Roman Empire

Sources: -
 The greatest problem in the study of Rome was the
notorious unreliability of the sources.
 They are almost literary, among them Livy the only
surviving writer present a detailed description of the
period.
 But unfortunately, Livy account was based on the
accounts of other writers rather than on the original
evidences.
 What Livy and other writers say was disbelieved or
modified by modern scholars.

Introduction: -
● Rome Civilization succeeded the Greece civilization.
● Nucleus of the formed social formation was Italy and later
the entire Mediterranean.
● By 2000 BC Italy was inhabited by several Indo-European
tribes.
● In the western portion were the people who spoke Latin
and the middle of the peninsula was dominated by Apennine
Mountain extending from northern to central Italy.
● Another grp was Osco-Umbrians also referred as
Sabellians.
● Volsci and Aequi were ancient tribes lived on the periphery
of Latium.
● Main non Indo-European tribes was Etruscans
concentrated in north-western and central Italy.
● Around 800 BC Etruscans undergo a transition which lead
to urbanization and growth of an agricultural economy.
● Etruscans lived in a self governed cities with their own
independent territories.
● Etruscans adopted some features from Greek civilization.
● The foundation of the Rome city were laid in 753 BC.
● City borrowed several elements from Etruscans social and
political organization.
Etruscans family became dominant in the city.
● Rome acquired a monarchical form of govt. ruled by
Etruscans kings.
● In 510 BC monarchy came to an end. Two events happen:-
(a) Etruscans king Tarquin the Proud was overthrown.
(b) Monarchy was abolished in Rome and republic was
established.
● 510 BC was the beginning of republic in Rome.
 The word “Republic” is of Latin origin from “Res Publica”
means “the public origin”.
● Then the city was not ruled by a rex (king) but by an
oligarchy consist of wealthy aristocracy of Rome.
● Senate was the main instrument of aristocratic power.
● Roman republic lasted from 510 to 27 BC.
EXPANSION:-
● For over 2 centuries from c. 500 to 280 BC Rome was
engaged in bringing the entire Italian peninsula under its
control.
● Starting from the central Italy, Rome conquest the Veii
which lead the Rome to assert itself more aggressively over
its neighbours.
● But the expansion was halted by invasion of Italy by Celtic
tribes. In 390 BC Celtics entered and plundered Rome. After
this invasion city was rebuilt.
● Then Rome launched a vigorous expansionist programmes.
Roman started series of campaign which lasted till 338 BC
when Rome succeeded in subduing Latin states.
● Then by 295 BC, Rome brought most of the Etruscans
territories under its control.
● The Greek states of Southern Italy strongly opposed Roman
expansion into their area.
● The Tarentum state appealed to other Greek states for
assistance and then war broke out between Rome and Greek
state eventually in 275 BC Roman defeated Greek and
southern Italy came under their control.
● This completed the first major phase of Roman supremacy.
● The conquest of Southern Italy brought the Romans to the
edge of the western Mediterranean.
● Carthaginian Empire ruled the western Mediterranean and
Sicily was a part of Carthaginian territory.
● When Rome attempted to conquer Sicily, it came into
conflict with Carthage which led to war between both. These
wars were known as Punic Wars. There were three Punic
Wars: First Punic War (264-241 BC), Second Punic War (218-
201 BC), Third Punic War (149-146 BC).
● After the end of the 1st PW, Carthage was forced to
surrender Sicily to Rome and Sicily became the 1st 'province'
of Rome.
● The 2nd PW ended in 201 BC with Carthage accepting
Roman peace terms and had to surrender its territories in
Spain and it became another province of Rome.
● Once Rome became the foremost power in the western
Mediterranean it turned towards eastern Mediterranean.
● Eastern Mediterranean were dominated by Macedonia,
Egypt and West Asia.
● Rome defeated the Philip V of Macedonia and his successor
in the 3rd PW of 149-146 BC which led the subjugation of
Macedonia.
