POLICE MODERN SR. SEC.

SCHOOL

SESSION: 2023-24

PROJECT FILE
PHYSICS
OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS

SUBMITTED TO:- SUBMITTED BY:-

MR. HIMANSHU GUPTA ANUJ BHARDWAJ
 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that Anuj Bhardwaj of class XII in POLICE MODERN

SR. SEC. SCHOOL has completed the PRACTICAL FILE during the
academic year 2023-2024 towards fulfillment of credit of the
PHYSICS practical evaluation of CBSE and submitted satisfactory
report, as compiled in the following pages, under my supervision.

Internal Examiner Head of the Department

Signature Signature

External Examiner Principal

Signature Seal and Signature

 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I wish to express my deep sense of gratitude and

indebtedness to our learned teacher MR. HIMANSHU GUPTA,
Physics, POLICE MODERN SR. SEC. SCHOOL for his invaluable
help, advice and guidance in the preparation of this project.

I am also greatly indebted to our principal

Mrs. Richa Vashishth and school authorities for providing me
with facilities and requisite laboratory conditions for making this
practical file.

I also extend my thanks to much number of teachers, my

classmates and my friends who helped me to complete this
practical file successfully.

ANUJ
 INDEX

1. Optical Instruments

2. Types and Application of Optical Devices

A. Thin Lenses
B. Cameras
C. The Eye
D. The Magnifier
E. Microscopes and Telescopes

3. Conclusion
 OPTICAL INSTRUMENT

An optical instrument is a device that processes light waves (or

photons), either to enhance an image for viewing or to analyze and
determine their characteristic properties. Common examples include
periscopes, microscopes, telescopes, and cameras.
The first optical instruments were telescopes used for magnification of
distant images, and microscopes used for magnifying very tiny images.
Since the days of Galileo and Van Leeuwenhoek, these instruments
have been greatly improved and extended into other portions of the
electromagnetic spectrum. The binocular device is a generally compact
instrument for both eyes designed for mobile use. A camera could be
considered a type of optical instrument, with the pinhole camera and
camera obscura being very simple examples of such devices.
These are the gadgets that detect or improve an image’s characteristic
properties by processing light waves. We employ a range of optical
equipment in our daily lives.
Let’s discuss them in detail!
 APPLICATIONS OF OPTICAL DEVICES

A. Thin Lenses
The most familiar and widely used optical device is the lens. A
lens is an optical system with two refracting surfaces. The
simplest lens has two spherical surfaces close enough together
that we can neglect the distance between them (the thickness of
the lens); we call this a thin lens.
If you wear eyeglasses or contact lenses while reading, you are
viewing these words through a pair of thin lenses.
Let’s discuss the properties of Thin Lenses!
F1 and F2 are the first and second focal points of a converging thin lens. The numerical value of ‘f’ is
positive.
A lens of the shape shown in Figure in previous page has the
property that when a beam of rays parallel to the axis passes
through the lens, the rays converge to a point F2 (Figure. ‘a') and
form a real image at that point. Such a lens is called a converging
lens. Similarly, rays passing through point F1 emerge from the
lens as a beam of parallel rays (Figure. ‘b’). The points F1 and F2
are called the first and second focal points, and the distance f
(measured from the center of the lens) is called the focal length.
The central horizontal line in Figure is called the optic axis, as
with spherical mirrors. The centers of curvature of the two
spherical surfaces lie on and define the optic axis. The two focal
lengths in Figure, both labeled ‘f’ are always equal for a thin lens,
even when the two sides have different curvatures.

B. Cameras

KEY ELEMENTS OF A DIGITAL CAMERA

The concept of image, which is so central to understanding
simple mirror and lens systems, plays an equally important role
in the analysis of optical instruments (also called optical devices).
Among the most common optical devices are cameras, which
make an image of an object and record it either electronically or
on film. The basic elements of a camera are a light-tight box
(“camera” is a Latin word meaning “a room or enclosure”), a
converging lens, a shutter to open the lens for a prescribed length
of time, and a light-sensitive recording medium. In a digital
camera this is an electronic detector called a charge-coupled
device (CCD) array; in an older camera, this is photographic film.
The lens forms an inverted real image on the recording medium
of the object being photographed. High-quality camera lenses
have several elements, permitting partial correction of various
aberrations, including the dependence of index of refraction on
wave-length and the limitations imposed by the paraxial
approximation.

