CHAPTER:11 DUAL NATURE OF RADIATION AND MATTER PUC-2

INTRODUCTION: Light exhibits the phenomenon like reflection, refraction, interference,

diffraction and polarisation. These all phenomenon can be explained by treating light as a
wave. Light also exhibits phenomenon such as Photoelectric effect, Compton effect and
Raman effect. These all phenomenon can be explained by treating light as a particle in the
form of quanta or photon (small energy packet).

Light exhibits two natures, some time it behaves as a particle and some time it behaves as
wave. This is called dual nature or duality of light.

ELECTRON EMISSION: Electrons are the common constituent particles of all atoms and
materials. Within a materials these electrons held by an electromagnetic forces. So they can’t
come out from the materials by themselves. They need an external energy to come out from
the materials. By proper supply of an external energy to these electrons they made to come
out from the materials.

“The process of removal or liberation of an electron from the metal surface by supply of
proper external energy is called electron emission”. Based on the way of supply of an
external energy to the electrons, electron emission is classified into four types as follows;

1. Thermionic emission: The process of emission of electron from a material due to the
supplied heat energy is called thermionic emission. As the temperature of the metal
increases, the average kinetic energy of free electrons moving towards the surface of material
also increases. When supplied heat energy is greater than work function (minimum energy
required by an electron to come out from metal surface) then electrons will come out from
the metal surface.

2. Photoelectric emission: The process of emission of electron from a material due to the
incidence of light of suitable frequency is called photoelectric emission. When light of
suitable frequency falls on a metal surface, the electrons present in it will absorb this
supplied light energy and comes out from the metal surface.

3. Field emission: The process of emission of electron by the application of very strong
electric field at the surface of metal is called field emission.

4. Secondary emission: The process of emission of electron from a metal surface by the
bombardment of fast moving electron is called secondary emission.

WORK FUNCTION (∅𝒐 ): “The minimum energy required to remove the electron from a
metal surface is called work function”. The value of work function depends on the
properties of the metal and nature of its surface.

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THRESHOLD FREQUENCY (𝝂𝒐 ): “The minimum frequency of incident light below
which photo electric effect does not takes place is called threshold frequency”.

THRESHOLD WAVELENGTH (𝝀𝒐 ): “ The maximum wavelength of incident light above

which photo electric effect does not takes place is called as threshold wavelength”.

HERTZ’S OBSERVATIONS: The photoelectric effect was discovered in 1887 by

Heinrich Hertz. During his electromagnetic wave experiment, he observed that when emitter
plate was illuminated by ultra violet light there was a spark across detector loop. It means
plate emits electrons when light falls on it.

HALLWACH’S and LENARD’S OBSERVATIONS: Lenard observed that when

ultraviolet radiations were falling on emitter plate (metal), it was emitting the electrons. If
light will not fall on metal plate then it will not emit electrons. Hallwach observed that when
zinc plate was illuminated by ultraviolet radiation it emits electrons. Both were observed that
incident light has to carry a minimum frequency then only electrons will emit. That
minimum frequency below which there is no emission of electrons is called threshold
frequency.

EXPERIMENTAL STUDY OF PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT:

The above diagram represents the experimental arrangement to study photoelectric effect.
It consists of an evacuated glass tube in which photo emissive plate (cathode) and collector
plate (anode) are enclosed. The negative terminal of the battery is connected to the cathode
and positive terminal is connected to anode. Light rays from source are passing through the
quartz window and they are falling on cathode. The electrons present in the cathode plate
absorb this light energy and they come out from the cathode plate. Like this electrons are
coming out from the cathode plate. Anode plate is attracting these emitted electrons and
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making them to flow. These emitted electrons are called photoelectrons and current due to
their flow is called photoelectric current.

EXPERIMENTAL OBSERVATIONS OF PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT:

➢ The photoelectric effect is instantaneous process. There is no time delay between

arrival of photon and emission of electron. When photon falls on metal, electron
present near surface absorbs that photon energy and it comes out from the metal
surface.
➢ For every photo emissive surface there is a minimum frequency below which there is
no emission of electrons. That minimum frequency is called threshold frequency. This
threshold frequency depends on the nature of metal surface.
➢ The photoelectric current is directly proportional to the intensity of incident light. As
intensity increases the number of photons arriving on metal plate increases. So more
number of electrons coming out from the metal surface and giving the more
photoelectric current.

➢ Stopping potential or Cut off voltage (𝑽𝒐 ): For one particular negative potential
applied across anode, all electrons are just stopped on reaching the anode. That
particular negative potential is called stopping potential. Stopping potential is not
depending on the intensity of incident light. As intensity of light increases, only the
photon number increases not there carrying kinetic energy. So no need to change the
stopping potential.

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 ➢ Stopping potential is directly depends on frequency of incident light. As frequency of
incident light increases, energy carried by light also increases. Electrons absorbs this
more energy and comes out from metal surface with more kinetic energy. To stop
these electrons there is a need of more stopping potential. It means as frequency
increases stopping potential also increases.

