The real Chemistry Syllabus note!

1 States of matter.
State the distinguishing properties of solids, liquids and gases.
Solids, liquids and gases are the three states of matter, each with its own distinct
properties.

Solids:

Have a definite shape and volume

Have a relatively high density
The particles in a solid are closely packed together and do not move around
much.
They have a relatively low compressibility and low expansibility.

Liquids:

Have a definite volume but take the shape of their container

Have a relatively high density
The particles in a liquid are also closely packed together but can move around
more freely than in a solid.
They have a moderate compressibility and moderate expansibility.

Gases:

Have no definite shape or volume

Have a relatively low density
The particles in a gas are widely spaced and move around rapidly.
They have a high compressibility and high expansibility.

Describe the structures of solids, liquids and gases in terms of particle

separation, arrangement and motion.
Solids:
 The particles in a solid are closely packed together and are not able to move
around much.
They are arranged in a very orderly and symmetrical pattern, this is known as a
crystal lattice structure.
The particles in a solid are held together by strong intermolecular forces, such
as covalent bonds, metallic bonds, or van der Waals forces.
Due to the strong forces between the particles, they vibrate only slightly
around their fixed positions, this movement is called thermal vibrations.

Liquids:

The particles in a liquid are also closely packed together but can move around
more freely than in a solid.
They have no fixed shape or structure and tend to take the shape of their
container.
The particles in a liquid are held together by weaker intermolecular forces,
such as dipole-dipole interactions and hydrogen bonds.
The particles in a liquid are able to move around more freely, this motion is
called Brownian motion.

Gases:

The particles in a gas are widely spaced and move around rapidly.
They have no fixed shape or structure and tend to take the shape and volume
of the container.
The particles in a gas are held together by the weakest of all intermolecular
forces, such as London Dispersion forces.
The particles in a gas are in constant random motion, colliding with each other
and the walls of the container.

Describe changes of state in terms of melting, boiling, evaporating, freezing

and condensing.
Melting: The process of a solid changing into a liquid is called melting. At the
melting point, the strong intermolecular forces that hold the particles of a solid
together are overcome by the thermal energy of the surrounding environment. This
causes the particles of a solid to gain enough kinetic energy to overcome the
attractive forces and move freely, thus forming a liquid.
Boiling: The process of a liquid changing into a gas is called boiling. At the boiling
point, the thermal energy of the surrounding environment causes the particles of a
liquid to gain enough kinetic energy to overcome the intermolecular forces that
hold the liquid together, and form a gas.
Evaporating: The process of a liquid changing into a gas at any temperature below
its boiling point is called evaporating. Evaporation occurs when the surface
molecules of a liquid gain enough kinetic energy to overcome the intermolecular
forces that hold them together, and become a gas.
Freezing: The process of a liquid changing into a solid is called freezing. At the
freezing point, the thermal energy of the surrounding environment causes the
particles of a liquid to lose kinetic energy, and the intermolecular forces between the
particles become strong enough to hold them in a fixed position, forming a solid.
Condensing: The process of a gas changing into a liquid is called condensing. The
kinetic energy of the particles in a gas decreases when the temperature drops or the
pressure increases, and the intermolecular forces between the particles become
strong enough to hold them together in a liquid form.

Describe the effects of temperature and pressure on the volume of a gas.

When the temperature of a gas is increased, the kinetic energy of the gas
particles increases, and they move around faster, colliding with the walls of the
container more frequently and with more force.
As a result, the volume of the gas decreases and the pressure of the gas
increases.

When the pressure of a gas is increased, the gas particles collide more
frequently and with more force with the walls of the container.
As a result, the volume of the gas increases and the pressure decreases.

If the temperature of a gas is held constant and the pressure is increased, the
volume of the gas will decrease.

If the pressure of a gas is held constant and the temperature is increased, the
volume of the gas will increase.

Explain changes of state in terms of kinetic particle theory, including the

interpretation of heating and cooling curves.
 Kinetic particle theory explains that the particles in a solid are closely packed
together and are not able to move around much. The particles are held
together by strong intermolecular forces and vibrate only slightly around their
fixed positions.
The particles in a liquid are also closely packed together but can move around
more freely than in a solid. The particles are held together by weaker
intermolecular forces and are able to move around more freely.
The particles in a gas are widely spaced and move around rapidly. They are
held together by the weakest of all intermolecular forces and are in constant
random motion.
Heating a solid causes its particles to gain kinetic energy and overcome the
strong intermolecular forces holding them together, resulting in a change of
state from solid to liquid (melting).
Heating a liquid causes its particles to gain kinetic energy and overcome the
weaker intermolecular forces holding them together, resulting in a change of
state from liquid to gas (boiling).
Cooling a gas causes its particles to lose kinetic energy and the intermolecular
forces between the particles become strong enough to hold them together in
a liquid form (condensation).
Cooling a liquid causes its particles to lose kinetic energy and the
intermolecular forces between the particles become strong enough to hold
them in a fixed position, forming a solid (freezing).
A heating curve is a graph that shows the relationship between temperature
and heat energy as a substance changes state. It shows the temperature
changes as heat energy is added, and the substance changes from a solid to a
liquid, and then to a gas.
A cooling curve is a graph that shows the relationship between temperature
and heat energy as a substance changes state. It shows the temperature
changes as heat energy is removed, and the substance changes from a gas to a
liquid and then to a solid.

Explain, in terms of kinetic particle theory, the effects of temperature and

pressure on the volume of a gas.

1. Temperature: According to the kinetic particle theory, the volume of a gas is

directly proportional to its temperature. This means that as the temperature of
a gas increases, the volume of the gas will also increase.
 2. Pressure: According to the kinetic particle theory, the volume of a gas is
inversely proportional to its pressure. This means that as the pressure of a gas
increases, the volume of the gas will decrease.
3. In summary, the kinetic particle theory states that the volume of a gas is
affected by both temperature and pressure. An increase in temperature will
cause the volume of the gas to increase, while an increase in pressure will
cause the volume of the gas to decrease.

Describe and explain diffusion in terms of kinetic particle theory.

1. Diffusion is the movement of particles from an area of high concentration to
an area of low concentration, without the use of any external force.
2. According to kinetic particle theory, the particles of a gas or a liquid are in
constant motion and colliding with one another.
3. The motion of the particles is random and they are not all moving in the same
direction.
4. Due to this random motion, particles will naturally spread out and diffuse from
an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration. This is because
particles in an area of high concentration will collide with one another more
frequently, and will be more likely to move into an area of lower concentration.
5. Diffusion is a natural process that occurs due to the kinetic energy of the
particles and is driven by the concentration gradient.
6. Diffusion is an important process in many natural phenomena such as the
mixing of gases in the atmosphere, the movement of molecules in cells, and
the spread of pollutants in the environment.
7. Diffusion is also related to the concept of diffusion coefficient, which is a
measure of how easily a substance diffuses through a medium. The higher the
diffusion coefficient, the faster the substance will diffuse.
Describe and explain the effect of relative molecular mass on the rate of
diffusion of gases.
1. The relative molecular mass of a gas is a measure of the size and mass of the
gas molecules.
2. According to kinetic particle theory, the rate of diffusion of a gas is directly
related to the speed of the gas molecules.
3. Larger gas molecules have greater mass, which means that they will have a
lower speed than smaller gas molecules.
4. As a result, gases with a higher relative molecular mass will diffuse at a slower
rate than gases with a lower relative molecular mass.
 5. This can be observed in the diffusion of gases in a mixture, where the lighter
gases will diffuse faster than the heavier gases.
6. The difference in size and mass between the gas molecules will affect the
average kinetic energy of the particles and the average speed, and that will
affect the rate of diffusion.
7. It is important to note that the effect of relative molecular mass on diffusion
rate is not a linear relationship and the effect of temperature and pressure will
also affect the rate of diffusion.
8. Additionally, the shape of the molecule can also affect the rate of diffusion, for
example, large and heavy molecule with a small surface area to volume ratio
will diffuse slower than a smaller molecule with a larger surface area to volume
ratio.

2 Atoms, elements
and compounds.
Describe the differences between elements, compounds and mixtures.
1. Elements: An element is a pure substance that cannot be broken down into
simpler substances by chemical means. Examples of elements include gold,
oxygen, and iron. Elements are made up of only one type of atom.
2. Compounds: A compound is a pure substance that can be broken down into
simpler substances by chemical means. Examples of compounds include water
(H2O), salt (NaCl), and carbon dioxide (CO2). Compounds are made up of two
or more different types of atoms bonded together.
3. Mixtures: A mixture is a combination of two or more substances that are not
chemically bonded together. The substances retain their own properties and
can be separated by physical means. Examples of mixtures include air,
seawater, and soil.
4. Elements are characterized by their atomic structure, compounds by their
chemical formula, and mixtures by their physical properties.
 5. Elements can be found on the periodic table, compounds can be found by a
chemical formula and mixtures by their physical properties.
6. Elements and compounds can be characterized by their physical and chemical
properties, mixtures can be characterized by their physical properties only.
7. Elements and compounds can be transformed into other forms of matter
through chemical reactions, mixtures are formed by physical methods such as
mixing, and can be separated through physical methods such as filtering,
distillation or chromatography.

