Seismic Microzonation: the Indian Scene

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Seismic Microzonation: the Indian Scene

PRABHAS PANDE1* and IMTIYAZ AHMED PARVEZ2
1Geological 2CSIR

Survey of India, Lucknow Division, Lucknow Centre of Mathematical Modelling, NAL Campus, Bangalore earthquakes (Dasgupta et al., 2000). Nearly 56% of the subcontinent is prone to different levels of seismic hazard. This is amply demonstrated by the fact that more than 650 earthquakes in excess of M 5 have been recorded in India in the last one century. The earthquakes of 1819 Kutch, 1897 Great Assam, 1905 Kangra, 1934 and 1988 Bihar-Nepal, 1950 Assam, 1991 Uttarkashi, 1993 Killari, 2001 Bhuj and 2005 Kashmir inflicted heavy damages over very large areas. In the Seismic Zoning Map of India (BIS, 2002), nearly 28% of the countrys area falls within the high hazard zones of IV and V. Some of the important cities falling in these hazard classes include Shillong, Srinagar, Guwahati, Agartala, Aizawal, Imphal, Itanagar, Kohima, Port Blair, Bhuj, Delhi, Chandigarh, Dehradun, Jammu and Patna. With most of these urban agglomerations located over Quaternary deposits, where there is every likelihood of amplification of ground motions in the event of a near-or-far source earthquake, the seismic risk factor is greatly compounded. Over the years, most of the urban complexes in India have undergone a phenomenal growth for various socioeconomic reasons. Thus, the vulnerability of our cities different hazards has also increased considerably, necessitating a proper hazard evaluation, particularly of the highpopulation-density urban centers lying in higher seismic zones. Consequently, a scientifically assessment of the hazard and risk scenario faced for the urban agglomerations, particularly those, where numerous elements are at risk. Seismic microzonation, thus, is a principal component of pre-disaster mitigation effort. In India, the seismic hazard and risk assessment studies of the urban complexes at micro level are now a decade and a half old. In this period, different Institutions and individuals have accomplished some basic work, particularly with regard to selection of appropriate scales of maps and development of methodology suitable in the Indian context, after carrying out-first level microzonation studies of nearly 15 urban complexes. There are now some 33 resource organisations and over 75 resource persons actively associated with microzonation work. The methodology, now broadly adopted, follows a multidisciplinary hierarchical approach, where the sequence of studies aims to generate parameters for source, travel path, ground characteristics and vulnerability, and draw inputs from the disciplines of geology, geophysics, seismology, geotechnical engineering, engineering seismology and anthropology. It is contemplated that seismic microzonation and risk assessment of some 38 urban centres, falling in Seismic Zones V, IV and III, would be completed in the coming years. A considerable amount of work has already been initiated in this direction. A resume of microzonation studies completed in some of the important urban complexes is given below.

INTRODUCTION The study of various strong earthquakes, world over, has demonstrated that the degree of damage to structures is influenced by the ground conditions that include the geotechnical properties of rocks and unconsolidated deposits, the geomorphic features and the tectonic fabric. Long back, John Milne (1898) on the basis of his study of the 1819 Japan earthquake had observed that ground motions were higher at sediment sites than on harder rocks. This site response factor was exemplified in case of the 19 September 1985 Mexico earthquake, originating in the west coast of Mexico. The effect of the seismic event was seen to be maximum 300 km away in the Mexico City, where a large number of 6 to 10 story buildings were destroyed and 10,000 people were killed. Less urbanised areas closer to the epicentre suffered modest damage. It was suggested that the heightened damage in the city was a result of amplification of certain frequencies of seismic waves passing through the sedimentary layers of the lakebed zone, over which the buildings were constructed. Other distinct site amplification effects are, the 1811-12 earthquakes of New Madrid sequence, 1906 - San Francisco, 1933 - Long Beach, 1988 - Spitak, 1989 - Loma Prieta. In India, 16 June 1819 Kachchh and 26 January 2001 Bhuj earthquakes produced site amplification effects 300 km away in the Cambay graben zone, with Quaternary deposits in a fault-controlled basin. Located in this NNW-SSE-trending geological structure, the cities of Ahmadabad, Bharuch and Surat witnessed an accentuated damage pattern. A particular class and type of buildings were affected to the maximum in certain zones in these cities (Pande and Kayal, 2003). Such anomalous site amplifications were also seen in the 1993 Killari, 1997 Jabalpur and 1999 Chamoli earthquakes. SEISMIC MICROZONATION STUDIES The Indian landmass, covering an area of about 3.2 million sq km, has three broad morphotectonic provinces, namely i) Himalaya and Tertiary mobile belt ii) Indo-Gangetic foredeep iii) Peninsular shield All of these areas are characterized by distinctive stratigraphic, tectonic and deep crustal features (Pande, 2005). The Himalaya marks the largest active continentcontinent collision zone that has witnessed four great earthquakes in a short time span of 53 years between 1897 and 1950. The Peninsular India is a mosaic of Archaean nucleus with peripheral Proterozoic mobile belts, Cretaceous volcanism and rift-drift Mesozoic passive coastal basins. This complex landmass with varied rheology behaves differently in response to far-field stress to generate intraplate
* E-mail: [email protected]

