ELECTRONIC DEVICES AND CIRCUITS II MODULE MCM5-EV VoL.1-2 (1) - 1
ELECTRONIC DEVICES AND CIRCUITS II MODULE MCM5-EV VoL.1-2 (1) - 1
module MCM5/EV
Volume 1/2
TEACHER/STUDENT handbook
UNPACKING
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VIBRATIONS OR COLLISIONS
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CONTENTS
CONTENTS
OBJECTIVES
EQUIPMENT REQUIRED
• base unit for the IPES system (power supply mod. PSU/EV, module
holder structure for modules mod. MU/EV), individual control unit
mod. SIS1/SIS2/SIS3
• experiment module mod. MCM5/ EV
• function generator
• oscilloscope
• multimeter.
So by applying an input signal ib you obtain two output signals ic and vce
which will have the same shape of ib, if the bias point is in the linear
region and if ib has limited amplitude, i.e. it is a “small signal”
(fig.B20.1).
The current ic, not only behaves like ib, it is also much larger. The
output signal of the transistor is said to be AMPLIFIED with respect to
the input one.
-1-
Lesson B20: Characteristic parameters of small signal amplifiers
fig.B20.1
In the region around the operating point, the transistor parameters can
be considered constant and the transistor can be represented with a
linear model, called the "equivalent circuit". The model used for low
frequency transistors is called the "hybrid" model, and its parameters
the "h" parameters.
fig. B20.2
-2-
Lesson B20: Characteristic parameters of small signal amplifiers
The h parameters used for the equivalent circuit of the common emitter
transistor (figure B2 0.3) are:
fig. B20.3
∆vbe
hie = ──── [ vce = const ]
∆ib
∆ic
hoe = ─── [ ib = const ]
∆vce
this is the ratio between collector current variations and variations in the
collector-emitter voltage, with a constant base current. Dimensionally it
is a conductance and can be some tens of µmho.
∆ic
hfe = ─── [ vce = const ]
∆ib
-3-
Lesson B20: Characteristic parameters of small signal amplifiers
∆vbe
hre = ──── [ ib = const ]
∆vce
this is the ratio between the variations of the base-emitter voltage and
the variation of the collector-emitter voltage, with the base current
constant. It is a pure number which can vary from 10-3 to 10-4.
fig.B20.4
fig.B20.5
-4-
Lesson B20: Characteristic parameters of small signal amplifiers
As an example figure B20.6 shows hie, hfe, hre, hoe as function of the
bias current ICQ. The parameters are normalized in respect to the values
when ICQ = 1 mA.
fig.B20.6
Figure B20.7 shows the normal common emitter amplifier. R1, R2 and
Re constitute the bias network. vs and Rs represent the generator and its
internal resistance.
Considering the circuit only for small signal variations (ac), the
capacitors are practically a short-circuit. From the original circuit, you
can obtain the so called DYNAMIC CIRCUIT, which represents the
amplifier only for the ac or signal components. Notice that Vcc, which
doesn’t present any variation, can be considered as connected to ground,
thus obtaining (in the dynamic circuit) R1 in parallel with R2 and Rc in
parallel with RL. In the diagram we set RB = R1//R2 and Rp = Rc//RL
(total load).
-5-
Lesson B20: Characteristic parameters of small signal amplifiers
A)
B)
fig.B20.7
Replacing the transistor with its equivalent circuit, the amplifier can be
represented by figure B20.8.
fig. B20.8
io h fe
Ai = =
i i 1 + h oe ⋅ R p
where Rp = Rc//RL
Ai ≈ hfe
-6-
Lesson B20: Characteristic parameters of small signal amplifiers
Ri = hie
vo R p
Av = = ⋅ Ai
vi Ri
Av = -Rp·hfe/hie
vi R it
α= =
v s Rs + R it
Avt = vo/vs = α · Av
fig.B20.9
-7-
Lesson B20: Characteristic parameters of small signal amplifiers
vo 1
Ro = =
io h ⋅h
h oe − fe re
h ie + R s '
Ap = Ai·Av
Ap = Rp · hfe² / hie
fig.B20.10
The graphs show that the current gain drops as the load resistance
RL increases. However Av increases, and so the power
amplification increases to reach a maximum and then it rapidly
drops. The max. power value is obtained with RL = Ro.
-8-
Lesson B20: Characteristic parameters of small signal amplifiers
hie = hib⋅(hfe + 1)
hoe = hob⋅(hfe + 1)
hre = -hrb + (hib⋅hob) ⋅(hfe + 1)
The capacitors in the circuit determine the lower limit of the last
formula. Considering that the capacitances C1, C2 and Ce, the
equivalent circuit of the figure B20.8, neglecting hoe and hre,
becomes as shown in fig.B20.11.
fig. B20.11
You can detect the lower cut-off angular frequency wL,
approximately, from the following relations which are true only if
CE · RE >> t1 (normal operating region):
t2 = C2 · (Rc + RL)
A. if t1 ≠ t2 , wL = √[(1/t1)²)+(1/t2)²]
B. if t1 = t2 , wL = 1.55/t1
-9-
Lesson B20: Characteristic parameters of small signal amplifiers
B20.2 EXERCISES
• Insert jumpers J3, J5, J6, J17, J11, J13, J26, connect the multimeter
(function IDC) between terminals 4 and 5, adjust RV1 completely
C.W. (zero Ω) to produce the circuit of figure B20.12
fig. B20.12
Q1 What is approximately?
SET
A B
1 5 33 KΩ
2 4 10 KΩ
3 1 some tens of ohms
4 3 some KΩ
5 2 it lies between 100 KΩ and 500 KΩ
- 10 -
Lesson B20: Characteristic parameters of small signal amplifiers
• Insert jumper J5
• Vary RV6 load completely C.W. (max. resistance value) and connect
it to the amplifier by inserting J28.
• Connect the oscilloscope channel 1 at terminal 2 (T1 base transistor)
and the channel 2 across the RV6 load.
• Connect at terminals 1 and ground the the function generator with a
sine signal, 1 KHz, vary the amplitude to check 20 mVpp at terminal
2.
• Using the values of the voltages measured with the oscilloscope,
calculate the voltage amplification Av = vout/vin
• Check the phase shift between input and output signals.
• Move the channel 1 of the oscilloscope between RV1 and C2 to
display the signal before the capacitor.
• Evaluate the voltage amplification under these conditions.
• Gradually increase the frequency of the input signal and check if the
circuit amplification remains constant.
- 11 -
Lesson B20: Characteristic parameters of small signal amplifiers
• Set the input signal with sine wave and 1KHz, vary the amplitude to
check 20 mVpp at terminal 2. Display the signal across the load RV6
on the oscilloscope.
• Gradually increase the resistance of RV1 so that the voltage across
the RV6 load is reduced to half its initial value.
• Disconnect the function generator and remove the jumper J2. With an
ohmmeter, measure the inserted resistance of RV1, which in these
conditions is equal to the total input resistance of the amplifier Rit =
RB // Ri
Q2 What is Rit ?
SET
A B
1 4 equal to Ri
2 3 infinite
3 2 a few Kohm
4 5 a few ohms
5 1 a few Mohm
Q3 What is Rot ?
SET
A B
1 2 about 1 Kohm
2 5 many Kohm
3 1 a few ohm
4 3 infinite
5 4 many Mohm
- 12 -
Lesson B20: Characteristic parameters of small signal amplifiers
SET
A B
SET
A B
SET
A B
1 6 500
2 1 40 KΩ
3 4 98
4 5 50
5 2 20
6 3 200 µF
SET
A B
1 4 48
2 3 -100
3 6 -48
4 4 100
5 1 75
6 2 -75
- 13 -
Lesson B21: The EMITTER FOLLOWER
OBJECTIVES
• Analytic study of an emitter follower circuit as function of its h
parameters:
− calculation of the current gain Ai
− calculation of the input resistance Ri
− calculation of the voltage gain Av
− calculation of the output resistance Ro
• Experimental study of the circuit:
− measurement of the voltage gain
− measurement of the phase difference between input and output
signal
− measurement of the input resistance Rit of the amplifier
EQUIPMENT REQUIRED
• base unit for the IPES system (power supply mod. PSU/EV, module
holder structure for modules mod. MU/EV), individual control unit
mod. SIS1/SIS2/SIS3
• experiment module mod. MCM5/ EV
• function generator
• oscilloscope
• multimeter.
fig.B21.1
- 14 -
Lesson B21: The EMITTER FOLLOWER
The fact that this circuit has a high input resistance and a low output
resistance makes it useful as a buffer stage between a high resistance
source and a low resistance load.