Describe the structure of the atom as a central nucleus containing neutrons

and protons surrounded by electrons in shells.
1. The structure of an atom is composed of a central nucleus and surrounding
electrons.
2. The nucleus of an atom is composed of protons and neutrons.
3. Protons have a positive charge and are found in the nucleus of the atom.
4. Neutrons have no charge and are also found in the nucleus of the atom.
5. The number of protons in the nucleus is called the atomic number, and it
determines the element that the atom represents.
6. Electrons are negatively charged particles that orbit the nucleus of the atom in
shells or energy levels.
7. The number of electrons in an atom is always equal to the number of protons
in the nucleus.
8. The electrons in the outermost shell are called valence electrons and they are
involved in chemical reactions.
9. The distance between the nucleus and the electron shells increases as the
energy level increases.
10. The electrons are arranged in shells around the nucleus in a specific pattern
according to the principle of the atomic structure called the "electron
configuration"
11. The electrons are arranged in the shells according to their energy levels and
are described by the quantum numbers.

State the relative charges and relative masses of a proton, a neutron and an
electron.
Relative Charge:
Proton: +1
Neutron: NIL
 Electron: -1
Relative Mass:
Proton: 1
Neutron: 1
Electron: 1/1840

Define proton number/ atomic number.

The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom.

Define mass number/nucleon number.

The total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom.
Define isotopes.
Different atoms of the same element that have the same number of protons
but different numbers of neutrons.
Describe the giant lattice structure of ionic compounds.
A regular arrangement of alternating positive and negative ions.
State that isotopes of the same element.
They have the same chemical properties because they have the same number
of electrons and therefore the same electronic configuration.

Describe the formation of positive ions, known as cations, and negative ions,
known as anions.

Describe the properties of ionic compounds:

high melting points and boiling points.
good electrical conductivity when aqueous or molten and poor when solid.
State when a covalent bond is formed.
When a pair of electrons is shared between two atoms leading to noble gas
electronic configurations.

Describe in terms of structure and bonding the properties of simple molecular

compounds.
low melting points and boiling points in terms of weak intermolecular forces
Poor electrical conductivity.
Describe the giant covalent structures of graphite and diamond.
The giant covalent structures of graphite and diamond are composed of carbon
atoms. Both materials have very different properties due to the different
arrangement of the carbon atoms in their structures.

1. Graphite: Graphite is made up of layers of carbon atoms arranged in a

hexagonal pattern. Each carbon atom is bonded to three other carbon atoms,
forming a two-dimensional structure. These layers are weakly held together by
Van der Waals forces, allowing them to easily slide past one another. This gives
graphite its characteristic slippery feel and makes it useful as a lubricant and in
pencils.
2. Diamond: Diamond is made up of a three-dimensional network of carbon
atoms arranged in a tetrahedral pattern. Each carbon atom is bonded to four
other carbon atoms, forming a three-dimensional structure. These strong
covalent bonds give diamond its characteristic hardness and high melting
point. Diamond is the hardest natural substance known, and is used for
cutting, grinding and polishing.

Relate the structures and bonding of graphite and diamond to their uses.
Graphite as a lubricant and as an electrode.
Diamond in cutting tools.
Describe the giant covalent structure of silicon(IV) oxide, SiO2.
1. SiO2 is made up of a three-dimensional network of Si-O covalent bonds, where
each silicon atom is bonded to four oxygen atoms.
2. The tetrahedral arrangement of the atoms creates a continuous network of
covalent bonds, resulting in a giant covalent structure.
3. The Si-O covalent bonds are very strong, giving SiO2 a high melting and
boiling point.
4. SiO2 is a network solid which means that there are no free electrons available
to conduct electricity.
5. Due to the strong covalent bonds and lack of moving electrons, SiO2 is an
electrical insulator.
6. SiO2 is a hard and brittle material, making it useful for applications such as
abrasives, high-temperature insulation, and cutting tools.

Describe the similarity in properties between diamond and silicon(IV) oxide,

related to their structures.
1. Both diamond and silicon(IV) oxide have a tetrahedral arrangement of atoms.
 2. In diamond, each carbon atom is bonded to four other carbon atoms in a
tetrahedral arrangement, creating a three-dimensional network of strong
covalent bonds.
3. In silicon(IV) oxide, each silicon atom is bonded to four oxygen atoms in a
tetrahedral arrangement, also creating a three-dimensional network of
covalent bonds.
4. Both diamond and silicon(IV) oxide are extremely hard and have high melting
and boiling points due to the strong covalent bonds that hold their atoms
together.
5. Both diamond and silicon(IV) oxide are considered to be insulators.
6. Both diamond and silicon(IV) oxide are transparent in their natural form.
7. Both diamond and silicon(IV) oxide are used in cutting and polishing tools,
abrasive and high-temperature applications.

Describe metallic bonding.

The electrostatic attraction between the positive ions in a giant metallic lattice and a
‘sea’ of delocalised electrons.

Explain in terms of structure and bonding the properties of metals.

Good electrical conductivity.
Malleability and ductility.

3 Stoichiometry
Define the molecular formula of a compound.
The number and type of different atoms in one molecule.

Define the empirical formula of a compound.

The simplest whole number ratio of the different atoms or ions in a compound
Describe relative atomic mass Ar .
The average mass of the isotopes of an element compared to 1/12th of the
mass of an atom of 12C.

Define relative molecular mass, Mr .

The sum of the relative atomic masses. Relative formula mass, Mr , will be used
for ionic compounds

Define mole, mol.

The unit of amount of substance and that one mole contains 6.02 × 1023
particles, e.g. atoms, ions, molecules; this number is the Avogadro constant.

4 Electrochemistry.
Define electrolysis.
The decomposition of an ionic compound, when molten or in aqueous
solution, by the passage of an electric current.

Identify the products formed at the electrodes and describe the observations
made during the electrolysis of:
molten lead(II) bromide.
concentrated aqueous sodium chloride.
dilute sulfuric acid
With using inert electrodes made of platinum or carbon/graphite.
Why are metal objects are electroplated?
To improve their appearance and resistance to corrosion.

Identify the products formed at the electrodes and describe the observations
made during the electrolysis of:
 Aqueous copper(II) sulfate using inert carbon/ graphite electrodes and when
using copper electrodes

Describe how metals are electroplated.

The process involves immersing the metal to be coated (the substrate) in an
electrolyte solution that contains ions of the metal that will be used to coat the
substrate. An electrical current is then applied to the solution, causing the
metal ions to be deposited on the substrate's surface.

What does a hydrogen–oxygen fuel cell use?

Hydrogen and oxygen to produce electricity with water as the only chemical
product.

Describe the advantages and disadvantages of using hydrogen–oxygen fuel

cells in comparison with gasoline/petrol engines in vehicles.
Advantages of hydrogen-oxygen fuel cells in comparison with gasoline/petrol
engines in vehicles:
1. Fuel cells produce electricity through a chemical reaction, rather than
combustion, resulting in the production of water vapor as the only
emissions.
2. Hydrogen is a clean, renewable energy source that can be produced from
a variety of sources, including water and biomass.

Disadvantages of hydrogen-oxygen fuel cells in comparison with

gasoline/petrol engines in vehicles:
1. Hydrogen fuel is not as widely available as gasoline and requires a
dedicated infrastructure for production, storage, and distribution.
2. The cost of producing hydrogen fuel is still relatively high, making it more
expensive than gasoline.
3. Hydrogen fuel cell vehicles are still relatively expensive compared to
traditional gasoline-powered vehicles.
5 Chemical
energetics.
Define exothermic reaction.
Transfers thermal energy to the surroundings leading to an increase in the
temperature of the surroundings.
Define endothermic reaction.
Takes in thermal energy from the surroundings leading to a decrease in the
temperature of the surroundings.

What is the transfer of thermal energy during a reaction called?

The enthalpy change, ∆H, of the reaction. ∆H is negative for exothermic
reactions and positive for endothermic reactions.

Define activation energy, Ea

The minimum energy that colliding particles must have to react.

6 Chemical
reactions.
Identify physical and chemical changes, and describe the differences between
them.
Physical change refers to a change in a substance's physical properties such as
its shape, size, texture or state without changing its chemical composition.
Physical changes are usually reversible.
Chemical change refers to a change in a substance's chemical composition.
In a chemical change, the atoms of the reactants are rearranged to form new
compounds (products) which have different properties than the reactants.
Chemical changes are usually irreversible.
The main difference between physical and chemical changes is that physical
changes do not involve a change in the chemical composition of a substance,
while chemical changes do.

Describe and explain the effect on the rate of reaction of:

Changing the concentration of solutions affects the rate of reaction by altering
the number of particles per unit volume. As the concentration of reactants
increases, the number of collisions between particles increases, which in turn
increases the rate of the reaction. This is because there are more particles in a
given space, so the chances of a collision between reactant particles is higher.
Changing the pressure of gases affects the rate of reaction by altering the
number of collisions between particles. At higher pressures, there are more
collisions between particles, which increases the rate of the reaction. This is
because the particles are more densely packed and are more likely to collide
with each other.
Changing the surface area of solids affects the rate of reaction by altering the
number of collisions between particles. A larger surface area means that there
are more sites available for collisions to occur, which increases the rate of the
reaction. For example, a solid reactant that is broken into smaller pieces will
have a larger surface area and react faster than a solid reactant in a larger
piece.
Changing the temperature affects the rate of reaction by altering the kinetic
energy of particles. As the temperature increases, the kinetic energy of
particles also increases, which increases the chances of a successful collision
that leads to a reaction. This is because the particles are moving faster and are
more likely to collide with enough energy to overcome the activation energy.
 Adding or removing a catalyst, including enzymes, affects the rate of reaction
by altering the activation energy. A catalyst is a substance that lowers the
activation energy of a reaction, making it easier for reactant particles to collide
with enough energy to lead to a reaction. Enzymes are biological catalysts that
are found in living organisms and catalyze specific reactions. The addition of a
catalyst increases the rate of a reaction and the removal of a catalyst decreases
the rate of reaction.

