Bachelors Course_MN 2001

Mine Development
R.M. Bishwal

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Learning Outcome
At the end of this course, you will be able to know:

• About mining industry (both Global & India) • Method of excavation/mine developments

• About key activities and operations in a mine • Understanding of drilling methods, machineries
(Surface & UG) and their usefulness

• Mining method selection & parameters • Basics of explosives and blasting

influencing the choice operation/mechanism

• What are the phases of mining operations & • About shaft Sinking operation (shaft vs
studies decline/incline)

• How deposits are accessed & parameters • Details on Mine Infrastructures

affecting their choice

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Course Content/Syllabus
Importance of Mining, What mining engineers actually do, Career in Mining Engineering and Life
Module 0 ahead. Type of mines, Introduction to key mining activities & operations, Some important mines
around the world and India.

Introduction: Distribution of mineral deposits in India and other countries, mining contributions to
Module 1
civilization, mining terminology.

Module 2 Stages in the life of the mine - prospecting, exploration, development, exploitation and reclamation.

Access to mineral deposit- type, selection, location, size and shape (incline, shaft and adit), brief
Module 3
overview of underground and surface mining methods.

Drilling: Types of drills, drilling methods, electric, pneumatic and hydraulic drills, drill steels and bits,
Module 4
drilling rigs, and jumbos.

Explosives: Classification, composition, properties and tests, fuses, detonators, blasting devices and
Module 5 accessories, substitutes for explosives, handling and storage, transportation of explosives.; Rock
blasting: Mechanism of rock blasting, blasting procedure, and pattern of shot holes.

Module 6 Shaft sinking: Ordinary and special methods, problems, and precautions, shaft supports and lining.

Module 7 Mine Infrastructure

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 Mining (through Images)

Exploration drilling program underway to assess A 3D ore body model with pit design on life of
the mineral deposit mine basis pit shell

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 Mining (through Images)

Exposure/Excavation of overburden material to A dumper used for production purpose in a

initiate opencast mining operation opencast Limestone mines

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 Mining (through Images)

A developed open pit with benched (KCMG An underground mines being planned below an
Superpit, Australia) exhausted openpit operation

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 Mining (through Images)

A shaft under construction to reach the ore A autonomous jumbo driller in underground
deposit at depth mines to excavate drifts

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Mining (through Images)

Massive open pit mining machineries and dumpers

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Importance of Mining

• Can you tell me a product in our surrounding that neither being built nor contain any
component of a downstream product of mining?

– Electronic Gadgets,

– Solar panels

– Wind Turbines

– Elon‟s Tesla/Solar city,

– Nuclear power plants,

– Paint, Jewelleries,

– Fertilizers, and so on.

– Or you can try….your Buildings, Sand, Cement, Medicine or Packaged Drinking Water !

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Importance of Mining
Take this (1) : Up to 26 different minerals are used in every smart phone. For instances, there are
an estimated billion iPhones in the world, containing around 7,800t of copper, 2,720t of nickel,
8,140t of silicon and 300t of titanium.

Take this (2): For construction of a 3 MW wind turbine, about 335 tonne of steel, 4.7
tonne of copper, 1200 tonnes of concrete, 3 tonne of aluminium, 2 tonne of rare earth
elements, zinc, etc. are used. .

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Importance of Mining
• Apart from those mentioned earlier, there is a huge contribution of mining to economy.

• For the sake of maintaining and developing a growing and flourishing society, majority of countries
across the globes has been involved with some for mining activity.

• Not only it provides a valuable commodity, as a process of resource utilization it generates

massive direct & indirect employment, community and infrastructure development, foreign
investment, dividends, and taxes.

• For example:

– Mining contributes to about

– 2.6% of India‟s GDP (2019 Data), 7.5% of South Africa‟s GDP

– 7 % Australia‟s GDP.

• It is literally impossible to imagine a life without these. Everything, almost everything you see
contains something that is extracted from nature earth buried at different depts. We call it Mining.

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Importance of Mining
• But, there has been a growing misconception that adaptation or promotion of so called clear
energy or renewable energy directly means elimination of mining.

• Just look at these headings:

Who Digs Solar and Wind Power? That's Right: Miners

https://www.nbcnews.com/science/environment/who-digs-solar-wind-power-thats-right-miners-
n283286
If You Want ