GMRIT EDC LAB

1. Plot V-I characteristics of PN Junction diode

A) Forward bias B) Reverse Bias
AIM:

1. To plot the V-I characteristics of given semiconductor diode, both in forward and in reverse bias.

2 To find out the cut in voltage.

3.To calculate the dynamic and static resistance of the diode.

APPARATUS:

1. Semiconductor Diode (1N 4007) - 1 No.

2 Dual Regulated Power Supply (0-30V) - 1 No.

3.Voltmeters (0-1V),(0-20V) - 1 No. each

4.Ammeters (0-20mA), (0-500A) - 1 No. each

5.Resistor (1K) - 1 No.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Forward Bias

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Reverse Bias

THEORY :

The PN junction will allow the current to flow in one direction only. It will not allow the current to
flow in the reverse direction. The basic property of the diode is thus uni directional current flow. The diode
has two terminals P and N.

If the positive terminal is connected to P-Side and negative terminal to N- Side, the diode is said to
be forward biased. If the P-Side of the diode is connected to the negative terminal of the power supply, the
diode is said to be reverse biased.

The reverse biased current of a diode is very small compared to the forward biased current. This is
also known as leakage current or reverse saturation current. Only minority charge carriers flow in the reverse
bias. The reverse bias current is a function of temperature. It will be usually the order of micro amperes for
germanium ( Ge ) and nano amperes for silicon ( Si ) diode. There must be at least 0.7V of forward bias
voltage for a silicon diode to conduct appreciably. This voltage is known as cut in voltage. The cut in voltage
of Ge is 0.3V. The current in the forward bias increases with an increase in voltage across it. The current in
the reverse biased diode is almost constant with an increase in voltage. However, there is a limit to the
maximum forward current and maximum reverse voltage. The operation of diode beyond these limits will
damage the diode by overheating due to excessive current flow.

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The volt-ampere characteristics are shown in fig. Ideally a diode acts like a closed switch when
forward biased and as an open switch when reverse biased. The forward resistance of a diode can be found
by drawing a tangent to the volt-ampere characteristics at the operating point.

PROCEDURE:

Forward Bias:

1. Connections are made as per circuit diagram.

2. Increase the voltage in convenient steps and note the ammeter and voltmeter Readings.

3.Tabulate the results and plot the graph V versus I.

4.Find the static and dynamic resistance from the graph using the following formulae.

Static resistance = V/ I

Dynamic resistance = dV/dI

Reverse Bias:

1. Connections are made as per circuit diagram.

2. Increase the voltage in convenient steps and note the ammeter and voltmeter readings.

3.Tabulate the results and plot the graph between V vs. I.

4.Find the static and dynamic resistance using the above formulae.

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Forward Bias :-

Sl. Vo A
NO. voltmeter Reading (v) Ammeter Reading (mA)

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Reverse Bias :-
Sl.no.. Voltmeter Reading (v) Ammeter Reading(mA)

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Model Graph :

RESULT:

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2. ZENER DIODE CHARACTERISTICS

AIM:

1. To plot the V-I characteristics of the given Zener Diode, both in forward bias and in reverse bias

2. To find out the break down voltage.

3.To observe the performance of a zener diode as a voltage regulator.

APPARATUS:

Regulated D.C. power supply (0-30) V - 1 No

Zener diode - 1 No.

Resistance (1K ) - 1 No.

Ammeters (0-20) mA - 2 No.

Decade Resistance Box - 1No.
Voltmeters (0-1) V, (0-10) V - 1No, each

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

FORWARD BIAS:

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REVERSE BIAS:

THEORY:-

The diode must be operated between the limits of maximum forward biased current and minimum
reverse biased voltage ,also called peak inverse voltage (or) break down voltage .Special diodes known as
Zener diodes are manufactured to operate at a precise value of breakdown voltage without destroying the
diode. For this diode, the reverse breakdown voltage is called Zener voltage. The important characteristic of
Zener diode is the Zener voltage is constant; whatever may be the current through the diode (within the
limits of current rating). In the forward biased direction, the Zener diode functions like an ordinary diode.
The volt-ampere characteristic of the Zener diode is as shown in the figure(1)

Zener diodes, like all other electronic devices can be destroyed by heat. The major limiting factor is
the power that can be dissipated by the device. Zener diodes are available with power rating between 1/4W
and 50W.Thus the maximum current, a Zener diode can pass through depends upon Zener voltage and power
rating of the diode.

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Zener diodes are mostly used in voltage regulation and voltage reference circuits. Voltage regulator
circuits are used when the load needs a constant voltage but varying current.

