1

Lesson 3 – Thermodynamic Properties

Thermodynamic Properties
A thermodynamic property is any characteristic of a system whose
numerical value depends only on the thermodynamic equilibrium state of the system
and is dependent of how the state was attained.
Thermodynamic property (or simply property) refers to any measurable
characteristic of a system. There are two classes of thermodynamic properties:
extensive and intensive.
Extensive property refers to the properties of a substance that depends on
the amount of the substance. Some examples are mass, volume, area, energy etc.
Intensive property refers to the properties of a substance that do not depend
on the amount of substance. Some examples are temperature, pressure, density,
etc.

1) Force (F)
Force is any influence that tend to change the state at rest or in motion of
the body.
The SI unit of force is Newton(N).
According to the Newton’s Second Law of Motion, “the force acting on a
body is proportional to the product of mass and acceleration”.
Mathematically,
F α ma
𝑚𝑎
F= , where k is a proportionality constant
𝑘

When the constant of proportionality is equal to unity, thus it can be

expressed as,
F = ma
where m is the mass in kilograms, and a is the acceleration in m/s 2
The relation between kilogram force (kgf ) and Newton (N) is
1kgf = 9.8066 N

Since 1 kg force accelerates 1 kg mass at 9.8066 m/s2

In English system, the relationship between pound mass (lbm) and slug is
1 slug = 32.174 lbm
A poundal is a unit of force that produces unit acceleration in a body of unit mass.
1 poundal = (1 lbm)(1 ft/s2)
 2

SAMPLE PROBLEM
Example:
Determine the force in Newtons of an object whose mass is 2,000 kg.
Given: m= 2,000 kg
Required: mass in Newtons (N)
Solution:
F = ma
The standard value of acceleration due to gravity at the earth’s surface is 9.8066
m/s2 or simply 9.81 m/s2, thus,
F = 2,000 kgf or
F = 2000 kgm (9.81m/s2)
F =19,620 N or 19.62KN
2. Weight (W) and mass (m)
The force acted by the body with respect to the earth’s surface is the weight.
The mass of a body refers to the absolute quantity of matter in it while the
weight of the body refers to the force of gravity on the body.
Mathematically,
W = mg
where, m is the mass in kg and g is the acceleration due to gravity equal to
9.81 m/s2 (in SI units).

SAMPLE PROBLEMS
Example 1:
What is the weight of the man of 60 kg mass at standard condition?
Given:
m = 60 kgm
Required:
W
Solution:
W = mg
= 60 kgm (9.81 m/s2)
W = 588.6 N or
W = 60 kgf
 3

Example 2:
What is the weight of the man 145 lbm at standard condition?
Given:
m = 145 lbm
Required:
W
Solution:
W = mg
In English system, a mass should be in pound mass (lbm) and g is 32.174 ft/s2 to
obtain a unit of poundal, thus,
W = 145 lbm (32.174 ft/s2)
W = 4,665.23 poundal or
W = 145 lbf
3. Density, Specific Volume, Specific Weight and Specific Gravity
Density (ρ) is defined as the mass per unit volume.
Mathematically,
𝑚
ρ = 𝑉

where, ρ is the density in kg/m3, m is the mass in kg and V is the volume in

m3

Specific volume (𝜈) is the volume of a unit mass.

𝑉 1
𝜈= =ρ
𝑚

Weight density / specific weight (ɣ) of any substance is the force of gravity on unit
volume.
𝑊
𝛾= 𝑜𝑟 𝛾 = 𝜌𝑔
𝑉

where γ is the specific weight in N/m3, W is the weight in N and V is the volume
in m3

Specific gravity is the density of the substance relative to that of water. This is also
known as relative density. Water is considered the standard substance which has a
maximum density at 40C. Mathematically,

density of substance
specific gravity = density of water
 4

The specific gravity of water at its dense condition (40C) is exactly 1.000
Density of water at standard condition = 1000 kg/m 3