114 DELHI URBAN COMPLEX The Union territory of Delhi, spreading in an area of 1484 sq km and including an assemblage of 30 towns and 231 villages, is located at the fringe of Aravallis and IndoGangetic plain within Zone IV of the Seismic Zoning Map of India. The Delhi of today has seen a phenomenal growth after 1951, where the population has increased from 2 Million in 1951 to over 14 Million in 2001. The population density, of 271 persons/sq km some 100 years ago, stands at a staggering 9433 persons/sq. km in 2001, i.e. an increase of 35 times. The urban complex, with nearly 2.4 million housing units of various classes and an ever-increasing population, is becoming more and more vulnerable to various hazards, in which earthquakes occupy a significant place. Being the capital region, numerous buildings, structures and establishments of great strategic, social and cultural importance, apart from the habitation of millions of people, dot Delhis landscape. Such a landuse scenario, in conjunction with a high seismic hazard status, brings Delhi into a seismically high-risk bracket, for which a hazard evaluation at micro-level has been considered imperative. Geologically, the region is occupied by rocks of the Delhi system, represented by quartzite with intercalations of micaceous schist that protrude out in the form of ridges through a sprawling mantle of Quaternary deposits of Pleistocene and Holocene ages (Fig. 1). Physiographically, the region has been classified into four categories of i) Khadar (new alluvium), ii) Bangar (old alluvium) iii) Dabar (low lying) and iv) Kohi (rocky). The main drainage

Glimpses of Geoscience Research in India is provided by Yamuna River, which flows in a 35 km stretch in Delhi, forming 1.5 to 3 km wide flood plains. Several earthquakes of local and distant origins have affected Delhi time and again. Of this, the earthquake of 15th July 1720 of an estimated epicentral intensity of IX was the most destructive, in which some 1000 people are reported to have perished (Oldham, 1882). So far, at least five Institutions and individuals have attempted independently the microzonation of Delhi on different scales. The Geological Survey of India has completed the first level of the studies of an area of about 600 sq km of the capital region on the strength of the geotechnical database generated by the Department during 1970s (GSI, 2006). In this exercise, various maps, covering themes of geology, geomorphology, seismotectonics, soil classes, bed rock configuration, groundwater, were compiled on 1 : 50,000 scale. N-value maps at four different depth slices have been prepared from the data obtained from 121 boreholes drilled during the 1970s. However, shear wave velocity (Vs), a reliable index of ground motion amplification ability of a medium, was not measured. Hence, the average N-values at different locations have been converted into shear wave velocities, using the empirical relations proposed by Fumal and Tinsley (1985) for different soil groups. This way, shear wave velocities ranging from 189 to 476 m/sec have been obtained in the Quaternary deposits at different places. The average horizontal spectral amplification (AHSA) in period range of 0.4 to 2.0 seconds for strong motions has been determined by using the relation proposed by Borcherdt et al. (1991). This gives corresponding amplification values of 3.0, 2.5, 2.0 and 1.5 for Vs equal to 200, 240, 300 and 400 m/s, respectively. The highest Vs values come in the old alluvium areas like Punjabi Bagh, where as in the Sahibi Nazabgarh and Yamuna flood planes, the values fall below 200 m/sec. If the factor of impedance contrast is also applied, the amplification of ground motions would be 12.5 and 5, corresponding to Vs of 189 and 476 m/s, respectively. The actual amplification would, however, be less in field due to the damping effect imposed by the unconsolidated sediments. The resonance effect and predominant frequency have also been calculated using the simple relation of Vs/4H (H is thickness of soft sediment). Thus, for Vs in the range of 200-240 m/sec, resonant conditions for ground motion of 5-6 Hz would be created. Frequencies of 10 Hz or more have been obtained for Vs equal to 400 m/sec for the same depth range (Joshi et al., 2007). The derivative maps thus prepared on the basis of geotechnical data base, particularly of Nvalues, bedrock configuration and soil properties, have been broadly tested by recounting the site effects of near and far source earthquakes, which are available in a sketchy fashion only. Other Institutions have also derived the bedrock PGA values, predominant frequency, site amplification, shear wave velocity and liquefaction susceptibility for Delhi region. For a locality, say India Gate, the PGA Varies from 0.085 g to 0.226g and Vs30 from 250 to 1009 m/sec. The differences in the values of different attributes seem mainly due to different approaches used. The Earthquake Risk Evaluation Centre (EREC), Delhi is presently evaluating seismic hazard and risk in Delhi on 1:10,000 scale.

