𝑍𝑅 𝑒 −γl

𝑒 𝛾𝑙 [𝑍𝑅 + 𝑍𝑂 ]+𝑒 −𝛾𝑙 [𝑍𝑅 − 𝑍𝑂 ]

𝑍𝑆 = 𝑍𝑂 [ ]
𝑒 𝛾𝑙 [𝑍𝑅 + 𝑍𝑂 ]−𝑒−𝛾𝑙 [𝑍𝑅 − 𝑍𝑂 ]
𝑍 −𝑍
𝑒 𝛾𝑙 + 𝑒 −𝛾𝑙 [𝑍𝑅 + 𝑍𝑂 ]
[𝑍𝑅 + 𝑍𝑂 ] 𝑅 𝑂
𝑍𝑆 = 𝑍𝑂 [𝑍 [ 𝑍 − 𝑍 ]
𝑅 + 𝑍𝑂 ] 𝑒 𝛾𝑙 − 𝑒 −𝛾𝑙 [𝑍 + 𝑍𝑂
𝑅 ]
𝑅 𝑂

𝑍 −𝑍
𝑒 𝛾𝑙 + 𝑒 −𝛾𝑙 [𝑍𝑅 + 𝑍𝑂 ]
𝑅 𝑂
𝑍𝑆 = 𝑍𝑂 [ 𝑍 − 𝑍 ] ………(6)
𝑒 𝛾𝑙 − 𝑒 −𝛾𝑙 [𝑍𝑅 + 𝑍𝑂 ]
𝑅 𝑂

This is the second standard form of input impedance of the transmission line.

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1.2 WAVEFORM DISTORTION

In an ideal transmission line of a signal through the transmission line when the
input signal or the sending end signal is not the same at the receiving end.
Then the signal is said to be distorted.
The distortion is to be classified into,
i. Frequency Distortion
ii. Phase Distortion
i. FREQUENCY DISTORTION:

The attenuation constant (α) is a function of frequency.

The signal transmitted along the line will be attenuated to the different extent.
For example, a voice signal consists of many frequencies will be transmitted
along the transmission line and all the frequencies will not be attenuated equally
along the transmission line.
Hence the received signal is not the exact replica of the input signal at the sending
end. Such a distortion is called as frequency distortion.
(RG−ω2 LC)+√(RG− ω2 LC)2 +(ω2 (RC+LG)2 )
α=√
2

ii. PHASE DISTORTION

(ω2 LC−RG)+√(RG− ω2 LC)2 +(ω2 (RC+LG)2 )

β=√
2

We know that,
ω
v=
𝛽

The phase distortion is also depends on frequency.

Thus the velocity of propagation v also varies with frequency. So some of the
signal reach the receiving end very fast while some waves will be delayed then
the others will not have same transmission time.
Thus the receiving end signal is not the exact replica of the sending end signal.
This kind of distortion is called as phase distortion or delayed distortion.

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THE DISTORTION LESS LINE:

The distortion less line does not distort the signal phase, but does introduce a
signal loss line they are not super conductors. This is known as Heaviside
distortion.
Already we know that,
(RG− ω2 LC)± √(RG− ω2 LC)2 +(ω2 (RC+LG)2 )
α=√
2

The value must be made independent of frequency by making LG+ RC = 0

Derive the condition for a distortion less line,
Z = R+jωL
Y = G+jωC
γ = α+jβ
γ =√𝑍𝑌

γ =√(𝑅 + 𝑗𝜔𝐿)(𝐺 + 𝑗𝜔𝐶 )

γ =√𝑅𝐺 + 𝑗𝜔𝑅𝐶 + 𝑗𝜔𝑅𝐶 − 𝜔 2 𝐿𝐺

γ =√𝑅𝐺 − 𝜔 2 𝐿𝐶 + 𝑗𝜔(𝑅𝐶 + 𝐿𝐺 ) ………(1)

To make a frequency independent; in the imaginary part LG+ RC = 0
Sub this condition in eqn (1),