Describe collision theory in terms of:

Collision theory describes the rate at which chemical reactions occur, and it
depends on the number of particles per unit volume. As the concentration of
reactants increases, the number of collisions between particles increases, which
in turn increases the rate of the reaction.

The frequency of collisions between particles is a key factor in collision theory.

More frequent collisions increase the chances of a successful collision, which
leads to a reaction.
Kinetic energy of particles also plays a role in collision theory. Particles with
higher kinetic energy are more likely to collide with enough energy to
overcome the activation energy and lead to a reaction.
Activation energy, Ea, is the minimum amount of energy required for a reaction
to occur. It represents the energy barrier that must be overcome for a
successful collision to occur. The activation energy can be lowered by
increasing the frequency of collisions or by increasing the kinetic energy of the
particles.

Define catalyst.
Increases the rate of a reaction and is unchanged at the end of a reaction.
Decreases the activation energy, Ea , of a reaction.
State the symbol equation for the production of Ammonia in the Haber
process.
N2(g) + 3H2(g) ⇌ 2NH3(g)

State the source of Hydrogen and Nitrogen in the Haber process.

Hydrogen - natural gas (methane)
Nitrogen - (air)
State the conditions for the Haber process.
450°C
200 atm
iron catalyst

State the symbol equation for the conversion of sulfur dioxide to sulfur
trioxide in the Contact process.
2SO2(g) + O2(g) ⇌ 2SO3(g)

State the sources of the sulfur dioxide and oxygen.

Oxygen: air
Sulfur dioxide: Burning sulfur or roasting sulfide ores

State the typical conditions for the conversion of sulfur dioxide to sulfur
trioxide in the Contact process.
450°C
2 atm
vanadium (V) oxide catalyst

Explain, in terms of rate of reaction and position of equilibrium, why the

typical conditions stated are used in the Haber process and in the Contact
process, including safety considerations and economics.
Define redox reaction.
Reaction involving simultaneous oxidation and reduction.

Define oxidation and reduction.

Oxidation:
gain of oxygen
loss of electrons
increase in oxidation number
Reduction - loss of oxygen
loss of oxygen
gain of electrons
decrease in oxidation number

How to identify a redox reaction?

 Involves loss and gain of electrons.
Changes in oxidation state:
The oxidation number of elements in their uncombined state is zero.
The oxidation number of a monatomic ion is the same as the charge on
the ion.
The sum of the oxidation numbers in a compound is zero.
The sum of the oxidation numbers in an ion is equal to the charge on the
ion.
Colour changes involved when using acidified aqueous potassium
manganate(VII) or aqueous potassium iodide.

Define an oxidising agent.

A substance that oxidises another substance and is itself reduced.
Define a reducing agent.
A substance that reduces another substance and is itself oxidised.

7 Acids, bases and

salts.
Describe the characteristic properties of acids in terms of their reactions with:
(a) metals (b) bases (c) carbonates.

Describe acids in terms of their effect on: (a) litmus (b) thymolphthalein (c)
methyl orange.

Describe the characteristic properties of bases in terms of their reactions with:

(a) acids (b) ammonium salts.
Describe alkalis in terms of their effect on: (a) litmus (b) thymolphthalein (c)
methyl orange.
Define Acid.
Proton donors
Contain H+
Weak acid:
An acid that is partially dissociated in aqueous solution.
Strong acid:
An acid that is completely dissociated in aqueous solution.

Define Base.
Proton acceptors
Contain OH-

Describe how to compare hydrogen ion concentration, neutrality, relative

acidity and relative alkalinity in terms of colour and pH using universal
indicator paper.

Describe the preparation, separation and purification of soluble salts by

reaction of an acid with: (a) an alkali by titration (b) excess metal (c) excess
insoluble base (d) excess insoluble carbonate.

(a) An alkali by titration:

The acid and the alkali are mixed together in the correct stoichiometric ratio.
The mixture is then titrated with a solution of known concentration of acid or
alkali using a suitable indicator to detect the end point.
The salt is then precipitated by adding an excess of the acid or alkali
The precipitate is filtered, washed and dried to obtain the pure salt.

(b) Excess metal:

The acid and the metal are mixed together in the correct stoichiometric ratio.
The salt is formed as a result of the reaction between the acid and the metal.
 The salt is then filtered, washed and dried to obtain the pure salt.

(c) Excess insoluble base:

The acid and the insoluble base are mixed together in the correct
stoichiometric ratio.
The salt is formed as a result of the reaction between the acid and the
insoluble base.
The salt is then filtered, washed and dried to obtain the pure salt.

(d) Excess insoluble carbonate:

The acid and the insoluble carbonate are mixed together in the correct
stoichiometric ratio.
The salt is formed as a result of the reaction between the acid and the
insoluble carbonate.
The salt is then filtered, washed and dried to obtain the pure salt.

Describe the general solubility rules for salts: (a) sodium, potassium and
ammonium salts are soluble (b) nitrates are soluble (c) chlorides are soluble,
except lead and silver (d) sulfates are soluble, except barium, calcium and lead
(e) carbonates are insoluble, except sodium, potassium and ammonium (f)
hydroxides are insoluble, except sodium, potassium, ammonium and calcium
(partially).
(a) Sodium, potassium and ammonium salts are generally soluble in water.
(b) Nitrates are generally soluble in water.
(c) Chlorides are generally soluble in water, except for lead and silver chlorides.
(d) Sulfates are generally soluble in water, except for barium, calcium, and lead
sulfates.
(e) Carbonates are generally insoluble in water, except for sodium, potassium
and ammonium carbonates.
(f) Hydroxides are generally insoluble in water, except for sodium, potassium,
ammonium and calcium hydroxides, which are partially soluble.

Define hydrated substance.

A substance that is chemically combined with water.
Define anhydrous substance.
A substance containing no water.

Define the term water of crystallisation.

The water molecules present in hydrated crystals, including CuSO4•5H2O and
CoCl 2•6H2O

8 The Periodic
Table.
Describe the Periodic Table as an arrangement of elements in periods and
groups and in order of increasing proton number/ atomic number.
The Periodic Table is a graphical representation of the chemical elements
organized by atomic number, electron configurations and chemical properties.
The elements are arranged in order of increasing atomic number (number of
protons in the nucleus of an atom)
The elements are arranged in periods (horizontal rows) and groups (vertical
columns)
The elements in the same period have the same number of electron shells,
while the elements in the same group have the same number of valence
electrons.
The elements are arranged in order of increasing atomic number, from left to
right and top to bottom.
The elements are also classified as metals, nonmetals, and metalloids based on
their physical and chemical properties.
Describe the change from metallic to non-metallic character across a period.
Elements in a period of the periodic table are arranged by increasing atomic
number.
As you move from left to right across a period, the elements change from
metallic to non-metallic character.
Metals are typically on the left side of the periodic table, they are good
conductors of heat and electricity, and they are malleable and ductile.
Non-metals are typically on the right side of the periodic table, they are poor
conductors of heat and electricity, and they are usually gases or brittle solids.
As you move from left to right across a period, the elements become less
metallic and more non-metallic in character.
This is because the metallic properties of an element are associated with the
presence of valence electrons in the outermost energy level, as you move
across a period the number of valence electrons in the outermost energy level
decreases, making the element less metallic.
Describe the relationship between group number and the charge of the ions
formed from elements in that group.
Elements in the same group of the Periodic Table will typically form ions with
the same charge.
The group number is the vertical column in the Periodic Table and corresponds
to the number of valence electrons in the outermost energy level of an atom.
The group number is also related to the charge of the ions formed by an
element in that group.
As an example, elements in group 1 (alkali metals) will lose one valence
electron to form a positive ion (cation) with a charge of +1.
Elements in group 2 (alkaline earth metals) will lose two valence electrons to
form a positive ion (cation) with a charge of +2.
Elements in group 7 (halogens) will gain one valence electron to form a
negative ion (anion) with a charge of -1.
Elements in group 17 (halogens) will gain one or two valence electrons to form
negative ions (anions) with a charge of -1 or -2 respectively.

Explain similarities in the chemical properties of elements in the same group of

the Periodic Table in terms of their electronic configuration.
The elements in the same group or column of the Periodic Table have the same
number of valence electrons.
 Valence electrons are the electrons in the outermost energy level of an atom
and are responsible for chemical reactions.
The elements in the same group have similar chemical properties because they
have the same number of valence electrons in their outermost energy level.
This means that they will have the same electron configuration in their
outermost energy level, which will affect the chemical reactions they can
participate in.
This is why elements in the same group tend to react in similar ways and have
similar chemical properties.
As an example, the elements in Group 1, the alkali metals, all have one valence
electron in their outermost energy level, which is why they all have similar
chemical properties.