Fig. 1: Geological Map of Delhi

Seismic Microzonation: the Indian Scene DEHRADUN URBAN COMPLEX Dehradun city, with an area of about 70 sq km, is a fast-growing urban agglomeration because of its present status as the temporary capital of the newly formed State of Uttarakhand. The city is located in a synformal valley, occupied by Quaternary deposits, generally referred to as Doon gravels. The young valley has a history of accentuated seismic shaking, compared to the surrounding region. In case of the 1905 Great Kangra earthquake, the place formed an intensity-high of VIII. Similarly, during the 1991 Uttarkashi earthquake, the intensity at Dehradun was VI, a degree higher than the surrounding areas. Keeping in view the seismicity status and socio-political significance, the Geological Survey of India completed seismic microzonation studies of Dehradun urban complex and surrounding areas (Kandpal et al., 2007). The Precambrian rocks belonging to Chandpur and Nagthat Formations are exposed in the eastern and northeastern parts of the Doon valley, whereas Siwalik outcrops occur in the northern fringe. The Quaternary deposits of Dehradun, covering rest of the area, have been divided into five distinct units of i) Older Doon, ii) Younger Doon, iii) Clay Pockets (within Doon gravels), iv) Terrace Deposits, and v) Dip Slope Fans (Fig. 2). Resistivity soundings give characteristic values for different geological units. The most significant tectonic feature is the Main Boundary Thrust (MBT), surface trace of which makes a reentrant in the northeastern part of the town. MBT and some other structural discontinuities have shown activity in the Quaternary times. A total of 26 shallow boreholes were used to determine the geomechanical properties of different Quaternary units. Standard Penetration Test (SPT) at 217 depths was performed and N-values determined at 1.5 m interval in the finer fractions of the sediments. The N-values were used to compute the near surface, shear wave velocities. On a rough estimate, it is seen that Vs30 varies from 212 to 425 m/s, indicating corresponding ground amplification change from 3 to less than 1.5 times, with majority of the city area confined between 2 and 2.5 times amplification. The predominant frequency, derived on the basis of Vs30 values, varies from 1.7 to 3.7 Hz. The noise survey, adopting Nakamura technique, was conducted at 156 locations. The H/V curves suggest three distinct frequency ranges of 0.6-2.0 Hz (low frequency), 3-6 Hz (middle frequency) and 8-12 Hz (high frequency). The sediment characteristics and groundwater configuration put the city in non-liquefiable category. The Multi-Channel Analysis of Surface Waves (MASW), by the Wadia Institute of Himalayan Geology at 53 sites in Dehradun city, give shear wave velocity varying from 150 to 1000 m/sec with values of 220 m/sec prevailing at most of the sites (Mahajan, 2007). CHANDIGARH URBAN AGGLOMERATION The Union Territory of Chandigarh, comprising the Urban Complex, the Notified Area, Mani Majra and 22 villages, occupies an area of about 120 sq km. The City has a population of 900,914 people, a population density of 7,507