γ =√𝑅𝐺 − 𝜔 2 𝐿𝐶 + 𝑗𝜔(0)

γ =√𝑅𝐺 − 𝜔 2 𝐿𝐶
(-1=𝑗 2)
Sub in above value,

γ =√𝑅𝐺 + 𝑗 2 𝜔 2 𝐿𝐶

γ =√𝑅𝐺 + √ 𝑗 2𝜔 2 𝐿𝐶
γ = α+jβ

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α+jβ = √𝑅𝐺 + 𝑗𝜔√𝐿𝐶

α = √𝑅𝐺
β = 𝜔√𝐿𝐶
Where the phase velocity,
𝜔
𝑣𝑝=
β
𝜔
𝑣𝑝=
𝜔√𝐿𝐶
𝟏
𝒗𝒑 =
√𝑳𝑪

CHARACTERISTIC IMPEDANCE OF DISTORTION LESS LINE:

𝑍
𝑍𝑜 = 𝑅𝑜 + j𝑋𝑜 = √
𝑌

𝑅+𝑗𝜔𝐿
𝑍𝑜 = √
𝐺+𝑗𝜔𝐶

𝐿
𝑅(1+𝑗𝜔𝑅)
𝑍𝑜 = √ 𝐶
𝐺(1+𝑗𝜔𝐺)

𝐿 𝐶
=
𝑅 𝐺

LG = RC
𝐿 𝑅
=
𝐶 𝐺

𝐶
𝑅(1+𝑗𝜔 )
𝐺
𝑍𝑜 = √ 𝐶
𝐺(1+𝑗𝜔𝐺)

𝑅 𝐿
𝑍𝑜 = √ = √
𝐺 𝐶

Therefore the distortion less line must satisfy the conditions

i. LG = RC
ii. α = √𝑅𝐺
iii. β = 𝜔√𝐿𝐶
1
iv. 𝑣𝑝=
√𝐿𝐶

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𝑅 𝐿
v. 𝑍𝑜 = √ = √
𝐺 𝐶

vi. α = √𝐺
TELEPHONE CABLE:
We know, propagation constant,
γ =√𝑍𝑌
Z = R+jωL
Y = G+jωC
γ = α+jβ
α+jβ= √(𝑅 + 𝑗𝜔𝐿)(𝐺 + 𝑗𝜔𝐶 )
𝑅 𝐺
α+jβ= √𝐿 ( + 𝑗𝜔) 𝐶 ( + 𝑗𝜔)
𝐿 𝐶

𝑅 𝐺
α+jβ= √𝐿𝐶 ( + 𝑗𝜔) ( + 𝑗𝜔)
𝐿 𝐶

If there is no attenuation,
𝑅 𝐺
=
𝐿 𝐶

𝑅 𝑅
α+jβ= √𝐿𝐶 ( + 𝑗𝜔) ( + 𝑗𝜔)
𝐿 𝐿

𝑅 2
α+jβ= √𝐿𝐶 ( + 𝑗𝜔)
𝐿
𝑅
α+jβ= √𝐿𝐶 ( + 𝑗𝜔)
𝐿
𝑅
α+jβ = √𝐿𝐶 + 𝑗𝜔√𝐿𝐶
𝐿
𝑅
α+jβ =√𝐿𝐶 ( + 𝑗𝜔)
𝐿
𝐺
α+jβ = √𝐿𝐶 + 𝑗𝜔√𝐿𝐶
𝐶

(or)
Separate the real and imaginary terms,
𝑅 𝐺
α = √𝐿𝐶 (or) √𝐿𝐶
𝐿 𝐶

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β = 𝜔√𝐿𝐶
We know that,
ω
𝑣𝑝 =
β
ω
𝑣𝑝 =
ω √LC
1
𝑣𝑝 =
√LC