The name of the follower comes from the fact that the voltage gain is
positive and slightly lower than unity. A rise, for example, of the input
signal becomes an equal rise in the output signal. The output "follows"
the input.
Biasing
The load line is determined by the following equation:
Vcc = VCE + RE · IC
The analytic study of the amplification requires the use of the transistor
equivalent circuit. The emitter follower of the figure B21.1 is shown, for
small signal applications, in the diagram of figure B21.2.
fig. B21.2
The bias resistances R1 and R2 can be substituted by a base equivalent
resistance: RB = R1//R2.
1. Current gain Ai
io 1 + h fe
Ai = =
i i 1 + h oe ⋅ R p
where Rp = RE//RL
When the product (hoe·Rp) is much less than 1, the current gain is
almost equal to hfe:
Ai ≈ hfe
- 15 -
Lesson B21: The EMITTER FOLLOWER
2. Input resistance Ri
Ri ≈ Rp·Ai
3. Voltage gain Av
Av = vo/vi = 1- hie/Ri
As you can note, the gain is always less than unity and has a
positive sign. With the same Rp, if the collector current increases
the gain becomes closer to 1.0. In fact hie drops, while hfe and Ai are
practically unaffected by the variation of IC over a wide range.
Avt = vo / vs = α · Av
fig.B21.3
- 16 -
Lesson B21: The EMITTER FOLLOWER
vL 1
R ot = =
iL 1 1 + h fe
+ h oe +
Re h ie + R st
Usually hfe is very big and hoe is very small. The last formula then
becomes:
Rot = RE // 10 Ω
The following table shows the main differences between the emitter
follower and the common emitter connection:
B21.2 EXERCISES
Voltage gain
• Insert jumpers J1, J2, J6, J5, J12, J19, J26, the multimeter (function
IDC) between terminals 4 and 5 to produce the circuit of figure B21.4
- 17 -
Lesson B21: The EMITTER FOLLOWER
fig.B21.4
SET
A B
1 6 it takes values ranging between 1 and 1.5
2 3 some tens of millivolt
3 5 some handred of millivolt
4 1 it takes values between 0.9 and 1
5 2 more than 10
6 4 none of the above
Q2 What is the phase difference between the output and input signal?
SET
A B
1 4 it takes values between 150 and 220 degrees
2 5 a few degrees
3 2 almost zero
4 3 180 degrees
5 1 none of the above
- 18 -
Lesson B21: The EMITTER FOLLOWER
• Turn on the function generator and insert again jumpers J1, J2.
SET
A B
1 3 the amplitude increases
2 5 the amplitude decreases
3 4 the frequency varies
4 2 it is distorted on the positive half-waves
5 1 it is distorted on the negative half-waves
SET
A B
1 5 a variation of hfe of the transistor
2 2 a variation of the amplifier gain
3 4 a variation of the operating point due to the reduction of RV2
4 3 a variation of the operating point due to the reduction of R4
5 1 a variation of the resistance connected to the emitter
- 19 -
Lesson B21: The EMITTER FOLLOWER
SET
A B
1 3 common base circuit
2 4 common collector circuit
3 1 common emitter circuit
4 5 dual-load circuit
5 2 resonant load amplifier
Q6 In the emitter follower, the voltage gain and output signal phase shift
are:
SET
A B
1 4 voltage gain slightly lower than 1 and 180° shift
2 5 voltage gain slightly lower than 1 and 0° shift
3 1 voltage gain higher than 1 and 180° shift
4 3 voltage gain higher than 1 and 0° shift
5 6 voltage gain equal to 1 and 0° shift
6 2 none of the above
SET
A B
1 6 Ri high and Ro very low
2 3 Ro equal to Ri
3 1 Ri low and Ro high
4 2 Ri and Ro both high
5 4 Ri and Ro both low
6 3 Ri practically null, Ro practically infinite
SET
A B
1 4 voltage amplifier
2 1 phase inverter
3 2 impedance matcher
4 5 frequency multiplier
5 3 triangular wave generator
- 20 -
Lesson B22: The Dual-Load Amplifier
OBJECTIVES
• Analytic study of a circuit amplifier with dual-load as function of the
h parameters:
− calculation of the current gain Ai
− calculation of the input resistance Ri
− calculation of the voltage gain Av
− calculation of the output resistances Ro
• Experimental study of the circuit:
− measurement of the voltage gain
− measurement of the phase difference between input and output
signals
− measurement of the phase shift between the collector signal and
the emitter signal
EQUIPMENT REQUIRED
• base unit for the IPES system (power supply mod. PSU/EV, module
holder structure for modules mod. MU/EV), individual control
unit mod. SIS1/SIS2/SIS3
• experiment module mod. MCM5/ EV
• function generator
• oscilloscope
• multimeter.
- 21 -
Lesson B22: The Dual-Load Amplifier
fig.B22.1
fig. B22.2
Aie = ie / ii = 1 + Aic
Aie ≈ Aic
- 22 -
Lesson B22: The Dual-Load Amplifier
2. input resistance Ri
Ri = Rpe·Aie
Ave = 1
Roc ≈ Rc
The following table shows the main differences between the amplifiers
in common emitter, emitter follower, dual-load configurations.
- 23 -
Lesson B22: The Dual-Load Amplifier
B22.2 EXERCISES
• Insert jumpers J1, J2, J5, J6, J12, J17, J26, the multimeter (function
IDC) between terminals 4 and 5 to produce the circuit of fig.B22.3.
fig. B22.3
• Set 0÷30V Vcc adjustable power supply to 20V.
• Set Vcc=20V. Adjust trimmer RV2 to bias the transistor for ICQ ≈5
mA
• Connect the function generator at terminals 1 and ground with a sine
wave, 1 KHz and 2 V peak-to-peak.
• Connect the oscilloscope to display the input signal and the output
signals on T1 collector and emitter.
• determine the voltage gains Avc and Ave
SET
A B
1 2 the 2 gains are equal
2 4 Avc is double Ave
3 1 Avc = 0 and Ave = 40
4 5 Avc is half Ave
5 3 Avc = 40 and Ave = 0
- 24 -
Lesson B22: The Dual-Load Amplifier
• Evaluate the phase shift between the input signal and the output
Signal
SET
A B
1 6 the collector resistance R9 has been increased
2 1 the emitter resistance R8 has been increased
3 2 the emitter resistance R8 has been decreased
4 5 the power supply voltage has been changed
5 3 the voltage of the signal generator has been decreased
6 4 the frequency of the output signals has been changed
• With reference to the last circuit, set the function generator with sine
wave, 1 KHz and 2 V peak-to-peak.
• display on the oscilloscope the generator voltage and the voltage on
the base of T1
• remove jumper J1 to insert the trimmer RV1 between the generator
and C1
• increase the value of RV1 until the input signal on the base of T1,
reduces to half
• turn off the function generator and remove jumper J2; measure the
resistance inserted by the trimmer RV1
This value corresponds to the total input resistance Rit of the amplifier.
Rit is much less than Ri , due to the bias resistors R1-R2 which are in
parallel to Ri .
- 25 -
Lesson B22: The Dual-Load Amplifier
SET
A B
1 5 the base and the collector
2 1 the collector and the emitter
3 2 the emitter and the base
4 3 they are in parallel and conneceted to the collector
5 4 they are in series and connected between base and emitter
SET
A B
1 3 very low
2 5 very high
3 2 equal to the output resistance of the emitter
4 1 in the order of some tens of ohm
5 4 in the order of Mohm
Q6 What are the output resistances, on the collector and the emitter, for a
dual-load amplifier?