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Fig. 2: Geological Map of Dehradun persons/sq km, 244,134 housing units (2001 National Census). The City, located just south of the Himalayan Frontal Belt, has been included in Seismic Zone IV of the Seismic Zonation Map (2002), and, in the last one century, has experienced severe to moderate ground shaking during the 1905 Kangra, 1975 Kinnaur, 2001 Uttarkashi and 2005 Kashmir earthquakes. The Geological Survey of India has completed the firstlevel microzonation of Chandigarh,using a multi-parametric approach, in which inputs from geological, geophysical and seismological database have been used (Kandpal et al., 2008). The City is located over a thick sequence of clay, silt, sand and pebble of the Older Alluvium. It has been explored by 24 shallow boreholes, in which Standard Penetration Test was carried out at different depth sections and soil samples were taken for geomechanical tests. Electrical Resistivity soundings and Hammer Seismic survey delineated the characteristics of the subsurface strata. Microearthquake/Noise surveys were conducted at 130 locations to determine the predominant frequency and site amplification factor of the sedimentary units. Over 45 thematic and derivative maps have been prepared and the key inferences are summarized below.

The seismotectonic status Chandigarh is associated with seismic intensity VIII on MSK scale and has been categorized in High Hazard Zone in the Vulnerability Atlas of India (BMTPC, 2006). The geotechnical tests classify the strata of Chandigarh into Class D, (stiff soil) of the NEHRP Code Provisions. The shallow surface shear-wave velocity, empirically derived from N-values, varies from 216 to 305 m/s.

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Glimpses of Geoscience Research in India There is probability of liquefaction in the northwestern, western, central and southwestern parts of Chandigarh, including Sectors 15-17, 22-25, 32-39, etc. where the groundwater occurs at shallow depth, in case of strong seismic excitation. Predominant frequency and ground amplification vary from 0.6Hz to 1.66 Hz and 1.31 to 5.37 respectively. Maximum amplification of ground motions is expected in localities such as Jagatpura, Sectors 47-51 and near Kaimbwala. The minimum for these parameters occurs in the eastern part. The western Chandigarh, Mohali, Jagatpura, Sectors 47-51, 15, 38, Kaimbwala, etc., show the maximum damage potential, and the eastern part, including Panchakula, is in the minimum damage potential zone. The residual intensity map indicates that the lowest vulnerable areas are Mansa Devi Complex, Mani Majra, etc. The maximum intensity increment is expected in localities such as Jagatpura, Sectors 47-51, 38 amongst others. The predominant frequency map suggests that taller structures, particularly of 10 or higher storeys, would experience much greater resonance and, therefore, are likely to experience maximum damage, under the influence of large earthquakes. Short structures may get away with any pronounced resonance effect and, therefore, are relatively safer. iii) southern uplands with three high-level plateaux. The lithounits include Mahakoshal metamorphics, Madan Mahal Granite, Jungel equivalents, Gondwana, Lameta and the Deccan Traps. The Quaternary deposits dominate the northern part of the town and can be broadly classified into two categories of i) alluvial fill of Narmada and ii) soils developed over bedrock. The alluvial fill, has a thickness of 10 to 200 m, comprises Ramnagar Formation (Holocene) and Hirdepur, Baneta and Pilikarar Formations (Pleistocene). A total of 12 lithopackages, having characteristics of low and high impedance contrasts in near surface domain, have been identified (Misra et al., 2004). Consequent to the 1997 Jabalpur earthquake, the Department of Science and Technology, Government of India constituted a multi-Institutional group for carrying out Seismic Hazard and Risk Microzonation (SHRM) of the city complex. Organisations, viz, the Geological Survey of India, India Meteorological Department, National Geophysical Research Institute and Central Building Research Institute constituted the core of this study group. Standard Penetration Test at 94 locations down to 10 m depth assessed the geotechnical characteristics of Quaternary deposits. The SPT results indicated that the eastern suburban has high N (>20) values. In the central part, where the urban agglomeration exists, N values vary from 8 to 20. In the northern and northwestern sectors, Nvalues lie between 12 and 20. The corrected N-values were used to evaluate the liquefaction susceptibility on the basis of the concept proposed by Seeds and Idris (1982). Based on the structural association of the lithopackages, Jabalpur has been divided into three distinct parts, viz., i) the southeastern block of the effusive rocks overlying Gondwanas, ii) the central block with exhumed terrain, and iii) the northwestern block of thick Quaternary fill. Taking into consideration the lithological attributes, seismic rigidity, geomorphic associations and cover characteristics, 16 units of ground conditions have been identified in Jabalpur area in the first level of seismic microzonation studies. It is expected that the units would be showing uniform ground response pattern in case of seismic excitation. The response of the local sites in terms of ground amplification in the frequency range of 0.1-10 Hz has been obtained at more than 100 locations, using the conventional Nakamura technique. The peak amplification at Jabalpur ranges from 1 to 8 (Kumar and Rao, 2007). The shallow shear wave velocity structure was estimated at each of these locations using the MASW technique, coupled with refraction measurements over short profiles. Synthetic seismograms were generated using hybrid method comprising normal mode summation for the 1-dimensional structure and the finite difference approach for site-specific 2D structure of the medium. The alluvium filled region in the northwestern part of Jabalpur, showed the highest amplification, with Response Spectral Ratios (RSR) ranging from 4.0 to 6.0, predominantly in the frequency range of 4-5 Hz. The scenario earthquake for Jabalpur has been taken as M 6.5, H 30 km. The city has been classified into three hazard classes of i) High (amplification > 4), on basin margin of alluvial fill (> 200 m thickness) and weathered Mesozoic