PROCEDURE FOR FORWARD BIAS: -

1.Connections are made as per the circuit diagram (1).
2.Vary the power supply in steps of 0.1V.
3.Note down the corresponding ammeter and voltmeter readings.
4.Tabulate the readings as shown in the following observation table.
5.Plot a graph between V and I.

PROCEDURE FOR REVERSE BIAS: -

1.Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.

2.Increase the supply voltage in steps.

3.Note down the corresponding ammeter and voltmeter readings.
4.Tabulate the results and plot the graph V vs. I.
FORWARD BIAS:-

S.NO. VOLTMETER READING (V) AMMETER READING (mA)

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REVERSE BIAS
S.NO VOLTMETER READING (V) AMMETER READING (mA)

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MODEL GRAPH:-

RESULT :

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3. FULLWAVE RECTIFIER

Aim: To obtain the ripple and regulation characteristics of a full wave rectifier with and without filter.

Apparatus :

Silicon Diodes (1N 4007) - 2 No.

Transformer (12-0-12) V - 1 No.

Ammeter (0-20) ma - 1No.

AC milli voltmeter - 1No.

Voltmeter (0-50) - 1No.
Decade Resistance box - 1No.
CRO - 1No
Electrolytic capacitor 1000microF - 2No.
Bread board, connecting wires.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

DRB

WITH OUT FILTER

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DRB

WITH FILTER
THEORY: -
Most of the electronic equipment needs for it’s operation a DC power. We get DC power by
converting AC power into DC using rectifiers. There are two types of rectifiers
1) Half wave rectifier,
2) Full wave rectifier.
The diode has property of allowing DC in one direction, thus diodes are used in rectifier circuits. A step
down transformer is used in the circuit that will step down voltage from 230V to 12V.The input AC
voltage changes from it’s polarity for every 0.01s. During the +ve half cycle of the input, the p-side of the
diode is +ve with respect to n-side and current flows through the diode. During the –ve half cycle there is
no current because n-side is +ve with respect to the p-side. Conduction of diode in +ve half cycle of input
cycle is called half wave rectification. The drawbacks in the HWR can be overcomes by a full wave rectifier,
i.e., we make the circuit to conduct both during +ve and –ve half cycles. Here the transformer is center
tapped. This produces two sinusoidal waveforms, which are out of phase by 1800 w.r.t. The neutral point.In
the +ve half cycle, the upper diode D1 will conduct and in the –ve half cycle D2 will conduct. During –ve
and +ve half cycle the direction of current through the load is same. The output of full wave rectifier is
pulsating DC. These pulses can be filtered by connecting a capacitor filter across the load resistor.

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PROCEDURE: -
WITH OUT FILTER

1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram (1).

2. Measure VDC (no load).

3.Connect a 1Kohm resistor and measure IDC, VDC and VAC.

4.Increase the load resistance in steps of 1Kohm.

5.Note down the values of IDC, VDC and VAC and tabulate the readings as shown below.

6.Calculate the ripple factor and percentage regulation for each reading.

7.Connections are made as per the circuit diagram (1).

8.Measure VDC (no load).

9.Connect a 1Kohm resistor and measure IDC, VDC and VAC.

10.Increase the load resistance in steps of 1Kohm.

11. Note down the values of IDC, VDC and VAC and tabulate the readings as shown below.

12. Calculate the ripple factor and percentage regulation for Observe the waveforms at the secondary of

transformer and across the load resistance.

13. Plot a graph between ripple factor (r) Vs IDC and % R Vs IDC.

WITH FILTER
1.Connect a capacitor filter shown in diagram (2).

2.Measure VDC no load.

3. Connect a 1Kohm resistor and measure IDC, VDC and VAC.

4. Repeat the above procedure for a load of 10K ohm in steps of 1Kohm.

5. Tabulate the readings and observe waveforms at secondary of transformer and across load.

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TABULAR FORM:
WITH OUT FILTER:
Ripple Factor =
RL (kΩ) IDC (mA) VDC (V) VAc (V) % Regulation
VAC / VDC

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WITH FILTER :-
Ripple Factor =
RL (kΩ) IDC (mA) VDC (V) VAc (V) % Regulation
VAC / VDC

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MODEL GRAPH:

% regulation = VDC No Load −VDC Full Load 100

VDC No Load

Without Filter :

WITH FILTER

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PRECAUTIONS: -

1.The connections are made without any loose connections.

2.Readings should be noted without any parallax error.

3.Equipment should be handled carefully.