SAMPLE PROBLEMS
Example 1:
How many kilograms of air are in your room? Assume your room is 10m x10mx 3m.
The density of air at sea level is about1.3 kg/m 3.
Given: V = 10m x 10m x 3m = 300 m3
ρ = 1.3 kg/m3
Required: m
𝑚
Solution: ρ = 𝑉

m = ρV
m = 1.3 kg/m3 (300 m3)
m = 390 kg

Example 2:
How much is the mass of a 2Liter of gasoline whose density is 800 kg/m 3?
Given:
V = 2Liter
1000 𝑐𝑚3 1𝑚
= 2 Liter x x (100 𝑐𝑚)3
1 𝐿𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑟
 5

= 2x10-3 m3
ρ = 800 kg/m3
Required: m
Solution:
m = ρV
m = 800 kg/m3 (2x10-3 m3)
m = 1.6 kg
4. Pressure (𝜬)

Pressure is the force exerted over an area and is measured in Pascals (Pa).
F
𝛲=
A

where;
𝛲 = pressure
F = force
A = area

Other units of Pressure

1 atm = 101.325 KPa
= 14.7 psi
= 29.92 in. Hg
= 760 mm Hg
= 760 torr
= 1.01325 bar
= 1.033 kg/cm2

Pressure in Fluids

As the depth of a material in a fluid increased, the pressure in the fluid also
increased.

Supposing a container with an altitude of h and cross-sectional area A is filled

with a fluid with a density ρ. The volume of the tank is V=Ah and the weight of the
fluid it contains is,
W = mg = ρVg = ρgAh

The pressure of the fluid it exerts on the bottom of the tank is,
 6

𝐹 𝑊
𝛲𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 = = = ρgh
𝐴 𝐴

The total pressure within a fluid will be the sum of the pressure of the fluid and the

pressure of the environment, thus,

P = P external + ρgh

The pressure discussed above is absolute pressure. Pressure measuring

devices indicate the difference between the absolute pressure of the system and
the absolute pressure of the atmosphere outside the measuring devices. The
magnitude of the difference is called the gage pressure or the vacuum pressure.
When the gage pressure is applied to the system it is greater than the atmospheric
pressure,

Pgage = Pabs - Patm

When the atmospheric pressure is greater than the pressure of the system,
the vacuum pressure is used.

Pvacuum = Patm – Pabs

SAMPLE PROBLEMS

Example 1:

Convert 100 psig to psia and atm.

Given:
P = 100 psig

Required:
P in psia and atm
Solution:
Pgage = Pabs - Patm
Pabs = Patm + Pgage
Since Patm = 14.7 psi, then
Pabs = 14.7 psi +100 psi
Pabs = 114.7 psi
Solving for P in atm
1 atm
Pgage = 100 psig x = 6.80 atm
14.7 psi
 7

Example 2:
Convert 15 inHg vacuum to inHg abs and to psia.
Given:
P = 15 in Hg vacuum
Required:
P in Hg abs and psia
Solution:
Pvacuum = Patm – Pabs
15 in Hg = 29.92 in Hg -Pabs
Pabs = 14.92 in Hg abs

In psia,
14.7 psi
Pabs = 14.92 in Hg x29.92 in Hg = 7.33 psia

Example 3:
A vacuum gauge mounted on a condenser reads 0.66m Hg. What is the absolute
pressure in the condenser in KPa when the atmospheric pressure is 101.3 KPa
Solution:
Pabs = Patm + Pgage
Pabs = Patm – Pvacuum
101.3 𝐾𝑃𝑎
= 101.3 KPa – 0.66m Hg x 0.76𝑚 𝐻𝑔

Pabs = 13.3 KPa

Example 4:
Convert the following readings of pressure to KPa absolute, assuming that the
barometer reads 760 mm Hg: a) 90 cm Hg gage; b) 40 cm Hg vacuum; c) 100 psig
d) 8 in. Hg vacuum, and e) 76 in. Hg gage
Given:
Patm = 760 mm Hg
= 101.325 KPa
= 14.7 psi
= 29.92 in. Hg
 8