The above findings caution that in Chandigarh, which is influenced by the Himalayan earthquakes, the design and construction of structures, particularly the highrise, should strictly adhere to the Seismic Design Codes. The Central Building Research Institute, Roorkee has also assessed the liquefaction potential of Chandigarh city, using the approach proposed by Youd et al., 2001 (Dharmaraju et al., 2007). This study classifies the city into high, moderate, low and nil susceptibility levels. JABALPUR URBAN COMPLEX Jabalpur town, with a population of 1,2 million and population density of 100 persons/sq km, lies in the central part of the Son-Narmada-Tapti lineament (SONATA) zone. This is bounded by the Narmada graben in the north and Tapti graben in the south. The SONATA incorporates EW to ENE-WSW-trending faults such as Son-Narmada North and South faults (SNSF), Gavilgarh fault, Tan shear, Central Indian shear, Chhegaon-Makhan fault, Barwani-Sukta fault, Satpura South fault, etc. Episodic reactivation along these structural discontinuities, particularly SNSF, has been the cause of historical and present-day seismicity in the Central Indian Tectonic Zone. In a radius of 60 km around Jabalpur, a total of 60 seismic events have so far been recorded, of which the earthquake of 22 May 1997 of M 6.0 has been the most powerful. The macroseismic data of the earthquake demonstrate strong directivity, energy focusing and selective site amplification. The Jabalpur urban area comprises three distinct geomorphic units of i) northern and northwestern alluvial fill, ii) central pediplain with residual hills and tors, and

Seismic Microzonation: the Indian Scene sediments with soil cover, where accentuated intensity might be IX, ii) Moderate, on the margins of alluvial fill (> 20 m thickness) and weathered Mesozoic, Mahakoshal and Deccan Trap, where intensity accentuation could be up to VII, and iii) Low, on Deccan Trap undulating plain. By integrating the Hazard Map with the Vulnerability Map on a GIS platform, a Seismic Risk Map has been generated, which has also three classes of High, Moderate and Low. GUWAHATI URBAN COMPLEX Guwahati, is located in the Brahmaputra valley, that serves as a divide between the tectonic grains of the Himalayan mobile belt in the north and the Meghalaya plateau in the south The landscape is immature and dominated by a drowned topography. Recent studies suggest the presence of several active faults in the region with distinct seismological and morphotectonic signatures. Major earthquakes affecting Guwahati include that of 1897 Great Assam, 1918 Srimangal, 1930 Dhubri, 1950 Assam, 1988 Indo-Burma and 1997 south of Dauki fault. The bedrock at Guwahati comprises Precambrian granite-gneiss and migmatite, which, at places is concealed under a cover of Quaternary deposits. The northern flank of Brahmaputra has the maximum alluvial cover of 100 m. Maximum thickness of the order of 500 m of the Quaternary sediments occurs in Dalibari area. Landslide incidences are concentrated in the central part of the city. Kalapahar and Dhirenpara localities have the maximum slope- instability zones. The Department of Science and Technology, Government of India took up seismic microzonation of Guwahati urban complex in a multi-institutional mode in 2003. The main collaborators were the Geological Survey of India, IIT-Roorkee, Kharagpur and Guwahati, Assam Engineering College, DGM-Assam, CGWB, RRL-Jorhat, IMD and AMTRON (Govt. of Assam). The work-component included generation of various thematic maps such as that of geology, geomorphology, landuse, bedrock contour, landslide hazard, seismotectonics, etc. on 1:25,000 scale, apart from site response studies, geotechnical assessment of the substrata, compilation of database, estimation of scenario earthquake magnitude and site amplification, etc. (DST Report, 2007). A total of 200 boreholes were drilled for geotechnical characteristics. The ambient noise survey by Nakamura ratio technique was conducted at 141 locations. A scenario of earthquake of Mw 8.7, nucleating in the near-source region of the 1897 Great Assam earthquake, has been considered for Guwahati. On the basis of the microzonation study, five hazard classes have been identified in the city. The very high-hazard zone comes under site class IIIA where average Vs 30 has value of 228 m/s, site amplification larger than 5.5, predominant frequency 1.15 Hz and PGA greater than 0.81g. Geologically, this zone constitutes the active flood plain with pediment, Sonapur surface and patches of Boradang surface and includes the western Guwahati. The high hazard zone comes under site class IIIB, where average Vs30 has value of 260 m/s, predominant frequency 2.93 Hz, site amplification 4.81 and PGA 0.52g. Moderate hazard zone comes under site class IIIC, having average Vs30 as 296 m/s, predominant frequency 5.41 Hz, site amplification 3.1 and PGA 0.38g. Low and very