SET
A B
1 5 they are exactly equal and very low
2 3 collector output resistance is equal to Rc, and the emitter
resistance is low
3 6 they are exactly equal and very high
4 1 the collector output resistance is very low and the emitter
istance very high
5 2 the collector output resistance is high and the emitter
ance is zero
6 4 each resistance is equal to the input resistance
SET
A B
1 4 Aie = −20 Avc = −9
2 3 Aic = 40 Avc = 9
3 1 Avc = −9 Ave = 0.97
4 5 Avc = 1 Ave = 1
5 2 Avc = 20 Ave = −103
- 26 -
Lesson B23: RC COUPLING
OBJECTIVES
• Study of a two-stage amplifier circuit with RC coupling:
• measurement of the voltage gains
• determination of the phase difference between input and output
signals
EQUIPMENT REQUIRED
• base unit for the IPES system (power supply mod. PSU/EV, module
holder structure for modules mod. MU/EV), individual control
unit mod. SIS1/SIS2/SIS3
• experiment module mod. MCM5/ EV
• function generator
• oscilloscope
• multimeter.
For example, when a high gain and high input impedance amplifier is
required, a common collector BJT can be used as first stage (high input
resistance), and a common emitter BJT as second stage (high
amplification).
The overall characteristics of circuits with several stages are found from
the characteristics of each stage. The following table sums up typical
data for the three main types of amplifier.
- 27 -
Lesson B23: RC COUPLING
The choice of the number of stages, their kind, and their order, is mainly
determined by the generator resistance, the load resistance, and the gain
required. Most amplifiers to be obtained require:
• a high input resistance, compared to the generator resistance
• a small output resistance, compared to the load resistance
There are three types of coupling possible between stages: direct coupling, RC coupling, and
transformer coupling.
RC coupling
An RC connection allows ac, but blocks the dc between the two stages,
making them independent as far as the dc bias setting is concerned. The
operation point can be determined separately, for each single stage.
fig.B23.1
fig. B23.2
- 28 -
Lesson B23: RC COUPLING
Avt = v3 / vs = α·Av12
- 29 -
Lesson B23: RC COUPLING
B23.2 EXERCISES
• Insert jumpers J2, J5, J6, J11, J17, J26, J34, J36, J40, J44 and
connect the instruments to produce the circuit of figure B23.3.
fig. B23.3
• Set 0÷30V Vcc adjustable power supply to 20V and adjust RV1 to
mid-position
• rotate RV2 and RV7 to obtain: ICQ1 ≈10 mA, ICQ2 ≈ 20 mA
• Insert jumper J31
SET
A B
1 5 common emitter
2 3 common base
3 1 dual load
4 2 emitter follower
5 4 common collector
- 30 -
Lesson B23: RC COUPLING
• determine the voltage gain and the phase shift between the two
signals
• move the oscilloscope channel 2 at terminal 9 (second stage output
signal)
• Check the phase differences between the input signal and the output
signals across the two stages
Q2 What is the total gain of the circuit, and what is the phase shift between
the input signal and the output?
SET
A B
1 3 Avt = Av1 +Av2 shift = 45°
2 5 Avt = Av1·Av2 shift = 45°
3 1 Avt = Av1·Av2 shift = 90°
4 2 Avt = Av1 +Av2 shift = 180°
5 4 Avt = Av1·Av2 shift = 0°
SET
A B
1 4 to increase the operating frequency
2 1 to match the source to the load
3 5 to obtain a high input resistance
4 3 to diminish the signal distortion
5 2 to obtain all the above advantages
SET
A B
1 2 the characteristics of the first stage
2 5 the characteristics of the last stage
3 4 the characteristics of each stage
4 3 the load
5 1 the power supply voltage
- 31 -
Lesson B23: RC COUPLING
SET
A B
1 3 can be composed of different stages
2 4 must be composed of similar stages
3 5 must be composed of different stages
4 1 has a first stage with a dual load
5 2 has a follower stage across the output
SET
A B
1 2 0 degrees
2 5 90 degrees
3 1 45 degrees
4 3 180 degrees
5 4 270 degrees
SET
A B
1 6 bias the second stage properly
2 1 send the ac component af a signal from one stage to the next,
without affecting the bias
3 4 obtain an oscillating signal
4 3 electrically isolate the different stages fromeach other
5 2 increase the output power of the amplifier
6 5 upgrade the frequency answer at high frequencies
- 32 -
Lesson B24: TRANSFORMER COUPLING
OBJECTIVES
• Study of a 2-stage circuit amplifier with transformer coupling:
− measurement of the voltage gains
− use of an RC network to obtain a better frequency response of the
amplifier
EQUIPMENT REQUIRED
• base unit for the IPES system (power supply mod. PSU/EV, module
holder structure for modules mod. MU/EV), individual control
unit mod. SIS1/SIS2/SIS3
• experiment module mod. MCM5/ EV
• function generator
• oscilloscope
• multimeter.
In this case the link between two amplifier stages is achieved using a
transformer. The figure B24.1 shows a typical coupling between two
dual-load transistor amplifiers.
As you can note from figure B24.1 the primary of the transformer
replaces the usual load resistance RL. As the transformer behaves like an
inductance (which has zero or very low resistance), the dc (or
Quiescent) current ICQ across the first stage does not dissipate power as
a resistance would. As for ac components, the dynamic load is that of
the secondary ( R ) seen from the primary, and is equal to n2·R, where n
is the transform ratio of the transformer. As far as the the dc bias is
concerned, the transformer makes the two stages independent of each
other. The Q or bias point can be determined separately for each stage.
fig.B24.1
- 33 -
Lesson B24: TRANSFORMER COUPLING
The transformer system can also be used in the coupling between final
stage and the load in the power amplifiers (figure B24.2). In this case
the transformer is called the "output transformer".
fig.B24.2
The advantages of the transformer coupling are: absence of d.c. current
through the load and higher power efficiency.
The disadvantages are: larger volume and weight of the transformer,
frequency limitations of the transformer and non linearity of the
response curve.
Because of these disadvantages, the use of the transformer in low-
frequency, small signals amplifiers is not recommended. On the
contrary, it is widely applied in high-frequency tuned amplifiers, where
the transformer is used to realize resonant circuits.
In an amplifier using transformers, the a.c. component in the primary
depends on the reactance of the winding. The amplification is
proportional to the reactance of the transformer so the output signal
depends on the frequency. To limit this problem, an RC circuit can be
used in parallel to the primary (figure B24.3).
fig. B24.3
Biasing
In the study of the circuit, two load lines are defined: a static and a
dynamic one. The static load line is almost vertical, because the
resistance of the transformer primary is very small. In absence of signal
the collector voltage is practically equal to Vcc.
The dynamic load line has a slope equal to: -1/(n²⋅RL) where n is the
turns or transform ratio of the transformer.
- 34 -
Lesson B24: TRANSFORMER COUPLING
fig. B24.4
v4 h ' ⋅ (R ' // R )
A v2 = = − ' fe ' c ' L '
v3 h ie + R B + R E ⋅ h fe
where R'B = R'1//R'2
v2 h fe ⋅ Rp)
A v1 = =−
v1 h ie + R E ⋅ h fe
- 35 -
Lesson B24: TRANSFORMER COUPLING
B24.2 EXERCISES
• Insert jumpers J2, J5, J6, J11, J20, J21, J25, J26, J27, J40, J44 and
the instruments to Produce the circuit of figure B24.5.
fig. B24.5
• Set 0÷30V Vcc adjustable power supply to 20V and adjust RV1 to
mid position.
• Vary RV2 and RV5 to obtain: ICQ1 ≈10 mA, ICQ2 ≈ 10 mA
• For the next calculations, remember that the transformer has 220
turns on the primary and 700 on the secondary, so n = 220/700 =
0.314
• Connect the oscilloscope channel 1 at terminal 2 (input signal) and
channel 2 at terminal 9 (output signal).
• Connect the function generator at terminals 1 and ground with a sine
wave, 1 KHz and vary the amplitude value to check 100 mVpp at
terminal 2.