Solution:
10 𝑚𝑚 101.325 𝐾𝑃𝑎
a) Pgage = 90 cm Hg x 1 𝑐𝑚 760 𝑚𝑚 𝐻𝑔

Pgage = 119.99 KPa

Pabs = Patm + Pgage
= 101.325 KPa + 119.99 KPa
Pabs = 221. 32 KPa
10 𝑚𝑚 101.325 𝐾𝑃𝑎
b) Pvacuum = 40 cm Hg x x
1 𝑐𝑚 760 𝑚𝑚 𝐻𝑔

Pvacuum = 53.33 KPa

Pabs = Patm – Pvacuum
= 101.325 KPa – 53.33 KPa
Pabs = 48 KPa

c) Pgage = 100 psi

101.325 KPa
= 100 psi x 14.7 psi

Pgage = 689.29 KPa

Pabs = Patm + Pgage
= 101.325 KPa + 689.29 KPa
Pabs = 790.61 KPa
d) Pvacuum = 8 in. Hg
101.325 𝐾𝑃𝑎
= 8 in. Hg x
29.92 𝑖𝑛. 𝐻𝑔

Pvacuum = 27.09 KPa

Pabs = Patm – Pvacuum
= 101.325 KPa – 27.09 KPa
Pabs = 74. 24 KPa
e) Pgage = 76 in. Hg
101.325 𝐾𝑃𝑎
= 76 in. Hg x 29.92 𝑖𝑛. 𝐻𝑔

Pgage = 257.38 KPa

Pabs = Patm + Pgage
= 101.325 KPa + 257.38 KPa
Pabs = 358.70 KPa
 9

5. Temperature
Temperature is an indication or degree of hotness and coldness and
therefore a measure of the intensity of heat.
Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics states that, “If two thermodynamic systems
are separately in thermal equilibrium with a third, they are also in thermal
equilibrium with each other.” It is assumed from this law that if we want to know
the temperature of the two bodies separately in thermal equilibrium with each
other, it is necessary for it to be in thermal equilibrium with the third body. This
third body is usually a thermometer.
The four Temperature Scales
1. Celcius or Centigrade - named after Swedish astronomer, Anders
Celcius.
The freezing point is 00C and the boiling point is 1000C of water.
2. Fahrenheit - named after German physicist Gabriel Daniel Fahrenheit.
The freezing point is 320F and the boiling point is 2120F of water.
3. Kelvin - named after British mathematician Lord Kelvin also known as
Sir William Thomson Kelvin. He introduced the concept of absolute zero
at 0K, the lowest possible temperature and that is the zero of his scale.
4. Rankine -named after the British engineer and physicist William J. M.
Rankine
Conversion Formulas:
9
t 0F = 𝑡0C + 32, degrees Centigrade
5
5
t 0C = (t0F-32), degrees Fahrenheit
9

T0R = t0F + 460, degrees Rankine

TK = t0C +273, Kelvin
Absolute temperature is the temperature measured from absolute zero.
Absolute zero is the temperature at which all molecular motion ceases.
Absolute temperature will be denoted by T
Degrees Fahrenheit (0F) and degrees Centigrade (0C) indicate temperature
reading (t). Fahrenheit degrees (F0) and Centigrade degrees (C0) indicate
temperature change or difference (Δt).
5
1 F0 = C0
9
9
1C0 = F0
5
 10

It follows that,
1 F0 = 1 R0 and
1 C0 = 1 K 0

SAMPLE PROBLEMS
Example 1:
Convert 300C in 0F
Solution:
9
t 0F = t0C + 32
5
9
t 0F = (30) +32
5

t0F = 86 0F

Example 2:
Convert 280C in K
Solution:
TK = t0C +273
TK = 28 +273
TK = 301 K
 11

Lesson 4 – Law of Conservation of Mass

Law of Conservation of mass

The law of conservation of mass states that mass is indestructible. Mass (m1)
entering the system is equal to the sum of the stored mass (Δm) and the mass (m 2)
that leaves the system.
m1 = m2 + Δm
Δm = m1 – m2
For steady flow system, Δm =0
ṁ1 = ṁ2
Volume flow rate (V̇)
Volume flow rate is the rate at which volume of a certain fluid flows per
unit time.
V
V̇ = t