When the camera is in proper focus, the position of the recording

medium coincides with the position of the real image formed by
the lens. The resulting photograph will then be as sharp as
possible. With a converging lens, the image distance increases as
the object distance decreases (see Figs. a, b, and c). Hence in
“focusing” the camera, we move the lens closer to the film for a
distant object and farther from the film for a nearby object.
Camera Lenses: Focal Length
The choice of the focal length (f) for a camera lens depends on
the film size and the desired angle of view. Figures a, b and c
shows three photographs taken on 35-mm film with the same
camera at the same position, but with lenses of different focal
lengths.
A lens of long focal length, called a telephoto lens, gives a
small angle of view and a large image of a distant object (such
as the statue in Fig. c); a lens of short focal length gives a
small image and a wide angle of view (as in Fig. a) and is
called a wide-angle lens.
To understand this behavior, recall that the focal length is the
distance from the lens to the image when the object is
infinitely far away.
In general, for any object distance, using a lens of longer focal
length gives a greater image distance. This also increases the
height of the image; the ratio of the image height (y’) to the
object height y (the lateral magnification) is equal in absolute
value to the ratio of image distance (s’) to the object distance
(s).
Camera Lenses: f-Number
For the film to record the image properly, the total light energy
per unit area reaching the film (the “exposure”) must fall within
certain limits. This is controlled by the shutter and the lens
aperture. The shutter controls the time interval during which
light enters the lens. This is usually adjustable in steps
corresponding to factors of about 2, often from 1 s to 1/1000 s.
The intensity of light reaching the film is proportional to the area
viewed by the camera lens and to the effective area of the lens.
The size of the area that the lens “sees” is proportional to the
square of the angle of view of the lens, and so is roughly
proportional to 1/f 2. The effective area of the lens is controlled by
means of an adjustable lens aperture, or diaphragm, a nearly
circular hole with variable diameter D; hence the effective area is
proportional to D2 . Putting these factors together, we see that the
intensity of light reaching the film with a particular lens is
proportional to D2/f 2.
The light-gathering capability of a lens is commonly expressed by
photographers in terms of the ratio f/D, called the ƒ-number of
the lens:
Application
Inverting an Inverted Image
A camera lens makes an inverted image on the camera’s light-
sensitive electronic detector. The internal software of the camera
then inverts the image again so it appears the right way around
on the camera’s display. A similar thing happens with your
vision: The image formed on the retina of your eye is inverted,
but your brain’s “software” erects the image so you see the world
right-side up.

Zoom Lenses and Projectors

Many photographers use a zoom lens, which is not a single lens
but a complex collection of several lens elements that give a
continuously variable focal length, often over a range as great as
10 to 1. Zoom lenses give a range of image sizes of a given object.
It is an enormously complex problem in optical design to keep the
image in focus and maintain a constant f-number while the focal
length changes. When you vary the focal length of a typical zoom
lens, two groups of elements move within the lens and a
diaphragm opens and closes.
A projector for viewing slides, digital images, or motion pictures
operates very much like a camera in reverse. In a movie projector,
a lamp shines on the film, which acts as an object for the
projection lens. The lens forms a real, enlarged, inverted image of
the film on the projection screen. Because the image is inverted,
the film goes through the projector upside down so that the
image on the screen appears right-side up.
C. The Eye
The optical behavior of the eye is similar to that of a camera. The
essential parts of the human eye, considered as an optical system,
are shown in Fig.(a).

