IPES

ELECTRONIC DEVICES AND CIRCUITS

module MCM5/EV

Volume 1/2

THEORY AND EXERCISES

TEACHER/STUDENT handbook

31045 MOTTA DI LIVENZA (Treviso) ITALY

Via Postumia, 16

“Final English version provided by cambridge Open Learning”

© COPYRIGHT BY ELETTRONICA VENETA & INEL SPA

MC0511E0.DOC
 SAFETY RULES

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UNPACKING
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 CONTENTS

CONTENTS

Lesson B20: Characteristic parameters of small signal amplifiers 1

Lesson B21: EMITTER FOLLOWER 14

Lesson B22: DUAL-LOAD AMPLIFIER 21

Lesson B23: RC COUPLING 27

Lesson B24: TRANSFORMER COUPLING 33

Lesson B25: DIRECT COUPLING 39

Lesson B26: DARLINGTON CONNECTION 43

LESSON B27: CASCODE and BOOTSTRAP CONNECTIONS 48

LESSON B28: DIFFERENTIAL AMPLIFIER 56

LESSON B29: CLASS A AMPLIFIERS 64

LESSON B30: CLASS B AMPLIFIERS 70

LESSON B31: PUSH-PULL, COMPLEMENTARY SYMMETRY AMPLIFIERS 80

LESSON B32: CLASS C AMPLIFIERS 87

APPENDIX A: SYMBOLS USED 94

APPENDIX B: DATA SHEETS 95

CONTENTS
 Lesson B20: Characteristic parameters of small signal amplifiers

Lesson B20: Characteristic parameters of small signal amplifiers

OBJECTIVES

• Analysis of a common emitter circuit amplifier:

• calculation of the bias parameters (equivalent base resistance,
equivalent bias voltage of the base-emitter junction, base current)
• measurement of the voltage gain
• influence of the coupling capacitance at the amplifier input, as a
function of frequency
• measurement of the input and output resistances

EQUIPMENT REQUIRED

• base unit for the IPES system (power supply mod. PSU/EV, module
holder structure for modules mod. MU/EV), individual control unit
mod. SIS1/SIS2/SIS3
• experiment module mod. MCM5/ EV
• function generator
• oscilloscope
• multimeter.

B20.1 BASIC THEORY

Consider a transistor biased in its normal operating region. From the

output curves, it can be seen that when the input current ib varies, the
output parameters ic and vce vary, too.

So by applying an input signal ib you obtain two output signals ic and vce
which will have the same shape of ib, if the bias point is in the linear
region and if ib has limited amplitude, i.e. it is a “small signal”
(fig.B20.1).

The current ic, not only behaves like ib, it is also much larger. The
output signal of the transistor is said to be AMPLIFIED with respect to
the input one.

-1-
Lesson B20: Characteristic parameters of small signal amplifiers

fig.B20.1

Equivalent circuit of the transistor

In the region around the operating point, the transistor parameters can
be considered constant and the transistor can be represented with a
linear model, called the "equivalent circuit". The model used for low
frequency transistors is called the "hybrid" model, and its parameters
the "h" parameters.

With this model, the transistor is represented as a four terminal system

(in figure B20.2 the common emitter transistor is used as example)
characterized by four electrical variables: the input voltage vi and current
ii; the output voltage vo and the current io.

fig. B20.2

-2-
 Lesson B20: Characteristic parameters of small signal amplifiers

Equivalent circuit of the common emitter transistor

The h parameters used for the equivalent circuit of the common emitter
transistor (figure B2 0.3) are:

hie hoe hfe hre

where the subscripts have the following meaning: e = emitter

i = input o = output
f = forward r = reverse

fig. B20.3

The h parameters are defined as follows:

∆vbe
hie = ──── [ vce = const ]
∆ib

hie is the ratio of variations in the base-emitter voltage to the variations

of the base current, with the collector-emitter voltage constant. Its
dimensions are those of a resistance, expressed in Kohm and is
approximately hfe.25/ICQ, with ICQ in Amps (ICQ is the dc bias current in
the collector)

∆ic
hoe = ─── [ ib = const ]
∆vce

this is the ratio between collector current variations and variations in the
collector-emitter voltage, with a constant base current. Dimensionally it
is a conductance and can be some tens of µmho.

∆ic
hfe = ─── [ vce = const ]
∆ib

this is a current gain, and is the ratio between collector current

variations and base current variations, with a constant collector-emitter
voltage. It is a pure number and can vary from some tens to some
hundreds. It depends on ICQ

-3-
Lesson B20: Characteristic parameters of small signal amplifiers

∆vbe
hre = ──── [ ib = const ]
∆vce
this is the ratio between the variations of the base-emitter voltage and
the variation of the collector-emitter voltage, with the base current
constant. It is a pure number which can vary from 10-3 to 10-4.

Equivalent circuit of the common collector transistor

The equivalent circuit is shown in fig.B20.4. These h parametersare

defined analogously to those of the common emitter, and the subscript
"c" means collector. The relations between the h parameters of the
common emitter and common collector are:

hic = hie hrc = 1-hre hoc = hoe hfc = 1+hfe

fig.B20.4

Equivalent circuit of the common base transistor

The equivalent circuit is shown in fig.B20.5. These h parameters are

defined analogously to the common emitter ones, and the subscript "b"
means base. The relations between the h parameters of the common
emitter and common base transistors are:

hib = hie/(1+hfe) hrb = hie⋅hoe/(1+hfe) - hre

hob = hoe/(1+hfe) hfb = hfe/(1+hfe)

fig.B20.5

-4-
 Lesson B20: Characteristic parameters of small signal amplifiers

Variations in the h parameters

The h parameters depend on 3 main factors:

• transistor operating point
• temperature
• frequency.

As an example figure B20.6 shows hie, hfe, hre, hoe as function of the
bias current ICQ. The parameters are normalized in respect to the values
when ICQ = 1 mA.

fig.B20.6

Characteristics of a common emitter amplifier as function of the h parameters

Figure B20.7 shows the normal common emitter amplifier. R1, R2 and
Re constitute the bias network. vs and Rs represent the generator and its
internal resistance.

Considering the circuit only for small signal variations (ac), the
capacitors are practically a short-circuit. From the original circuit, you
can obtain the so called DYNAMIC CIRCUIT, which represents the
amplifier only for the ac or signal components. Notice that Vcc, which
doesn’t present any variation, can be considered as connected to ground,
thus obtaining (in the dynamic circuit) R1 in parallel with R2 and Rc in
parallel with RL. In the diagram we set RB = R1//R2 and Rp = Rc//RL
(total load).

-5-
Lesson B20: Characteristic parameters of small signal amplifiers

A)

B)

fig.B20.7

Replacing the transistor with its equivalent circuit, the amplifier can be
represented by figure B20.8.

fig. B20.8

An analysis of this equivalent circuit enables the different dynamic

variables of the amplifier to be calculated.

1. Current gain Ai:

io h fe
Ai = =
i i 1 + h oe ⋅ R p

where Rp = Rc//RL

As the product (hoe·Rp) is negligible in comparison to 1, the

current gain is approximately equal to hfe:

Ai ≈ hfe

-6-
 Lesson B20: Characteristic parameters of small signal amplifiers

2. Input resistance Ri:

Ri = vi/ii = hie + hre⋅Rp⋅Ai

As hre is very small, if (hre·Rp·Ai) is negligible in respect to hie
you obtain:

Ri = hie

3. Voltage gain Av:

vo R p
Av = = ⋅ Ai
vi Ri

Using the simplified relations for Ai and Ri, you obtain:

Av = -Rp·hfe/hie

4. Total gain Avt:

The generator connected to the input of the amplifier, has an

internal resistance Rs which causes a voltage drop across it when
supplying current to the circuit (figure B20.9). The attenuation
ratio due to Rs, is:

vi R it
α= =
v s Rs + R it

where Rit = RB // Ri is the total input resistance of the amplifier.

The total voltage gain is then equal to:

Avt = vo/vs = α · Av

fig.B20.9

-7-
Lesson B20: Characteristic parameters of small signal amplifiers

5. Output resistance Ro:

vo 1
Ro = =
io h ⋅h
h oe − fe re
h ie + R s '

where Rs' = RB // Rs with Rs as the internal resistance of the input

signal generator. The total output resistance of the amplifier is
Rot= Ro // Rc.

6. Power gain Ap:

Ap = Ai·Av

Using the simplified relations gives:

Ap = Rp · hfe² / hie

7. Behaviour of Ai , Av , Ap as function of the load.

For the following typical values of hybrid parameters:

hie = 1000 Ω, hre = 0.0001, hfe = 100, 1/hoe = 10000 Ω

the behaviours of the amplifier gains are shown in figure B20.10.

fig.B20.10
The graphs show that the current gain drops as the load resistance
RL increases. However Av increases, and so the power
amplification increases to reach a maximum and then it rapidly
drops. The max. power value is obtained with RL = Ro.

NOTE 1: For the analytic study of the dynamic circuit, in common

collector or common base amplifiers, proceed as in the last
example, using the h parameters corresponding to the
configuration under test.

-8-
 Lesson B20: Characteristic parameters of small signal amplifiers

NOTE 2: The manufacturers usually supply the following h

parameters: hfe, hib, hrb and hob. The common emitter parameters
are then found from the following:

hie = hib⋅(hfe + 1)
hoe = hob⋅(hfe + 1)
hre = -hrb + (hib⋅hob) ⋅(hfe + 1)

8. Cut-off frequency due to the coupling capacitors.

The capacitors in the circuit determine the lower limit of the last
formula. Considering that the capacitances C1, C2 and Ce, the
equivalent circuit of the figure B20.8, neglecting hoe and hre,
becomes as shown in fig.B20.11.

fig. B20.11
You can detect the lower cut-off angular frequency wL,
approximately, from the following relations which are true only if
CE · RE >> t1 (normal operating region):

τ1 = C1 · Req1 with Req1 = Rs + (RB // hie)

τ2 = CE · Reqe with Reqe = RE // Rue

Rue = (Rs' + hie) / (1 + hfe )
Rs' = //Rs

1/t1 = (1/τ1) + (1/τ2)

t2 = C2 · (Rc + RL)

A. if t1 ≠ t2 , wL = √[(1/t1)²)+(1/t2)²]

B. if t1 = t2 , wL = 1.55/t1

At high frequencies, the different capacitances inside the transistor

are no longer negligible, and the equivalent low frequency circuit
used here is not applicable.

The equivalent circuit at high frequencies of the common emitter,

is called the Giacoletto or "π"circuit.

-9-
Lesson B20: Characteristic parameters of small signal amplifiers

B20.2 EXERCISES

 MCM5 Disconnect all jumpers

 SIS1 Turn all switches OFF

 SIS2 Insert lesson code: B20

Calculation of the bias parameters

• Insert jumpers J3, J5, J6, J17, J11, J13, J26, connect the multimeter
(function IDC) between terminals 4 and 5, adjust RV1 completely
C.W. (zero Ω) to produce the circuit of figure B20.12

fig. B20.12

• Set 0÷30V Vcc adjustable power supply to 20V.

• Adjust the trimmer RV2 to obtain ICQ = 10 mA
• turn off the power supplies and remove jumper J5
• now measure the resistance of the trimmer RV2
• once RV2, R2 and R4 are known, calculate the equivalent resistance
RB of the base bias (refer to Fig B20.7)

Q1 What is approximately?

SET
A B
1 5 33 KΩ
2 4 10 KΩ
3 1 some tens of ohms
4 3 some KΩ
5 2 it lies between 100 KΩ and 500 KΩ

- 10 -
 Lesson B20: Characteristic parameters of small signal amplifiers

• Calculate the equivalent dc voltage of the base-emitter circuit VBB =

(R4 · Vcc) / (RV2 + R2 + R4)
• the base current is IBQ = (VBB - VBEQ - R7·IEQ)/RB where VBE = 0.6 V
and IEQ = ICQ. Calculate the base bias current IBQ
• calculate the static (d.c.) current gain , (ICQ / IBQ)

Measurement of the amplification and effect of the input capacitance

• Insert jumper J5
• Vary RV6 load completely C.W. (max. resistance value) and connect
it to the amplifier by inserting J28.
• Connect the oscilloscope channel 1 at terminal 2 (T1 base transistor)
and the channel 2 across the RV6 load.
• Connect at terminals 1 and ground the the function generator with a
sine signal, 1 KHz, vary the amplitude to check 20 mVpp at terminal
2.
• Using the values of the voltages measured with the oscilloscope,
calculate the voltage amplification Av = vout/vin
• Check the phase shift between input and output signals.
• Move the channel 1 of the oscilloscope between RV1 and C2 to
display the signal before the capacitor.
• Evaluate the voltage amplification under these conditions.

The amplification obtained is lower, due to the attenuation of the

input signal caused by capacitor C2. At a frequency of 1 KHz in fact
C2 has a reactance of about 1.5 KΩ, and this value is similar to the
input resistance Rit of the amplifier.

• Replace C2 with C1, removing J3 and inserting J2

• Observe that the attenuation introduced is now smaller.

XC1 is about 16 Ω, which is much smaller than Rit of the amplifier

• Gradually increase the frequency of the input signal and check if the
circuit amplification remains constant.

- 11 -
Lesson B20: Characteristic parameters of small signal amplifiers

Measurement of the input and output resistances

• Set the input signal with sine wave and 1KHz, vary the amplitude to
check 20 mVpp at terminal 2. Display the signal across the load RV6
on the oscilloscope.
• Gradually increase the resistance of RV1 so that the voltage across
the RV6 load is reduced to half its initial value.
• Disconnect the function generator and remove the jumper J2. With an
ohmmeter, measure the inserted resistance of RV1, which in these
conditions is equal to the total input resistance of the amplifier Rit =
RB // Ri

Q2 What is Rit ?