117 low hazard zones have been included under site class IIID, where average Vs30 is 340 m/s, predominant frequency 7.1 Hz, site amplification 1.5 and PGA 0.11g. A preliminary seismic population risk map has also been prepared by integrating microzonation and demographic distribution. AHMADABAD CITY The city, located on the banks of Sabarmati River 100 km north of the Gulf of Khambhat, was founded in 1411 AD by Sultan Ahmad Shah. Ahmadabad has a population density of 567 persons/sq km. The agglomeration is located in the Cambay graben that is occupied by 400 m thick Quaternary sediments. Though falling in Zone III of the Seismic Zoning Map of India, the city has been severely jolted by the distant Kutch earthquakes of 1819 and 2001. In case of the latter, some 120 taller structures collapsed, in which 718 people lost their lives (Pande and Kayal, 2003). This vulnerability of the urban complex under the influence of long period seismic waves, as well as its importance as a rapidly growing commercial centre has necessitated a deeper understanding of the site characteristics on seismic excitation. REFERENCES
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Kumar, M.R. and Rao, P., 2007, Microzonation. Workshop, Bangalore. P. 7-8. Mahajan, A.K., 2007, Application of Multi-channel Analysis of Surface Waves (MASW) for seismic microzonation: a case study of Dehradun city. Microzonation. Workshop, Bangalore. p. 105-106. Milne, J., 1898, Seismology, first Ed., Kegan Paul, Trench, Trube, London. Misra, P.S., Pimprikar, S.D., Das, M.C., Venkatraman, N.V. and Srirama, B.V., 2004, Project Report: Seismic hazard risk microzonation. Geol. Surv. India unpublished report. Oldham, T., 1882, A catalogue of Indian earthquakes from the earliest times to the end of A.D. 1869. Mem.Geol. Surv. India. Vol. XIX, Pt. 3, p. 169-170. Pande P., 2005, Seismic microzonation: the Indian initiative. Symposium on Seismic Hazard Analysis and Microzonation, Roorkee, Proceedings, v. 1, p. 1-18.

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Pande, P., and Kayal, J.R. (eds.), 2003, Kutch (Bhuj) Earthquake: 26 January 2001. Geol. Surv. India Spec. Publ. No. 76, 282 pp. Seeds, H.B. and Idriss, I.M., 1982, Ground motions and soil liquefaction during earthquakes. Earthquake Engineering Research Investigations Monograph, 134p. BMTPC (2006). Vulnerability Atlas of India, First Revision. Govt. of India Publication. Youd, T.L., Idriss, I.M., Andrus, R.D., Arango, I, Castro, G., Christian, J.T., Dobry, R., Finn, W.D.L., Hardes, L.F., Hynes, M.E., Ishihara, K., Koester, J.P., Liao, S.S.C, Marcuson, W.F., Martin, G.R., Mitchell, J.K., Moriwati, Y.Power, M.S., Roberson, P.K., Seed, R.B. and Stokoe, K.H., 2001, Liquefaction resistance of Soils: Summery report from the 1996 NCEER and 1998 NCEER/NSF workshops on evaluation of liquefaction resistance of soils: J. Geotech. Geoenv. Eng., v. 127, p. 817-833.