Explain how the position of an element in the Periodic Table can be used to
predict its properties.
The elements in the Periodic Table are arranged by atomic number, electron
configuration, and chemical properties.
Each group or column of the Periodic Table shares similar chemical properties,
and elements within the same group will have similar chemical and physical
properties.
The groups in the Periodic Table can be divided into metals, nonmetals, and
metalloids.
The elements in the same group have the same number of valence electrons,
which can be used to predict their chemical reactivity.
Elements in the same period have the same number of electron shells, which
can be used to predict their atomic and ionic radii, ionization energy, and
electron affinity.
The position of an element in the Periodic Table also helps to predict its
reactivity, melting point, boiling point, and density.
Describe the Group I alkali metals trend:
lithium, sodium and potassium:
Relatively soft metals with general trends down the group, limited to:
Decreasing melting point
Increasing density
Increasing reactivity
Describe the Group VII halogens trend:
chlorine, bromine and iodine:
as diatomic non-metals with general trends down the group, limited to:
 Increasing density
Decreasing reactivity
State the appearance of the halogens at r.t.p. as:
Chlorine, a pale yellow-green gas.
Bromine, a red-brown liquid.
Iodine, a grey-black solid.
Describe and explain the displacement reactions of halogens with other halide
ions.
Halogens are highly reactive elements, and they tend to displace other
halogens from their compounds in a displacement reaction.
The displacement reaction occurs when a more reactive halogen is added to a
solution containing less reactive halide ions.
The more reactive halogen will displace the less reactive halogen from its salt,
forming a new halide salt and releasing the less reactive halogen.
For example, chlorine will displace bromide ions from a solution of sodium
bromide to form sodium chloride and bromine.
The reactivity of halogens decreases in the order: Fluorine > chlorine >
bromine > iodine.
Fluorine is the most reactive halogen and will displace other halogens from
their compounds, while iodine is the least reactive and will not be displaced.
Describe the transition elements as metals:
Have high densities.
Have high melting points.
Form coloured compounds.
Often act as catalysts as elements and in compounds.
Variable oxidation state.

Describe the Group VIII noble gases.

Unreactive
Monatomic gases
Electronic configuration:
They has a complete outermost shell, meaning they are already stable, so
they does not react with any elements.

9 Metals.
Compare the general physical properties of metals and non-metals, including:
(a) thermal conductivity (b) electrical conductivity (c) malleability and ductility
(d) melting points and boiling points.
(a) Thermal conductivity:

Metals typically have high thermal conductivity, which means they can transfer
heat quickly.
Non-metals typically have low thermal conductivity, which means they do not
transfer heat as quickly.

(b) Electrical conductivity:

Metals typically have high electrical conductivity, which means they can
conduct electricity well.
Non-metals typically have low electrical conductivity, which means they do not
conduct electricity well.

(c) Malleability and ductility:

Metals are typically malleable and ductile, which means they can be bent and
stretched without breaking.
Non-metals are typically brittle, which means they can break easily when bent
or stretched.

(d) Melting points and boiling points:

Metals typically have higher melting and boiling points than non-metals.
Non-metals typically have lower melting and boiling points than metals.

Describe the general chemical properties of metals, limited to their reactions

with: (a) dilute acids (b) cold water and steam (c) oxygen.
(a) Dilute acids:

Metals above hydrogen in the reactivity series will react with dilute acids to
produce hydrogen gas and a salt.
Metals below hydrogen in the reactivity series will not react with dilute acids.
(b) Cold water and steam:

Metals above hydrogen in the reactivity series will react with cold water to
produce hydrogen gas and a metal hydroxide.
Metals that are more reactive than hydrogen will react with steam to produce a
metal oxide and hydrogen gas.
Metals below hydrogen in the reactivity series will not react with cold water or
steam.

(c) Oxygen:

Metals above hydrogen in the reactivity series will react with oxygen to form
metal oxides.
Metals below hydrogen in the reactivity series will not react with oxygen or will
react very slowly.
Describe the uses of metals in terms of their physical properties:
Aluminium in the manufacture of aircraft because of its low density.
Aluminium in the manufacture of overhead electrical cables because of its low
density and good electrical conductivity.
Aluminium in food containers because of its resistance to corrosion.
Copper in electrical wiring because of its good electrical conductivity and
ductility.

Describe an alloy.
A mixture of metal with other elements:
Brass - A mixture of copper and zinc.
Stainless steel - A mixture of iron and other elements such as chromium,
nickel and carbon.
Stainless steel in used in cutlery because of its hardness and
resistance to rusting.
Alloys can be harder and stronger than the pure metals and tend to be more
useful.
Because the different sized atoms in alloys mean the layers can no longer
slide over each other.

Reactivity Series:
 potassium, sodium, calcium, magnesium, aluminium, carbon, zinc, iron,
hydrogen, copper, silver, gold.

Describe the reactions: (a) potassium, sodium and calcium with cold water (b)
magnesium with steam (c) magnesium, zinc, iron, copper, silver and gold with
dilute hydrochloric acid and explain these reactions in terms of the position of
the metals in the reactivity series.
(a) Potassium, sodium, and calcium with cold water:

Potassium and sodium react vigorously with cold water to produce hydrogen
gas and the corresponding hydroxide.
Calcium reacts less vigorously with cold water to produce hydrogen gas and
calcium hydroxide.

(b) Magnesium with steam:

Magnesium reacts with steam to produce magnesium oxide and hydrogen gas.

(c) Magnesium, zinc, iron, copper, silver, and gold with dilute hydrochloric acid:

Magnesium reacts with dilute hydrochloric acid to produce magnesium

chloride and hydrogen gas.
Zinc reacts with dilute hydrochloric acid to produce zinc chloride and hydrogen
gas.
Iron reacts with dilute hydrochloric acid to produce iron(II) chloride and
hydrogen gas.
Copper reacts with dilute hydrochloric acid to produce copper(II) chloride and
hydrogen gas.
Silver and gold do not react with dilute hydrochloric acid.

These reactions can be explained in terms of the position of the metals in the
reactivity series:

Potassium and sodium are highly reactive metals and are placed in the top of
the reactivity series, that's why they react very vigorously with cold water.
 Calcium is less reactive than potassium and sodium, but still more reactive than
most of the metals, that's why it reacts less vigorously with cold water.
Magnesium is more reactive than zinc, iron, copper, silver, and gold, and is
placed in the middle of the reactivity series, that's why it reacts with steam and
dilute hydrochloric acid.
Zinc, iron, copper, silver, and gold are less reactive than magnesium, that's why
they react with dilute hydrochloric acid, but silver and gold don't react because
they are less reactive than copper and iron.

Describe the relative reactivities of metals in terms of their tendency to form

positive ions, by displacement reactions, with the aqueous ions of magnesium,
zinc, iron, copper and silver.
Metals that are more reactive tend to displace the less reactive metals from
their compounds in a displacement reaction.
The reactivity of a metal can be determined by its tendency to displace other
metals from their compounds.
Magnesium is more reactive than zinc, zinc is more reactive than iron, iron is
more reactive than copper, and copper is more reactive than silver.
Metals that are more reactive than zinc will displace zinc ions from zinc
compounds, metals that are more reactive than iron will displace iron ions
from iron compounds, and so on.
For example, copper will not displace zinc ions from zinc compounds, but zinc
will displace copper ions from copper compounds, indicating that zinc is more
reactive than copper.
Explain the apparent unreactivity of aluminium in terms of its oxide layer.
Aluminum is a highly reactive metal, but it appears to be unreactive because of
its oxide layer.
When aluminum is exposed to air, it quickly forms a thin, transparent, and
protective oxide layer on its surface.
The oxide layer acts as a barrier that prevents further oxidation of the
aluminum.
The oxide layer is also an insulator, which prevents the flow of electricity
through the metal.
The oxide layer is so stable that it can only be removed by harsh chemical
means, such as by using concentrated acids or bases.
The oxide layer is not only stable, but it also has a high melting point, so it can
protect the metal from high temperatures, making aluminum resistant to fire.
State the conditions required for the rusting of iron and steel to form hydrated
iron(III) oxide.
Oxygen: Iron and steel must be exposed to oxygen in order to rust.
Moisture: Water, either in the form of liquid or humidity, is necessary for
rusting to occur.
Time: Rusting is a gradual process that occurs over time.
Iron reacts with water and oxygen to form hydrated iron(III) oxide, commonly
known as rust.
The chemical equation for rusting is: 4Fe + 3O2 + 6H2O -> 4Fe(OH)3
The rusting process can be accelerated by the presence of acids, salts, or other
chemicals that can react with the iron or steel.

State some common barrier methods:

painting,
greasing
coating with plastic
Describe how barrier methods prevent rusting by excluding oxygen or water.
Rusting is a form of corrosion that occurs when iron or steel is exposed to
oxygen and water.
Barrier methods of preventing rusting involve excluding one or both of these
elements from coming into contact with the metal.
Excluding oxygen:
A barrier coating of paint, oil or wax can be applied to the metal, preventing
oxygen from reaching the surface of the metal.
Excluding water:
A barrier coating of a waterproofing material can be applied to the metal,
preventing water from reaching the surface of the metal.
Combining both methods:
A barrier coating that is both waterproof and airtight can be applied, which will
prevent both water and oxygen from coming into contact with the metal.
These barrier methods can provide effective protection against rusting, but the
coatings will eventually wear off, or be damaged, so periodic inspection and
reapplication is necessary to maintain the protection.
Describe the use of zinc in galvanising as an example of a barrier method and
sacrificial protection.
 Galvanizing is the process of coating iron or steel with a layer of zinc to protect
it from corrosion.
Barrier method:
Zinc acts as a barrier between the iron or steel and the environment,
preventing the direct contact between the metal and the corrosive agents in
the environment, such as oxygen and water.
Sacrificial protection:
Zinc is more reactive than iron or steel, so it will corrode preferentially in the
presence of an electrolyte, such as water, losing electrons to the iron or steel,
thus protecting it from corrosion.
The galvanizing process is done by immersing the iron or steel in a bath of
molten zinc, allowing the zinc to adhere to the surface of the metal, forming a
protective layer.
Galvanizing is a common method of corrosion protection for steel structures
such as bridges, buildings, and vehicles, it is also commonly used in nails,
screws, and other fasteners.

Explain sacrificial protection in terms of the reactivity series and in terms of

electron loss.
Sacrificial protection is a method of protecting a metal from corrosion by using
a more reactive metal in place of the metal to be protected.
This method is based on the principle of the reactivity series, where more
reactive metals are higher in the series, and less reactive metals are lower in
the series.
In terms of electron loss, a metal that is higher in the reactivity series will be
more willing to lose electrons to a metal that is lower in the reactivity series.
When the more reactive metal (the sacrificial anode) is connected to the less
reactive metal (the metal to be protected) in an electrolyte, the more reactive
metal will corrode preferentially and will lose electrons to the less reactive
metal.
An example of sacrificial protection is the use of a zinc anode to protect steel
structures in marine environments, where the zinc anode will corrode
preferentially and will lose electrons to the steel, protecting it from corrosion.

Describe the ease in obtaining metals from their ores, related to the position of
the metal in the reactivity series.
 The reactivity series is a list of metals arranged in order of their relative
reactivity, from most reactive to least reactive.
The ease of obtaining a metal from its ore is related to the position of the
metal in the reactivity series.
Metals that are higher in the reactivity series are more reactive and are easier
to extract from their ores than metals that are lower in the reactivity series.
Metals that are higher in the reactivity series can be extracted from their ores
using relatively simple methods such as heating with carbon.
Metals that are lower in the reactivity series are less reactive and are more
difficult to extract from their ores.
Metals that are lower in the reactivity series require more complex methods to
extract them from their ores, such as electrolysis.
For example, aluminum is extracted from bauxite using the Hall-Héroult
process, which is a method of electrolysis, while copper and zinc are extracted
from their ores by roasting and reduction with carbon.

Describe the extraction of iron from hematite in the blast furnace, limited to:
The burning of carbon (coke) to provide heat and produce carbon dioxide.
C + O2 → CO2
The reduction of carbon dioxide to carbon monoxide.
C + CO2 → 2CO
The reduction of iron(III) oxide by carbon monoxide .
Fe2O3 + 3CO → 2Fe + 3CO2
The thermal decomposition of calcium carbonate /limestone to produce
calcium oxide (e) the formation of slag.
CaCO3 → CaO + CO2
The formation of slag.
CaO + SiO2 → CaSiO3

What is the main ore of aluminium?

The main ore of aluminium is bauxite and that aluminium is extracted by
electrolysis.

Describe the extraction of aluminium from purified bauxite / aluminium oxide,

including: (a) the role of cryolite (b) why the carbon anodes need to be
regularly replaced (c) the reactions at the electrodes, including ionic half-
equations.

(a) The role of cryolite:

Cryolite is a mineral that is used in the extraction of aluminium from bauxite.

It acts as a solvent, lowering the melting point of the mixture of alumina and
bauxite, making it easier to separate the alumina from the bauxite.

(b) Why the carbon anodes need to be regularly replaced:

The carbon anodes used in the process are consumed during the electrolysis of
alumina, they are constantly eroding and need to be replaced.
The anodes are made of carbon and they are the sites of the oxidation
reactions in the process.

(c) The reactions at the electrodes, including ionic half-equations:

At the anode, the carbon electrode is oxidized, releasing carbon dioxide (CO2)
and electrons (e-), the ionic half-equation for this process is C → CO2 + 2e-
At the cathode, the alumina dissolved in the cryolite melt is reduced, forming
aluminum ions (Al3+) which deposit onto the cathode, the ionic half-equation
for this process is 3Al3+ + 3e- → Al

10 Chemistry of
the environment.
Describe chemical tests for the presence of water using anhydrous cobalt(II)
chloride and anhydrous copper(II) sulfate.
Anhydrous cobalt(II) chloride and anhydrous copper(II) sulfate are both
hygroscopic compounds that can be used to test for the presence of water.
These compounds can be used to detect small amounts of water in a sample,
even as low as a few parts per million.
 Anhydrous cobalt(II) chloride turns from a blue to a pink color when it comes
in contact with water, this is due to the formation of hydrated cobalt(II)
chloride.
Anhydrous copper(II) sulfate turns from a blue to a white color when it comes
in contact with water, due to the formation of hydrated copper(II) sulfate.
These tests are very sensitive, so it is important to use anhydrous samples of
cobalt(II) chloride and copper(II) sulfate, and to handle the samples carefully to
avoid contamination with water.
Describe how to test for the purity of water using melting point and boiling
point.
Melting point and boiling point are two physical properties that can be used to
test the purity of water.
The purest form of water has a melting point of 0°C (32°F) and a boiling point
of 100°C (212°F) at standard atmospheric pressure.
To test for the purity of water using the melting point, the sample is cooled
until it solidifies, and the temperature at which it solidifies is recorded.
If impurities are present in the sample, the melting point will be different from
that of pure water.
The same process is applied to test the boiling point, the sample is heated until
it vaporizes, and the temperature at which it vaporizes is recorded.
Explain that distilled water is used in practical chemistry rather than tap water
because it contains fewer chemical impurities.
Distilled water is water that has been purified through distillation, a process
that involves heating the water to its boiling point, collecting the steam, and
then condensing it back into a liquid.
This process removes impurities such as minerals, bacteria, and dissolved gases
that may be present in tap water.
In practical chemistry, distilled water is used rather than tap water because it
contains fewer chemical impurities.
These impurities can interfere with chemical reactions and can also cause
inaccurate results in experiments.
Using distilled water eliminates the potential for these impurities to affect the
outcome of experiments, ensuring that the results are accurate and reliable.
Distilled water is also used in laboratory equipment, such as glassware, to clean
them, it is also used in the preparation of solutions that need to be very pure.

State that water from natural sources may contain substances:

 Dissolved oxygen.
Metal compounds.
Plastics.
Sewage.
Harmful microbes.
Nitrates from fertilisers.
Phosphates from fertilisers and detergent.
State that some of these substances are beneficial, including:
Dissolved oxygen for aquatic life.
Some metal compounds provide essential minerals for life.
State that some of these substances are potentially harmful, including:
Some metal compounds are toxic.
Some plastics harm aquatic life.
Sewage contains harmful microbes which cause disease.
Nitrates and phosphates lead to deoxygenation of water and damage to
aquatic life
Describe the treatment of the domestic water supply in terms of: (a)
sedimentation and filtration to remove solids (b) use of carbon to remove
tastes and odours (c) chlorination to kill microbes.

(a) Sedimentation and filtration to remove solids:

Sedimentation is the process of allowing water to flow slowly through a tank or

basin, allowing solid particles, such as dirt and sand, to settle to the bottom.
Filtration is the process of passing water through a filter, such as sand or
gravel, to remove solid particles that were not removed in the sedimentation
process.
These processes are used to remove visible impurities such as dirt, sand, and
other solid particles from the water supply.

(b) Use of carbon to remove tastes and odours:

Carbon is a common method for removing tastes and odors from water.
Carbon filters contain activated carbon, which is a highly porous material that
adsorbs (removes) impurities from the water.
Carbon filters are commonly used in household water filtration systems to
remove chlorine, chloramines, and other chemical compounds that can affect
the taste and odor of the water.
(c) Chlorination to kill microbes:

Chlorination is the process of adding chlorine to water to kill microorganisms

such as bacteria and viruses.
Chlorine is a highly effective disinfectant and is commonly used in the
treatment of drinking water.
Chlorination is used to ensure that the water supply is safe for human
consumption by killing any harmful microorganisms that may be present.
Describe the use of NPK fertilisers to provide the elements nitrogen,
phosphorus and potassium for improved plant growth.
Use of NPK fertilizers to provide the elements nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium
for improved plant growth:

NPK fertilizers are a type of fertilizers that contain the three essential elements
nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium.
Nitrogen is essential for the growth of leaves and stems, phosphorus for root
growth and flower and fruit development, and potassium for overall plant
health and disease resistance.
These fertilizers are applied to the soil, and then the plants take up the
nutrients through their roots, providing the plants with the necessary elements
for growth.
State the composition of clean, dry air:
78% nitrogen, N2
21% oxygen, O2
0.04% Carbon dioxide, CO2
The remainder is a mixture of noble gases.

State the source of each of these air pollutants, limited to:

Carbon dioxide from the complete combustion of carbon-containing fuels
Carbon monoxide and particulates from the incomplete combustion of carbon-
containing fuels
Methane from the decomposition of vegetation and waste gases from
digestion in animals
Oxides of nitrogen from car engines
Sulfur dioxide from the combustion of fossil fuels which contain sulfur
compounds
State the adverse effect of these air pollutants, limited to:
 Carbon dioxide: higher levels of carbon dioxide leading to increased global
warming, which leads to climate change
Carbon monoxide: toxic gas
Particulates: increased risk of respiratory problems and cancer
Methane: higher levels of methane leading to increased global warming, which
leads to climate change
Oxides of nitrogen: acid rain, photochemical smog and respiratory problems
Sulfur dioxide: acid rain
Describe how the greenhouse gases carbon dioxide and methane cause global
warming, limited to: (a) the absorption, reflection and emission of thermal
energy (b) reducing thermal energy loss to space.

(a) The absorption, reflection and emission of thermal energy:

Greenhouse gases, such as carbon dioxide and methane, absorb infrared

radiation (thermal energy) emitted from the Earth's surface.
This absorbed thermal energy is then re-emitted in all directions, some of it
back to the surface, which causes the warming of the Earth's atmosphere.
This process is known as the greenhouse effect and it is responsible for the
warming of the Earth's atmosphere.

(b) Reducing thermal energy loss to space:

Greenhouse gases also reduce the loss of thermal energy to space, by trapping
heat in the Earth's atmosphere.
This reduction in thermal energy loss to space causes the Earth's atmosphere
to become warmer and warmer, leading to global warming.
The increase in the concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere is
causing the Earth's temperature to rise, which leads to climate change.

State and explain strategies to reduce the effects of these environmental

issues, limited to:
Climate change: planting trees, reduction in livestock farming, decreasing use
of fossil fuels, increasing use of hydrogen and renewable energy, e.g. wind,
solar.
Acid rain: use of catalytic converters in vehicles, reducing emissions of sulfur
dioxide by using low-sulfur fuels and flue gas desulfurisation with calcium
oxide.
Explain how oxides of nitrogen form in car engines and describe their removal
by catalytic converters.
Oxides of nitrogen (NOx) are formed in car engines when nitrogen and oxygen
in the air combine at high temperatures, typically above 600 °C.
The high temperature and pressure in internal combustion engines causes the
nitrogen and oxygen to react, forming nitrogen monoxide (NO) and nitrogen
dioxide (NO2).
The main source of heat in internal combustion engines is combustion of fuel
and air mixture, so the higher the combustion temperature the more NOx is
formed.
Catalytic converters are devices installed in the exhaust systems of cars to
reduce the emissions of NOx.
They use a catalyst, typically platinum and/or rhodium, to convert NOx into
harmless nitrogen and oxygen.
The catalytic converter works by exposing the NOx to the surface of the
catalyst, where the nitrogen and oxygen are separated and then released into
the air as harmless gases.

11 Organic
chemistry
Write and interpret general formulae of compounds in the same homologous
series, limited to:
Alkanes, Cn H2n+2
Alkenes, Cn H2n
Alcohols, Cn H2n+1OH
Carboxylic acids, Cn H2n+1COOH
Define functional group:
An atom or group of atoms that determine the chemical properties of a
homologous series.
Define a structural formula:
It is an unambiguous description of the way the atoms in a molecule are
arranged.
Define structural isomers:
Compounds with the same molecular formula, but different structural formulae.
Define homologous series:
A family of similar compounds with similar chemical properties due to the
presence of the same functional group
Describe the general characteristics of a homologous series:
Having the same functional group
Having the same general formula
Differing from one member to the next by a –CH2– unit
Displaying a trend in physical properties
Sharing similar chemical properties
Define saturated compounds:
Has molecules in which all carbon–carbon bonds are single bond.

Define unsaturated compounds:

Has molecules in which one or more carbon–carbon bonds are not single
bonds.

Name the fossil fuels:

coal, natural gas and petroleum
Natural gas is made up of what the most?
Methane
Define hydrocarbons:
Compounds that contain hydrogen and carbon only.

Define petroleum:
A mixture of hydrocarbons.

Describe the separation of petroleum into useful fractions by fractional

distillation.
 Fractional distillation is a method used to separate mixtures of liquids by
taking advantage of their differences in boiling points.
Petroleum is a complex mixture of hydrocarbons, which includes alkanes,
alkenes, and aromatics.
The process of fractional distillation separates these hydrocarbons into
different fractions, based on their boiling points.
The mixture is heated to a high temperature, typically at the range of 400-550
C, and the vaporized liquid is then cooled and condensed.
The different fractions are collected separately as they boil off at different
temperatures.
The fractions with lower boiling points, such as propane and butane, are
collected first, followed by gasoline, kerosene, diesel, and finally heavy oils and
tar.
The fractions are then further refined to produce useful products such as
gasoline, diesel, jet fuel, and other industrial products.
Fractional distillation is important in refining crude oil into useful products, it
allows the separation of different hydrocarbons based on their boiling points,
so that they can be further refined and used in different applications.

Describe how the properties of fractions obtained from petroleum change

from the bottom to the top of the fractionating column, limited to:
Decreasing chain length
Higher volatility
Lower boiling points
Lower viscosity
Name the uses of the fractions:
Refinery gas fraction for gas used in heating and cooking
Gasoline /petrol fraction for fuel used in cars
Naphtha fraction as a chemical feedstock
Kerosene /paraffin fraction for jet fuel
Diesel oil/ gas oil fraction for fuel used in diesel engines
Fuel oil fraction for fuel used in ships and home heating systems
Lubricating oil fraction for lubricants, waxes and polishes
Bitumen fraction for making roads
Bonding in Alkanes:
Single covalent.
 They are saturated hydrocarbon.
Generally unreactive (except in combustion or substitution by chlorine)
Define substitution reaction:
A reaction in which one atom or group of atoms is replaced by another atom
or group of atoms.
Substitution reaction of alkanes with chlorine:
A photochemical reaction
With ultraviolet light providing activation energy, Ea
Bonding in Alkenes:
Double covalent.
They are unsaturated hydrocarbon.
Reactive
Describe the manufacture of alkenes and hydrogen by the cracking of larger
alkane molecules using a high temperature and a catalyst.
The process typically occurs at high temperatures (about 500-700°C) and
pressures, and it uses catalysts such as clay or zeolites to promote the reaction.
The catalysts used act as a site of reaction by providing an active site where the
cracking takes place.
The main products of the cracking process are alkenes and hydrogen, these
molecules are released as the large alkane molecules break down.

Describe the reasons for the cracking of larger alkane molecules.

Cracking is the process of breaking down large alkane molecules into smaller
molecules, typically through the use of heat and pressure.
The main reason for cracking larger alkane molecules is to increase the yield of
desired products such as gasoline, diesel, and jet fuel.
The demand for these products is high and cracking allows refineries to
produce more of these products from a given amount of crude oil.
Another reason for cracking is to produce molecules of a specific chain length,
which are used in the production of chemicals such as plastics, lubricants, and
other industrial products.
Describe the test to distinguish between saturated and unsaturated
hydrocarbons by their reaction with aqueous bromine.
Saturated hydrocarbons, such as alkanes, have only single bonds between
carbon atoms and do not react with aqueous bromine.
 Unsaturated hydrocarbons, such as alkenes and alkynes, have double or triple
bonds between carbon atoms and react with aqueous bromine to form a
dibromoalkane or tribromoalkane, respectively.
The test is performed by adding a small amount of aqueous bromine to a
hydrocarbon sample and observing the result.
If the aqueous bromine remains orange, the hydrocarbon is saturated.
If the aqueous bromine decolorizes, indicating the bromine is consumed and
the hydrocarbon is unsaturated.
This test is useful for identifying the presence of unsaturated hydrocarbons in a
compound, as the double or triple bond acts as a site of reaction, allowing the
bromine to add to the carbon atoms.

Define addition reaction:

A reaction in which only one product is formed.
Describe the properties of alkenes in terms of addition reactions with: (a)
bromine or aqueous bromine (b) hydrogen in the presence of a nickel catalyst
(c) steam in the presence of an acid catalyst.

(a) Bromine or aqueous bromine:

Alkenes have a double bond between carbon atoms, which makes them highly
reactive towards bromine or aqueous bromine.
The double bond acts as a site of reaction, allowing bromine or aqueous
bromine to add to the carbon atoms.
The addition of bromine or aqueous bromine to alkenes is a slow process and
requires a high temperature or UV light to promote the reaction.
The product of the reaction is a dibromoalkane, which has two bromine atoms
attached to the alkene.
This reaction is called electrophilic addition and it is a useful tool for
identifying the presence of an alkene in a compound.

(b) Hydrogen in the presence of a nickel catalyst:

Alkenes react with hydrogen in the presence of a nickel catalyst to form

alkanes.
The double bond acts as a site of reaction, allowing hydrogen to add to the
carbon atoms.
 The nickel catalyst acts as a catalyst, which helps to lower the activation energy
of the reaction.
The product of the reaction is an alkane, which has no double bond between
carbon atoms.
This reaction is called hydrogenation and it is an important process in the
refining and petrochemical industries.