SET
A B
1 4 equal to Ri
2 3 infinite
3 2 a few Kohm
4 5 a few ohms
5 1 a few Mohm

• Vary RV1 completely C.W. (minimum resistance), insert jumper J2

and remove J28.
• Connect again the function generator with a sine wave, 1 KHz, vary
the amplitude to check 20 mVpp at terminal 2.
• Measure the amplitude of the signal after the capacitor C9.
• Insert J28 and progressively lower RV6, to reduce the output voltage
by half.
• Remove jumper J28 and, with an ohmmeter, measure the resistance
of the load RV6; which in this condition is equal to the total output
resistance Rot of the amplifier (Rot= Ro // Rc)

Q3 What is Rot ?

SET
A B
1 2 about 1 Kohm
2 5 many Kohm
3 1 a few ohm
4 3 infinite
5 4 many Mohm

- 12 -
 Lesson B20: Characteristic parameters of small signal amplifiers

B20.3 SUMMARY QUESTIONS

Q4 The h parameters are used to describe the operation of an amplifier:

SET
A B

1 2 using small signals

2 4 at high frequencies
3 5 at low frequencies
4 1 with small signals and at low frequencies
5 3 with d.c. current

Q5 In an amplifier equivalent circuit:

SET
A B

1 3 the d.c. components are not included

2 4 the a.c. components are not included
3 1 the d.c. as well as the a.c. current flows
4 5 the load is disconnected
5 2 the biasing network is not included

Q6 Find the current gain Ai of a common emitter transistor amplifier, with:

hfe = 100; hie = 1 KΩ; 1/hoe = 40 KΩ; RL = 45 KΩ; Rc = 500 Ω

SET
A B
1 6 500
2 1 40 KΩ
3 4 98
4 5 50
5 2 20
6 3 200 µF

Q7 Find the voltage gain Av of the amplifier in Q6:

SET
A B
1 4 48
2 3 -100
3 6 -48
4 4 100
5 1 75
6 2 -75

- 13 -
Lesson B21: The EMITTER FOLLOWER

Lesson B21: The EMITTER FOLLOWER

OBJECTIVES
• Analytic study of an emitter follower circuit as function of its h
parameters:
− calculation of the current gain Ai
− calculation of the input resistance Ri
− calculation of the voltage gain Av
− calculation of the output resistance Ro
• Experimental study of the circuit:
− measurement of the voltage gain
− measurement of the phase difference between input and output
signal
− measurement of the input resistance Rit of the amplifier

EQUIPMENT REQUIRED

• base unit for the IPES system (power supply mod. PSU/EV, module
holder structure for modules mod. MU/EV), individual control unit
mod. SIS1/SIS2/SIS3
• experiment module mod. MCM5/ EV
• function generator
• oscilloscope
• multimeter.

B21.1 BASIC THEORY

An emitter follower amplifier is a circuit in which the common terminal

across the input and output is the collector. (This circuit is also called
common collector amplifier). Figure B21.1 shows a typical emitter
follower. Note that the load is connected to the emitter.

The characteristics of this kind of amplifier are as follows:

1. voltage gain is slightly less than 1
2. small output resistance
3. high input resistance
4. output signal is in phase with the input signal.

fig.B21.1

- 14 -
 Lesson B21: The EMITTER FOLLOWER

The fact that this circuit has a high input resistance and a low output
resistance makes it useful as a buffer stage between a high resistance
source and a low resistance load.

The name of the follower comes from the fact that the voltage gain is
positive and slightly lower than unity. A rise, for example, of the input
signal becomes an equal rise in the output signal. The output "follows"
the input.

Biasing
The load line is determined by the following equation:

Vcc = VCE + RE · IC

The bias resistors are R1, R2 and RE.

Characteristics as function of the h parameters

The analytic study of the amplification requires the use of the transistor
equivalent circuit. The emitter follower of the figure B21.1 is shown, for
small signal applications, in the diagram of figure B21.2.

fig. B21.2
The bias resistances R1 and R2 can be substituted by a base equivalent
resistance: RB = R1//R2.

An analysis of the equivalent circuit gives the following parameters:

1. Current gain Ai

io 1 + h fe
Ai = =
i i 1 + h oe ⋅ R p

where Rp = RE//RL

When the product (hoe·Rp) is much less than 1, the current gain is
almost equal to hfe:

Ai ≈ hfe

- 15 -
Lesson B21: The EMITTER FOLLOWER

2. Input resistance Ri

Ri = vi/ii = hie + Rp·Ai

As Rp·Ai is usually much greater than hie, the last equation

becomes:

Ri ≈ Rp·Ai

3. Voltage gain Av

Av = vo/vi = 1- hie/Ri

As you can note, the gain is always less than unity and has a
positive sign. With the same Rp, if the collector current increases
the gain becomes closer to 1.0. In fact hie drops, while hfe and Ai are
practically unaffected by the variation of IC over a wide range.

4. Total voltage gain Avt

The generator connected to the input of the amplifier has an internal

resistance, causing an internal voltage drop when it supplies current
to the circuit (figure B21.3). The attenuation of the signal given by :

α = vi/vs = Rit/(Rs + Rit)

where Rit = RB//Ri is the total input resistance of the amplifier.

Unlike the common emitter amplifier, Ri is generally much greater
than RB and Rs. So α is almost 1.0. The total gain is:

Avt = vo / vs = α · Av

with Avt < Av < 1

fig.B21.3

- 16 -
 Lesson B21: The EMITTER FOLLOWER

5. Output resistance Rot seen from the load RL

vL 1
R ot = =
iL 1 1 + h fe
+ h oe +
Re h ie + R st

where Rst = RB // Rs, with Rs internal resistance of the input signal

generator.

Usually hfe is very big and hoe is very small. The last formula then
becomes:

Rot = RE // [( hie + Rst ) / hfe ]

From this we find that the minimum output resistance is obtained

with Rst = 0. In this case, since hie is in the order of KΩ and hfe is
typically 100, the output resistance is less than 10 Ohms:

Rot = RE // 10 Ω

The following table shows the main differences between the emitter
follower and the common emitter connection:

Common emitter Emitter Follower

Ri small high
Av >> 1 unity
Ro big very small

B21.2 EXERCISES

 MCM5 Disconnect all jumpers

 SIS1 Turn all switches OFF

 SIS2 Insert lesson code: B21

Voltage gain

• Insert jumpers J1, J2, J6, J5, J12, J19, J26, the multimeter (function
IDC) between terminals 4 and 5 to produce the circuit of figure B21.4

- 17 -
Lesson B21: The EMITTER FOLLOWER

fig.B21.4

• Set 0÷30V Vcc adjustable power supply to 20V.

• Adjust trimmer RV2 to bias the transistor with ICQ ≈5 mA
• Connect the function generator at terminals 1 and ground with sine
wave signal, 1 KHz and 4 V peak-to-peak.
• Connect the oscilloscope channel 1 at terminal 1 to display the input
signal and the channel 2 at terminal 6 to display the output signal
across R8.
• Determine the voltage gain, and the phase between the two displayed
signals.

Q1 What is the voltage gain Av ?

SET
A B
1 6 it takes values ranging between 1 and 1.5
2 3 some tens of millivolt
3 5 some handred of millivolt
4 1 it takes values between 0.9 and 1
5 2 more than 10
6 4 none of the above

Q2 What is the phase difference between the output and input signal?

SET
A B
1 4 it takes values between 150 and 220 degrees
2 5 a few degrees
3 2 almost zero
4 3 180 degrees
5 1 none of the above

- 18 -
 Lesson B21: The EMITTER FOLLOWER

Input resistance measurement

• Remove jumper J1 so to add the trimmer RV1 in series with the

circuit. Vary RV1 completely C.W. ( minimum resistance).
• Connect the oscilloscope channel 1 between RV1 and C1 and
channel 2 at terminal 6.
• Increase the RV1 value so that the signal on channel 1 is halved.
• Turn off the generator, remove jumpers J2.
• Measure the resistance of the trimmer, which now corresponds to the
input resistance Rit of this circuit. Note that Rit is influenced by the
base bias network. Higher values of R4-R2 will produce higher Rit

• Turn on the function generator and insert again jumpers J1, J2.

 SIS1 Turn switch SW3 ON

 SIS2 Press INS

Q3 What effect do you see on the output signal?

SET
A B
1 3 the amplitude increases
2 5 the amplitude decreases
3 4 the frequency varies
4 2 it is distorted on the positive half-waves
5 1 it is distorted on the negative half-waves

Q4 What is the reason for this effect?

SET
A B
1 5 a variation of hfe of the transistor
2 2 a variation of the amplifier gain
3 4 a variation of the operating point due to the reduction of RV2
4 3 a variation of the operating point due to the reduction of R4
5 1 a variation of the resistance connected to the emitter

 SIS1 Turn switch SW3 OFF

- 19 -
Lesson B21: The EMITTER FOLLOWER

B21.3 SUMMARY QUESTIONS

Q5 What is the other name of an emitter follower amplifier?

SET
A B
1 3 common base circuit
2 4 common collector circuit
3 1 common emitter circuit
4 5 dual-load circuit
5 2 resonant load amplifier

Q6 In the emitter follower, the voltage gain and output signal phase shift
are:

SET
A B
1 4 voltage gain slightly lower than 1 and 180° shift
2 5 voltage gain slightly lower than 1 and 0° shift
3 1 voltage gain higher than 1 and 180° shift
4 3 voltage gain higher than 1 and 0° shift
5 6 voltage gain equal to 1 and 0° shift
6 2 none of the above

Q7 Input resistance Ri and output resistance Ro are:

SET
A B
1 6 Ri high and Ro very low
2 3 Ro equal to Ri
3 1 Ri low and Ro high
4 2 Ri and Ro both high
5 4 Ri and Ro both low
6 3 Ri practically null, Ro practically infinite

Q8 The emitter follower is used as:

SET
A B
1 4 voltage amplifier
2 1 phase inverter
3 2 impedance matcher
4 5 frequency multiplier
5 3 triangular wave generator

- 20 -
 Lesson B22: The Dual-Load Amplifier

Lesson B22: The DUAL-LOAD AMPLIFIER

OBJECTIVES
• Analytic study of a circuit amplifier with dual-load as function of the
h parameters:
− calculation of the current gain Ai
− calculation of the input resistance Ri
− calculation of the voltage gain Av
− calculation of the output resistances Ro
• Experimental study of the circuit:
− measurement of the voltage gain
− measurement of the phase difference between input and output
signals
− measurement of the phase shift between the collector signal and
the emitter signal
EQUIPMENT REQUIRED

• base unit for the IPES system (power supply mod. PSU/EV, module
holder structure for modules mod. MU/EV), individual control
unit mod. SIS1/SIS2/SIS3
• experiment module mod. MCM5/ EV
• function generator
• oscilloscope
• multimeter.

B22.1 BASIC THEORY

A dual-load amplifier is a circuit in which the load is divided into two

parts, respectively connected to the collector and emitter (figure B22.1).

The output at the collector is characterized by:

• the voltage gain can be much higher than 1
• the signal is in phase opposition to the input signal
• the output resistance is high.

The emitter output is characterized by:

• the voltage gain is slightly less than 1
• the output resistance is small
• the output signal is in phase with the input.

Setting RC = RE the a.c. components at RC and RE are the same: the

two output signals are in phase opposition but of equal amplitude. The
two outputs are balanced, and this circuit is called a "phase inverter".

The biasing load line is given by the following equation:

Vcc = VCEQ + (Rc + RE) · ICQ

- 21 -
Lesson B22: The Dual-Load Amplifier

fig.B22.1

Characteristics as function of the h parameters

To analyze the amplifier, the equivalent circuit of the transistor is

needed. The dual load amplifier of figure B22.1 becomes, for small
signals and low frequency, equivalent to the one shown in figure B22.2.

fig. B22.2

The biasing resistances R1 and R2 can be grouped together as an

equivalent base resistance: RB = R1//R2. The analytic study of the
equivalent circuit allows the calculation of the dynamic characteristics:

1. Current gains Aic and Aie

Aic = ic / ii = hfe / [1 + hoe · (Rpc + Rpe)]

where Rpc = Rc // RL1 , Rpe = RE // RL2

Aie = ie / ii = 1 + Aic

As Aic is generally much greater than 1, then:

Aie ≈ Aic

- 22 -
 Lesson B22: The Dual-Load Amplifier

2. input resistance Ri

Ri = vi / ii = hie + Rpe · Aie

As Rpe·Aie is usually much greater than hie, this becomes:

Ri = Rpe·Aie

3. Voltage gains Avc and Ave

Avc = vc / vi = −Rpc·Aic /Ri

Ave = ve / vi = Rpe·Aie /Ri = 1 - hie /Ri

If hie << Rpe·Aie then:

Avc = −Rpc /Rpe

Ave = 1

4. Output resistances Roc and Roe

Roc ≈ Rc

If Rpc << 1/hoe, then:

Roe ≈ (hie + Rst) / hfe

The following table shows the main differences between the amplifiers
in common emitter, emitter follower, dual-load configurations.

Common emitter Common collector Dual-load

Ri low high high
Avc >>1 ------- −Rpc /Rpe
Ave ------- unity unity
Roc high ------- Rc
Roe ------- low low

As you can note, in the dual-load amplifier the voltage gain is

independent on the h parameters (which may vary even for transistors of
the same type), and is determined only by the external resistors.