• Measure the output signal; calculate the total voltage gain of the
amplifier.
• Without change the input signal parameters, measure at terminal 8
the amplitude of the transformer output signal; calculate the gain
across the second stage.
• vary the input signal frequency and note how amplification changes.
• disconnect the series components R11-C8 from the transformer
primary, by removing J20. Vary the input frequency and again
observe the changes in the gain.
- 36 -
Lesson B24: TRANSFORMER COUPLING
SET
A B
1 5 more constant gain and less distortion, as the operating
frequency varies
2 3 reduction of the output impedance
3 1 none
4 2 the power dissipated is reduced
5 4 higher amplification
SET
A B
1 4 the resistance R18 has changed
2 1 the still point of T1 has changed
3 2 the base of T2 has been connected to ground
4 3 the turns ratio of the transformer has been changed
SET
A B
1 2 the collector and emitter of T2 are short circuited
2 4 the base of T2 is not properly biased because RV5 is short
circuited
3 1 the base of T2 is not biased properly because the secondary
of the transformer is disconnected
4 5 emitter and base of the transistor T1 are short-circuited
5 3 the power supply Vcc is missing
- 37 -
Lesson B24: TRANSFORMER COUPLING
SET
A B
1 4 dissipate more d.c.power
2 1 dissipate less d.c power
3 5 dissipate less a.c. power
4 2 supply more a.c. power to the load
5 3 amplify d.c. signals
SET
A B
1 6 bias the second stage properly
2 4 send the a.c. component of the signal from one stage to the
next without changing bias settings
3 1 obtain an oscillating signal
4 2 electrically isolate the different stages from each other
5 3 increase the power at the amplifier output
6 5 improve the response curve especially at high frequencies
SET
A B
1 4 in d.c. current amplifiers
2 3 in multi-stage amplifiers and for coupling to the generator
3 2 in self-oscillating amplifiers
4 1 in multi-stage amplifiers and for coupling to the load
- 38 -
Lesson B25: DIRECT COUPLING
OBJECTIVES
• Study of a circuit amplifier with two stages and direct coupling:
• calculation of the voltage gain of each stage
• calculation of the total gain of the amplifier
• measurement of the voltage gains
• determination of the phase difference between input signal and
output signals
EQUIPMENT REQUIRED
• base unit for the IPES system (power supply mod. PSU/EV, module
holder structure for modules mod. MU/EV), individual control
unit mod. SIS1/SIS2/SIS3
• experiment module mod. MCM5/ EV
• function generator
• oscilloscope
• multimeter.
Frequency response with direct coupling extends from the d.c. to the
cut-off frequency determined by the different stages composing the
amplifier. The direct coupling is also called "d.c.".
fig.B25.1
- 39 -
Lesson B25: DIRECT COUPLING
fig. B25.2
Rit = v1 / i1t = R1 // R2 // Ri
v2 hfe·(Rc//R'i)
Av1 = = −
v1 hie + RE·hfe
Av2 = v3 / v2 = h'fe·(RL//R'E)/R'i
Av12 = Av1·Av2
Avc = v3 / vs = α·Av12
- 40 -
Lesson B25: DIRECT COUPLING
B25.2 EXERCISES
• Insert jumpers J2, J5, J6, J11, J17, J26, J29, J42, J46 and the
instruments to produce the circuit of fig.B25.3.
fig. B25.3
SET
A B
1 2 an increase of VCEQ1, decrease of ICQ2, increase of VCEQ2
2 3 decrease of VCEQ1, decrease of ICQ2, increase of VCEQ2
3 4 increase of VBEQ1, increase of ICQ2, increase of VCEQ2
4 1 decrease of VCEQ1, decrease of ICQ2, decrease of VCEQ2
- 41 -
Lesson B25: DIRECT COUPLING
SET
A B
1 5 shift = 0°, due to both stages
2 3 shift = 45°, due to the first stage
3 1 shift =180°, due to the second stage
4 2 shift =180°, due to the first stage
5 4 shift =180°, due to a shift of 90° of both stages
SET
A B
1 3 high frequency signals
2 5 low frequency signals
3 4 alternating signals
4 1 signals containing a d.c. component
5 2 periodic signals
SET
A B
1 4 the bias currents and voltages of one stage do not affect
those of another
2 1 only the bias currents of one stage affect those of another
stage
3 2 the bias currents and voltages of one stage can affect those
of another
4 3 the first stage must not be biased
- 42 -
Lesson B26: DARLINGTON CONNECTION
OBJECTIVES
• Examination of the operating characteristics of a Darlington
connection
EQUIPMENT REQUIRED
• base unit for the IPES system (power supply mod. PSU/EV, module
holder structure for modules mod. MU/EV), individual control
unit mod. SIS1/SIS2/SIS3
• experiment module mod. MCM5/ EV
• function generator
• oscilloscope
• multimeter.
Often the transistor manufacturers place the Darlington pair into a single
case. This has the electrical advantage of keeping both transistors at the
same operating temperature.
fig.B26.1
fig.B26.2
- 43 -
Lesson B26: DARLINGTON CONNECTION
hfe = hfe1·hfe2
hie = hie1 + (hie2·hfe1)
hre = hie2·hoe1
hoe = hoe2 + hoe1·hfe2
1. Current gain Ai
i3 h fe1 ⋅ h fe 2
Ai = =
i1 1 + (h oe 2 + h fe 2 ⋅ h oe1 ) ⋅ R p
where Rp = RE // RL
Rit = v1 / i1t = R1 // R2 // Ri
3. Voltage gain Av
Av = v2 / v1 = 1 - [hie1 + (hfe1·hie2)]/Ri
4. Output resistance Ro
1 1 1 + h fe1 ⋅ h fe 2
= + h oe 2 + (h oe1 ⋅ hfe2) +
Ro Rp h ie1 + (h fe1 ⋅ h ie 2 ) + R eq
- 44 -
Lesson B26: DARLINGTON CONNECTION
B26.2 EXERCISES
D.c. gain
• Insert jumpers J5, J8, J15, J19, J26, J33, J40, J46, and the
instruments to produce the circuit of fig.B26.3.
fig.B26.3
• Set 0÷30V Vcc adjustable power supply to 20V and vary RV2 to
obtain a current ICQ2 ≈30 mA
• measure the base current of transistor T2
• measure the voltage present across the resistance R3
• calculate the base current of transistor T1
• as the base current of transistor T2 is almost equal to the collector
current of the transistor T1, calculate the d.c. current gains of each
transistor, and calculate the total current gain of the Darlington pair
SET
A B
1 5 equal, but less than 20
2 3 hFE2 is 1, while hFE1 is very high
3 4 hFE1 is very low, while hFE2 is very high
4 1 equal, but depend on voltage Vcc
5 2 different, but both higher than 100
- 45 -
Lesson B26: DARLINGTON CONNECTION
• Remove all jumpers, insert J5, J6, J17, J22, J26, J33, J35, J39, and
the instruments to produce the circuit of figure B26.4.
fig.B26.4
• Adjust RV2 until the voltage VCB1 becomes negative (T1 into
saturation), so to take the Darlington circuit itself into saturation
• measure VCE1sat and VBE2
SET
A B
1 4 VCEsat = VCE1sat + VCE2sat
2 1 VCEsat = VCE1sat
3 5 VCEsat = VCE1sat + VCB2
4 2 VCEsat = VBE1sat
5 3 VCEsat = VBE2 + VCE1sat
- 46 -
Lesson B26: DARLINGTON CONNECTION
SET
A B
a) b) c)
1 3 a and b
2 1 c
3 5 a
4 6 b
5 4 a and c
6 2 b and c
SET
A B
1 2 1/(hFE1·hFE2)
2 4 hFE1·hFE2
3 5 hFE1 + hFE2
4 3 hFE1·hFE2/2
5 1 (hFE1 + hFE2)/2
SET
A B
1 4 a lower input resistance
2 5 a higher output resistance
3 1 a higher input resistance and a higher current gain
4 2 a reduction of the current gain
5 3 a wider pass band with better frequency response
- 47 -
Lesson B27: CASCODE and BOOTSTRAP CONNECTIONS
OBJECTIVES
EQUIPMENT REQUIRED
• base unit for the IPES system (power supply mod. PSU/EV, module
holder structure for modules mod. MU/EV), individual control
unit mod. SIS1/SIS2/SIS3
• experiment module mod. MCM5/ EV
• function generator
• oscilloscope
• multimeter.