● In the 3rd PW, Carthage was defeated and were under the
control of Romans. The territory of Carthage in Tunisia were
recognised as Roman Province of Africa. In this war, Romans
also made Macedonia a Roman province.
● Thus, by the middle of the 2nd century BC, Roman
influence were predominant in the entire Mediterranean.

INTERNAL POLITICS OF ROME: -

● Etruscans monarchy ousted from Rome in 520 BC and
political power passed into the hands of aristocracy.
● Aristocracy initially set up an oligarchical govt.
● Oligarchy exercised its power through an oligarchical
council called senate.
● Aristocracy lacked the resources to mobilize a large
standing army. Roman military organization heavily depend
on peasants. The Roman army comprised of unpaid soldiers
like Greek hoplites who had to supply their own fighting
equipment’s. But the Roman aristocracy failed to financed
the standing army.
● in the early phase of Roman expansion, the aristocracy was
fully dependent on peasant soldiers and peasants also get
some concessions and political powers.
● The senate was the most important body of the Roman
state.
● Under the king, Roman senate functioned as an advisory
council.
● Senate was a council of elders consisting of heads of
prominent families.
● From the senate, common people were completely
excluded.
Roman society was divided into two groups: -:
(a) Patricians Order: - constitute a small close-knit elite
(b) Plebeian Order: - common people
● So, the struggle between the aristocracy and peasants was
actually the struggle between the Patricians and Plebeian or
referred to as 'the conflict of the orders'.
● Difference between Plebeian and Patrician: -
Patricians Plebians
1. Based on kingship grp 1. Remained a deprived
called gentes. classes with very little
control over land and
other means of
production.
2. One couldn’t become a To be born in Plebian means
Patrician by acquiring belonging to an
wealth and political underprivileged class.
power.
3. Person has to be born in Many of the important
patrician gens and has priesthood remained close
to be the offspring of to Plebians.
the marriage which was
recognized valid by
Roman law.
4. Kingship structure was
strictly regulated.
5. Gentes were patrilineal
 and rigidly patriarchal.
6. To be born in patrician
meant automatic access
to wealth political
power and high social
and ritual status.
7. Able to exercise high
degree of control over
Roman religion.

● Till 445 BC marriages between both were prohibited by

law.
● And even after restrictions were removed, the offspring of
a marriage between Patrician women and Plebeian man were
not regarded as Patrician but the offspring of Patrician man
and Plebeian women were considered as Patrician.
● When republic came into existence the Patricians
converted senate into oligarchical institutions.
● Membership was by cooption i.e.; original members choose
new members.
● Only patrician male could be the member.
Senate powers: -
● give duties to magistrate.
● advised on legislation, military, financial matters.
● supervised the function of state.
● Juries for major trials.
● Majority were landowners.
Consuls: -
● Highest officials of Roman republic.
● There were 2 consuls.
● Consulship was an elective post and election took place
annually.
● Authority of Roman state were vested in the hands of the
consuls.
● Preside over senates and performed executive, judicial and
military functions.
● Minimum age was 42.
● Could seek re election
● One of the imps. demand of the plebians should be allowed
to hold office of consul. In
367 demand was granted.

Censors: -
● 2 censors elected once in every 5 yrs.
● Held office for 18 months.
● Were required to conduct a census of Roman citizens.
● Censors recorded the name of the Roman citizens, amount
of property possessed by citizens.
● Census determined the eligibility of a citizen, depending
upon the value of property to hold various offices.
● Also controlled public morality.
● Other functions like leasing public lands and giving state
contracts.
● Earlier patrician were allowed to hold office but in later
republic Plebeian were also allowed to hold office.
Aediles: -
● 4 aediles were elected annually.
● were in charge of public works and had to maintain roads,
drains and Market places and need to maintain
arrangements for public festivals also.
Quaestors: -
● Assisted the higher magistrates in the discharge of their
duties.