(c) Steam in the presence of an acid catalyst:

Alkenes react with steam in the presence of an acid catalyst to form alcohols.
The double bond acts as a site of reaction, allowing water molecules to add to
the carbon atoms.
The acid catalyst acts as a proton donor, which helps to promote the reaction.
The product of the reaction is an alcohol, which has an OH group attached to
the alkene.
This reaction is called hydration and it is an important process in the
production of biofuels

Describe the manufacture of ethanol:

Fermentation of aqueous glucose at 25–35°C in the presence of yeast and in
the absence of oxygen.
Catalytic addition of steam to ethene at 300°C and 60 atm in the presence of
an acid catalyst.
Describe the combustion of ethanol:
Combustion of ethanol:

Ethanol is a flammable liquid that can easily burn when exposed to an ignition
source.
The combustion of ethanol is an exothermic reaction, meaning it releases heat
energy.
The chemical equation for the combustion of ethanol is C2H5OH + 3O2 ->
2CO2 + 3H2O + heat energy
State the uses of ethanol as: (a) a solvent (b) a fuel.

(a) As a solvent:
 Ethanol is a highly polar solvent, meaning it can dissolve polar substances such
as sugars, acids and salts.
(b) As a fuel:

Ethanol is a renewable and biodegradable fuel that can be used in internal

combustion engines
Describe the advantages and disadvantages of the manufacture of ethanol by:
(a) fermentation (b) catalytic addition of steam to ethene.
(a) Fermentation:

Advantages:
Low cost and easy to set up
Does not produce toxic by-products
Disadvantages:
Low yield and relatively slow process

(b) Catalytic addition of steam to ethene:

Advantages:
High yield and efficient process
Can be continuous process
Disadvantages:
Requires high temperatures and pressures
Requires specialized catalysts and equipment
Describe the reaction of ethanoic acid with: (a) metals (b) bases (c) carbonates
including names and formulae of the salts produced.

(a) Metals:

Ethanoic acid reacts with metals to form metal acetates.

The reaction is an acid-base neutralization reaction, in which the hydrogen ion
(H+) in the acid reacts with the metal to form a salt.
The formula for metal acetates is M(C2H3O2)x, where M is the metal and x is
the number of acetate groups.
Examples of metal acetates include:
Copper(II) acetate (Cu(C2H3O2)2)
Iron(II) acetate (Fe(C2H3O2)2)
Zinc acetate (Zn(C2H3O2)2)
(b) Bases:

Ethanoic acid reacts with bases to form salt and water.

The reaction is an acid-base neutralization reaction, in which the hydrogen ion
(H+) in the acid reacts with the hydroxide ion (OH-) in the base to form water
(H2O) and a salt.
Examples of salts produced by the reaction with bases include:
Sodium acetate (NaC2H3O2)
Potassium acetate (KC2H3O2)

(c) Carbonates:

Ethanoic acid reacts with carbonates to form salt, water, and carbon dioxide.
The reaction is an acid-carbonate neutralization reaction, in which the
hydrogen ion (H+) in the acid reacts with the carbonate ion (CO32-) in the
carbonate to form water (H2O), carbon dioxide (CO2), and a salt.
Examples of salts produced by the reaction with carbonates include:
Sodium acetate (NaC2H3O2)
Calcium acetate (Ca(C2H3O2)2)

Describe the formation of ethanoic acid by the oxidation of ethanol:

With acidified aqueous potassium manganate(VII).
By bacterial oxidation during vinegar production.

Describe the reaction of a carboxylic acid with an alcohol using an acid catalyst
to form an ester.
Carboxylic acids and alcohols react in the presence of an acid catalyst such as
sulfuric acid or hydrochloric acid.
The acid catalyst protonates the oxygen atom in the carboxyl group, creating a
more electrophilic carbon atom.
The electrophilic carbon atom attacks the nucleophilic oxygen atom in the
alcohol, forming a tetrahedral intermediate.
The tetrahedral intermediate collapses, releasing a molecule of water and
forming an ester molecule.
 The ester molecule has a characteristic sweet smell and is widely used in
perfumes, flavors, and fragrances.
The ester bond is sensitive to hydrolysis and can be broken by addition of
water and a base or an acid.
Esters are also used in the production of plastics and lubricants.

Define polymer:
Large molecules built up from smaller molecules called monomers.
Describe the formation of poly(ethene) as an example of addition
polymerisation using ethene monomers.
thene monomers (also known as ethylene) are added one at a time to form a
polymer chain, with no loss of atoms.
The addition reaction is initiated by a catalyst, such as a peroxide, that helps to
break the double bond in the ethene monomers.
The broken double bond acts as the site of reaction, allowing the ethene
monomers to add to the growing polymer chain.
As the polymer chain grows, the catalyst is consumed and the reaction slows
down.
The resulting polymer is a long chain of repeating ethene units, known as
poly(ethene) or polyethylene.
This process can be done at room temperature and pressure.
Polyethylene is a thermoplastic polymer, meaning it can be melted and
reshaped multiple times without losing its properties.
It is widely used in packaging, consumer goods, and industrial applications due
to its toughness, low cost, chemical resistance, and flexibility.
Describe the differences between addition and condensation polymerisation.
Addition polymerization:

Involves the addition of monomers to form a polymer without any by-products.

Monomers are added one at a time in a chain reaction, with no loss of atoms.
Occurs in the presence of a catalyst or initiator that starts the reaction.
Can be done at room temperature and pressure.
Examples include: Polyethylene and Polypropylene

Condensation polymerization:

Involves the combination of two or more monomers to form a polymer with

the elimination of small molecules such as water or methanol.
 Monomers are combined in pairs to form a polymer with the loss of atoms.
Occurs in the presence of a catalyst or initiator that starts the reaction.
Can be done at elevated temperatures and pressures.
Examples include: Nylon and Polyester
Describe how the properties of plastics have implications for their disposal.
1. Durability: Plastics are known for their durability and resistance to degradation,
which means that they can persist in the environment for hundreds of years.
This makes them difficult to break down, leading to long-term accumulation in
landfills and the environment.
2. Chemical resistance: Plastics are resistant to many chemicals, including those
used in waste management processes such as incineration and biodegradation.
This makes it difficult to break down plastics and can lead to the release of
harmful chemicals during disposal.
3. Low biodegradability: Many plastics are not biodegradable, which means that
they do not break down naturally in the environment. They can only be broken
down by specialized microorganisms under specific conditions, which are not
commonly found in landfills or the natural environment.
4. Lightweight and buoyancy: Plastics are lightweight and buoyant, making them
easily carried by wind and water. This means that they can easily end up in
oceans and other bodies of water, where they can cause significant harm to
marine life and ecosystems.
5. Microplastics: Some plastics are designed to break down into small particles,
called microplastics. These particles can be ingested by marine animals and
other organisms, which can cause harm to their health.

Describe the environmental challenges caused by plastics, limited to: (a)

disposal in land fill sites (b) accumulation in oceans (c) formation of toxic gases
from burning.
(a) Disposal in Landfill Sites:

Plastics take hundreds of years to degrade in landfills, which means that they
can persist in the environment for a long time.
Accumulation of plastics in landfills can lead to the release of harmful
chemicals and gases, such as methane and carbon dioxide, which contribute to
climate change.
Plastics can also clog drainage systems and cause flooding.
Landfill sites can become a source of plastic pollution if not properly managed.
(b) Accumulation in Oceans:

Plastics are lightweight and buoyant, which means that they can easily be
carried by wind and water and end up in oceans.
Once in oceans, plastics can entangle marine animals and birds, causing injury
or death.
Plastics can also be ingested by marine animals, which can cause harm to their
health or death.
Plastic debris can also have economic and tourism impacts on coastal
communities.

(c) Formation of toxic gases from burning:

Burning plastics can release harmful chemicals and toxins into the air, such as
dioxins, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), and heavy metals.
These chemicals can have negative effects on human health and the
environment.
Burning plastics in open air or in inappropriate facilities can also lead to the
release of particulate matter, which can have negative impacts on air quality
and human health.
Incomplete burning can also lead to the formation of microplastics, which can
have negative impacts on the environment.
Define protein:
Natural polyamides and that they are formed from amino acid monomers.

12 Experimental
techniques and
chemical analysis.
Name appropriate apparatus for the measurement of time, temperature, mass
and volume:
Stopwatches
Thermometers
Balances
Volumetric pipettes, Burettes, Gas syringes and Measuring cylinders .
Describe a:
Solvent as a substance that dissolves a solute
Solute as a substance that is dissolved in a solvent
Solution as a mixture of one or more solutes dissolved in a solvent
Saturated solution as a solution containing the maximum concentration of a
solute dissolved in the solvent at a specified temperature
Residue as a substance that remains after evaporation, distillation, filtration or
any similar process
Filtrate as a liquid or solution that has passed through a filter

Suggest advantages and disadvantages of experimental methods and

apparatus.
Advantages of experimental methods:

1. High precision and accuracy: Experiments are designed to minimize errors and
produce highly precise and accurate results.
2. Control over variables: Experiments allow researchers to control the variables
and test specific hypotheses, which helps to establish cause-and-effect
relationships.
3. Replicability: Experiments can be repeated to confirm results and establish
reproducibility.
4. Objectivity: Experiments are designed to be objective, minimizing the influence
of personal bias and subjectivity.
5. Generalizability: The findings from experiments can be applied to other similar
situations, populations or settings.
Disadvantages of experimental methods:

1. Time-consuming and resource-intensive: Experiments can be costly and take a

long time to conduct and analyze.
2. Limited generalizability: Results may not be generalizable to all populations or
settings, and may not account for all possible variables.
3. Ethical considerations: Some experiments may raise ethical concerns, such as
those involving human or animal subjects.
4. Artificiality: Experiments are often conducted in artificial environments, which
may not accurately reflect real-world situations.
5. Limited external validity: Experiments may not be able to account for all real-
world variables, which may limit the external validity of the findings.