- 23 -
Lesson B22: The Dual-Load Amplifier

B22.2 EXERCISES

 MCM5 Disconnect all jumpers

 SIS1 Turn all switches OFF

 SIS2 Insert lesson code: B22

Voltage gains and phase shifts

• Insert jumpers J1, J2, J5, J6, J12, J17, J26, the multimeter (function
IDC) between terminals 4 and 5 to produce the circuit of fig.B22.3.

fig. B22.3
• Set 0÷30V Vcc adjustable power supply to 20V.
• Set Vcc=20V. Adjust trimmer RV2 to bias the transistor for ICQ ≈5
mA
• Connect the function generator at terminals 1 and ground with a sine
wave, 1 KHz and 2 V peak-to-peak.
• Connect the oscilloscope to display the input signal and the output
signals on T1 collector and emitter.
• determine the voltage gains Avc and Ave

Q1 What are the two voltage gains?

SET
A B
1 2 the 2 gains are equal
2 4 Avc is double Ave
3 1 Avc = 0 and Ave = 40
4 5 Avc is half Ave
5 3 Avc = 40 and Ave = 0

- 24 -
 Lesson B22: The Dual-Load Amplifier

• Evaluate the phase shift between the input signal and the output
Signal

Q2 What is the phase shift between the two output signals?

SET
A B
1 3 almost zero
2 1 slightly more than 90°
3 5 approximately 180°
4 2 approximately 120°
5 4 approximately 30°

 SIS1 Turn switch SW12 ON

 SIS2 Press INS

Q3 What change has occurred?

SET
A B
1 6 the collector resistance R9 has been increased
2 1 the emitter resistance R8 has been increased
3 2 the emitter resistance R8 has been decreased
4 5 the power supply voltage has been changed
5 3 the voltage of the signal generator has been decreased
6 4 the frequency of the output signals has been changed

 SIS1 Turn switch SW12 OFF

Measurement of the input resistance Rit

• With reference to the last circuit, set the function generator with sine
wave, 1 KHz and 2 V peak-to-peak.
• display on the oscilloscope the generator voltage and the voltage on
the base of T1
• remove jumper J1 to insert the trimmer RV1 between the generator
and C1
• increase the value of RV1 until the input signal on the base of T1,
reduces to half
• turn off the function generator and remove jumper J2; measure the
resistance inserted by the trimmer RV1

This value corresponds to the total input resistance Rit of the amplifier.
Rit is much less than Ri , due to the bias resistors R1-R2 which are in
parallel to Ri .

- 25 -
Lesson B22: The Dual-Load Amplifier

B22.3 SUMMARY QUESTIONS

Q4 In a dual-load amplifier, the loads are connected to:

SET
A B
1 5 the base and the collector
2 1 the collector and the emitter
3 2 the emitter and the base
4 3 they are in parallel and conneceted to the collector
5 4 they are in series and connected between base and emitter

Q5 What is the input resistance of a dual-load amplifier?

SET
A B
1 3 very low
2 5 very high
3 2 equal to the output resistance of the emitter
4 1 in the order of some tens of ohm
5 4 in the order of Mohm

Q6 What are the output resistances, on the collector and the emitter, for a
dual-load amplifier?

SET
A B
1 5 they are exactly equal and very low
2 3 collector output resistance is equal to Rc, and the emitter
resistance is low
3 6 they are exactly equal and very high
4 1 the collector output resistance is very low and the emitter
istance very high
5 2 the collector output resistance is high and the emitter
ance is zero
6 4 each resistance is equal to the input resistance

Q7 Determine the gains of the dual-load amplifier, for which :

hfe = 50 hie = 1.1KΩ hre = 0.00025 1/hoe = 40KΩ
Rs = 0Ω Rc=10KΩ RE = 1KΩ
R1 =30KΩ R2 =1.8KΩ

SET
A B
1 4 Aie = −20 Avc = −9
2 3 Aic = 40 Avc = 9
3 1 Avc = −9 Ave = 0.97
4 5 Avc = 1 Ave = 1
5 2 Avc = 20 Ave = −103

- 26 -
 Lesson B23: RC COUPLING

Lesson B23: RC COUPLING

OBJECTIVES
• Study of a two-stage amplifier circuit with RC coupling:
• measurement of the voltage gains
• determination of the phase difference between input and output
signals

EQUIPMENT REQUIRED

• base unit for the IPES system (power supply mod. PSU/EV, module
holder structure for modules mod. MU/EV), individual control
unit mod. SIS1/SIS2/SIS3
• experiment module mod. MCM5/ EV
• function generator
• oscilloscope
• multimeter.

B23.1 BASIC THEORY

The purpose of an amplifier is to allow the max. possible amplification

without distortion. If a single stage cannot provide sufficient
amplification, it is possible to connect in cascade extra amplification
stages possibly of a different kind.

For example, when a high gain and high input impedance amplifier is
required, a common collector BJT can be used as first stage (high input
resistance), and a common emitter BJT as second stage (high
amplification).

The overall characteristics of circuits with several stages are found from
the characteristics of each stage. The following table sums up typical
data for the three main types of amplifier.

Common base Common collector Common emitter

Input very low very high low
Impedance
Output high very low high
impedance
Current unity high high
gain
Voltage can be very high unity can be high
gain (positive) (positive) (negative)
Power high high very high
gain

- 27 -
Lesson B23: RC COUPLING

Choice of the number, and type of stages

The choice of the number of stages, their kind, and their order, is mainly
determined by the generator resistance, the load resistance, and the gain
required. Most amplifiers to be obtained require:
• a high input resistance, compared to the generator resistance
• a small output resistance, compared to the load resistance

Types of couplings, or interconnection between stages

There are three types of coupling possible between stages: direct coupling, RC coupling, and
transformer coupling.

RC coupling

In a multi-stage amplifier, an RC coupling is when the connection

between one stage and the next is achieved with a capacitor. C2 in
figure B23.1 represents a coupling of this kind between two common
emitter stages.

An RC connection allows ac, but blocks the dc between the two stages,
making them independent as far as the dc bias setting is concerned. The
operation point can be determined separately, for each single stage.

fig.B23.1

fig. B23.2

- 28 -
 Lesson B23: RC COUPLING

Characteristics as function of the h parameters

An ac or dynamic study of the amplifier of figure B23.1 is carried out

using the equivalent circuits of each single stage. The diagram of the
figure B23.1 becomes the one of figure B23.2. In the circuit there are
some simplifications, i.e. the parameters hre and hoe of both transistors
are assumed negligible.

Analysis of the equivalent circuit enables the calculation of the

following dynamic characteristics:

1. Total input resistance Rit

Rit = v1 / i1t = R1//R2//hie

2. Voltage gains Av1 and Av2

Av1 = v2 / v1 = −hfe ·(Rc//R'it)/hie

where R'it = R'1//R'2//h'ie

Av2 = v3 / v2 = −h'fe · (R'c//RL)/h'ie

3. Voltage gain Av12

Av12 = Av1 · Av2

4. Total voltage gain Avt

the generator has an internal resistance which causes a voltage drop

across it, when supplying current to the circuit. The signal
attenuation is :

α = v1 / vs =Rit / (Rs + Rit)

The total voltage gain is:

Avt = v3 / vs = α·Av12

- 29 -
Lesson B23: RC COUPLING

B23.2 EXERCISES

 MCM5 Disconnect all jumpers

 SIS1 Turn all switches OFF

 SIS2 Insert lesson code: B23

• Insert jumpers J2, J5, J6, J11, J17, J26, J34, J36, J40, J44 and
connect the instruments to produce the circuit of figure B23.3.

fig. B23.3

• Set 0÷30V Vcc adjustable power supply to 20V and adjust RV1 to
mid-position
• rotate RV2 and RV7 to obtain: ICQ1 ≈10 mA, ICQ2 ≈ 20 mA
• Insert jumper J31

Q1 What is the configuration of the two stages in fig B23.2?

SET
A B
1 5 common emitter
2 3 common base
3 1 dual load
4 2 emitter follower
5 4 common collector

• Connect the oscilloscope channel 1 at terminal 2 (input signal) and

the channel 2 at terminal 3 (first stage output signal).
• Connect the function generator at terminals 1 and ground with a sine
wave, 1 KHz and vary the amplitude value to check 200 mVpp at
terminal 2.

- 30 -
 Lesson B23: RC COUPLING

• determine the voltage gain and the phase shift between the two
signals
• move the oscilloscope channel 2 at terminal 9 (second stage output
signal)
• Check the phase differences between the input signal and the output
signals across the two stages

Q2 What is the total gain of the circuit, and what is the phase shift between
the input signal and the output?

SET
A B
1 3 Avt = Av1 +Av2 shift = 45°
2 5 Avt = Av1·Av2 shift = 45°
3 1 Avt = Av1·Av2 shift = 90°
4 2 Avt = Av1 +Av2 shift = 180°
5 4 Avt = Av1·Av2 shift = 0°

B23.3 SUMMARY QUESTIONS

Q3 Why are amplifiers with more than one stage needed?

SET
A B
1 4 to increase the operating frequency
2 1 to match the source to the load
3 5 to obtain a high input resistance
4 3 to diminish the signal distortion
5 2 to obtain all the above advantages

Q4 The characteristics of an amplifier with several stages depend on:

SET
A B
1 2 the characteristics of the first stage
2 5 the characteristics of the last stage
3 4 the characteristics of each stage
4 3 the load
5 1 the power supply voltage

- 31 -
Lesson B23: RC COUPLING

Q5 An amplifier with several stages:

SET
A B
1 3 can be composed of different stages
2 4 must be composed of similar stages
3 5 must be composed of different stages
4 1 has a first stage with a dual load
5 2 has a follower stage across the output

Q6 In a multi-stage amplifier, consisting of two common emitter stages,

what is the phase shift between the input and the output signals?

SET
A B
1 2 0 degrees
2 5 90 degrees
3 1 45 degrees
4 3 180 degrees
5 4 270 degrees

Q7 RC coupling, in amplifiers with several stages, allows you to:

SET
A B
1 6 bias the second stage properly
2 1 send the ac component af a signal from one stage to the next,
without affecting the bias
3 4 obtain an oscillating signal
4 3 electrically isolate the different stages fromeach other
5 2 increase the output power of the amplifier
6 5 upgrade the frequency answer at high frequencies

- 32 -
 Lesson B24: TRANSFORMER COUPLING

Lesson B24: TRANSFORMER COUPLING

OBJECTIVES
• Study of a 2-stage circuit amplifier with transformer coupling:
− measurement of the voltage gains
− use of an RC network to obtain a better frequency response of the
amplifier

EQUIPMENT REQUIRED

• base unit for the IPES system (power supply mod. PSU/EV, module
holder structure for modules mod. MU/EV), individual control
unit mod. SIS1/SIS2/SIS3
• experiment module mod. MCM5/ EV
• function generator
• oscilloscope
• multimeter.

B24.1 BASIC THEORY

In this case the link between two amplifier stages is achieved using a
transformer. The figure B24.1 shows a typical coupling between two
dual-load transistor amplifiers.

As you can note from figure B24.1 the primary of the transformer
replaces the usual load resistance RL. As the transformer behaves like an
inductance (which has zero or very low resistance), the dc (or
Quiescent) current ICQ across the first stage does not dissipate power as
a resistance would. As for ac components, the dynamic load is that of
the secondary ( R ) seen from the primary, and is equal to n2·R, where n
is the transform ratio of the transformer. As far as the the dc bias is
concerned, the transformer makes the two stages independent of each
other. The Q or bias point can be determined separately for each stage.

fig.B24.1

- 33 -
Lesson B24: TRANSFORMER COUPLING

The transformer system can also be used in the coupling between final
stage and the load in the power amplifiers (figure B24.2). In this case
the transformer is called the "output transformer".

fig.B24.2
The advantages of the transformer coupling are: absence of d.c. current
through the load and higher power efficiency.
The disadvantages are: larger volume and weight of the transformer,
frequency limitations of the transformer and non linearity of the
response curve.
Because of these disadvantages, the use of the transformer in low-
frequency, small signals amplifiers is not recommended. On the
contrary, it is widely applied in high-frequency tuned amplifiers, where
the transformer is used to realize resonant circuits.
In an amplifier using transformers, the a.c. component in the primary
depends on the reactance of the winding. The amplification is
proportional to the reactance of the transformer so the output signal
depends on the frequency. To limit this problem, an RC circuit can be
used in parallel to the primary (figure B24.3).

fig. B24.3

Biasing
In the study of the circuit, two load lines are defined: a static and a
dynamic one. The static load line is almost vertical, because the
resistance of the transformer primary is very small. In absence of signal
the collector voltage is practically equal to Vcc.
The dynamic load line has a slope equal to: -1/(n²⋅RL) where n is the
turns or transform ratio of the transformer.