● Main responsibilities were to look after the state treasury
and maintain public accounts.
Apparitors: -
● Salaries were paid by state.
● they were not elected.
● their appointment was for 1 year.
● were recruited from poorer sections of the population.
● Includes scribes and lictors.
● Lictors were officials who escorted consuls. They carried
with them bundle of wooden rods known as fasces.
The political structure of the Rome included a tribal
assembly. The members of this assembly were all male adults
of the communities. The Roman assembly i.e., the assembly
of citizens was called Comitia Curate. The Comitia Curiata got
its name from a kingship based social grp unit called curia. At
the beginning, there were 30 curiae which were grouped into
3 tribes. Each curia elected its own head called curio who was
supposed to be over 50 yrs of age. But patrician began to
influence the proceedings of the Comitia Curiata. The
Plebeians find that Comitia Curiata hardly take care of their
interest. So, the peasantsoldiers i.e., Plebeian started putting
the pressure which led the citizens to form a new assembly.
This assembly was called as Comitia centuriata. It was an
assembly of all Roman citizens. The citizens were grouped
into 'centuries'. It was the smallest unit of the Roman army
consist of 100 men. In the initial stage Comitia Centuriata
resembled a military formation. For most of the republican
Comitia Centuriata was the main assembly. Assembly elected
the consuls and censors. Legislation passed by Comitia
Centuriata. War and peace were the prerogative of the
assembly. Comitia Centuriata formed in c.450 BC. It
contained 193 centuries and each century had one vote.
Centuries were divided into 5 classes on the basis of property
qualification. The first three classes were the classes of
wealthy and aristocracy and they were few in no. And the
last two classes were the propertyless citizens who were
labelled as proletarius whose function was to bear the
children. They were placed in the lowest class. Meetings of
the Comitia Centuriata clawed by magistrates who prepared
the agenda beforehand and citizens were expected to vote
without any discussion. Members couldn't initiate legislation
in the assembly. Having failed to get share of political power
in Comitia Centuriata, Plebeian organized a body of their own
called Concilium plebis. It was an assembly of Plebeians. It
got institutionalized and evolved its own structure. It had
regular procedures and elected its own officials. The most
powerful weapon in the hands of Plebeians was the refusal to
render military service and this refusal was referred as
secessio. They wanted the Roman state to acknowledge the
Concilium plebis and recognise the tribunes (Plebeian
officers) which Roman state agreed. Initially these were 2 in
no. later 10.
Apart from this, there were four other important landmarks
in the struggle of Plebeians: - Another demand of the
Plebeians was of written code of law so that there should be
no arbitrary exercise of judicial authority. So, the senate set
up a 10-member commission. Members of the commission
called decemvirs presided over by Appius Claudius.
Decemvirs prepared a set of laws which is known as 'Code of
the Twelve Tables' in 450 BC. A notorious provision of the
eleventh table forbade intermarriage between patricians and
plebeians. Another imp. landmark was that patrician
conceded one of the consulships to the Plebeians. So,
consulship provide them an opportunity to enter the senate.
Roman law had a very harsh provision which applied to the
strict enforcement of formal contracts or nexum. In this
agreement while contracting a loan in which debtors person
pledges as security failure to honour the agreement led to
debt bondage. Plebeian agitate for the abolition of nexum.
This is called as First Secession of the Plebs. Finally, a law in
326 BC prohibited the enslavement of Roman citizen for non-
repayment of debts.
● Given in Amar Farooqi page no. 222-223
(REFER TO THE TIMELINE WHICH WAS GIVEN IN “ROMAN
REPUBLIC” PAGE NO. 17 TO 19)
Development of 287 BC led to the reorganization of Roman
assembly. This assembly was the Comitia tributa. It was an
assembly of all Roman citizens and citizens were divided on
the basis of tribes (tribus). The tribes were essentially the
residential tribe. By 241 BC there were 35 residential tribe.