The quantity of fluid passing through a given section is given by the

formula;
V̇= A ν

Mass flow rate (ṁ)

Mass flow rate is the rate at which a certain quantity of mass flows per unit
time.
m
ṁ =t
Ṽ Aν
ṁ= = =ρAν
v v

where V̇= volume flow rate

A = cross sectional area
ν = average speed
v = specific volume
ṁ = mass flow rate
ρ = density
For a fluid flowing in a pipe with varying cross-sectional areas, the mass
flow rate is constant at any section along the pipe. Applying the law of
conservation of mass,
ṁ 1 = ṁ2
ρ1 A1 ν1 = ρ2 A2 ν2
 12

SAMPLE PROBLEMS
Example 1:
Two cubic meters of water flow out of a tank within 8 minutes. What is the
volume flow rate in;
a) cubic meters per minute
b) liters per second
Solution:
Let V = volume of water
= 2m3
t = time interval
= 8 minutes
a) for volume flow rate in m3/min
V
V̇ =
t
2m3
V̇ = = 0.25 m3/min
8 min

b) for volume flow rate in Li/s

In order to get the volume in Li/s, the volume and time should be
converted to appropriate units.
1000L
V = 2m3 x ( ) = 2,000 L
1m3
60 sec
t = 8mins x ( ) = 480 sec
1 min

therefore, the volume flow rate is,

2,000L
V̇ = 480 s

V̇ = 4.17 L/s

Example 2:
Four hundred fifty kg of water flow from the outlet of a tank every 10 minutes.
What is the mass flow rate in;
a) kg/min
b) g/s
Solution:
Let m = mass of water
= 450 kg
 13

t = time interval
= 10 minutes
a) mass flow rate in kg/min
m
ṁ =t
450 kg
ṁ=
10 min

ṁ = 45 kg/min
b) mass flow rate in g/s
In order to get mass flow rate in g/s, convert the mass into grams and time
in seconds.
1000 g
m = 450 kg x ( )
1 kg

m = 450,000 g
60 sec
t = 10 min x ( 1 min )

t = 600 sec
therefore, mass flow rate in g/s is,
m 450,000 g
ṁ= =
t 600 s

ṁ = 750 g/s

Example 3:
A 10-ft diameter by 15-ft height vertical tank is receiving water (ρ = 62.1 lb/ft 3) at
a rate of 300 gpm and is discharging through a 6-inch inside diameter line with a
constant speed of 5 fps. At a given instant, the tank is half full. Find the water
level and the mass change in the tank 15 minutes later.
 14

Solution:
𝑔𝑎𝑙
300 𝑙𝑏
Mass flow rate entering = 𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑔𝑎𝑙 x 62.1
7.48 3 𝑓𝑡 3
𝑓𝑡

= 2490.64 lb/min
Mass flow rate leaving = ρ2 A2 ν2
𝜋 6 𝑓𝑡 60 𝑠𝑒𝑐
= (62.1 lb/ft3) ( 4 )(12 𝑓𝑡)2 (5 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 )
𝑚𝑖𝑛

= 3658 lb/min
Solving for mass change:
Mass change = (3658 – 2490.64) lb/min (15 min)
Mass change = 17,510.4 lb (decreased)
Solving for water level
𝟏𝟕.𝟓𝟏𝟎.𝟒 𝒍𝒃
Volume change = 𝒍𝒃
𝟔𝟐.𝟏
𝒇𝒕𝟑

Volume change = 281.97 ft3

𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒
Decrease in height = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎
𝜋
Area = (𝑑 2 )
4
𝜋
= (102 )
4

Area = 78.54 ft2

281.97𝑓𝑡 3
Decrease in height =
78.54𝑓𝑡 2

Decrease in height = 3.59 ft

Water level after 15 mins = 7.5 ft – 3.59 ft
Water level after 15 mins = 3.91 ft