RESULT:

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4-A.TRANSISTOR COOMON BASE CHARACTERISTICS

AIM: To plot a family of input and output characteristics of a transistor connected in common base
configuration.
APPARATUS :

Dual regulated Power supply ( 0-30V ) - 1

Transistor BC107 - 1

Resistors – 1K - 2

Voltmeter ( 0-20)V ,(0-1)V - 1

Ammeter ( 0-20)mA - 1

Breadboard - 1

Connecting wires

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM :

INPUT CHARACTERISTICS

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OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS

THEORY:

Bi-polar Junction Transistor ( BJT ) is fabricated with three semiconductor regions. The three regions
are called emitter, base and collector. There are two PN junction joins the base and emitter regions. The
second junction called base collector junction joins base region and collector region. There are two types of
transistors – NPN and PNP.

A NPN transistor is fabricated by sandwiching the P-type semiconductor material between two N-
regions and PNP transistor is fabricated by sandwiching N-type semiconductor material between two P-
regions.

The base region of a transistor is lightly depend on the other two regions. The emitter region is
heavily doped and collector region is moderately doped. The width of the base is made thin compared to
emitter and collector to reduce the recombination in the base region both holes and electrons present in the
semiconductor regions of a transistor contribute current and hence it is called Bi-polar Junction Transistor.
There are different configurations of a transistor. They are -

Common Base configuration

Common Emitter configuration

Common Collector configuration

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Various regions of operation of a transistor are - Active region, Saturation region and Cut off
region.

In the Active region the emitter junction of the transistor is forward biased and collector junction of
a transistor is reverse biased. In the Saturation region both emitter and collector junctions are forward biased
where as in the Cut off region both the junctions are reverse biased.

When a transistor is connected with the base as common terminal for both input and output, it is
known as CB configuration. In this configuration, the input is at the emitter and the output is at the collector
and the base is common for both input and output. Since, IE is the input current and IC is the output current,
so the current gain is IC/IE. It is called Static Forward Current Transfer Ratio. This ratio is nearly unity.
Actual value ranges from 0.95 to 0.998.

PROCEDURE:

For plotting input characteristics:

1) Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.

2) Make VCB=0V.
3) Vary the input voltage VEB in convenient steps and note down the emitter current IE at each step.
4) Repeat the above steps for different constant values of VCB=1V and 3V.
5) Draw the graph between VCB and IC for different values of IE for different values of VC.
For plotting output characteristics.

1) Set the value of IE=0mA. Note down the values of IC and VCB by varying the supply

Voltage VCC in steps.

2) Set the values of IE=1mA and repeat the above procedure.

3) Repeat the above procedure for IE=2mA and 3mA.

4) To get the readings on negative x-axis, reverse the polarity of voltmeter VCB and repeat the above
procedure.
5) Draw the graph between VCB and IC for different values of VC.

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Model Graphs:

Plot a family of output characteristics by taking the collector voltage VCB on X-axis and collector
current IC on Y-axis for constant value of input current IE.

Input Characteristics

1) Plot a family of input characteristics by taking emitter voltage VEB on X-axis and emitter current IE on
Y-axis for constant values of output voltage VCB.

Output Characteristics

PRECAUTIONS:

1. Loose connections are to be avoided.

2. Do not exceed the forward current than its rated value.

3.Do not exceed the reverse current than its rated value.

4. Parallax error should be avoided.

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INPUT CHARACTERISTICS:.

VCB = 0 V VCB = 1V VCB = 2 V

S.NO. VEB = (V) IE (mA) VEB (V) IE (mA) VEB (V) IE (mA)

OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS

S.NO. IE = 0mA IE =1 mA IE = 3 mA

VCB (V) IC mA VCB (V) IC mA VCB (V) IC mA

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SATURATION REGION

SL.NO. IE = 1 mA IE = 3 mA

VCB (V) IC (mA) VCB (V) IC(mA)

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RESULT:

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4 -B. TRANSISTOR COMMON EMITTER CHARACTERISTICS

AIM: To plot a family of input and output characteristics of a transistor connected in common emitter
configuration and calculate h-parameters from its characteristics.

APPARATUS :

Bipolar Junction Transistor ( BC 107)

Dual Regulated DC power supply ( 0-30V )

Voltmeters ( 0-20V )

Ammeters ( 0-500A ), ( 0-20mA )

Resistors – 1K, 10K

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

INPUT CHARACTERISTICS

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OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS
THEORY:

The Bipolar Junction Transistor is fabricated with three regions. The three regions are known as
Emitter, Base and Collector. There are two PN junctions in the transistor. The first junction called the base-
emitter junction joins the base region and emitter region. The second junction called the base- collector
junction joins base region and collector region. There are two types of transistors – NPN and PNP.