So, the Comitia tributa was more egalitarian body as
compared to Comitia Curiata and Comitia Centuriata. The
tribunate formed a secondary and parallel executive agency,
designed to protect the poor from the oppression of the rich.
Between 280 and 146 BC Rome was constantly at war. After
146 BC the contradict between aristocracy and peasants
sharpened which led to conflict between the two. Assidui
(small peasants) lies in between Plebeian elite and the
landless class. Abolition of debt bondage in 325 BC placed
restrictions on debt bondage but peasants were forced to
hand over their lands to creditor if they failed to pay the
loan. After 146 BC Assidui were start demanding
redistribution of land or land reforms. Two brothers named
Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus lead the movement for land
reforms. But the reform remains unsuccessful. The Assidui
found it difficult to support themselves. The Assidui class
which formed the majority of the citizens when republic was
established virtually disappeared in the final year of the
republic. The elimination of Assidui as a class transformed
the character of the Roman republic. From 100 BC onwards,
there were several violent upheavals in Rome. Regular war
broke out between Rome and Italian community. Roman
Empire had a profound impact upon the Roman relations
with Italy. Romans starts controlling their internal autonomy
and it could only be remedied if they had a right to
participate in the decision-making process. Two different
types of citizenship came into existence: -
(a) Full Citizenship which was further divided into two: -
(i) Political Rights (jura publica)
(ii) Civil Rights (jura private)
(b) Inferior citizens or half citizens.
So Roman citizenship was extended on a very selective basis
and that the grant of citizenship rights always had a political-
military objective. By 90 BC the constitutional machinery of
the Roman republic was on the verge of the collapse. The
army emerged as a new political power. It had altered the
balance of forces in Rome and began to play a decisive role in
determining the outcome conflicts. The Social Ear coincided
with a major military campaign in West Asia. Macedonia has
been annexed, Greek states were forced to accept the Rome
supremacy, Seleucids of Syria has been defeated, Egypt was
made a protectorate. But the annexation of Anatolia was
difficult. Roman expansion in Anatolia was halted by
Mithridates VI. Rome had to wage three wars against
Mithridates VI (Mithridates wars) and finally defeat him in 63
BC. Marius (consul and military leader) given charge of
campaign against Mithridates. Marius was opposed by Sulla
who at that time headed the most conservative and anti-
poor faction of the Patrician aristocracy. Civil War (88-82 BC)
broke out between Sulla and Marius. Sulla got hand in the
war. He used his power to become the absolute ruler. He
returned to Rome in 83 BC and ended the Civil war. In 81 BC
he became the dictator. Extended his dictatorship
indefinitely. All military and political power concentrated in
his hands. Sulla's dictatorship lasted from 81 to 79 BC. From
now the powerful military commanders have been called
'warlords' by D. Dudley. Violent conflict of these Warlords
speed up the collapse of republic. Powers of tribunes were
reduced, assemblies of citizens were ignored, census was
abandoned, Sulla abolished free grain rations causing great
hardship to the destitute citizens. Military situation become
critical in 80s and 70s. Crassus, Pompey and Julius Caesar
(Warlords) formed a coalition in 60 BC which is referred to as
the First Triumvirate. The entire authority of Roman state
vested in the hands of Triumvirate. In 60 BC three Warlords
entered into formal agreement to share power. But after 56
BC they faced problems. After Crassus was killed in 53 BC
after the war with Parthians at the battle of Carrhae, there
was a tussle between Julius Caesar and Pompey. Ceaser
received the command of Roman Armies in Gaul in 58 BC.
Most well-known ruler of Gaul was Vercingetorix. It was only
in 50 BC that Ceaser succeeded in subjugating the Gaul. By
the time Ceaser completed the conquest of Gaul the tension
between Ceaser and Pompey had worsened. In order to
prevent the Pompey from becoming the ruler he March into
Italy with his army. War broke out between both and
Pompey defeated in 48 BC and fled to Europe where he was
murdered. Ceaser was now the supreme warlord of Rome
and in 48 BC he became the dictator with extensive powers.