Cascode Amplifier
fig.B27.1
- 48 -
Lesson B27: CASCODE and BOOTSTRAP CONNECTIONS
Using the equivalent transistor circuit, and taking hre, hoe, hrb, hob as
negligible, the circuit of figure B27.1 can be represented as in figure
B27.2.
fig. B27.2
1. Current gain Ai
Ai = i3 / i1 = hfe1
Rit = v1 / i1 = R2//R3//Ri
where Ri = hie1
3. Voltage gain Av
Av = v3 / v1 = -Rp·hfe1 / hie1
where Rp = Rc // RL
4. Output resistance Ro
Ro = v3 / i3 ≈ hfe2 / hoe2
- 49 -
Lesson B27: CASCODE and BOOTSTRAP CONNECTIONS
The input resistance of the amplifier depends much on the base biasing
resistance RB. Since, for good stability RB cannot be too high, a
Bootstrap connection is used to obtain high input resistance values, but
maintaining a low base resistance value. The figure B27.3a shows a
biased emitter follower with Bootstrap connection.
If the input signal (on the Base) increases, at the same time the output
signal increases (on the Emitter), as the voltage gain of a follower is
almost equal to one. The current across R3 is then much smaller than
would be the case if R3 were connected directly to ground: it follows
that the equivalent resistance of the input circuit is much higher than
R3.
fig.B27.3
fig. B27.4
- 50 -
Lesson B27: CASCODE and BOOTSTRAP CONNECTIONS
1. Input resistance Ri
Ri = v1 / i1 = hie + (1 + hfe)·Rp
where Rp = RE // R1 // R2 // RL
2. Voltage gain Av
Av = v2 / v1 = 1 - hie / Ri
NOTE: These relations are true if the absolute value of R", equal to
[Av·R3/(Av - 1)], is much bigger than RE.
Avt = v2 / vs = α·Av
B27.2 EXERCISES
Cascode circuit
• Insert jumpers J2, J5, J6, J11, J13, J24, J36, J37, J44 and the
instruments to produce the circuit of fig.B27.5.
- 51 -
Lesson B27: CASCODE and BOOTSTRAP CONNECTIONS
fig.B27.5
• Set 0÷30V Vcc adjustable power supply to 20V and adjust RV1 to
mid position.
• Vary RV2 completely C.C.W. (lowest resistance) and adjust RV7 to
obtain a collector current of about 10 mA.
• Connect the oscilloscope channel 1 at terminal 2 (input signal) and
the channel 2 at terminal 9 (output signal).
• Connect the function generator at terminals 1 and ground with a sine
wave, 1 KHz and vary the amplitude value to check 40 mVpp at
terminal 2.
• if the wave-form is distorted, adjust RV1, to reduce it
• measure the output voltage and calculate the voltage gain of the
amplifier
- 52 -
Lesson B27: CASCODE and BOOTSTRAP CONNECTIONS
SET
A B
1 2 the Cascode cut-off frequency is higher
2 4 they are almost equal
3 1 the common emitter one is slightly higher
4 5 the common emitter one is much higher
5 3 the Cascode one is 100 times higher
Bootstrap connection
• Remove all jumpers, insert J1, J2, J5, J7, J9, J12, J19, J26 and
instruments to produce the circuit of fig.B27.6
fig.B27.6
- 53 -
Lesson B27: CASCODE and BOOTSTRAP CONNECTIONS
• remove jumper J1, to add trimmer RV1 in series with the input of the
amplifier
• adjusting trimmer RV1, use the method of reducing the input voltage
to half (see lesson B20) to measure the total input resistance Rit of
the amplifier
SET
A B
1 3 a few ohms
2 5 a few hundred ohms
3 1 1 kΩ
4 2 10 kΩ
5 6 23 KΩ
6 4 more than 50 KΩ
Q4 From the comparison between the two measured input resistances, you
can say that the Bootstrap connection :
SET
A B
1 4 noticeably reduces the input resistance of the amplifier
2 1 reduces the power supply voltage
3 2 noticeable increases the input resistance of the circuit
4 5 reduces the load resistance
5 3 noticeably reduces the high frequency disturbances on the
load
- 54 -
Lesson B27: CASCODE and BOOTSTRAP CONNECTIONS
SET
A B
1 3 one transistor
2 6 two transistors
3 1 three transistors
4 5 two transistors and an SCR
5 4 three transistors and 1 Mosfet Depletion
6 2 one transistor and three diodes
SET
A B
1 2 reduction of the band width and increase of the
2 1 increase of the upper cut-off frequency compared to a single
transistor amplifier
3 5 better matching between source and load
4 3 increases the output signal frequency compared to the input
one
5 4 maintenance of the phase relations between input signal
and output signal
SET
A B
1 6 560 Ω
2 3 89.6KΩ
3 4 678 KΩ
4 1 5.6 Ω
5 2 1 KΩ
6 5 10 KΩ
- 55 -
Lesson B28: DIFFERENTIAL AMPLIFIER
OBJECTIVES
EQUIPMENT REQUIRED
• base unit for the IPES system (power supply mod. PSU/EV, module
holder structure for modules mod. MU/EV), individual control
unit mod. SIS1/SIS2/SIS3
• experiment module mod. MCM5/ EV
• function generator
• oscilloscope
• multimeter.
fig.B28.1
- 56 -
Lesson B28: DIFFERENTIAL AMPLIFIER
Operation
A differential amplifier is generally symmetrical in its connections as
well as in the values of the components. In the circuit of figure B28.1,
we have RC1=RC2, RB1=RB2, T1=T2. With this symmetry we can say
that voltage gains of the 2 amplifiers considered separately, are equal.
So:
In practice the two signals v1 and v2 are not amplified by exactly the
same amount (A1 ≠ A2). This means that even if the two input signals
are equal, the output will be different from zero.
v1 + v2
vo = Ad·(v1 - v2) + Ac· = Ad·vd + Ac·vc
2
CMRR = | Ad/Ac |
The greater CMRR, the more the output signal will be proportional to
the difference between the two input signals.
- 57 -
Lesson B28: DIFFERENTIAL AMPLIFIER
B28.2 EXERCISES
Biasing
fig.B28.2
• adjusting trimmer RV4, set the voltage read by the voltmeter to zero
The trimmer RV4 enables the current through the two transistors to
be equalised, and so sets the voltage between the collectors to zero.
- 58 -
Lesson B28: DIFFERENTIAL AMPLIFIER
Differential gain
• Insert also jumpers J27 and J30, to produce the circuit of figure
B28.3.
• adjust RV5 trimmer to measure 0 V between base and ground of T2
• adjusting RV4 trimmer, carefully balance the differential amplifier
(voltage measured between the two collectors equal to zero)
• adjusting RV5, increase the input voltage on transistor T2 to reach
100 mV
• in these conditions, measure the corresponding voltage value
between the two collectors, and calculate the voltage gain
• repeat the last measurement and calculation for increasing input
voltage values :(150, 200, 400 mV)
fig. B28.3
SET
A B
1 5 it is zero
2 4 it is unity
3 1 it is some tens
4 2 it is some hundreds
5 3 it is some thousands
- 59 -
Lesson B28: DIFFERENTIAL AMPLIFIER
Q2 Comparing the gains found in the last two exercises, we see that:
SET
A B
1 4 the two gains are perfectly equal
2 1 the gain obtained from the second measurement is much
higher than in the first case
3 2 the gain obtained in the second case is much smaller than the
first case
4 5 the gain of the second measurement is zero, the one in the
first is infinite
5 3 none of the above describes the result
CMRR
• With the gain values found from the last points, calculate the
common mode rejection ratio in the differential amplifier under test
fig. B28.4
- 60 -
Lesson B28: DIFFERENTIAL AMPLIFIER
• Remove jumpers 27, J30, J32, insert J1, J2 to produce the circuit of
figure B28.5.
fig. B28.5
• adjust the RV4 trimmer to balance the circuit (null voltage between
the collectors of the two transistors)
• Connect the function generator at terminal 1 and ground with a sine
wave, 1 KHz and 400mVpp.