- 34 -
 Lesson B24: TRANSFORMER COUPLING

Characteristics as function of the h parameters

Using simplified equivalent circuits, the two-stage amplifier of figure

B24.1 becomes as shown in figure B24.4.

fig. B24.4

An analysis of the equivalent circuit enables the calculation of the

following dynamic characteristics:

1. Total input resistance Rit

Rit = v1/i1t = R1//R2//Ri , where Ri = hie + hfe·RE

2. Voltage gain of the second stage Av2

v4 h ' ⋅ (R ' // R )
A v2 = = − ' fe ' c ' L '
v3 h ie + R B + R E ⋅ h fe
where R'B = R'1//R'2

3. Voltage gain of the transformer Avtr

Avtr = v3 / v2 = 1/n , where n is the transform ratio

4. Voltage gain of the first stage Av1

v2 h fe ⋅ Rp)
A v1 = =−
v1 h ie + R E ⋅ h fe

where Rp = n²·R'i ; R'i = h'ie + R'B + hfe·R'E

5. Voltage gain Av12: Av12 = Av1·Avtr·Av2

6. Total voltage gain Avt: Avt = v4 / vs = α · Av12

with: α = v1 / vs = Ri / (Rs + Ri)

- 35 -
Lesson B24: TRANSFORMER COUPLING

B24.2 EXERCISES

 MCM5 Disconnect all jumpers

 SIS1 Turn all switches OFF

 SIS2 Insert lesson code: B24

• Insert jumpers J2, J5, J6, J11, J20, J21, J25, J26, J27, J40, J44 and
the instruments to Produce the circuit of figure B24.5.

fig. B24.5
• Set 0÷30V Vcc adjustable power supply to 20V and adjust RV1 to
mid position.
• Vary RV2 and RV5 to obtain: ICQ1 ≈10 mA, ICQ2 ≈ 10 mA
• For the next calculations, remember that the transformer has 220
turns on the primary and 700 on the secondary, so n = 220/700 =
0.314
• Connect the oscilloscope channel 1 at terminal 2 (input signal) and
channel 2 at terminal 9 (output signal).
• Connect the function generator at terminals 1 and ground with a sine
wave, 1 KHz and vary the amplitude value to check 100 mVpp at
terminal 2.
• Measure the output signal; calculate the total voltage gain of the
amplifier.
• Without change the input signal parameters, measure at terminal 8
the amplitude of the transformer output signal; calculate the gain
across the second stage.
• vary the input signal frequency and note how amplification changes.
• disconnect the series components R11-C8 from the transformer
primary, by removing J20. Vary the input frequency and again
observe the changes in the gain.

- 36 -
 Lesson B24: TRANSFORMER COUPLING

Q1 What are the advantages of connecting the RC network to the primary

of the transformer?

SET
A B
1 5 more constant gain and less distortion, as the operating
frequency varies
2 3 reduction of the output impedance
3 1 none
4 2 the power dissipated is reduced
5 4 higher amplification

 SIS1 Turn switch SW9 ON

 SIS2 Press INS

Q2 What is the reason for the malfunction in the circuit?

SET
A B
1 4 the resistance R18 has changed
2 1 the still point of T1 has changed
3 2 the base of T2 has been connected to ground
4 3 the turns ratio of the transformer has been changed

 SIS1 Turn switch SW9 OFF

 SIS1 Turn switch SW1 ON

 SIS2 Press INS

Q3 What is the reason for the circuit malfunction?

SET
A B
1 2 the collector and emitter of T2 are short circuited
2 4 the base of T2 is not properly biased because RV5 is short
circuited
3 1 the base of T2 is not biased properly because the secondary
of the transformer is disconnected
4 5 emitter and base of the transistor T1 are short-circuited
5 3 the power supply Vcc is missing

 SIS1 Turn SW1 OFF

- 37 -
Lesson B24: TRANSFORMER COUPLING

B24.3 SUMMARY QUESTIONS

Q4 Using a transformer in place of the collector resistance will:

SET
A B
1 4 dissipate more d.c.power
2 1 dissipate less d.c power
3 5 dissipate less a.c. power
4 2 supply more a.c. power to the load
5 3 amplify d.c. signals

Q5 The transformer coupling in amplifiers with several stages, allows you

to:

SET
A B
1 6 bias the second stage properly
2 4 send the a.c. component of the signal from one stage to the
next without changing bias settings
3 1 obtain an oscillating signal
4 2 electrically isolate the different stages from each other
5 3 increase the power at the amplifier output
6 5 improve the response curve especially at high frequencies

Q6 Transformer coupling is used:

SET
A B
1 4 in d.c. current amplifiers
2 3 in multi-stage amplifiers and for coupling to the generator
3 2 in self-oscillating amplifiers
4 1 in multi-stage amplifiers and for coupling to the load

- 38 -
 Lesson B25: DIRECT COUPLING

Lesson B25: DIRECT COUPLING

OBJECTIVES
• Study of a circuit amplifier with two stages and direct coupling:
• calculation of the voltage gain of each stage
• calculation of the total gain of the amplifier
• measurement of the voltage gains
• determination of the phase difference between input signal and
output signals

EQUIPMENT REQUIRED

• base unit for the IPES system (power supply mod. PSU/EV, module
holder structure for modules mod. MU/EV), individual control
unit mod. SIS1/SIS2/SIS3
• experiment module mod. MCM5/ EV
• function generator
• oscilloscope
• multimeter.

B25.1 BASIC THEORY

Direct coupling between stages does not have interposed capacitances

nor transformers, i..e. it does not use devices which separate the d.c.
voltages needed for biasing. The figure B25.1 shows an example of
direct coupling between two transistor stages, a dual-load and a
common collector one.

Frequency response with direct coupling extends from the d.c. to the
cut-off frequency determined by the different stages composing the
amplifier. The direct coupling is also called "d.c.".

The worst disadvantages of the direct connection is determined by the

fact that the d.c. voltages of the two stages are not independent. A shift
of the Q point of the first stage will change the Q point of the second
circuit.

fig.B25.1

- 39 -
Lesson B25: DIRECT COUPLING

Characteristics as function of the h parameters

Using simplified equivalent circuits for the transistor, the diagram of

figure B25.1 becomes the one of fig.B25.2.

fig. B25.2

The study of the equivalent circuit enables the calculation of the

dynamic characteristics:

1. Total input resistance Rit

Rit = v1 / i1t = R1 // R2 // Ri

where Ri = hie + RE·hfe

2. Voltage gains Av1 and Av2

v2 hfe·(Rc//R'i)
Av1 =  = − 
v1 hie + RE·hfe

Av2 = v3 / v2 = h'fe·(RL//R'E)/R'i

where R'i = h'ie + h'fe·(RL//R'E)

3. Voltage gain Av12

Av12 = Av1·Av2

4. Total voltage gain Avc

Avc = v3 / vs = α·Av12

with: α= v1 / vs = Rit / (Rs + Rit)

- 40 -
 Lesson B25: DIRECT COUPLING

B25.2 EXERCISES

 MCM5 Disconnect all jumpers

 SIS1 Turn all switches OFF

 SIS2 Insert lesson code: B25

• Insert jumpers J2, J5, J6, J11, J17, J26, J29, J42, J46 and the
instruments to produce the circuit of fig.B25.3.

fig. B25.3

• Set Vcc = 20 V (variable power supply) and adjust RV1 to mid

position.
• Vary RV2 to obtain ICQ1 ≈10 mA
• Measure VCEQ1, VCEQ2, ICQ2
• Analyze the way the operating points vary, as trimmer RV2 is
varied

Q1 An increase of ICQ1 causes:

SET
A B
1 2 an increase of VCEQ1, decrease of ICQ2, increase of VCEQ2
2 3 decrease of VCEQ1, decrease of ICQ2, increase of VCEQ2
3 4 increase of VBEQ1, increase of ICQ2, increase of VCEQ2
4 1 decrease of VCEQ1, decrease of ICQ2, decrease of VCEQ2

- 41 -
Lesson B25: DIRECT COUPLING

• take the Q point back to normal.

• Connect the oscilloscope channel 1 at terminal 2 (input signal) and
channel 2 at terminal 12 (output signal).
• Connect the function generator at terminals 1 and ground with a sine
wave, 1 KHz and vary the amplitude value to check 200 mVpp at
terminal 2.
• Measure the output voltage amplitude at trminal 12, and calculate the
voltage gain of the circuit.
• measure the phase shift introduced by the circuit

Q2 What is the phase shift, and what causes it?

SET
A B
1 5 shift = 0°, due to both stages
2 3 shift = 45°, due to the first stage
3 1 shift =180°, due to the second stage
4 2 shift =180°, due to the first stage
5 4 shift =180°, due to a shift of 90° of both stages

B25.3 SUMMARY QUESTIONS

Q3 Direct coupling is used when an amplifier is required to amplify:

SET
A B
1 3 high frequency signals
2 5 low frequency signals
3 4 alternating signals
4 1 signals containing a d.c. component
5 2 periodic signals

Q4 In amplifiers with direct coupling:

SET
A B
1 4 the bias currents and voltages of one stage do not affect
those of another
2 1 only the bias currents of one stage affect those of another
stage
3 2 the bias currents and voltages of one stage can affect those
of another
4 3 the first stage must not be biased

- 42 -
 Lesson B26: DARLINGTON CONNECTION

Lesson B26: DARLINGTON CONNECTION

OBJECTIVES
• Examination of the operating characteristics of a Darlington
connection

EQUIPMENT REQUIRED

• base unit for the IPES system (power supply mod. PSU/EV, module
holder structure for modules mod. MU/EV), individual control
unit mod. SIS1/SIS2/SIS3
• experiment module mod. MCM5/ EV
• function generator
• oscilloscope
• multimeter.

B26.1 BASIC THEORY

Two transistors are in Darlington connection, (or make a Darlington

pair) when the emitter current of the first is also the base current of the
second (fig.B26.1).

A Darlington pair produces a high current gain amplifier with a high

input resistance. It is often used in the emitter follower circuit (figure
B26.2).

Often the transistor manufacturers place the Darlington pair into a single
case. This has the electrical advantage of keeping both transistors at the
same operating temperature.

fig.B26.1

fig.B26.2

- 43 -
Lesson B26: DARLINGTON CONNECTION

Characteristics as function of the h parameters

The two transistors of a Darlington connection can be considered

equivalent to a single transistor characterized by the following h
parameters:

hfe = hfe1 + hfe2·(1 + hfe1)

hie = hie1 + hie2·(1 + hfe1)

As hfe1>>1 and hfe2>>1, the following simplified relations can be used:

hfe = hfe1·hfe2
hie = hie1 + (hie2·hfe1)
hre = hie2·hoe1
hoe = hoe2 + hoe1·hfe2

Using the last formula, a Darlington pair can be considered as a single

transistor. In the example of an emitter follower of figure B26.2 the
following approximate relations apply:

1. Current gain Ai

i3 h fe1 ⋅ h fe 2
Ai = =
i1 1 + (h oe 2 + h fe 2 ⋅ h oe1 ) ⋅ R p

where Rp = RE // RL

2. Input resistance Rit

Rit = v1 / i1t = R1 // R2 // Ri

where Ri = hie1 + hfe1·hie2 + Rp·Ai

3. Voltage gain Av

Av = v2 / v1 = 1 - [hie1 + (hfe1·hie2)]/Ri

4. Output resistance Ro

1 1 1 + h fe1 ⋅ h fe 2
= + h oe 2 + (h oe1 ⋅ hfe2) +
Ro Rp h ie1 + (h fe1 ⋅ h ie 2 ) + R eq

with Req=R1//R2//Rs, and Rs internal resistance of the generator

The features of an emitter follower with Darlington connection

compared to a normal one (with a single transistor) are:
- higher input resistance Ri - higher current gain Ai
- voltage gain Av more close to 1 - smaller output resistance Ro

- 44 -
 Lesson B26: DARLINGTON CONNECTION

B26.2 EXERCISES

 MCM5 Disconnect all jumpers

 SIS1 Turn all switches OFF

 SIS2 Insert lesson code: B26

D.c. gain
• Insert jumpers J5, J8, J15, J19, J26, J33, J40, J46, and the
instruments to produce the circuit of fig.B26.3.

fig.B26.3

• Set 0÷30V Vcc adjustable power supply to 20V and vary RV2 to
obtain a current ICQ2 ≈30 mA
• measure the base current of transistor T2
• measure the voltage present across the resistance R3
• calculate the base current of transistor T1
• as the base current of transistor T2 is almost equal to the collector
current of the transistor T1, calculate the d.c. current gains of each
transistor, and calculate the total current gain of the Darlington pair

Q1 The two current gains hFE are:

SET
A B
1 5 equal, but less than 20
2 3 hFE2 is 1, while hFE1 is very high
3 4 hFE1 is very low, while hFE2 is very high
4 1 equal, but depend on voltage Vcc
5 2 different, but both higher than 100

- 45 -
Lesson B26: DARLINGTON CONNECTION

Measurement of the saturation voltage

• Remove all jumpers, insert J5, J6, J17, J22, J26, J33, J35, J39, and
the instruments to produce the circuit of figure B26.4.

fig.B26.4

• Adjust RV2 until the voltage VCB1 becomes negative (T1 into
saturation), so to take the Darlington circuit itself into saturation
• measure VCE1sat and VBE2

Q2 What is the relationship of the Darlington saturation voltages?

SET
A B
1 4 VCEsat = VCE1sat + VCE2sat
2 1 VCEsat = VCE1sat
3 5 VCEsat = VCE1sat + VCB2
4 2 VCEsat = VBE1sat
5 3 VCEsat = VBE2 + VCE1sat

The saturation voltage VCEsat of a Darlington connection is greater than

the saturation voltage of a single transistor, since it is equal to the
collector-emitter voltage VCE2 of the transistor T2, which cannot be
taken into saturation.

- 46 -
 Lesson B26: DARLINGTON CONNECTION

B26.3 SUMMARY QUESTIONS

Q3 Which of the following connections represents a Darlington circuit?