He was made dictator for 10 yrs and he attempt to become
absolute ruler but he was murdered in 44 BC. He was
assassinated by Brutus and Cassius eho wanted to prevent
Ceaser from converting the republic into monarchy. Then
Mark Anatony, Lepidus and Octavian Ceaser the supporters
of Julius organized themselves. These three formed a new
Triumvirate known as 2nd Triumvirate in 43 BC. Brutus and
Cassius were defeated in a battle in 42 BC. Lepidus the
weakest among the 3 were forced to leave the Triumvirate.
Subsequently conflict arose between Anatony and Octavia
for sharing power. Mark Anatony sought the support of
Cleopatra. The combined force of them was defeated by
Octavia in 31 BC. They were dead by 30 BC and Octavian
became the supreme leader of the whole Roman Empire. In
27 BC Octavian assumed the title Augustus and declared
himself princeps i.e., first and foremost citizen. 27 BC
formally mark the end of the republic and the beginning of
the Roman principates.
● Octavian who was called Augustus Ceaser by 27 BC
transformed the entire character of the Roman state.
● He was successful in where Sulla and Julius failed.
● He cleverly retained the outward form of the republic while
altering the actual content of the Roman state.
● Initially under Augustus, Roman state had the appearance
of a republic but by the time he died the state had in effect
become a Monarchy.
● Augustus established a new political structure where the
emperor i.e., Augustus, the senatorial oligarchy and the army
were the three main components.
● Army was the main source of Augustus power; the military
leadership play a key role. He was the supreme commander
of the Roman armies.
● Main objective of Augustus was to concentrate power as
much lower as possible in his own hands.
● Government of Republic was based on the system of
granting imperium to magistrates and military commanders.
Imperium: -
✓ authority vested in an official for performing executive,
judicial or military functions.
✓ granted to high officials and gave them unlimited powers
within their defined spheres.
✓ It was given for specific tasks and duration and area which
indicate the imperium was valid.
✓ Imperium of a consul was for 1 yr.
✓ through imperium consuls got powers.
✓ governors of province called preconsuls held the imperium
for administrating their respective provinces.
✓ The imperium of military commander was for a period of
campaign.
✓ in republic several official held the imperium
simultaneously.
✓ Imperium of Augustus was for an indefinite period and was
valid throughout the empire.
✓ He was the only military commanders with imperium.
● Augustus developed an imperial bureaucracy. The
Augustus bureaucracy were mainly recruited from
equestrians.
● This class were a distant class in Roman society and defined
as non-senatorial.
● In the late republic, equites were recognised and senators
were excluded.
● Augustus modified some of the posts to suit his purpose.
● One of the top priorities was to establish order at Rome
and ensure that Plebeian didn't engage in rioting.
● Steps have been taken to prevent oligarchy from using
armed force.
● Instead of using the army for protecting the city, Augustus
depend on a special armed contingent called praetorian
guard. The nucleus was the imperial bodyguard.
● The overall responsibility for keeping peace in the city was
given to magistrate called praefectus urbi.
● The distribution of free grain rations to poor citizens was
vital for keeping discontent with manageable limits in the
city.
● Perfect praefectus annonae was in charge of the branch of
administration which looked after the public distribution of
grain.
● Augustus also revived the census of citizens which had
become irregular in the late republic almost stopped after
sulla.
● Augustus introduced a series of moral reforms from 18 BC
onwards.
● One of his well-known laws for imposing a moral code on
citizens was Lex Julia which made adultery a public offence.
● Augustus success in restoring peace gave him an
opportunity to accumulate more and more power at the cost
of senate.
● The achievement of Augustus bin restoring order and in
giving a new direction to the empire was so remarkable that
later generation accorded a special place to him in Roman
history.