• Connect the oscilloscope channel 1 at terminal 1 (input signal) and
channel 2 at terminal 3 (output signal on T1 collector).
• measure the collector voltage amplitude, and the phase difference
between this voltage and the input signal
• repeat the last measurement for the transistor T2, connect channel 2
at terminal 9 (output signal on T2 collector).
SET
A B
1 2 they are equal in amplitude and phase
2 1 they are equal in amplitude, but are 180 degrees apart
3 5 they are in phase but one is twice the other
4 3 they are shifted by 90 degrees and one is half the
amplitude of the other
5 4 they are equal in amplitude and shifted by 270 degrees
- 61 -
Lesson B28: DIFFERENTIAL AMPLIFIER
Q4 What is the ratio of the signal taken between the 2 collectors, to that of
the signal taken between a collector and ground ?
SET
A B
1 5 the amplitude of the signal between the two collectors is
half the one measured between each collector and ground
2 3 the amplitude between the collectors is double the one
between a collector and ground
3 1 the three amplitudes are exactly the same
4 2 the amplitudes are equal, but each is shifted by 120 degrees
compared to another
5 4 the three amplitudes are all quite different
Temperature stability
- 62 -
Lesson B28: DIFFERENTIAL AMPLIFIER
SET
A B
1 1 the difference between the two input voltages
2 5 the sum of the two input voltages
3 4 the product of the two input voltages
4 2 the half-sum of the input voltages
5 3 the ratio between the input voltages
SET
A B
1 2 vc = (v1 + v2)/2
2 1 vc = v1 - v2
3 5 vc = v1 + v2
4 3 vc = v1 · v2
5 4 vc = (v1 · v2)/2
SET
A B
1 2 vd = (v1 + v2)/2
2 1 vd = v1 - v2
3 4 vd = v1 + v2
4 5 vd = v1 · v2
5 3 vd = v1 · v2 / 2
SET
A B
1 5 vo = Ad·vd - Ac·vc
2 4 vo = (Ad·vd + Ac· vc)/2
3 3 vo = Ad·vd + Ac·vc
4 2 vo = (Ad/2)·vd + 2·Ac·vc
5 1 vo = (Ad + Ac)·(vd - vc)
- 63 -
Lesson B29: CLASS A AMPLIFIERS
OBJECTIVES
• To understand power and efficiency in the static (dc) and dynamic
(ac) case
• to observe distortions due to transistor saturation and cut-off
EQUIPMENT REQUIRED
• base unit for the IPES system (power supply mod. PSU/EV, module
holder structure for modules mod. MU/EV), individual control unit
mod. SIS1/SIS2/SIS3
• experiment module mod. MCM5/ EV
• function generator
• oscilloscope
• multimeter.
In a class A amplifier, the operating point and the input signal are such
that current flow in the output circuit is always present. This kind of
amplifier operates essentially in the linear zone. If base current
variations, caused by the input signal, are small enough to keep within
the linear region, the output wave-form faithfully reproduces the input .
The collector current flows for the entire duration of the of the input
signal, and its average value is identical to the quiescent one.
fig.B29.1
- 64 -
Lesson B29: CLASS A AMPLIFIERS
Power
To find the powers used in a class A amplifier, suppose that the
amplifier circuit of figure B29.2 has a quiescent voltage VCEQ equal to
Vcc/2, and the corresponding current is ICQ = Vcc·RL /2.
fig.B29.2
1. Useful power Pu
vs(t) = V0 + VS·sin(ω·t)
Vcc² VS²
PRL = +
4·RL 2·RL
Pu = VS² / (2·RL)
Pcc = Vcc²/(2·RL)
- 65 -
Lesson B29: CLASS A AMPLIFIERS
Vcc² VS²
PD = -
4·RL 2·RL
Efficiency
This is defined as the ratio between the useful power in the load (Pu)
and the power supplied by the power supply (Pcc):
ηc = Pu/Pcc = VS²/Vcc²
From this we can say that the efficiency is max. when VS is max. In
theory, VSmax is equal to (Vcc/2); in this ideal condition the efficiency is
25%. In practice, the efficiency of class A amplifiers is limited to about
20%.
- 66 -
Lesson B29: CLASS A AMPLIFIERS
B29.2 EXERCISES
fig.B29.3
fig.B29.4
- 67 -
Lesson B29: CLASS A AMPLIFIERS
Q1 What happens to the output signal, and what is the reason for this?
SET
A B
1 3 the signal is unchanged
2 5 the signal has distortions on the negative half-waves due to
the fact that the transistor reaches the cut-off zone
3 4 distortions are noticed on the positive half-waves when the
transistor is cut-off
4 1 spurious pulses of short duration and high amplitude occur
due to high frequency disturbances
5 2 distortions are noticed on both half-waves due to the large
excursions of the input signal which takes the transistor into
either saturation or cut-off state
• Adjust the input voltage to obtain a signal with max. amplitude at the
output, but which has no significant distortion
• measure the VS signal amplitude = VSpp/2
• with this value, calculate :
− the useful power on the load Pu = VS²/2·RL
− the power dissipated in the transistor PD
− the power supplied by the power supply Pcc
− the efficiency "η" of the circuit
SET
A B
1 6 about 0.5%
2 1 about 1%
3 4 about 7.5%
4 3 about 20%
5 2 about 45%
6 5 about 75%
• vary the biasing and note the variation in the output wave-form.
- 68 -
Lesson B29: CLASS A AMPLIFIERS
SET
A B
1 3 half of the cycle
2 6 1/4 cycle
3 4 3/4 cycle
4 5 2.5 cycles
5 2 none of the cycle
6 1 the entire cycle
SET
A B
1 6 transistor saturation and cut-off
2 5 frequency operation limitation of the transistor
3 2 presence of parasitic capacitances of the transistor
4 1 too low efficiency
5 4 too low temperature
6 3 none of the above
SET
A B
1 1 VS > (Vcc - V0)
2 5 VS < V0
3 2 (Vcc + V0)/4 > VS
4 3 VS < (Vcc - V0)
5 4 VS < V0/2
SET
A B
1 2 depends on the phase angle
2 1 can take the max. theoretical value of 25 %
3 4 is always equal to 1
4 5 can take a theoretical value equal to 50 %
5 3 depends on the load and the signal frequency
- 69 -
Lesson B30: CLASS B AMPLIFIERS
OBJECTIVES
• Study of a "single-ended" circuit
• Study of a "Push-pull" circuit
EQUIPMENT REQUIRED
• base unit for the IPES system (power supply mod. PSU/EV, module
holder structure for modules mod. MU/EV), individual control unit
mod. SIS1/SIS2/SIS3
• experiment module mod. MCM5/ EV
• function generator
• oscilloscope
• multimeter.
The low efficiency of amplifiers in class A arises from the fact that,
even in absence of a signal, the transistor dissipates power. The solution
to this problem is obtained by fixing the Q point close to the cut-off
state. In this case when the input signal is missing, the collector current
will be very low. However when the signal is present a current flows
corresponding to the positive half cycle of the applied signal. Each
negative excursion of the input signal, being less than the cut-off value,
cause a total block of the collector current. Figure B30.1 shows an
example of amplification of an a.c. signal in class B.
In case of a.c. signal, the collector current flows for only about half a
cycle, i.e. 180 degrees. This angle constitutes the so called conduction
angle. For an output signal is to be obtained similar to the input one,
two active devices must be used biased in class B. Each of them must
amplifies one half of the wave. There are three types of circuit based on
this principle :
• push-pull
• single-ended
• complementary symmetry.
fig.B30.1
- 70 -
Lesson B30: CLASS B AMPLIFIERS
fig.B30.2
In the quiescent state, the two transistors are cut-off and their common
point A is ground. No current flows in the load.