SET
A B

a) b) c)

1 3 a and b
2 1 c
3 5 a
4 6 b
5 4 a and c
6 2 b and c

Q4 The d.c. current gain of a Darlington pair, with two transistors of

gains hFE1 and hFE2, is equal to:

SET
A B
1 2 1/(hFE1·hFE2)
2 4 hFE1·hFE2
3 5 hFE1 + hFE2
4 3 hFE1·hFE2/2
5 1 (hFE1 + hFE2)/2

Q5 Compared to a single transistor, the Darlington connection has:

SET
A B
1 4 a lower input resistance
2 5 a higher output resistance
3 1 a higher input resistance and a higher current gain
4 2 a reduction of the current gain
5 3 a wider pass band with better frequency response

- 47 -
Lesson B27: CASCODE and BOOTSTRAP CONNECTIONS

Lesson B27: CASCODE and BOOTSTRAP CONNECTIONS

OBJECTIVES

• Study of the Cascode amplifier

• measurement of the voltage gain Av
• measurement of the higher cut-off frequency of a Cascode circuit
• Study of a Bootstrap connection in an emitter follower circuit
• measurement of the input resistance with and without Bootstrap
connection

EQUIPMENT REQUIRED

• base unit for the IPES system (power supply mod. PSU/EV, module
holder structure for modules mod. MU/EV), individual control
unit mod. SIS1/SIS2/SIS3
• experiment module mod. MCM5/ EV
• function generator
• oscilloscope
• multimeter.

B27.1 BASIC THEORY

Cascode Amplifier

The Cascode amplifier is a multi-stage amplifier with direct coupling. It

consists of a common emitter transistor with a common base transistor
in cascade (figure B27.1).

fig.B27.1

- 48 -
 Lesson B27: CASCODE and BOOTSTRAP CONNECTIONS

This circuit provides:

• very high output resistance, similar to a common base circuit
• high stability and frequency response.

These characteristics make the Cascode connection particularly useful

at high frequency.

Cascode: characteristics as function of the h parameters

Using the equivalent transistor circuit, and taking hre, hoe, hrb, hob as
negligible, the circuit of figure B27.1 can be represented as in figure
B27.2.

fig. B27.2

At low frequency the Cascode has the following characteristics:

1. Current gain Ai

Ai = i3 / i1 = hfe1

2. Input resistance Rit

Rit = v1 / i1 = R2//R3//Ri

where Ri = hie1

3. Voltage gain Av

Av = v3 / v1 = -Rp·hfe1 / hie1

where Rp = Rc // RL

4. Output resistance Ro

Ro = v3 / i3 ≈ hfe2 / hoe2

- 49 -
Lesson B27: CASCODE and BOOTSTRAP CONNECTIONS

Bootstrap effect biasing

The input resistance of the amplifier depends much on the base biasing
resistance RB. Since, for good stability RB cannot be too high, a
Bootstrap connection is used to obtain high input resistance values, but
maintaining a low base resistance value. The figure B27.3a shows a
biased emitter follower with Bootstrap connection.

From a dynamic viewpoint, i.e. considering only the ac signal

components, the circuit becomes the one of fig.B27.3b.

If the input signal (on the Base) increases, at the same time the output
signal increases (on the Emitter), as the voltage gain of a follower is
almost equal to one. The current across R3 is then much smaller than
would be the case if R3 were connected directly to ground: it follows
that the equivalent resistance of the input circuit is much higher than
R3.

fig.B27.3

Bootstrap: characteristics as function of the h parameters

Considering hre as negligible, the equivalent small signal circuit to is as

shown in figure B27.4. Note that the resistance R3, to which the Miller
theorem has been applied, has been divided into two parts, one
connected to the input (R') and the other to the emitter (R").

fig. B27.4

- 50 -
 Lesson B27: CASCODE and BOOTSTRAP CONNECTIONS

The Bootstrap circuit has the following characteristics:

1. Input resistance Ri

Ri = v1 / i1 = hie + (1 + hfe)·Rp

where Rp = RE // R1 // R2 // RL

2. Voltage gain Av

Av = v2 / v1 = 1 - hie / Ri

3. Total input resistance Rit

Rit = v1 / i1t = R' // Ri

where R' = R3 / (1 - Av)

NOTE: These relations are true if the absolute value of R", equal to
[Av·R3/(Av - 1)], is much bigger than RE.

4. Total voltage gain Avt

Avt = v2 / vs = α·Av

where α = v1 / vs = Rit / (Rs + Rit)

B27.2 EXERCISES

 MCM5 Disconnect all jumpers

 SIS1 Turn all switches OFF

 SIS2 Insert lesson code: B27

Cascode circuit
• Insert jumpers J2, J5, J6, J11, J13, J24, J36, J37, J44 and the
instruments to produce the circuit of fig.B27.5.

- 51 -
Lesson B27: CASCODE and BOOTSTRAP CONNECTIONS

fig.B27.5
• Set 0÷30V Vcc adjustable power supply to 20V and adjust RV1 to
mid position.
• Vary RV2 completely C.C.W. (lowest resistance) and adjust RV7 to
obtain a collector current of about 10 mA.
• Connect the oscilloscope channel 1 at terminal 2 (input signal) and
the channel 2 at terminal 9 (output signal).
• Connect the function generator at terminals 1 and ground with a sine
wave, 1 KHz and vary the amplitude value to check 40 mVpp at
terminal 2.
• if the wave-form is distorted, adjust RV1, to reduce it
• measure the output voltage and calculate the voltage gain of the
amplifier

Q1 What is the voltage gain ?

SET
A B
1 4 about 120
2 5 about 1
3 2 about 12
4 3 about 640
5 1 about 1200

• Vary the input frequency to measure the upper cut-off frequency of

the amplifier.

Remind that the cut-off frequencies are defined as the frequencies at

which the output signal drops by 3 dB compared to the maximum
value. In other words at the cut-off frequencies the signal is equal to
1/√2 , of the max. value.

- 52 -
 Lesson B27: CASCODE and BOOTSTRAP CONNECTIONS

• Recreate the common emitter circuit of figure B20.12: remove all

jumpers, insert J2, J5, J6, J11, J13, J17, J26 and measure the upper
cut-off frequency with this method.

Q2 From the comparison of the cut-off frequencies of the two circuits we

can say that:

SET
A B
1 2 the Cascode cut-off frequency is higher
2 4 they are almost equal
3 1 the common emitter one is slightly higher
4 5 the common emitter one is much higher
5 3 the Cascode one is 100 times higher

Bootstrap connection

• Remove all jumpers, insert J1, J2, J5, J7, J9, J12, J19, J26 and
instruments to produce the circuit of fig.B27.6

fig.B27.6

• Keep the Vcc variable supply to 20 V and adjust RV2 to obtain a

current ICQ of 4.5 mA
• Vary RV1 completely C.W. (minimum resistance).
• Connect the oscilloscope channel 1 at terminal 2 (input signal) and
the channel 2 at terminal 6 (output signal).
• Connect the function generator at terminals 1 and ground with a sine
wave, 1 KHz and vary the amplitude value to check 4 Vpp at
terminal 2.
• display on the oscilloscope the input and output voltages of the
circuit

- 53 -
Lesson B27: CASCODE and BOOTSTRAP CONNECTIONS

• remove jumper J1, to add trimmer RV1 in series with the input of the
amplifier
• adjusting trimmer RV1, use the method of reducing the input voltage
to half (see lesson B20) to measure the total input resistance Rit of
the amplifier

Q3 What is the approximate measured value of resistance Rit?

SET
A B
1 3 a few ohms
2 5 a few hundred ohms
3 1 1 kΩ
4 2 10 kΩ
5 6 23 KΩ
6 4 more than 50 KΩ

• Remove jumpers J7, J9, insert J1, J6 ( the circuit configuration is

then one of a standard emitter follower).
• repeat the last measurement of the input resistance Rit of the circuit.

Q4 From the comparison between the two measured input resistances, you
can say that the Bootstrap connection :

SET
A B
1 4 noticeably reduces the input resistance of the amplifier
2 1 reduces the power supply voltage
3 2 noticeable increases the input resistance of the circuit
4 5 reduces the load resistance
5 3 noticeably reduces the high frequency disturbances on the
load

- 54 -
 Lesson B27: CASCODE and BOOTSTRAP CONNECTIONS

B27.3 SUMMARY QUESTIONS

Q5 How many active devices does a Cascode amplifier have?

SET
A B
1 3 one transistor
2 6 two transistors
3 1 three transistors
4 5 two transistors and an SCR
5 4 three transistors and 1 Mosfet Depletion
6 2 one transistor and three diodes

Q6 What are the advantages of a Cascode amplifier ?

SET
A B
1 2 reduction of the band width and increase of the
2 1 increase of the upper cut-off frequency compared to a single
transistor amplifier
3 5 better matching between source and load
4 3 increases the output signal frequency compared to the input
one
5 4 maintenance of the phase relations between input signal
and output signal

Q7 Consider an emitter follower with Bootstrap connection with the

following values:
R1 = 100 KΩ R2 = 33 KΩ RL = 10 KΩ RE = 1 KΩ
hie = 1 KΩ hfe = 100 R3 = 56 KΩ.
What is the total input resistance Rit?

SET
A B
1 6 560 Ω
2 3 89.6KΩ
3 4 678 KΩ
4 1 5.6 Ω
5 2 1 KΩ
6 5 10 KΩ

- 55 -
Lesson B28: DIFFERENTIAL AMPLIFIER

Lesson B28: DIFFERENTIAL AMPLIFIER

OBJECTIVES

• To become familiar with the characteristics of the differential

amplifier
• Measurement of the gain in differential mode
• Measurement of the common mode gain
• Determination of the common mode rejection ratio

EQUIPMENT REQUIRED

• base unit for the IPES system (power supply mod. PSU/EV, module
holder structure for modules mod. MU/EV), individual control
unit mod. SIS1/SIS2/SIS3
• experiment module mod. MCM5/ EV
• function generator
• oscilloscope
• multimeter.

B28.1 BASIC THEORY

A differential amplifier consists basically of two transistors with

emitters connected to a single resistance (figure B28.1).

fig.B28.1

The differential amplifier amplifies the voltage difference between the

inputs of the two transistors. Usually it has two input signals but only
one output. The output can be taken from two different points:
• between the collector of a transistor and the ground of the circuit.
This output is called "common mode ":
vo = vo2

• between the two collectors. The output is called then "floating" as it

is not referred to ground:
vo = vo1 - vo2

- 56 -
 Lesson B28: DIFFERENTIAL AMPLIFIER

Operation
A differential amplifier is generally symmetrical in its connections as
well as in the values of the components. In the circuit of figure B28.1,
we have RC1=RC2, RB1=RB2, T1=T2. With this symmetry we can say
that voltage gains of the 2 amplifiers considered separately, are equal.
So:

vo = A1·v1 - A2·v2 = Ad·(v1 - v2)

where Ad is called differential mode gain.

In practice the two signals v1 and v2 are not amplified by exactly the
same amount (A1 ≠ A2). This means that even if the two input signals
are equal, the output will be different from zero.

To evaluate the differential amplifier we could use the previous formula

with different values A1 and A2. However it is generally preferred to
note that, if A1 ≠ A2, then not only the difference between the two
signals, but also their half sum, is amplified, i.e.:

v1 + v2
vo = Ad·(v1 - v2) + Ac·  = Ad·vd + Ac·vc
2

using the following definitions :

Ad = (A1 + A2)/2 differential mode gain

Ac = A1 - A2 common mode gain
vd = v1 - v2 differential mode signal
vc = (v1 + v2) / 2 common mode signal

Common Mode Rejection Ratio - CMRR

The closer A1 is to A2, the better the differential amplifier is,

(alternatively the greater Ad is compared to Ac). The quality of the
amplifier is then expressed by the ratio between Ad and Ac, called the
Common Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR):

CMRR = | Ad/Ac |

The greater CMRR, the more the output signal will be proportional to
the difference between the two input signals.

- 57 -
Lesson B28: DIFFERENTIAL AMPLIFIER

B28.2 EXERCISES

 MCM5 Disconnect all jumpers

 SIS1 Turn all switches OFF

 SIS2 Insert lesson code: B28

Biasing

• Set 0÷30V Vcc adjustable power supply to 12V.

• Insert jumpers J4, J15, J18, J23, J26, J38, J34, J45, J43 to produce
the circuit of fig.B28.2
• set RV4 to mid-position

fig.B28.2

• measure the voltage between the collectors of the 2 transistors

A zero voltage should be measured, but due to inevitable

asymmetries of the circuit it is almost certain that the voltage read is
different from zero

• adjusting trimmer RV4, set the voltage read by the voltmeter to zero

The trimmer RV4 enables the current through the two transistors to
be equalised, and so sets the voltage between the collectors to zero.

- 58 -
 Lesson B28: DIFFERENTIAL AMPLIFIER

Differential gain

• Insert also jumpers J27 and J30, to produce the circuit of figure
B28.3.
• adjust RV5 trimmer to measure 0 V between base and ground of T2
• adjusting RV4 trimmer, carefully balance the differential amplifier
(voltage measured between the two collectors equal to zero)
• adjusting RV5, increase the input voltage on transistor T2 to reach
100 mV
• in these conditions, measure the corresponding voltage value
between the two collectors, and calculate the voltage gain
• repeat the last measurement and calculation for increasing input
voltage values :(150, 200, 400 mV)

fig. B28.3

Q1 What is the gain you have just measured?