CHARACTERISTIC IMPEDANCE:
𝑍
𝑍𝑜 = √
𝑌

R+jωL
𝑍𝑜 = √
G+jωC

R
L( 𝐿 +jω)
𝑍𝑜 = √ G
C(𝐶 +jω)

For distortionless line,

𝑅 𝐺
=
𝐿 𝐶

R
L( 𝐿 +jω)
𝑍𝑜 = √ G
C(𝐶 +jω)

L
𝑍𝑜 = √
C

LOADING AND DIFFERENT METHODS OF LOADING:

A distortion less transmission line must satisfy the condition LG = RC therefore
𝐿 𝑅
=
𝐶 𝐺

The attenuation of a transmission line is given by,

(RG−ω2 LC)+√(RG− ω2 LC)2 +(ω2 (RC+LG)2 )
α=√
2

It is observed that α depends on four primary constants in addition to the

frequency(L, C, R, G)
DIFFERENT LOADING METHODS

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There are two loading methods

i. Inductance Loading
ii. Capacitance Loading
Capacitance loading techniques increases the impedance and attenuation
Inductance loading is mostly used in transmission lines.
The types of inductance loading methods are,
i. Lumped Loading
ii. Continuous Loading (or) Uniform Loading
i. LUMPED LOADING:

In this method, lumped inductors or loading coils are placed in series along the
transmission lines at suitable intervals. Hence, it is called lumped loading. It will
increase the total effective inductance.
The cut-off frequency is given by,
1
𝑓𝑐 =
𝜋√𝐿𝑐 𝐶 𝑑
1
𝑓𝑐 α
√LC

𝐿𝑐 – inductance of the loading coil and cable per km.

C – Capacitance per km
d – Spacing between the coils
ii. CONTINUOUS LOADING:

In this method, wing the cable with a high permeability material. The inductors
use perm-alloy or molybdenum. In Fig 1.2.1 the coil is wound of the largest gauge
of content with small size and each winging is divided into two equal parts.
In a uniformly loaded cables, assume
i) G=0
ii) Wavelength is large
Loading coils are placed into steel pots.

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Fig: 1.2.1 Continuous loading coils

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1.4 INPUT AND TRANSFER IMPEDANCE:

INPUT IMPEDANCE:
The input impedance of a transmission line is given by,
𝑍𝑅 cosh γ𝑙+ 𝑍𝑂 sinh γ𝑙
𝑍𝑖𝑛 = 𝑍𝑆 = 𝑍𝑂 [ ]
𝑍𝑂 cosh γ𝑙+𝑍𝑅 sinh γ𝑙
𝑂 𝑍 sinh γ𝑙
𝑍𝑅 cosh γ𝑙 1 + 𝑍𝑅cosh γ𝑙
𝑍𝑆 = 𝑍𝑂 [ 𝑍𝑂 sinh γ𝑙 ]
𝑍𝑅 cosh γ𝑙 +
𝑍𝑅 cosh γ𝑙

𝑍 sinh γ𝑙
1 + 𝑍 𝑂cosh γ𝑙
𝑍𝑆 = 𝑍𝑂 [ 𝑍𝑂 𝑅
] …….(1)
𝑍𝑅
+tanh γ𝑙

TRANSFER IMPEDANCE:
Let,
𝐸𝑆 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑒𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑒𝑛𝑑
𝑍𝑇 = =
𝐼𝑅 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑒𝑛𝑑

Transfer impedance of the transmission line, Now, the terminating current (𝐼𝑅 )
cab be written as,
𝐸𝑆
𝐼𝑅 = IS coshγ𝑙 − sinhγ𝑙
𝑍𝑂

Divide the above equ by 𝐼𝑅 ,

IS 𝐸𝑆
1= coshγ𝑙 − sinhγ𝑙
𝐼𝑅 𝑍𝑂 𝐼𝑅
IS 𝑍𝑇
1= coshγ𝑙 − sinhγ𝑙 …….(2)
𝐼𝑅 𝑍𝑂

We know that,
𝐸𝑅 = ES coshγ𝑙 − IS 𝑍𝑂 sinhγ𝑙
IS 𝑍𝑂 sinhγ𝑙 = ES coshγ𝑙 - 𝐸𝑅
ES coshγ𝑙 − 𝐸𝑅
IS = ……..(3)
𝑍𝑂 sinhγ𝑙