The eye is nearly spherical and about 2.5 cm in diameter. The

front portion is somewhat more sharply curved and is covered by
a tough, transparent membrane called the cornea. The region
behind the cornea contains a liquid called the aqueous humor.
Next comes the crystalline lens, a capsule containing a fibrous
jelly, hard at the center and progressively softer at the outer
portions. The crystalline lens is held in place by ligaments that
attach it to the ciliary muscle, which encircles it. Behind the lens,
the eye is filled with a thin watery jelly called the vitreous humor.
The indexes of refraction of both the aqueous humor and the
vitreous humor are about 1.336, nearly equal to that of water. The
crystalline lens, while not homogeneous, has an average index of
1.437. This is not very different from the indexes of the aqueous
and vitreous humors. As a result, most of the refraction of light
entering the eye occurs at the outer surface of the cornea.
Refraction at the cornea and the surfaces of the lens produces a
real image of the object being viewed.
This image is formed on the light-sensitive retina, lining the rear
inner surface of the eye. The retina plays the same role as the film
in a camera. The rods and cones in the retina act like an array of
miniature photocells (Fig. (b));

they sense the image and transmit it via the optic nerve to the
brain. Vision is most acute in a small central region called the
fovea centralis, about 0.25 mm in diameter.
In front of the lens is the iris. It contains an aperture with variable
diameter called the pupil, which opens and closes to adapt to
changing light intensity. The receptors of the retina also have
intensity adaptation mechanisms. For an object to be seen
sharply, the image must be formed exactly at the location of the
retina. The eye adjusts to different object distances s by changing
the focal length f of its lens; the lens-to-retina distance,
corresponding to s’ does not change. (Contrast this with focusing
a camera, in which the focal length is fixed and the lens-to-film
distance is changed.) For the normal eye, an object at infinity is
sharply focused when the ciliary muscle is relaxed.
To permit sharp imaging on the retina of closer objects, the
tension in the ciliary muscle surrounding the lens increases, the
ciliary muscle contracts, the lens bulges, and the radii of
curvature of its surfaces decrease; this decreases the focal length.
This process is called accommodation.
The extremes of the range over which distinct vision is possible
are known as the far point and the near point of the eye. The far
point of a normal eye is at infinity. The position of the near point
depends on the amount by which the ciliary muscle can increase
the curvature of the crystalline lens. The range of accommodation
gradually diminishes with age because the crystalline lens grows
throughout a person’s life (it is about 50% larger at age 60 than at
age 20) and the ciliary muscles are less able to distort a larger
lens. For this reason, the near point gradually recedes as one
grows older. This recession of the near point is called presbyopia.
For example, an average person 50 years of age cannot focus on
an object that is closer than about 40 cm. Table below shows the
approximate position of the near point for an average person at
various ages.
D. The Magnifier
The apparent size of an object is determined by the size of its image on
the retina. If the eye is unaided, this size depends on the
angle θ subtended by the object at the eye, called its angular size
(Fig. a). To look closely at a small object, such as an insect or a crystal,
you bring it close to your eye, making the subtended angle and the
retinal image as large as possible. But your eye cannot focus sharply
on objects that are closer than the near point, so the angular size of an
object is greatest (that is, it subtends the largest possible viewing
angle) when it is placed at the near point. In the following discussion
we will assume an average viewer for whom the near point is 25 cm
from the eye. A converging lens can be used to form a virtual image
that is larger and farther from the eye than the object itself, as shown
in (Fig. b). Then the object can be moved closer to the eye, and the
angular size of the image may be substantially larger than the angular
size of the object at 25 cm without the lens. A lens used in this way is
called a magnifier, otherwise known as a magnifying glass or a simple
magnifier. The virtual image is most comfortable to view when it is
placed at infinity, so that the ciliary muscle of the eye is relaxed; this
means that the object is placed at the focal point F1 of the magnifier.
In Fig.a the object is at the near point, where it subtends an angle
θ at the eye.
In Fig.b a magnifier in front of the eye forms an image at infinity,
and the angle subtended at the magnifier is θ’. The usefulness of
the magnifier is given by the ratio of the angle θ’ (with the
magnifier) to the angle θ (without the magnifier). This ratio is
called the angular magnification M:

CAUTION Angular magnification vs. lateral magnification

Don’t confuse the angular magnification M with the lateral
magnification m. Angular magnification is the ratio of the angular
size of an image to the angular size of the corresponding object;
lateral magnification refers to the ratio of the height of an image
to the height of the corresponding object. For the situation shown
in Fig.b, the angular magnification is about 3X since the
inchworm subtends an angle about three times larger than that in
Fig.a; hence the inchworm will look about three times larger to
the eye. The lateral magnification m = -s’/s in Fig.b is infinite
because the virtual image is at infinity, but that doesn’t mean that
the inchworm looks infinitely large through the magnifier! (That’s
why we didn’t attempt to draw an infinitely large inchworm in
Fig.b.) When dealing with a magnifier, M is useful but m is not.
D. Microscopes and Telescopes
Cameras, eyeglasses, and magnifiers use a single lens to form an
image. Two important optical devices that use two lenses are the
microscope and the telescope. In each device a primary lens, or
objective, forms a real image, and a second lens, or eyepiece, is
used as a magnifier to make an enlarged, virtual image.