● The reign of Augustus was marked by glorious era of peace
and stability which was defined by the term Pax Romana. In
many ways Augustus was the principal architect of the Pax
Romana which lasted for several centuries.
● Augustus died in AD 14. Tiberius was appointed as his
successor. It was during his reign that monarchical character
became visible.
● Surviving traditions and institutions of the republic were
ignored, Comitia tributa stopped functioning, membership of
the senate tends to became hereditary, consuls were not
appointed regularly, Consulship were occasionally hold by
emperors.
● As the Roman monarchy evolved it developed some
peculiar features.
● Till the middle of the 3rd century AD Roman state
remained theoretically a republic.
● Tiberius died in AD 37 and was succeeded by Caligula who
was the descendants of Tiberius brother Drusus. In AD 41
Caligula was killed and Claudius was appointed.
● He died in AD 54 and was succeeded by Nero.
● He committed suicide in AD 68 and with the death of the
Nero the rule of Augustus family came to an end.
● Nero was succeeded by Galba but within a few months he
was killed by praetorian guards.
● Otho one of the principal officers of the praetorian guard
become the emperor but Roman armies in northern
European province of Germany refused to recognise Otho
and Vitellius marched towards Rome and defeated him and
he became the emperor.
● At this point eastern armies stationed in Syria and Palestine
rebelled. Vespasian killed the Vitelliusan and became
emperor N AD 69.
● The reign of Vespasianan and his son Titus was a period of
peace and stability.
● After the death of Titus in AD 81 his brother Domitian
became the emperor.
● In AD 96 he was assassinated by praetorian guards.
● Then in AD 96 senate appointed Nerva as emperor. He
appointed successors for next 80 yrs. His and his 4 successors
period from AD 96 to AD 180 were referred as 'Golden Age'
of the empire.
● Soon after his accession Nerva adopted a popular general
named Trajan as his successor. He became emperor in AD 98.
● He persuaded a policy of territorial expansion. Under him
Roman Empire reached its greatest extent which made him
more powerful and further strengthened the institution of
monarchy.
● Trajan died in AD 117 and was succeeded by his adopted
heir Hadrian.
● Hadrian worked out a unique formula to ensure a smooth
succession after his death.
● HE adopted Antoninus Pius as his successor and asked
Aurelius as Antoninus successor.
● So Antoninus became emperor after the death of Hadrian
in AD 138. He was succeeded by Marcus Aurelium. Antoninus
Pius and Marcus Aurrlius together termed as 'the Antonines'.
● Upon the death of the Marcus Aurelius, his son Commodus
became the emperor. But he was unfit for the rule and he
was killed in AD 192.
● The army placed an experienced official named Pertinax on
the throne.
● He carried out the reform and put an end to the disorder
caused by Commodus.
● Pertinax was killed within a few months of becoming
emperor.
● Then one of the military commanders named Septimius
Severus became emperor in AD 193.
● He reduced the role of the senate in the govt. The basis of
Septimius power was the army.
● He died in AD 211 and was succeeded by his son Caracalla.
● In AD 217 Caracalla was murdered by praetorian guards.
One of the perfects of the guards named Macrinus
succeeded him.
● In AD 218 Elagabalus became emperor with the support of
the Syrian army.
● Within 4 yrs he was killed by praetorian guards and was
succeeded by Severus Alexander in AD 222.
● In AD 235 the emperor was murdered. This date marked
the end of the principate. The principate is sometimes
referred to as the early Roman Empire of the period
following the death of Severus Alexander.
● The murder of the Severus lead to the failure of balance of
power between army, senate and emperor
● Army made Maximinus as the next emperor which was
unacceptable to the senate and it intensifies the conflict
between emperor, army and senate.
● Anarchy prevailed in the Roman Empire for the next 50 yrs
(AD 235 to 284). Nearly 20 emperors were placed on the
throne during this period many of them non-senators
supported by the army. 18 of these had violent death.
● Then emperor Diocletian came to power in AD 284.
● He entirely rebuilt the state.