Sub equ (3) in equ (2),

EScoshγ𝑙 − 𝐸𝑅
( ) 𝑍𝑇
𝑍𝑂 sinhγ𝑙
1= coshγ𝑙 − sinhγ𝑙
𝐼𝑅 𝑍𝑂
ES coshγ𝑙 − 𝐸𝑅 coshγ𝑙 𝑍𝑇
1=( ) − sinhγ𝑙
𝐼𝑅 𝑍𝑂 sinhγ𝑙 𝑍𝑂

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ES coshγ𝑙 𝐸𝑅 coshγ𝑙 𝑍𝑇
1=( − ) − sinhγ𝑙
𝐼𝑅 𝑍𝑂 𝐼𝑅 𝑍𝑂 sinhγ𝑙 𝑍𝑂
ZT coshγ𝑙 𝑍𝑅 coshγ𝑙 𝑍𝑇
1 =( − ) − sinhγ𝑙
𝑍𝑂 𝑍𝑂 sinhγ𝑙 𝑍𝑂

ZT cosh2 γ𝑙 𝑍𝑅 coshγ𝑙 𝑍𝑇
1= − − sinhγ𝑙
𝑍𝑂 sinhγ𝑙 𝑍𝑂 sinhγ𝑙 𝑍𝑂

𝑍𝑅 coshγ𝑙 ZT cosh2 γ𝑙 𝑍𝑇
1+ = - sinhγ𝑙
𝑍𝑂 sinhγ𝑙 𝑍𝑂 sinhγ𝑙 𝑍𝑂

𝑍𝑅 coshγ𝑙 𝑍𝑇 cosh2 γ𝑙
1+ = ( − sinhγ𝑙 )
𝑍𝑂 sinhγ𝑙 𝑍𝑂 sinhγ𝑙

𝑍𝑅 coshγ𝑙 𝑍𝑇 cosh2 γ𝑙− sinh2 γ𝑙

1+ = ( )
𝑍𝑂 sinhγ𝑙 𝑍𝑂 sinhγ𝑙

cosh2θ − sinh2 θ= 1
𝑍𝑅 coshγ𝑙 𝑍𝑇 1
1+ = ( )
𝑍𝑂 sinhγ𝑙 𝑍𝑂 sinhγ𝑙
𝑍𝑅 coshγ𝑙
𝑍𝑇 = 𝑍𝑂 sinhγ𝑙 [1 + ]
𝑍𝑂 sinhγ𝑙
𝑍𝑂 sinhγ𝑙+ 𝑍𝑅 coshγ𝑙
𝑍𝑇 = 𝑍𝑂 sinhγ𝑙 [ ]
𝑍𝑂 sinhγ𝑙

𝑍𝑇 = 𝑍𝑂 sinhγ𝑙 + 𝑍𝑅 coshγ𝑙
OPEN AND SHORT CIRCUIT IMPEDANCE:
FINITE LINE TERMINATED IN 𝒁𝑶 :
In Fig 1.4.1 shows that the wave is progressing from the receiving end toward
the source, the initial value equal to the incident voltage at the load for open
circuit. This is reflected wave.

Fig: 1.4.1 Finite line terminated in 𝒁𝑶

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At distance S= l , E = 𝐸𝑅 and I = 𝐼𝑅
𝐸𝑅 = ES coshγ𝑙 − IS 𝑍𝑂 sinhγ𝑙
𝐸𝑆
𝐼𝑅 = IS coshγ𝑙 − sinhγ𝑙
𝑍𝑂
𝐸𝑅
𝑍𝑅 =
𝐼𝑅
ES coshγ𝑙−IS 𝑍𝑂 sinhγ𝑙
𝑍𝑅 = 𝐸𝑆
IS coshγ𝑙− sinhγ𝑙
𝑍𝑂

FINITE LINE OPEN CIRCUITED AT DISTANCE END:

In Fig 1.4.2 shows that the wave is progressing from the receiving end toward
the source, the initial value equal to the incident voltage at the load for open
circuit. This is reflected wave.