SET
A B
1 5 it is zero
2 4 it is unity
3 1 it is some tens
4 2 it is some hundreds
5 3 it is some thousands

- 59 -
Lesson B28: DIFFERENTIAL AMPLIFIER

Common mode gain

• From previous circuit, insert jumper J32, to obtain the circuit of

fig.B28.4
• adjusting RV5 set the input voltage of the two transistors T1 and T2
to 0 V
• adjusting RV4 trimmer, balance the differential amplifier (null
voltage between the two collectors T1 and T2)
• adjusting RV5, progressively increase the input voltage on the two
transistor T1 and T2, and measure the output voltage between the
two collectors
• calculate the common mode gain Ac

Q2 Comparing the gains found in the last two exercises, we see that:

SET
A B
1 4 the two gains are perfectly equal
2 1 the gain obtained from the second measurement is much
higher than in the first case
3 2 the gain obtained in the second case is much smaller than the
first case
4 5 the gain of the second measurement is zero, the one in the
first is infinite
5 3 none of the above describes the result

CMRR

• With the gain values found from the last points, calculate the
common mode rejection ratio in the differential amplifier under test

The common mode rejection ratio CMRR, is a parameter indicating the

quality of a differential amplifier. As it is defined by the ratio CMRR =
Ad / Ac, for an ideal amplifier it is infinite.

fig. B28.4

- 60 -
 Lesson B28: DIFFERENTIAL AMPLIFIER

Small signal amplifier

• Remove jumpers 27, J30, J32, insert J1, J2 to produce the circuit of
figure B28.5.

fig. B28.5

• adjust the RV4 trimmer to balance the circuit (null voltage between
the collectors of the two transistors)
• Connect the function generator at terminal 1 and ground with a sine
wave, 1 KHz and 400mVpp.
• Connect the oscilloscope channel 1 at terminal 1 (input signal) and
channel 2 at terminal 3 (output signal on T1 collector).
• measure the collector voltage amplitude, and the phase difference
between this voltage and the input signal
• repeat the last measurement for the transistor T2, connect channel 2
at terminal 9 (output signal on T2 collector).

Q3 What is the relation between the two voltages measured on the

collectors?

SET
A B
1 2 they are equal in amplitude and phase
2 1 they are equal in amplitude, but are 180 degrees apart
3 5 they are in phase but one is twice the other
4 3 they are shifted by 90 degrees and one is half the
amplitude of the other
5 4 they are equal in amplitude and shifted by 270 degrees

- 61 -
Lesson B28: DIFFERENTIAL AMPLIFIER

Q4 What is the ratio of the signal taken between the 2 collectors, to that of
the signal taken between a collector and ground ?

SET
A B
1 5 the amplitude of the signal between the two collectors is
half the one measured between each collector and ground
2 3 the amplitude between the collectors is double the one
between a collector and ground
3 1 the three amplitudes are exactly the same
4 2 the amplitudes are equal, but each is shifted by 120 degrees
compared to another
5 4 the three amplitudes are all quite different

Temperature stability

• In the previous circuit, disconnect the function generator and the

oscilloscope, to take the circuit back to the configuration in figure
B28.2
• adjusting trimmer RV4, balance the circuit
• with the help of a thermal source, lightly heat T1, and simultaneously
note the voltage variation taken between the collectors (connect the
positive terminal of the voltmeter to the collector of T1)
• wait until the transistor T1 is cooled and repeat the test on the
transistor T2
• you should note that the heating of T1 causes a drop in the measured
voltage, but with T2 an increase occurs

The temperature increase of a transistor means an increase in its

conduction, and so an unbalancing of the differential amplifier. If the
two active devices which constitute the amplifier are thermally coupled,
the circuit is insensitive to thermal variation. This coupling is achieved
with integrated circuits.

- 62 -
 Lesson B28: DIFFERENTIAL AMPLIFIER

B28.3 SUMMARY QUESTIONS

Q5 An ideal differential amplifier amplifies:

SET
A B
1 1 the difference between the two input voltages
2 5 the sum of the two input voltages
3 4 the product of the two input voltages
4 2 the half-sum of the input voltages
5 3 the ratio between the input voltages

Q6 Starting from the input voltages v1 and v2 of a differential amplifier,

how is the "common mode signal" defined?

SET
A B
1 2 vc = (v1 + v2)/2
2 1 vc = v1 - v2
3 5 vc = v1 + v2
4 3 vc = v1 · v2
5 4 vc = (v1 · v2)/2

Q7 And how is the differential mode signal defined?

SET
A B
1 2 vd = (v1 + v2)/2
2 1 vd = v1 - v2
3 4 vd = v1 + v2
4 5 vd = v1 · v2
5 3 vd = v1 · v2 / 2

Q8 Which relation defines the output of a differential amplifier, if v1 and v2

are the voltages across the two inputs?

SET
A B
1 5 vo = Ad·vd - Ac·vc
2 4 vo = (Ad·vd + Ac· vc)/2
3 3 vo = Ad·vd + Ac·vc
4 2 vo = (Ad/2)·vd + 2·Ac·vc
5 1 vo = (Ad + Ac)·(vd - vc)

- 63 -
Lesson B29: CLASS A AMPLIFIERS

Lesson B29: CLASS A AMPLIFIERS

OBJECTIVES
• To understand power and efficiency in the static (dc) and dynamic
(ac) case
• to observe distortions due to transistor saturation and cut-off

EQUIPMENT REQUIRED

• base unit for the IPES system (power supply mod. PSU/EV, module
holder structure for modules mod. MU/EV), individual control unit
mod. SIS1/SIS2/SIS3
• experiment module mod. MCM5/ EV
• function generator
• oscilloscope
• multimeter.

B29.1 BASIC THEORY

In a class A amplifier, the operating point and the input signal are such
that current flow in the output circuit is always present. This kind of
amplifier operates essentially in the linear zone. If base current
variations, caused by the input signal, are small enough to keep within
the linear region, the output wave-form faithfully reproduces the input .

The collector current flows for the entire duration of the of the input
signal, and its average value is identical to the quiescent one.

Figure B29.1 shows the typical curves of an amplifier with transistor in

class A: the output characteristic of the transistor; load line; input
signal (base current ib); output signal (collector-emitter voltage vce).

fig.B29.1

- 64 -
 Lesson B29: CLASS A AMPLIFIERS

Power
To find the powers used in a class A amplifier, suppose that the
amplifier circuit of figure B29.2 has a quiescent voltage VCEQ equal to
Vcc/2, and the corresponding current is ICQ = Vcc·RL /2.

fig.B29.2

1. Useful power Pu

considering sine signals, the variable voltage on load RL is

VS·sin(w·t) and the total voltage is :

vs(t) = V0 + VS·sin(ω·t)

The power dissipated on the load RL is equal to the average value

of the instantaneous power vs(t)·is(t):

Vcc² VS²
PRL =  + 
4·RL 2·RL

Considering only the power related to the signal, we have :

Pu = VS² / (2·RL)

2. Power Pcc supplied by the power supply

This is the average power value (Vcc·is) provided by the power

supply, and is equal to:

Pcc = Vcc²/(2·RL)

3. Power dissipated by the transistor PD

This is the average value of the power dissipated in the transistor

[ vce(t)·is(t) ]:

- 65 -
Lesson B29: CLASS A AMPLIFIERS

Vcc² VS²
PD =  - 
4·RL 2·RL

As you can note, PD is a minimum if the a.c. signal amplitude is

maximum.

Efficiency

This is defined as the ratio between the useful power in the load (Pu)
and the power supplied by the power supply (Pcc):

ηc = Pu/Pcc = VS²/Vcc²

From this we can say that the efficiency is max. when VS is max. In
theory, VSmax is equal to (Vcc/2); in this ideal condition the efficiency is
25%. In practice, the efficiency of class A amplifiers is limited to about
20%.

Higher efficiencies from a class A amplifier (max 50%) are obtained if

the load is coupled using a transformer, as examined in lesson B24.

- 66 -
 Lesson B29: CLASS A AMPLIFIERS

B29.2 EXERCISES

 MCM5 Disconnect all jumpers

 SIS1 Turn all switches OFF

 SIS2 Insert lesson code: B29

• Set 0÷30V Vcc adjustable power supply to 20V.

• Insert jumpers J1, J2, J5, J6, J11, J17, J26, and the multimeter
(function IDC) between terminals 4 and 5 to produce the circuit of
figure B29.3

fig.B29.3

• adjust RV2 to obtain ICQ = 9 mA

• connect the oscilloscope channel 1 at terminal 1 (input signal of the
amplifier) and channel 2 at terminal 3 (output signal).
• Connect the function generator at terminals 1 and ground with a sine
wave, 1 KHz and 1.5Vpp.
• check that with this amplitude, the output value does not have large
distortions (it should be as in figure B29.4a)
• increase the input signal and check the behavior of the output signal

fig.B29.4

- 67 -
Lesson B29: CLASS A AMPLIFIERS

Q1 What happens to the output signal, and what is the reason for this?

SET
A B
1 3 the signal is unchanged
2 5 the signal has distortions on the negative half-waves due to
the fact that the transistor reaches the cut-off zone
3 4 distortions are noticed on the positive half-waves when the
transistor is cut-off
4 1 spurious pulses of short duration and high amplitude occur
due to high frequency disturbances
5 2 distortions are noticed on both half-waves due to the large
excursions of the input signal which takes the transistor into
either saturation or cut-off state

The distortions illustrated in fig.B29.4b/c, are due to the non-linearity

of the transistor, when its operation is close to, or reaches, the cut-off
or saturation zones.

• Adjust the input voltage to obtain a signal with max. amplitude at the
output, but which has no significant distortion
• measure the VS signal amplitude = VSpp/2
• with this value, calculate :
− the useful power on the load Pu = VS²/2·RL
− the power dissipated in the transistor PD
− the power supplied by the power supply Pcc
− the efficiency "η" of the circuit

Q2 What is the efficiency η, approximately?

SET
A B
1 6 about 0.5%
2 1 about 1%
3 4 about 7.5%
4 3 about 20%
5 2 about 45%
6 5 about 75%

• vary the biasing and note the variation in the output wave-form.

- 68 -
 Lesson B29: CLASS A AMPLIFIERS

B29.3 SUMMARY QUESTIONS

Q3 Consider an amplifier in class A, with a sine wave input. The collector

current flows for a time equal to:

SET
A B
1 3 half of the cycle
2 6 1/4 cycle
3 4 3/4 cycle
4 5 2.5 cycles
5 2 none of the cycle
6 1 the entire cycle

Q4 A signal amplified in class A may have distortions due to:

SET
A B
1 6 transistor saturation and cut-off
2 5 frequency operation limitation of the transistor
3 2 presence of parasitic capacitances of the transistor
4 1 too low efficiency
5 4 too low temperature
6 3 none of the above

Q5 If Vcc is the power supply voltage of an amplifier in class A, and if V0 is

the quiescent voltage across the load, the output signal of amplitude VS
is distorted if:

SET
A B
1 1 VS > (Vcc - V0)
2 5 VS < V0
3 2 (Vcc + V0)/4 > VS
4 3 VS < (Vcc - V0)
5 4 VS < V0/2

Q6 The efficiency of a class A amplifier, with load not coupled through a

transformer:

SET
A B
1 2 depends on the phase angle
2 1 can take the max. theoretical value of 25 %
3 4 is always equal to 1
4 5 can take a theoretical value equal to 50 %
5 3 depends on the load and the signal frequency

- 69 -
Lesson B30: CLASS B AMPLIFIERS

Lesson B30: CLASS B AMPLIFIERS

OBJECTIVES
• Study of a "single-ended" circuit
• Study of a "Push-pull" circuit

EQUIPMENT REQUIRED

• base unit for the IPES system (power supply mod. PSU/EV, module
holder structure for modules mod. MU/EV), individual control unit
mod. SIS1/SIS2/SIS3
• experiment module mod. MCM5/ EV
• function generator
• oscilloscope
• multimeter.

B30.1 BASIC THEORY

The low efficiency of amplifiers in class A arises from the fact that,
even in absence of a signal, the transistor dissipates power. The solution
to this problem is obtained by fixing the Q point close to the cut-off
state. In this case when the input signal is missing, the collector current
will be very low. However when the signal is present a current flows
corresponding to the positive half cycle of the applied signal. Each
negative excursion of the input signal, being less than the cut-off value,
cause a total block of the collector current. Figure B30.1 shows an
example of amplification of an a.c. signal in class B.

In case of a.c. signal, the collector current flows for only about half a
cycle, i.e. 180 degrees. This angle constitutes the so called conduction
angle. For an output signal is to be obtained similar to the input one,
two active devices must be used biased in class B. Each of them must
amplifies one half of the wave. There are three types of circuit based on
this principle :
• push-pull
• single-ended
• complementary symmetry.

fig.B30.1

- 70 -
 Lesson B30: CLASS B AMPLIFIERS

Single-Ended Amplifier with dual power supply

The single-ended connection is show in figure B30.2

fig.B30.2
In the quiescent state, the two transistors are cut-off and their common
point A is ground. No current flows in the load.

In dynamic operation, T1 conducts on the positive half-cycle and

current flows from left to right through the load. In the negative half-
cycle T2 will conduct, causing a current to flow through the load in the
opposite direction. For this to happen, and faithfully reproduce the
signal, it is necessary to supply the bases of the two transistors with two
signals in phase opposition.

When determining component values, remind that across the cut-off

transistor the voltage is twice Vcc ( since the voltage drop VCE is almost
zero across the transistor in conduction). The transistors must be chosen
with BVCEO > 2·Vcc (BVCEO = breakdown voltage).

As for the input signals, the two transistors cannot be controlled by two
signals referred to ground, because in this case T1 would operate as
follower and T2 as common emitter, and the two half-waves on the load
would have different amplitudes.

To make T1 operate as common emitter, it is necessary to apply the

signal between base and emitter. This can be done with the transformer
coupling of figure B30.3.

fig.B30.3

- 71 -
Lesson B30: CLASS B AMPLIFIERS

Single-Ended Amplifier with single power supply

To use a single power supply voltage (figure B30.4), the load must be
connected to a very high capacitance (some hundreds of µF). In this way
the voltage across the capacitance stays constant during dynamic
operation, simulating the behavior of a second power supply.

fig.B30.4

If the transistors are identical, then at the Q point the common

connection A is at a voltage of Vcc/2, and the capacitor is kept charged
to that voltage.