A NPN transistor is fabricated by sandwiching n-type semiconductor material between the p-

regions. The base region of a transistor is lightly doped compared to the other two regions. The emitter
region is heavily doped and collector region is moderately doped. The width of the base is made thin
compared to emitter and collector to reduce the recombination in the base region. Both holes and electrons
present in the semiconductor regions of the transistor contribute current and hence it is known as Bipolar
Junction Transistor ( BJT ). There are different configurations of a transistor. They are -

Common Base configuration

Common Emitter configuration

Common Collector configuration

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Various regions of operation of a transistor are - Active region, Saturation region and Cut off region.
In the Active region the emitter junction of the transistor is forward biased and collector junction of a
transistor is reverse biased. In the Saturation region both emitter and collector junctions are forward biased
where as in the Cut off region both the junctions are reverse biased.

Transistors are used as amplifiers, electronic switches. The emitter and collector junctions of the
transistor should be biased correctly for proper operation. To use the transistor as an amplifier, the base
emitter junction should be forward biased and base collector junction should be reverse biased. This
particular biasing arrangement is called the active region operation of a transistor. When a transistor is biased
properly, emitter junction has a low resistance due to forward bias. Due to the transistor action, collector
junction has a forward resistance due to reverse bias. Transistor means it transfers the signal from low
resistance to high resistance value.

The emitter is common to both input and output circuits, then the transistor is said to be
common emitter configuration. In the common emitter configuration, we shall study the characteristics of
the transistor such as –

1. Input characteristics, which give the relation between input quantities, namely input voltage and input
current.
2. Output characteristics, which give the relation between the output quantities namely output voltage and
output current.

PROCEDURE:

INPUT CHARACTERISTICS

1. Connections are made as per circuit diagram.

2. Keep VCC=5V (constant), increase VBB observe IB for different values of VEB.

3.Repeat experiment for VCE=0.04V, 0.08V and draw the graph between IB Vs VEB.

4.Tabulate the results.

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OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS:

1.Connections are made as per circuit diagram.

2.With VCC=0, increase VBB to get IB=0A.

3. Then, increase VCC and observe IC for different values of VCE without exceeding the rated values.

4. Tabulate the results.

5. Repeat the steps for constant values of IB=20A and IB=40A.

6.Tabulate the readings.

7.Plot the output characteristics.

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RESULT:

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5.Frequency response of CE amplifier

Aim: To observe the frequency response of common emitter amplifiers and determine the
respective gain, band width from the frequency response plot.

Apparatus: Bread Board

Regulated power supply:

Function generator:

Bipolar Junction Transistor:

Resistors:

Capacitors:

Connecting wires

CRO

Theory:

The voltage gain of an amplifier varies with signal frequency. The reason is that the reactance of
capacitors in the circuit changes with signal frequency and hence affects the output voltage. Figure
shows the frequency response of a typical CE amplifier. It is clear that the voltage gain drops off at
lower (< fL) and higher (> fH) frequencies. Here, it is uniform over mid-frequency range (fL to fH).

• At low frequencies (< fL): the reactance of coupling capacitor is quite high and hence very
small part of signal will pass from amplifier stage to the load. Moreover, bypass capacitor
CE cannot shunt the emitter resistance RE effectively because of its large reactance at
low frequencies. These two factors cause a falling of voltage gain at low frequencies.

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• At high frequencies (> fH): the reactance of C2 (coupling capacitor C2 couples one stage
of amplification to the next stage) is very small and behaves as a short circuit. This
increases the loading effect of amplifier stage and serves to reduce the voltage gain.
Moreover, at high frequency, capacitive reactance of base-emitters junction is low
which increases the base current. These reduce the current amplification factor β. Due
to these two reasons, the voltage gain drops off at high frequency.
• At mid frequencies (fL to fH): the voltage gain of the amplifier is constant. The effect of
coupling capacitor C2 in this frequency range is such as to maintain a uniform voltage
gain.

Circuit Diagram:

Figure.1 Circuit diagram of the Common emitter amplifier

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Model plot:

Figure.3. Frequency response characteristics of the CE amplifier

Procedure:
1. Make the connections as per the circuit diagram for CE amplifier
2. Switch on DC power supply and adjust it (0-15)V
3. Set the input voltage Vi, p-p at ….. mV
4. For different frequencies (10 HZ ~ 1 MHz) of the input signal, measure the peak-peak output
voltage (Vo) using CRO while RL= ∞ (open). Keep the Vi,p-p constant throughout the
experiment.
5. Calculate the gain for each of frequency event and plot the frequency response graph as
shown in Figure 8.2 for CE amplifier.
6. Mark the lower 3-db frequencies on frequency response curve and measure the bandwidth
in each case of CE amplifiers.

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Observations:

Table 1 Frequency response of the CE amplifier (Input voltage (Vi) = )

Vi: Input Vo: Output  Vo   Vo 
S. No. G : Gain =   Gain = 20log   db
frequency (Hz) Voltage (V)  Vi   Vi 

Result:

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