Fig: 1.4.2 Finite line open circuited at distance end

𝐸𝑅 = ES coshγ𝑙 − IS 𝑍𝑂 sinhγ𝑙
𝐸𝑆
𝐼𝑅 = IS coshγ𝑙 − sinhγ𝑙
𝑍𝑂

𝐼𝑅 = 0
𝐸𝑆
0 = IS coshγ𝑙 − sinhγ𝑙
𝑍𝑂
𝐸𝑆
IS coshγ𝑙 = sinhγ𝑙
𝑍𝑂

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𝐸𝑆 coshγ𝑙
= 𝑍𝑂
IS sinhγ𝑙
coshγ𝑙
𝑍𝑂𝐶 = 𝑍𝑂
sinhγ𝑙

𝑍𝑂𝐶 = 𝑍𝑂 cothγ𝑙
If l = ∞
𝑍𝑂𝐶 = 𝑍𝑂 cothγ(∞)
𝑍𝑂𝐶 = 𝑍𝑂
FINITE LINE SHORT CIRCUITED AT DISTANCE END:
In Fig 1.4.3 shows that the wave is progressing from the receiving end toward
the load, the initial value equal to the reflected voltage at the load for open
circuit. This is incident wave.

Fig: 1.4.3 Finite line short circuited at distance end

𝐸𝑅 = ES coshγ𝑙 − IS 𝑍𝑂 sinhγ𝑙
𝐸𝑆
𝐼𝑅 = IS coshγ𝑙 − sinhγ𝑙
𝑍𝑂

𝐸𝑅 = 0
0 = ES coshγ𝑙 − IS 𝑍𝑂 sinhγ𝑙
ES coshγ𝑙 = IS 𝑍𝑂 sinhγ𝑙
𝐸𝑆 sinhγ𝑙
= 𝑍𝑂
𝐼𝑆 coshγ𝑙

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𝑍𝑆𝐶 = 𝑍𝑂 tanhγ𝑙
If l = ∞
𝑍𝑆𝐶 = 𝑍𝑂 tanhγ(∞)
𝑍𝑆𝐶 = 𝑍𝑂
Multiply the 𝑍𝑂𝐶 & 𝑍𝑆𝐶 expression.
𝑍𝑂𝐶 𝑍𝑆𝐶 = 𝑍𝑂 cothγ𝑙𝑍𝑂 tanhγ𝑙
1
𝑍𝑂𝐶 𝑍𝑆𝐶 = 𝑍𝑂 2 tanhγ𝑙
cothγ𝑙

𝑍𝑂𝐶 𝑍𝑆𝐶 = 𝑍𝑂 2
𝑍𝑂 = √𝑍𝑂𝐶 𝑍𝑆𝐶
INPUT IMPEDANCE INTERMS OF 𝒁𝑶 AND REFLECTION
COFFIECIENT:
We know that,
Input impedance of the transmission line is,
𝑍𝑅 cosh γ𝑙+ 𝑍𝑂 sinh γ𝑙
𝑍𝑆 = 𝑍𝑂 [ ]
𝑍𝑂 cosh γ𝑙+𝑍𝑅 sinh γ𝑙

𝑒γl + 𝑒−γl 𝑒γl − 𝑒−γl

𝑍𝑅 ( )+ 𝑍𝑂 ( )
2 2
𝑍𝑆 = 𝑍𝑂 [ 𝑒γl + 𝑒−γl 𝑒γl − 𝑒−γl
]
𝑍𝑂 ( )+ 𝑍𝑅 ( )
2 2

2𝑍𝑂 𝑍𝑅 (𝑒 γl + 𝑒−γl )+ 𝑍𝑂 (𝑒 γl − 𝑒 −γl )