EINSTEIN’S PHOTOELECTRIC EQUATION: According to Einstein, one electron is

emitted from metal surface if one photon of suitable frequency is incident on the metal
surface. Suppose a photon of suitable frequency (greater than threshold frequency of the
metal) is incident on the metal, then the carried energy E=h𝜈 of each photon is spent in two
ways. Some part of photon energy is used in removing the electron from metal surface (work
function) and the remaining energy is being with electron in the form of kinetic energy.

Energy of photon = kinetic energy + work function

E = h𝝂 = KE + ∅𝒐 or KE = h𝝂 - ∅𝒐 = h𝝂 - h𝝂𝒐

PARTICLE NATURE OF LIGHT: According to the phenomenon like photoelectric

effect, Raman effect and Compton effect, the light consists of the small energy packets
which travels in straight line with a speed of light called photons or quanta.

Properties of photons:

➢ Photons travel with the speed of light.

➢ Photons are electrically neutral. So that they are not deflected by electric and magnetic
field.
➢ Energy of each photon is E = h𝜈 where; h →Planck’s constant & 𝜈 → frequency of
light
➢ Photons possesses mass only when they are in motion.
➢ The rest mass of photon is zero.

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 ℎ ℎ
➢ The momentum of photon is p = mc = c=
𝑐𝜆 𝜆

WAVE NATURE OF MATTER: The radiation or energy (light) has dual nature. The
French physicist Louis de Broglie said, this universe is composed (made) by radiation and
matter. Universe is giving symmetry to everything so if radiation has dual nature means
matter also should be with wave nature. He said moving material particles are also having
wave nature.

de Broglie hypothesis: A moving material particle (moving electron) some time act as a
particle and some time act as a wave. It means that also exhibiting dual nature. “The wave
associated with moving material particle is called matter wave or de Broglie wave”. The
wavelength of matter waves called de Broglie wavelength.

According to Max planck’s quantum theory, each photon carrying an energy and that is
𝑐
equal to E=h𝜈=h ------------------------> (1)
𝜆

According to Einstein theory of relativity we can write as follows;

E = m𝑐 2 -----------------------> (2)

By comparing equation (1) & (2) we can write as follows;

𝑐
h = m𝑐 2
𝜆
ℎ ℎ 𝒉
𝜆= = ∴ 𝝀= -----------> expression for de Broglie wavelength.
𝑚𝑐 𝑝 𝒑

Note: According to above equation we can say that the de Broglie wavelength (𝜆) is smaller
for heavier bodies or for more energetic bodies (large speed). That’s why macroscopic
objects in our daily life do not show wave like properties.

de Broglie wavelength of an electron: Let us consider an electron which is at rest is

accelerated through a potential difference of ‘V’ volt and it gains velocity ‘v’. If ‘m’ and ‘e’
are the mass and charge of an electron, then the work done by an electric field (battery) on
electron is, Work = e V = kinetic energy of electron

1 2 1 2 𝑚 𝑚2 𝑣 2 𝑝2
KE = m𝑣 = m𝑣 x = =
2 2 𝑚 2𝑚 2𝑚

𝑝2 = 2m KE

p = √2m KE

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 ℎ ℎ ℎ
The de Broglie wavelength of an electron is, 𝜆 = = =
𝑝 √2m KE √2m eV

𝟏𝟐.𝟐𝟕 𝑨𝒐
By substituting all the values we will get, 𝝀 =
√𝐕

DAVISSON and GERMER EXPERIMENT:

The above experimental arrangement consists of a tungsten filament ‘F’ which is coated with
barium oxide. On heating this filament by passing current through it, it will emit more
number of electrons. These emitted electrons are attracted by the anode which is connected
to high voltage battery. All accelerated electrons are going and hitting the nickel target.
Nickel target is absorbing all these electrons and reemitting them in all directions around it.
The detector is used to measure the intensity of electron beam scattered in a given direction.

The experiment was performed by varying accelerating voltage from 44V to 68Volt. It
was noticed that a strong peak of intensity of electron appeared for an accelerating voltage of
54Volt at scattering angle 𝜃=50𝑜 . The appearance of high intensity peak in a particular
direction is due to constructive interference of electron scattered from different layers of
regularly spaced atoms of the nickel crystal. From the electron diffraction measurements, the
wavelength of matter waves was found to be 1.65𝐴𝑜 and wavelength associated with electron
12.27 𝐴𝑜 12.27 𝐴𝑜
for V= 54volt is, 𝜆 = = = 1.67 𝐴𝑜 this shows that there is a close
√V √54
agreement with estimated value of de Broglie and the experimental value determined by
Davisson & Germer experiment. This proves the existence of the wave nature of moving
electron. Conclusion or outcome of Davisson & Germer experiment is wave nature of
moving electron.

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