Microscopes
When we need greater magnification than we can get with a
simple magnifier, the instrument that we usually use is the
microscope, sometimes called a compound microscope. The
essential elements of a microscope are shown in Fig. a. To analyze
this system, we use the principle that an image formed by one
optical element such as a lens or mirror can serve as the object for
a second element.
The object O to be viewed is placed just beyond the first focal
point F1 of the objective, a converging lens that forms a real and
enlarged image I (Fig. b).
In a properly designed instrument this image lies just inside the
first focal point F2 of a second converging lens called the eyepiece
or ocular.
The eyepiece acts as a simple magnifier, and forms a final virtual
image I′ of I. The position of I′ may be anywhere between the near
and far points of the eye. Both the objective and the eyepiece of an
actual microscope are highly corrected compound lenses with
several optical elements, but for simplicity we show them here as
simple thin lenses. As for a simple magnifier, what matters when
viewing through a microscope is the angular magnification M.
The overall angular magnification of the compound microscope is
the product of two factors. The first factor is the lateral
magnification m1 of the objective, which determines the linear
size of the real image I; the second factor is the angular
magnification M2 of the eyepiece, which relates the angular size
of the virtual image seen through the eyepiece to the angular size
that the real image I would have if you viewed it without the
eyepiece.
The angular magnification of a microscope can be increased by
using an objective of shorter focal length f1, thereby increasing
m1 and the size of the real image I. Most optical microscopes have
a rotating “turret” with three or more objectives of different focal
lengths so that the same object can be viewed at different
magnifications. The eyepiece should also have a short focal length
f2 to help to maximize the value of M. To use a microscope to take
a photograph (called a photomicrograph or micrograph), the
eyepiece is removed and a camera placed so that the real image I
falls on the camera’s electronic sensor or film. Figure c shows
such a photograph. In this case what matters is the lateral
magnification of the microscope.

Telescopes
Example:
The optical system of a telescope is similar to that of a compound
microscope. In both instruments the image formed by an objective
is viewed through an eyepiece.
The key difference is that the telescope is used to view large
objects at large distances and the microscope is used to view
small objects close at hand.
Another difference is that many telescopes use a curved mirror,
not a lens, as an objective.

Figure in previous page shows an astronomical telescope.

Because this telescope uses a lens as an objective, it is called a
refracting telescope or refractor.
The objective lens forms a real, reduced image I of the object. This
image is the object for the eyepiece lens, which forms an enlarged,
virtual image of I.
Objects that are viewed with a telescope are usually so far away
from the instrument that the first image I is formed very nearly at
the second focal point of the objective lens. If the final image I′
formed by the eyepiece is at infinity (for most comfortable
viewing by a normal eye), the first image must also be at the first
focal point of the eyepiece. The distance between objective and
eyepiece, which is the length of the telescope, is therefore the sum
of the focal lengths of objective and eyepiece, f1 + f2 .
When we use a telescope or binoculars—essentially a pair of
telescopes mounted side by side—to view objects on the earth,
though, we want the image to be right-side up. In prism
binoculars, this is accomplished by reflecting the light several
times along the path from the objective to the eyepiece. The
combined effect of the reflections is to flip the image both
horizontally and vertically. Binoculars are usually described by
two numbers separated by a multiplication sign, such as 7 X 50.
The first number is the angular magnification M, and the second
is the diameter of the objective lenses (in millimeters). The
diameter helps to determine the light-gathering capacity of the
objective lenses and thus the brightness of the image.

CONCLUSION
In this article, we learned about different optical
instruments. Human eye is the best example of an optical
instrument. There are other examples of optical instruments
such as lenses, microscope telescopes and many more.

THANK YOU!