𝑍𝑆 = [ ]
2 𝑍𝑂 (𝑒 γl + 𝑒 −γl )+ 𝑍𝑅 (𝑒 γl − 𝑒 −γl )

𝑍𝑅 𝑒 γl + 𝑍𝑅 𝑒−γl + 𝑍𝑂 𝑒 γl − 𝑍𝑂 𝑒 −γl
𝑍𝑆 = 𝑍𝑂 [ ]
𝑍𝑂 𝑒 γl + 𝑍𝑂 𝑒 −γl + 𝑍𝑅 𝑒γl − 𝑍𝑅 𝑒 −γl

𝑒 𝛾𝑙 [𝑍𝑅 + 𝑍𝑂 ]+𝑒 −𝛾𝑙 [𝑍𝑅 − 𝑍𝑂 ]

𝑍𝑆 = 𝑍𝑂 [ ]
𝑒 𝛾𝑙 [𝑍𝑅 + 𝑍𝑂 ]−𝑒−𝛾𝑙 [𝑍𝑅 − 𝑍𝑂 ]
𝑍𝑅 − 𝑍𝑂
𝑒 𝛾𝑙 + 𝑒 −𝛾𝑙 [ ]
[𝑍𝑅 + 𝑍𝑂 ] 𝑍𝑅 + 𝑍𝑂
𝑍𝑆 = 𝑍𝑂 [𝑍 [ 𝑍𝑅 − 𝑍𝑂 ]
𝑅 + 𝑍𝑂 ] 𝑒 𝛾𝑙 − 𝑒 −𝛾𝑙 [ ]
𝑍𝑅 + 𝑍𝑂

𝑍 −𝑍
𝑒 𝛾𝑙 + 𝑒 −𝛾𝑙 [𝑍𝑅 + 𝑍𝑂 ]
𝑅 𝑂
𝑍𝑆 = 𝑍𝑂 [ 𝑍 − 𝑍 ]
𝑒 𝛾𝑙 − 𝑒 −𝛾𝑙 [ 𝑅 𝑂 ]
𝑍𝑅 + 𝑍 𝑂

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𝑍𝑅 − 𝑍𝑂
K=
𝑍𝑅 + 𝑍𝑂

𝑒 𝛾𝑙 + 𝑒 −𝛾𝑙 𝐾
𝑍𝑆 = 𝑍𝑂 [ ]
𝑒 𝛾𝑙 − 𝑒 −𝛾𝑙 𝐾

The above equation is interms of 𝑍𝑂 and reflection coefficient.

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WAVELENGTH AND VELOCITY OF PROPAGATION

WAVELENGTH:

The distance with which the wave changes its phase by 2π radians is known as
wavelength.
The distance the wave travels along the line where the phase angle is changing
to 2π radians is known as wavelength.
It is denoted by λ,
2π
λ= ……(1)
𝛽

and also we know,

𝑣
λ=
𝑓

v = λ.f
v- velocity
f- frequency
2π
v= .f
𝛽
ω
v= ………(2)
𝛽
2π
[λ= ]
𝛽

[ω = 2πf ]
VELOCITY OF PROPAGATION:
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The velocity of propagation along the line depends on the change in the phase
along the line. Therefore, this velocity is called phase velocity or wave velocity.
𝑉 𝐼
γ = ln ( 1 ) = ln ( 1 )
𝑉2 𝐼2

In general,
γ = α+jβ
γ =√𝑍𝑌 …………(1)
where,
Z = R+jωL
Y = G+jωC ………(2)
Sub equ (2) in equ (1)
γ =√(𝑅 + 𝑗𝜔𝐿)(𝐺 + 𝑗𝜔𝐶 )