The operation is the same as one with two power supplies. When T1
conducts, the power supply voltage for the circuit is the difference
between Vcc and Vcc/2 supplied by the capacitor, i.e. in total Vcc/2.
When T2 is conducting, the only power supply operating is the one
supplied by C, i.e. it is still Vcc/2.

Push-Pull Amplifers

The Push-Pull circuit consists of two NPN transistors which are

symmetrically connected and have a common emitter (figure B30.5).
Across the output of the two stages there is a signal transformer with a
central tapping. As the transistors are of the same kind, each collector
current flows only in its half of the transformer, i.e. they are in in
opposite directions and so produce two opposed flows.

fig.B30.5

- 72 -
 Lesson B30: CLASS B AMPLIFIERS

In static operation, as the two transistors operate in class B, they are

both Off.

Now consider the ac or dynamic operation, and suppose that each

transistor alternatively conducts for each half-wave. As the two half-
waves in the transformer secondary are in opposition, the complete sine-
wave is reconstructed in the load.

A system must be used which makes the two BJTs conduct

alternatively. An input transformer with central tapping is often used,
which provides the transistor bases with two equal signals, of opposite
phase. One alternative to the input transformer is to use an electronic
type of phase inverter as used in the dual-load amplifiers. This will have
a better frequency response than a transformer.

Power calculations

1. Useful power Pu

When the voltage across the load RL has max. amplitude VM, the
useful power dissipated in the load is :

Pu = VM² / 2·RL

2. Power Pcc supplied by the power supply

This is the average value of the power supplied by the power

supplies, and is:

Pcc = 2·Vcc·VM / (π·RL)

From this you can see that Pcc is max. when VM is max., i.e. equal
to Vcc. So

Pcc = 2·Vcc² / (π·RL)

3. Power dissipated in the transistor PD

This is the average value of the power dissipated in each transistor:

Vcc·VM VM²
PD =  - 
π·RL 4·RL

PD is max. if VM = 2·Vcc/π. So :

PDmax = Vcc² / π²·RL

which corresponds approximately to Pumax/5.

- 73 -
Lesson B30: CLASS B AMPLIFIERS

4. Efficiency

It is defined as the ratio between the useful power on the load Pu

and that supplied by the power supply Pcc:

η = Pu / Pcc = π·VM / (4·Vcc)

From this we see that the efficiency is a linear function of VM, and
is max. for VM = Vcc (ηmax = π/4 = 78.5%). The practical
efficiency of the amplifiers in class B is actually around the 70%
mark.

Cross-over distortion

The base-emitter junctions prevent the transistors from amplifying

signals with an amplitude less than the threshold voltage. Figure B30.6
shows the transfer characteristic of an amplifier with two BJTs.

fig.B30.6

As can be seen from the output characteristic, the signal suffers

distortion when passing through zero. This type of distortion is known
as cross-over distortion. To overcome this, the BJTs are biased just to
the threshold voltage. This type of biasing is called "class AB".

- 74 -
 Lesson B30: CLASS B AMPLIFIERS

B30.2 EXERCISES

 MCM5 Disconnect all jumpers

 SIS1 Turn all switches OFF

 SIS2 Insert lesson code: B30

Single-ended amplifier with a single power supply

• Insert jumpers J54, J55, J56, J57 to obtain the circuit of figure B30.7

fig. B30.7

• adjusting trimmer RV11, take the collector voltage of the transistor

T7 to 6 V

Q1 In this condition, what is the current through the load R35 ?

SET
A B
1 3 the current is 10 mA
2 5 the current is 100 mA
3 1 the current is zero
4 2 the current is 1 A
5 4 none of the above

• measure the voltage across R33 and R34: it should be very low,
indicating almost zero current. The two transistors are biased to the
cut-off region
• connect the function generator at terminals 14 and 15 with a sine
wave, 1 KHz and 4 Vpp.
• measure the amplitude of the output signal; check if the output is
distorted, and calculate the gain of the amplifier

- 75 -
Lesson B30: CLASS B AMPLIFIERS

 SIS1 Turn switch SW6 ON

 SIS2 Press INS

Q2 What is the effect on the output signal?

SET
A B
1 6 the signal goes to zero
2 1 the signal becomes continuous
3 4 the cross-over distortion increases
4 5 the negative half-waves of the output signal are eliminated
5 3 the signal has distortions on the positive half-waves
6 2 none of the above describes the results

Q3 What is the reason for this?

SET
A B
1 5 the power supply has been disconnected from the circuit
2 3 collector and emitter of the transistor T6 are in short circuit
3 4 the biasing of transistor T7 has been removed
4 2 100 Ω resistance has been set in parallel to the resistance R30
5 1 the output capacitor C18 has been short-circuited

 SIS1 Turn switch SW6 OFF

Power • Adjust the function generator to obtain a signal with max. amplitude,
calculations but without distortions
• using the formulas supplied in the theoretical section, calculate the
values of :
− Useful power Pu
− Power Pcc supplied by the power supply
− Power dissipated in the transistor PD

- 76 -
 Lesson B30: CLASS B AMPLIFIERS

Push-pull Amplifiers

Biasing • Switch off PSU power suply and remove all jumpers.
• Insert J48, J49, J50, J51, J52, J53, to obtain the circuit of figure
B30.8
• before connecting power, adjust the trimmers RV9 and RV10 to
mid-position
• switch on the power and adjust trimmer RV8 to obtain a voltage
VCEQ of about 5 V across T3
• adjust RV9 so that the d.c. voltages present across the bases of the
two transistors T4 and T5 are equal

fig. B30.8

• connect the function generator at terminals 13 and ground with a sine

wave, 1 KHz and 4 Vpp
• connect the oscilloscope channel 1 at terminal 13 (input signal) and
channel 2 across R28 (output signal)
• adjust RV10 to obtain the max. amplitude of the output signal, but
with minimum distortion

Q4 What differences can be noticed between the two signals?

SET
A B
1 2 they are equal in amplitude, but phase shifted by 180°
2 1 they are in phase, but the output amplitude is half the input
one
3 3 the output signal is higher than the input one, but has small
distortions when passing through zero
4 5 they are equal in amplitude, but the output one has double
frequency of the input
5 4 the input signal has double the amplitude of the output, and
has distortions on the positive half-waves.

Adjusting RV10, it is possible to reduce the distortion occurring around

zero (cross-over distortion), while RV9 can be used to vary the
symmetry.

- 77 -
Lesson B30: CLASS B AMPLIFIERS

The output transformer produces an output signal in phase with, or in

opposition to the input, depending on which way the transformer is
connected.

 SIS1 Turn switch SW10 ON

 SIS2 Press INS

Q5 By considering the change in the signals displayed on the oscilloscope,

we can say that:

SET
A B
1 2 the power supply voltage is reduced by half
2 5 the input signal has been removed
3 4 the base and emitter of T3 are short-circuited
4 1 the emitter resistance of T3 has changed
5 3 the collector and emitter of T4 are short-circuited

 SIS1 Turn switch SW10 OFF

• display the output signal across R28, and the collector voltage of T3
on the oscilloscope
• increase the amplitude of the input signal to observe distortions on
the output signal, distortions which are caused by the transistor
operating in the saturation region
• check that these distortions are due to the saturation of the first
inverter stage, and not to the final transistors

 SIS1 Turn switch SW4 ON

 SIS2 Press INS

Q6 The output signal has changed. What is the reason for this?

SET
A B
1 2 the circuit has been disconnected at the collector of T4
2 3 the biasing of T4 and T5 is incorrect
3 4 the resistance R20 has been short-circuited
4 5 the static gain hFE of transistor T5 has been changed
5 1 none of the above

 SIS1 Turn switch SW4 OFF

- 78 -
 Lesson B30: CLASS B AMPLIFIERS

Power • Display the output voltage across R28

calculations • adjust the signal generator to produce a max output signal without
distortion
• measure the amplitude VM of the output signal, and calculate the
useful power Pu = VM² / 2·R28
• calculate the power supplied by power supply

2 Vcc N2
Pcc =  ·  ·  · VM
π R28 N1

where N1 = 220 turns; N2 = 700 turns (transformer data)

• calculate the power dissipated by one transistor: PD = (Pcc - Pu)/2

B30.3 SUMMARY QUESTIONS

Q7 The operation of an amplifier in class B is characterized by conduction

angles:

SET
A B
1 3 greater than 180 degrees
2 5 equal to 90 degrees
3 2 equal to 180 degrees
4 1 between 90 and 180 degrees
5 4 less than 180 degrees

Q8 The operation of an amplifier in class A-B is characterized by

conduction angles:

SET
A B
1 2 greater than 180 degrees
2 1 equal to 180 degrees
3 4 less than 180 degrees
4 5 equal to 360 degrees
5 3 equal to 60 degrees

Q9 To eliminate cross-over distortion in a Push-pull amplifier, you must:

SET
A B
1 2 bias the bases of the transistors to the threshold voltage
(class A-B)
2 1 slightly bias the circuit to class C
3 4 reduce the amplifier operating frequency
4 5 increase the amplitude of the input signal
5 3 double the power supply voltage

- 79 -
Lesson B31: PUSH-PULL, COMPLEMENTARY SYMMETRY AMPLIFIER

Lesson B31: PUSH-PULL, COMPLEMENTARY SYMMETRY AMPLIFIER

OBJECTIVES
• Study of a class B, push-pull, complementary symmetry amplifier
• resistive divider with dual-voltage power supply
• biasing of a diode divider in a single voltage supply circuit
• power calculations and voltage gain measurement

EQUIPMENT REQUIRED

• base unit for the IPES system (power supply mod. PSU/EV, module
holder structure for modules mod. MU/EV), individual control unit
mod. SIS1/SIS2/SIS3
• experiment module mod. MCM5/ EV
• function generator
• oscilloscope and multimeter.

B31.1 BASIC THEORY

The typical diagram of a class B, push-pull, complementary symmetry

amplifier is shown in figure B31.1

It can be noted that the two transistors used are complementary (an
NPN and a PNP), and both are connected as emitter follower. The load
is driven by T1 during the positive half-cycles of the input signal, and
by T2 during the negative ones (figures B31.2a and B31.2b).

fig.B31.1

fig. B31.2a

fig. B31.2b

- 80 -
 Lesson B31: PUSH-PULL, COMPLEMENTARY SYMMETRY AMPLIFIER

Note that the input and output signals of the amplifier are in phase.
There is also considerable cross-over distortion.in this kind of amplifier,
like those seen in the last chapter,

The cross-over distortion is due to the fact that transistors T1 and T2

start conducting only when their voltage VBE reaches the conduction
threshold (0.7V). Conversely, they are cut-off when VBE falls below
0.7V.

To limit cross-over distortion, a base bias circuit is required, in order to

make the two transistors lightly conduct even in absence of signal.
Figure B31.3 shows an example of a bias circuit to reduce cross-over
distortion. The voltage VBE on the two transistors is kept at 0.7V
(threshold voltage) by the diodes D1-D2, which are hold in conduction
by resistors R1-R2.

fig. B31.3

Using a single battery as power supply

Just like the "single-ended" circuit seen before, a single battery can be
used for a complementary symmetry circuit, by connecting the load to a
large capacitor (figure B31.4).

fig. B31.4

- 81 -
Lesson B31: PUSH-PULL, COMPLEMENTARY SYMMETRY AMPLIFIER

B31.2 EXERCISES

 MCM5 Disconnect all jumpers

 SIS1 Turn all switches OFF

 SIS2 Insert lesson code: B31

Dual-voltage supply circuit

• Insert jumpers J58, J59, J61, J63, J70, J72, J73, J75, J76, and the
multimeter (function IDC) between terminals 18 and 19, to produce
the circuit of figure B31.5

fig. B31.5

• before connecting the input signal to the circuit, measure the voltages
VBE and VCE of both transistors, and the voltage across the output
load (resistance R47)

Q1 What is the operating state of the two transistors ?

SET
A B
1 5 transistor T9 is cut off, transistor T10 is in saturation
2 1 transistor T9 is in active zone, T10 is in saturation
3 4 transistor T9 is in saturation, T10 is cut off
4 3 both transistors are cut off
5 2 both transistors are in the active region

• adjusting trimmer RV12, set the voltage VCEQ of transistor T8 equal

to 12 V
• connect the function generator at terminal 16 and ground point with a
sine wave, 1 KHz and 1 Vpp (!! Note: terminal 17 is not Ground in
this circuit !!)

- 82 -
 Lesson B31: PUSH-PULL, COMPLEMENTARY SYMMETRY AMPLIFIER

• vary the amplitude of this input signal, and determine the saturation
limits of the first stage T8
• reduce the voltage of the input signal so that the first stage is not
saturating
• display the input and output signals of the amplifier on the
oscilloscope

Q2 What are the differences between the two signals?

SET
A B
1 5 the two signals are equal in amplitude and phase
2 1 the input signal has a higher amplitude than the output
3 4 the output signal is three times the frequency of the input
4 2 the output signal has a higher amplitude than the input, but has
cross-over distortion
5 3 the output signal goes to zero in the positive half-cycles of the
input signal

• From previous circuit, remove jumpers J70, J75 and insert J65, J67,
J69, so to produce the diagram of figure B31.6

fig. B31.6

• adjust RV12 to obtain a voltage VCEQ for transistor T8 of about 12 V

• adjust RV13 and RV14 to mid-position
• display the d.c. voltage across load R47 on the oscilloscope, and
observe the changes caused by adjusting trimmer RV13

Trimmer RV13 controls the transistor biasing, and allows to set the
d.c. output component in R47 to zero.