As for the input signals, the two transistors cannot be controlled by two
signals referred to ground, because in this case T1 would operate as
follower and T2 as common emitter, and the two half-waves on the load
would have different amplitudes.
fig.B30.3
- 71 -
Lesson B30: CLASS B AMPLIFIERS
To use a single power supply voltage (figure B30.4), the load must be
connected to a very high capacitance (some hundreds of µF). In this way
the voltage across the capacitance stays constant during dynamic
operation, simulating the behavior of a second power supply.
fig.B30.4
The operation is the same as one with two power supplies. When T1
conducts, the power supply voltage for the circuit is the difference
between Vcc and Vcc/2 supplied by the capacitor, i.e. in total Vcc/2.
When T2 is conducting, the only power supply operating is the one
supplied by C, i.e. it is still Vcc/2.
Push-Pull Amplifers
fig.B30.5
- 72 -
Lesson B30: CLASS B AMPLIFIERS
Power calculations
1. Useful power Pu
When the voltage across the load RL has max. amplitude VM, the
useful power dissipated in the load is :
Pu = VM² / 2·RL
From this you can see that Pcc is max. when VM is max., i.e. equal
to Vcc. So
Vcc·VM VM²
PD = -
π·RL 4·RL
PD is max. if VM = 2·Vcc/π. So :
- 73 -
Lesson B30: CLASS B AMPLIFIERS
4. Efficiency
From this we see that the efficiency is a linear function of VM, and
is max. for VM = Vcc (ηmax = π/4 = 78.5%). The practical
efficiency of the amplifiers in class B is actually around the 70%
mark.
Cross-over distortion
fig.B30.6
- 74 -
Lesson B30: CLASS B AMPLIFIERS
B30.2 EXERCISES
• Insert jumpers J54, J55, J56, J57 to obtain the circuit of figure B30.7
fig. B30.7
SET
A B
1 3 the current is 10 mA
2 5 the current is 100 mA
3 1 the current is zero
4 2 the current is 1 A
5 4 none of the above
• measure the voltage across R33 and R34: it should be very low,
indicating almost zero current. The two transistors are biased to the
cut-off region
• connect the function generator at terminals 14 and 15 with a sine
wave, 1 KHz and 4 Vpp.
• measure the amplitude of the output signal; check if the output is
distorted, and calculate the gain of the amplifier
- 75 -
Lesson B30: CLASS B AMPLIFIERS
SET
A B
1 6 the signal goes to zero
2 1 the signal becomes continuous
3 4 the cross-over distortion increases
4 5 the negative half-waves of the output signal are eliminated
5 3 the signal has distortions on the positive half-waves
6 2 none of the above describes the results
SET
A B
1 5 the power supply has been disconnected from the circuit
2 3 collector and emitter of the transistor T6 are in short circuit
3 4 the biasing of transistor T7 has been removed
4 2 100 Ω resistance has been set in parallel to the resistance R30
5 1 the output capacitor C18 has been short-circuited
Power • Adjust the function generator to obtain a signal with max. amplitude,
calculations but without distortions
• using the formulas supplied in the theoretical section, calculate the
values of :
− Useful power Pu
− Power Pcc supplied by the power supply
− Power dissipated in the transistor PD
- 76 -
Lesson B30: CLASS B AMPLIFIERS
Push-pull Amplifiers
Biasing • Switch off PSU power suply and remove all jumpers.
• Insert J48, J49, J50, J51, J52, J53, to obtain the circuit of figure
B30.8
• before connecting power, adjust the trimmers RV9 and RV10 to
mid-position
• switch on the power and adjust trimmer RV8 to obtain a voltage
VCEQ of about 5 V across T3
• adjust RV9 so that the d.c. voltages present across the bases of the
two transistors T4 and T5 are equal
fig. B30.8
SET
A B
1 2 they are equal in amplitude, but phase shifted by 180°
2 1 they are in phase, but the output amplitude is half the input
one
3 3 the output signal is higher than the input one, but has small
distortions when passing through zero
4 5 they are equal in amplitude, but the output one has double
frequency of the input
5 4 the input signal has double the amplitude of the output, and
has distortions on the positive half-waves.
- 77 -
Lesson B30: CLASS B AMPLIFIERS
SET
A B
1 2 the power supply voltage is reduced by half
2 5 the input signal has been removed
3 4 the base and emitter of T3 are short-circuited
4 1 the emitter resistance of T3 has changed
5 3 the collector and emitter of T4 are short-circuited
• display the output signal across R28, and the collector voltage of T3
on the oscilloscope
• increase the amplitude of the input signal to observe distortions on
the output signal, distortions which are caused by the transistor
operating in the saturation region
• check that these distortions are due to the saturation of the first
inverter stage, and not to the final transistors
Q6 The output signal has changed. What is the reason for this?
SET
A B
1 2 the circuit has been disconnected at the collector of T4
2 3 the biasing of T4 and T5 is incorrect
3 4 the resistance R20 has been short-circuited
4 5 the static gain hFE of transistor T5 has been changed
5 1 none of the above
- 78 -
Lesson B30: CLASS B AMPLIFIERS
2 Vcc N2
Pcc = · · · VM
π R28 N1
SET
A B
1 3 greater than 180 degrees
2 5 equal to 90 degrees
3 2 equal to 180 degrees
4 1 between 90 and 180 degrees
5 4 less than 180 degrees
SET
A B
1 2 greater than 180 degrees
2 1 equal to 180 degrees
3 4 less than 180 degrees
4 5 equal to 360 degrees
5 3 equal to 60 degrees
SET
A B
1 2 bias the bases of the transistors to the threshold voltage
(class A-B)
2 1 slightly bias the circuit to class C
3 4 reduce the amplifier operating frequency
4 5 increase the amplitude of the input signal
5 3 double the power supply voltage
- 79 -
Lesson B31: PUSH-PULL, COMPLEMENTARY SYMMETRY AMPLIFIER
OBJECTIVES
• Study of a class B, push-pull, complementary symmetry amplifier
• resistive divider with dual-voltage power supply
• biasing of a diode divider in a single voltage supply circuit
• power calculations and voltage gain measurement
EQUIPMENT REQUIRED
• base unit for the IPES system (power supply mod. PSU/EV, module
holder structure for modules mod. MU/EV), individual control unit
mod. SIS1/SIS2/SIS3
• experiment module mod. MCM5/ EV
• function generator
• oscilloscope and multimeter.
It can be noted that the two transistors used are complementary (an
NPN and a PNP), and both are connected as emitter follower. The load
is driven by T1 during the positive half-cycles of the input signal, and
by T2 during the negative ones (figures B31.2a and B31.2b).
fig.B31.1
fig. B31.2a
fig. B31.2b
- 80 -
Lesson B31: PUSH-PULL, COMPLEMENTARY SYMMETRY AMPLIFIER
Note that the input and output signals of the amplifier are in phase.
There is also considerable cross-over distortion.in this kind of amplifier,
like those seen in the last chapter,
fig. B31.3
Just like the "single-ended" circuit seen before, a single battery can be
used for a complementary symmetry circuit, by connecting the load to a
large capacitor (figure B31.4).
fig. B31.4
- 81 -
Lesson B31: PUSH-PULL, COMPLEMENTARY SYMMETRY AMPLIFIER
B31.2 EXERCISES
• Insert jumpers J58, J59, J61, J63, J70, J72, J73, J75, J76, and the
multimeter (function IDC) between terminals 18 and 19, to produce
the circuit of figure B31.5
fig. B31.5
• before connecting the input signal to the circuit, measure the voltages
VBE and VCE of both transistors, and the voltage across the output
load (resistance R47)
SET
A B
1 5 transistor T9 is cut off, transistor T10 is in saturation
2 1 transistor T9 is in active zone, T10 is in saturation
3 4 transistor T9 is in saturation, T10 is cut off
4 3 both transistors are cut off
5 2 both transistors are in the active region
- 82 -
Lesson B31: PUSH-PULL, COMPLEMENTARY SYMMETRY AMPLIFIER
• vary the amplitude of this input signal, and determine the saturation
limits of the first stage T8
• reduce the voltage of the input signal so that the first stage is not
saturating
• display the input and output signals of the amplifier on the
oscilloscope
SET
A B
1 5 the two signals are equal in amplitude and phase
2 1 the input signal has a higher amplitude than the output
3 4 the output signal is three times the frequency of the input
4 2 the output signal has a higher amplitude than the input, but has
cross-over distortion
5 3 the output signal goes to zero in the positive half-cycles of the
input signal
• From previous circuit, remove jumpers J70, J75 and insert J65, J67,
J69, so to produce the diagram of figure B31.6
fig. B31.6
Trimmer RV13 controls the transistor biasing, and allows to set the
d.c. output component in R47 to zero.