γ =√𝑅𝐺 + 𝑗𝜔𝑅𝐶 + 𝑗𝜔𝐿𝐺 − 𝜔 2 𝐿𝐶

α+jβ =√𝑅𝐺 − 𝜔 2 𝐿𝐶 + 𝑗(𝜔𝑅𝐶 + 𝜔𝐿𝐺 )

Squaring on both sides,
(α + jβ)2 = 𝑅𝐺 − 𝜔2 𝐿𝐶 + 𝑗(𝜔𝑅𝐶 + 𝜔𝐿𝐺 )
α2 + β2 – 2jαβ = 𝑅𝐺 − 𝜔2 𝐿𝐶 + 𝑗(𝜔𝑅𝐶 + 𝜔𝐿𝐺 )
Equating real and imaginary parts,
α2 + β2 = 𝑅𝐶 − 𝜔2 𝐿𝐺 ………(3)
2αβ = 𝜔𝑅𝐶 + 𝜔𝐿𝐺
2αβ = 𝜔 (𝑅𝐶 + 𝐿𝐺 ) ……….(4)
From equ (3),
α2 = 𝑅𝐺 − 𝜔2 𝐿𝐶 + β2 ………(5)
Squaring equ (4),
4α2 β2 = 𝜔2 (𝑅𝐶 + 𝐿𝐺 )2 ………(6)
Sub equ (5) in equ (6)
4(𝑅𝐺 − 𝜔2 𝐿𝐶 + β2 )β2 = 𝜔2 (𝑅𝐶 + 𝐿𝐺 )2

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4(𝑅𝐺β2 − 𝜔2 𝐿𝐶 β2 + β4 ) = 𝜔2 (𝑅𝐶 + 𝐿𝐺 )2
𝜔2
𝑅𝐺β2 − 𝜔2 𝐿𝐶 β2 + β4 = (𝑅𝐶 + 𝐿𝐺 )2
4
𝜔2
𝑅𝐺β2 − 𝜔2 𝐿𝐶 β2 + β4 - (𝑅𝐶 + 𝐿𝐺 )2 = 0
4
𝜔2
β4 + β2 (𝑅𝐺 − 𝜔2 𝐿𝐶 ) - (𝑅𝐶 + 𝐿𝐺 )2 = 0 …….(7)
4

The above equation os of the form of a𝑥 4 +b𝑥 2 +c = 0

−𝑏±√𝑏2 −4𝑎𝑐
𝑥2=
2𝑎
𝜔2
a=1, b= 𝑅𝐺 − 𝜔2 𝐿𝐶 , c= - (𝑅𝐶 + 𝐿𝐺 )2
4
ω2
−(RG− ω2 LC)±√(RG− ω2 LC)2 −4 (− (RC+LG)2 )
2 4
β =
2

Neglect the negative value,

(ω2 LC−RG )+√(RG− ω2 LC)2 + (ω2 (RC+LG)2 )
β2 =
2

(ω2 LC−RG)+√(RG− ω2 LC)2 +(ω2 (RC+LG)2 )

β=√ ……..(8)
2

Sub β2 value in equ (5),

(ω2 LC−RG)+√(RG− ω2 LC)2 +(ω2 (RC+LG)2 )
α2 = RG − ω2 LC+ ( )
2

2 (RG−ω2 LC)+ (ω2 LC−RG)+√(RG− ω2 LC)2 +(ω2 (RC+LG)2 )

α2 =
2
(RG−ω2 LC)+√(RG− ω2 LC)2 +(ω2 (RC+LG)2 )
α2 =
2

(RG−ω2 LC)+√(RG− ω2 LC)2 +(ω2 (RC+LG)2 )

α=√ ……(9)
2

In a perfectly matched line R=0 and G=0,

Sub the above condition in β.
From equ (8),
(ω2 LC)+√(− ω2 LC)2
β=√
2

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β = ω √LC
The velocity of propagation of a ideal line is,
ω
v=
β
ω
v=
ω √LC
1
v=
√LC

The velocity of propagation is constant for a given L and C.

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