• Apply a sine wave input signal with 2Vpp-amplitude and 1KHz-

frequency
• check that adjustment of trimmers RV13 and RV14 produces
changes in the output signal

- 83 -
Lesson B31: PUSH-PULL, COMPLEMENTARY SYMMETRY AMPLIFIER

 SIS1 Turn switch SW8 ON

 SIS2 Press INS

Q3 Considering the change to the output signal, what is the possible

cause?

SET
A B
1 3 the collector and emitter of T8 are short-circuited
2 5 the base and emitter of T9 are short-circuited
3 1 the collector and emitter of T9 are short-circuited
4 2 C20 has been disconnected
5 4 the negative half-cycles on the load have a lower amplitude,
since the value of R46 has increased

 SIS1 Turn switch SW8 OFF

Single voltage supply: using diodes to remove cross-over distortion

• Set 0÷30V Vcc adjustable power supply to 24V.

• Remove all jumpers, insert J60, J62, J64, J66, J68, J71, J74, J77, to
produce the circuit of figure B31.7
• adjust RV12 to obtain a d.c. voltage of 10V at the transistor collector
T8
• check that the voltage between the common point of the two resistors
R45 and R46 and ground is about 10.7 V, i.e. the collector voltage of
transistor T8 plus the bias voltage VBE of transistor T10
• measure the voltage VCEQ of the transistors T9 and T10, and the
voltages across their emitter resistances, in order to calculate the
current flowing.

fig. B31.7

- 84 -
 Lesson B31: PUSH-PULL, COMPLEMENTARY SYMMETRY AMPLIFIER

Q4 From this data the operating state of transistors T9 and T10 can be
found :

SET
A B
1 4 T9 is cut-off, T10 is in saturation
2 3 T9 is saturated, T10 is cut-off
3 1 both transistors are cut off
4 2 both transistors are in saturation
5 5 both transistors are in the active zone

• connct the function generator at terminals 16 and 17 with a sine

wave, 1 KHz and 4Vpp
• check if the output is free from cross-over distortion

 SIS1 Turn switch SW11 ON

 SIS2 Press INS

Q5 What is the reason for the amplifier malfunction ?

SET
A B
1 5 the diode D1 is disconnected
2 3 the transistor T9 is disconnected
3 4 RV12 is short-circuited to ground
4 2 base and emitter of T8 are short-circuited
5 1 the power supply is missing in the circuit

 SIS1 Turn switch SW11 OFF

- 85 -
Lesson B31: PUSH-PULL, COMPLEMENTARY SYMMETRY AMPLIFIER

B31.3 SUMMARY QUESTIONS

Q6 The complementary symmetry differs from the Push-pull and Single-

ended circuit in that :

SET
A B
1 5 phase inverter circuit is not required
2 3 a phase inverter circuit is required
3 1 it can be used with one or two batteries
4 2 it provides much higher efficiencies
5 4 it has a wider frequency response

Q7 To produce a class B amplifier with a single voltage supply source, the

one essential element is :

SET
A B
1 3 a much smaller battery
2 5 a capacitor on the power supply
3 2 a capacitor in series with the output
4 1 no circuit modification is necessary
5 4 a diode in series with the bases of the transistor

Q8 How do the two final transistors operate, in a complementary symmetry

circuit?

SET
A B
1 6 they simultaneously conduct on the positive half-cycle
2 5 they simultaneously conduct in the negative half-cycle
3 1 they alternately conduct for one cycle
4 3 they only conduct if the input signal is added to a
positive signal
5 4 they conduct if the power supply voltage is lower than 2·VCEO
6 2 they conduct alternately, for one half cycle

- 86 -
 Lesson B32: CLASS C AMPLIFIERS

Lesson B32: CLASS C AMPLIFIERS

OBJECTIVES
• Amplification with resistive loads:
− analysis of the bias circuits
− inspection of the current wave-form in the load
− measurement of the conduction angles as a function of the biasing
• Amplification with tuned loads:
− calculation of the resonant frequency fo
− use as frequency multiplier

EQUIPMENT REQUIRED

• base unit for the IPES system (power supply mod. PSU/EV, module
holder structure for modules mod. MU/EV), individual control unit
mod. SIS1/SIS2/SIS3
• experiment module mod. MCM5/ EV
• function generator
• oscilloscope
• multimeter.

B32.1 BASIC THEORY

In class C amplifiers the transistor is biased in the cut-off region. With a

sine signal as input, the output will consist of pulses with duration less
than half a cycle (figure B32.1). The distortion introduced by this
situation is very high. The operation of an amplifier in class C is
decidedly non-linear.
Amplifiers in class C are mostly used with a resonant load, and around
the resonant frequency of this load. Their use is limited to high
frequency power amplification.

fig.B32.1

- 87 -
Lesson B32: CLASS C AMPLIFIERS

Operation

When a sine wave of voltage v(t) = VM·sin(ω·t), is connected to the

input of the amplifier, the current i(t) through the load RL is different
from zero in the conduction range T=t2-t1, which corresponds to a
conduction angle φ= φ2 - φ1, where φ = ω·T.

In a class C amplifier the angle φ is less than 180 degrees, and depends
on the transistor bias.

The class C amplifier does not dissipate power in static conditions

(ICQ=0), while the power dissipated in dynamic conditions depends on
the amplitude of the signal v(t) and the conduction angle. For these
reasons the efficiency of the class C amplifier is a function of the
conduction angle φ; reducing this angle, the efficiency increases, and
can take values approaching 100 %. Actually, we cannot reduce the
conduction angle φ too much, because the overall power decreases too.

The train of pulses constituting the load current i(t) represents a non-
sinusoidal, periodic function. The period of this function equals the
input signal period. Using a Fourier series, the load current can be
represented by an infinite sum of sine waves :

i(t) = ICQ + i1·sin(ω·t) + i2·sin(2·ω·t) +...

If a resonant circuit is used as load, tuned at an harmonic of the

fundamental, this amplifier can be used as frequency multiplier. Since
the amplitude of the higher harmonics falls rapidly as frequency
increases, the main amplification will be obtained at the fundamental
frequency, i.e. at f = ω / 2·π.

A class C amplifiers operate at very high efficiency, but is only used to

amplify a single frequency. It cannot be used for the linear
amplification. For these reasons, it is used with a resonant load to
extract the main frequency, or possibly one of its harmonics.

- 88 -
 Lesson B32: CLASS C AMPLIFIERS

B32.2 EXERCISES

 MCM5 Disconnect all jumpers

 SIS1 Turn all switches OFF

 SIS2 Insert lesson code: B32

Amplifier with resistive load

• Set 0÷30V Vcc adjustable power supply to 12V.

• Insert jumpers J1, J3, J10, J11, J15, J17, J26, to produce the circuit
of figure B32.2

fig. B32.2

• adjust RV3, and consider how the bias voltage on the base of
transistor T1 varies
• connect the function generator at terminals 1 and ground with a sine
wave, 20 KHz and 1Vpp
• reduce the frequency of the input signal, and check the resulting
signal on base of T1 with oscilloscope

Q1 How does the amplitude vary with frequency?

SET
A B
1 5 it remains constant
2 3 it is always zero
3 1 it decreases
4 2 it increases
5 4 it has a square-wave behavior

- 89 -
Lesson B32: CLASS C AMPLIFIERS

The inductance L1 separates the bias circuit, consisting of RV3 and R5,
from the ac input signal. In fact the impedance of an inductance is
proportional to frequency, so the higher the frequency, the higher will
be reactance of L1, and the better will be the separation. The capacitor
C4 is used to short-circuit any remaining signals across L1.
• adjust RV3 to set the voltage on the base of T1 to 0 V
• set the sine input signal to 20 KHz
• increase the amplitude of the input signal, observing the signal on the
collector of T1 and across R7
• in particular, analyze the case in which the positive peak of the input
voltage, applied across the base of T1, exceeds the threshold 0.6-0.7
V of the transistor

When the input voltage exceeds the transistor threshold voltage it

starts conducting, generating small voltage pulses across the
resistance R7. As the conduction angle is less smaller than 180
degrees, the amplifier is in class C

• adjust RV3 to negatively bias the base of T1 and check the behavior
of the voltage across R7

Q2 What happens to the output voltage on R7 as the base bias of T1 is

continuously reduced?

SET
A B
1 5 the peak amplitudes of the output signal increase
2 3 the amplitude of the output peaks decrease
3 1 the output signal frequency progressively increases
4 2 there is no output change
5 4 the phase shift between the input and output signal
progressively increases

• vary RV3, and note the conduction angle of the output signal

Q3 Comparing the conduction angles obtained with different bias

conditions, we can say that:

SET
A B
1 3 the conduction angle stays unchanged
2 1 the conduction angle increases when the voltage on the base
of T1 decreases
3 2 the conduction angle decreases when the voltage on the
base of T1 decreases

- 90 -
 Lesson B32: CLASS C AMPLIFIERS

Tuned load
• Remove jumper J17 and insert J16, to produce the circuit of figure
B32.3.
• adjust RV3 to obtain a base bias voltage of 0 V
• calculate the resonant frequency of the tuned circuit L2-C6, using the
relation fo = 1/(2·π·√ L·C) , if L2 = 4µH and C6 = 680nF
• apply a sine signal of 2Vpp-amplitude and frequency fo to the input
• examine the wave-form of the signal across R7 (proportional to the
current through the transistor) and also the signal on the collector
• adjust the input frequency to obtain the max. amplitude on the T1
collector ( terminal 3)

When the frequency of the input signal is equal to the resonant

frequency of the LC circuit, the output signal amplitude is max and
the waveform is nearly distortionless. The amplifier is said to be
tuned.

fig. B32.3

- 91 -
Lesson B32: CLASS C AMPLIFIERS

 SIS1 Turn switch SW5 ON

 SIS2 Press INS

Q4 Noting the change in amplifier operation , we can say that:

SET
A B
1 3 the tuned output circuit has been changed
2 5 the base bias has been changed
3 4 the resistance R7 has been reduced
4 1 the power supply voltage VCC has been decreased
5 2 the transistor T1 has been short-circuited between base and
collector

 SIS1 Turn SW5 OFF

• slowly decrease the input signal frequency, until it is halved, while

observing the behavior of the output signal on the T1 collector
(terminal 3)
• in particular, analyze what happens when the input frequency gets
near fo/2

As the frequency decreases, the amplitude of the output voltage slowly

drops. If fo/2 < f < fo, the output has a behavior which is not sinusoidal
anymore. Continuing to reduce the frequency, the second harmonic of
the input signal clearly appears.

As the output frequency in this case is double the input signal

frequency, the circuit can be used as frequency multiplier.

- 92 -
 Lesson B32: CLASS C AMPLIFIERS

B32.3 SUMMARY QUESTIONS

Q5 The operation in class C of an amplifier is characterized by conduction

angles:

SET
A B
1 5 greater than 180 degrees
2 1 equal to 180 degrees
3 2 less than 180 degrees
4 3 equal to 360 degrees
5 4 equal to 270 degrees

Q6 Class C amplification produces a signal distortion which is :

SET
A B
1 5 very small
2 1 very big
3 2 similar to the one produced by class A
4 3 similar to the one produced by class B
5 4 similar to the one produced by class AB

Q7 The efficiency of a class C amplifier :

SET
A B
1 2 depends on the conduction angle and takes very high values
on average
2 1 is always very low
3 4 is always equal to 1
4 5 is close to 25 %
5 3 is equal to 50 %

Q8 A tuned load in an amplifiers operating in class C can be used to

produce:

SET
A B
1 3 a frequency divider
2 1 a frequency multiplier
3 2 a half-wave rectifier
4 5 a voltage stabilizer
5 4 a current limiter

- 93 -
APPENDIX “A”: SYMBOLS USED

Appendix “A”: SYMBOLS USED

The following points sum up the notation used for the voltages and
currents.

1. The instantaneous values of the variables varying in time are

represented with small letters ("v" for the voltage and "i" for the
current)

2. the average value of the variables in time, or quantities which

remain constant, are represented by the corresponding capital
letters ("V" for the voltage and "I" for the current)

3. the terminals of a device are identified by the first capital letter of

the name of the terminal (B=Base; D=Drain, etc.)

4. the currents in a device have an index letter corresponding to the

terminal to which they refer to (e.g.: iB, IB, ib, Base currents; iD, ID,
id, Drain currents). The voltages between two terminals are
identified by the indexes indicating those terminals (e.g.: vbe, vBE,
VBE, - voltage between Base and Emitter)

5. the maximum value and the average value have the index in
capitals (e.g.: iB, IB for the currents; vBE, VBE for the voltages)

6. the index for ac, or incremental components is in small letters

(e.g.: ib for the currents; vbe for the voltages).

7. the power supply voltage is usually indicated by repeating the

capital index of the electrode to which it refers to, e.g. VCC
(although this symbol is sometimes used indiscriminately when
the power is applied to other terminals, such as the Drain or
Anode)

- 94 -
 Appendice “B”: DATA SHEETS

Appendix “B”: DATA SHEETS

• transistor NPN BC337

• transistor PNP BC327

95
Appendice “B”: DATA SHEETS
APPENDIX “B”: DATA SHEETS
APPENDIX “B”
APPENDIX “B”: DATA SHEETS
APPENDIX “B”
APPENDIX “B”: DATA SHEETS
APPENDIX “B”
APPENDIX “B”: DATA SHEETS
APPENDIX “B”
APPENDIX “B”: DATA SHEETS
APPENDIX “B”