- 83 -
Lesson B31: PUSH-PULL, COMPLEMENTARY SYMMETRY AMPLIFIER
SET
A B
1 3 the collector and emitter of T8 are short-circuited
2 5 the base and emitter of T9 are short-circuited
3 1 the collector and emitter of T9 are short-circuited
4 2 C20 has been disconnected
5 4 the negative half-cycles on the load have a lower amplitude,
since the value of R46 has increased
fig. B31.7
- 84 -
Lesson B31: PUSH-PULL, COMPLEMENTARY SYMMETRY AMPLIFIER
Q4 From this data the operating state of transistors T9 and T10 can be
found :
SET
A B
1 4 T9 is cut-off, T10 is in saturation
2 3 T9 is saturated, T10 is cut-off
3 1 both transistors are cut off
4 2 both transistors are in saturation
5 5 both transistors are in the active zone
SET
A B
1 5 the diode D1 is disconnected
2 3 the transistor T9 is disconnected
3 4 RV12 is short-circuited to ground
4 2 base and emitter of T8 are short-circuited
5 1 the power supply is missing in the circuit
- 85 -
Lesson B31: PUSH-PULL, COMPLEMENTARY SYMMETRY AMPLIFIER
SET
A B
1 5 phase inverter circuit is not required
2 3 a phase inverter circuit is required
3 1 it can be used with one or two batteries
4 2 it provides much higher efficiencies
5 4 it has a wider frequency response
SET
A B
1 3 a much smaller battery
2 5 a capacitor on the power supply
3 2 a capacitor in series with the output
4 1 no circuit modification is necessary
5 4 a diode in series with the bases of the transistor
SET
A B
1 6 they simultaneously conduct on the positive half-cycle
2 5 they simultaneously conduct in the negative half-cycle
3 1 they alternately conduct for one cycle
4 3 they only conduct if the input signal is added to a
positive signal
5 4 they conduct if the power supply voltage is lower than 2·VCEO
6 2 they conduct alternately, for one half cycle
- 86 -
Lesson B32: CLASS C AMPLIFIERS
OBJECTIVES
• Amplification with resistive loads:
− analysis of the bias circuits
− inspection of the current wave-form in the load
− measurement of the conduction angles as a function of the biasing
• Amplification with tuned loads:
− calculation of the resonant frequency fo
− use as frequency multiplier
EQUIPMENT REQUIRED
• base unit for the IPES system (power supply mod. PSU/EV, module
holder structure for modules mod. MU/EV), individual control unit
mod. SIS1/SIS2/SIS3
• experiment module mod. MCM5/ EV
• function generator
• oscilloscope
• multimeter.
fig.B32.1
- 87 -
Lesson B32: CLASS C AMPLIFIERS
Operation
In a class C amplifier the angle φ is less than 180 degrees, and depends
on the transistor bias.
The train of pulses constituting the load current i(t) represents a non-
sinusoidal, periodic function. The period of this function equals the
input signal period. Using a Fourier series, the load current can be
represented by an infinite sum of sine waves :
- 88 -
Lesson B32: CLASS C AMPLIFIERS
B32.2 EXERCISES
fig. B32.2
• adjust RV3, and consider how the bias voltage on the base of
transistor T1 varies
• connect the function generator at terminals 1 and ground with a sine
wave, 20 KHz and 1Vpp
• reduce the frequency of the input signal, and check the resulting
signal on base of T1 with oscilloscope
SET
A B
1 5 it remains constant
2 3 it is always zero
3 1 it decreases
4 2 it increases
5 4 it has a square-wave behavior
- 89 -
Lesson B32: CLASS C AMPLIFIERS
The inductance L1 separates the bias circuit, consisting of RV3 and R5,
from the ac input signal. In fact the impedance of an inductance is
proportional to frequency, so the higher the frequency, the higher will
be reactance of L1, and the better will be the separation. The capacitor
C4 is used to short-circuit any remaining signals across L1.
• adjust RV3 to set the voltage on the base of T1 to 0 V
• set the sine input signal to 20 KHz
• increase the amplitude of the input signal, observing the signal on the
collector of T1 and across R7
• in particular, analyze the case in which the positive peak of the input
voltage, applied across the base of T1, exceeds the threshold 0.6-0.7
V of the transistor
• adjust RV3 to negatively bias the base of T1 and check the behavior
of the voltage across R7
SET
A B
1 5 the peak amplitudes of the output signal increase
2 3 the amplitude of the output peaks decrease
3 1 the output signal frequency progressively increases
4 2 there is no output change
5 4 the phase shift between the input and output signal
progressively increases
• vary RV3, and note the conduction angle of the output signal
SET
A B
1 3 the conduction angle stays unchanged
2 1 the conduction angle increases when the voltage on the base
of T1 decreases
3 2 the conduction angle decreases when the voltage on the
base of T1 decreases
- 90 -
Lesson B32: CLASS C AMPLIFIERS
Tuned load
• Remove jumper J17 and insert J16, to produce the circuit of figure
B32.3.
• adjust RV3 to obtain a base bias voltage of 0 V
• calculate the resonant frequency of the tuned circuit L2-C6, using the
relation fo = 1/(2·π·√ L·C) , if L2 = 4µH and C6 = 680nF
• apply a sine signal of 2Vpp-amplitude and frequency fo to the input
• examine the wave-form of the signal across R7 (proportional to the
current through the transistor) and also the signal on the collector
• adjust the input frequency to obtain the max. amplitude on the T1
collector ( terminal 3)
fig. B32.3
- 91 -
Lesson B32: CLASS C AMPLIFIERS
SET
A B
1 3 the tuned output circuit has been changed
2 5 the base bias has been changed
3 4 the resistance R7 has been reduced
4 1 the power supply voltage VCC has been decreased
5 2 the transistor T1 has been short-circuited between base and
collector
- 92 -
Lesson B32: CLASS C AMPLIFIERS
SET
A B
1 5 greater than 180 degrees
2 1 equal to 180 degrees
3 2 less than 180 degrees
4 3 equal to 360 degrees
5 4 equal to 270 degrees
SET
A B
1 5 very small
2 1 very big
3 2 similar to the one produced by class A
4 3 similar to the one produced by class B
5 4 similar to the one produced by class AB
SET
A B
1 2 depends on the conduction angle and takes very high values
on average
2 1 is always very low
3 4 is always equal to 1
4 5 is close to 25 %
5 3 is equal to 50 %
SET
A B
1 3 a frequency divider
2 1 a frequency multiplier
3 2 a half-wave rectifier
4 5 a voltage stabilizer
5 4 a current limiter
- 93 -
APPENDIX “A”: SYMBOLS USED
The following points sum up the notation used for the voltages and
currents.
5. the maximum value and the average value have the index in
capitals (e.g.: iB, IB for the currents; vBE, VBE for the voltages)
- 94 -
Appendice “B”: DATA SHEETS
95
Appendice “B”: DATA SHEETS
APPENDIX “B”: DATA SHEETS
APPENDIX “B”
APPENDIX “B”: DATA SHEETS
APPENDIX “B”
APPENDIX “B”: DATA SHEETS
APPENDIX “B”
APPENDIX “B”: DATA SHEETS
APPENDIX “B”
APPENDIX “B”: DATA SHEETS
APPENDIX “B”