Advantages of experimental apparatus:

1. High precision and accuracy: Experimental apparatus is designed to provide

highly precise and accurate measurements.
2. Speed and efficiency: Experimental apparatus can be used to perform complex
measurements quickly and efficiently.
3. Repeatability: Experimental apparatus can be used to repeat measurements,
which helps to confirm results and establish reproducibility.
4. Control over variables: Experimental apparatus allows researchers to control
the variables and test specific hypotheses, which helps to establish cause-and-
effect relationships.

Disadvantages of experimental apparatus:

1. High costs: Experimental apparatus can be expensive to purchase and maintain.

2. Complexity: Some experimental apparatus can be complex and difficult to use,
requiring specialized training and expertise.
3. Limited versatility: Experimental apparatus may be designed for specific types
of measurements, and may not be suitable for other types of experiments.
4. Reliance on technology: Experiments may not be able to be performed or
replicated if the apparatus is not functioning properly, it may also be limited by
the technology itself.
5. Limited generalizability: Results may not be generalizable to all populations or
settings, and may not account for all possible variables.
Describe an acid–base titration to include the use of a: (a) burette (b)
volumetric pipette (c) suitable indicator:
(a) A burette is used to measure and add the titrant (the solution of known
concentration) to the analyte (the solution of unknown concentration) in a precise
manner. A burette is a long, thin glass tube with graduations on the side, that allows
the user to measure the exact volume of liquid that has been dispensed.
(b) A volumetric pipette is used to measure a specific volume of the analyte solution.
A volumetric pipette is a calibrated glass tube with a single volume mark, it allows
the user to measure a specific volume of liquid.
(c) A suitable indicator is added to the analyte solution to indicate the endpoint of
the titration. Indicators are substances that change color at a specific pH, indicating
the end point of a titration. For acid-base titrations, phenolphthalein is a commonly
used indicator, which changes color from colorless to pink when the pH changes
from 8 to 10.
The titration is carried out by slowly adding the titrant solution from the burette to
the analyte solution until the endpoint is reached. The endpoint of the titration is
reached when the indicator changes color, indicating that the acid and base have
reacted completely. The volume of titrant added at the endpoint is recorded and
used to calculate the concentration of the analyte solution.

Describe how to identify the end-point of a titration using an indicator.

The endpoint of the titration is reached when the indicator changes color and
the titrant is added until the color change is permanent (endpoint is reached
when the color change is sustained after swirling the mixture)

Describe how paper chromatography is used to separate mixtures of soluble

coloured substances, using a suitable solvent.
Paper chromatography is a method of separating and identifying the
components of a mixture of soluble, colored substances.
The process begins by preparing a spot of the mixture to be analyzed on a
sheet of chromatography paper.
 The paper is then placed in a container with a small amount of the solvent,
which travels up the paper by capillary action.
Different components of the mixture have different chemical and physical
properties, which causes them to travel at different rates and separate into
distinct bands on the paper.
The separated components can be identified by the distinct bands on the
paper, the distance they have traveled and their Rf values (Ratio of distance
traveled by the solute to the distance traveled by the solvent)

Describe how paper chromatography is used to separate mixtures of soluble

colourless substances, using a suitable solvent and a locating agent.
The process begins by preparing a spot of the mixture to be analyzed on a
sheet of chromatography paper. The paper is then placed in a container with a
small amount of the solvent, which travels up the paper by capillary action. As
the solvent moves up the paper, it carries the components of the mixture with
it. However, because the different components of the mixture have different
chemical and physical properties, they will travel at different rates. This results
in the separation of the components into distinct bands on the paper.
A locating agent, also called a developer, is used to visualize the separated
components. The locating agent is usually a solution that is sprayed or applied
to the paper after the solvent has been removed. It reacts with the separated
components on the paper, causing them to change color, making it easier to
identify and locate each component.
The solvent used in paper chromatography is usually a volatile liquid such as
alcohol or acetone, and it is chosen based on the polarity of the compounds in
the mixture. The polarity of the solvent must be similar to the polarity of the
compounds in the mixture, which will allow the solvent to interact with the
compounds and separate them.

Describe and explain methods of separation and purification using: (a) a

suitable solvent (b) filtration (c) crystallisation (d) simple distillation (e)
fractional distillation.
(a) Solvent extraction is a method of separation and purification in which a
compound is dissolved in a solvent that is immiscible with the other components in
a mixture. The solution is then separated from the mixture, and the desired
compound can be isolated by evaporating or distilling the solvent. This method is
commonly used in the chemical industry to purify compounds such as essential oils
and pigments.
(b) Filtration is a method of separating solid particles from a liquid or gas by passing
it through a filter. The filter medium, such as filter paper or a porous material, allows
the liquid or gas to pass through while trapping the solid particles. This method is
commonly used in the purification of water and other liquids, as well as in the
separation of gases in industrial processes.
(c) Crystallization is a method of separating and purifying a solid compound by
causing it to form crystals. The compound is dissolved in a solvent, and the solution
is cooled or seeded with crystals of the desired compound to encourage
crystallization. The crystals are then separated from the solvent by filtration or
centrifugation. This method is commonly used in the purification of inorganic
compounds, such as salts, and in the production of semiconductors.
(d) Simple distillation is a method of separating and purifying liquids by heating
them to create vapor, which is then condensed and collected. The vaporization and
condensation process separates the liquids based on their different boiling points.
This method is commonly used in the purification of liquids such as water, alcohols
and essential oils.
(e) Fractional distillation is similar to simple distillation, but it is used to separate and
purify mixtures of liquids with very similar boiling points. It is a more efficient
method of distillation that uses a fractionating column to achieve greater separation
of the components in the mixture. This method is commonly used in the purification
of petroleum and in the production of alcoholic beverages.

Describe tests to identify the anions:

Carbonate, CO3 2–, by reaction with dilute acid and then testing for carbon
dioxide gas
Chloride, Cl – , bromide, Br – , and iodide, I – , by acidifying with dilute nitric
acid then adding aqueous silver nitrate
Nitrate, NO3 – , reduction with aluminium foil and aqueous sodium hydroxide
and then testing for ammonia gas
Sulfate, SO4 2–, by acidifying with dilute nitric acid and then adding aqueous
barium nitrate
Sulfite, SO3 2–, by reaction with acidified aqueous potassium manganate(VII)
Describe tests using aqueous sodium hydroxide and aqueous ammonia to
identify the aqueous cations: (a) aluminium, Al 3+ (b) ammonium, NH4 + (c)
calcium, Ca2+ (d) chromium(III), Cr3+ (e) copper(II), Cu2+ (f) iron(II), Fe2+ (g)
iron(III), Fe3+ (h) zinc, Zn2+.
(a) Aluminium, Al3+: When aqueous aluminium ions are treated with aqueous
sodium hydroxide, a white precipitate of aluminium hydroxide, Al(OH)3, is formed.
(b) Ammonium, NH4+: When aqueous ammonium ions are treated with aqueous
ammonia, a white precipitate of ammonium hydroxide, NH4OH, is formed.
(c) Calcium, Ca2+: When aqueous calcium ions are treated with aqueous sodium
hydroxide, a white precipitate of calcium hydroxide, Ca(OH)2, is formed.
(d) Chromium(III), Cr3+: When aqueous chromium(III) ions are treated with aqueous
sodium hydroxide, a green precipitate of chromium(III) hydroxide, Cr(OH)3, is
formed.
(e) Copper(II), Cu2+: When aqueous copper(II) ions are treated with aqueous sodium
hydroxide, a blue-green precipitate of copper(II) hydroxide, Cu(OH)2, is formed.
(f) Iron(II), Fe2+: When aqueous iron(II) ions are treated with aqueous sodium
hydroxide, a yellow precipitate of iron(II) hydroxide, Fe(OH)2, is formed.
(g) Iron(III), Fe3+: When aqueous iron(III) ions are treated with aqueous sodium
hydroxide, a brown precipitate of iron(III) hydroxide, Fe(OH)3, is formed.
(h) Zinc, Zn2+: When aqueous zinc ions are treated with aqueous sodium hydroxide,
a white precipitate of zinc hydroxide, Zn(OH)2, is formed.

Describe tests to identify the gases:

Ammonia, NH3, using damp red litmus paper
Carbon dioxide, CO2, using limewater
Chlorine, Cl 2, using damp litmus paper
Hydrogen, H2, using a lighted splint
Oxygen, O2, using a glowing splint
Sulfur dioxide, SO2, using acidified aqueous potassium manganate(VII)
Describe the use of a flame test to identify the cations: (a) lithium, Li+ (b)
sodium, Na+ (c) potassium, K+ (d) calcium, Ca2+ (e) barium, Ba2+ (f)
copper(II), Cu2+.
(a) Lithium, Li+: when heated in a flame, lithium ions emit a red color.
(b) Sodium, Na+: when heated in a flame, sodium ions emit a yellow color.
(c) Potassium, K+: when heated in a flame, potassium ions emit a violet color.
(d) Calcium, Ca2+: when heated in a flame, calcium ions emit a red-orange color.
(e) Barium, Ba2+: when heated in a flame, barium ions emit a green color.
(f) Copper(II), Cu2+: when heated in a flame, copper(II) ions emit a blue-green color.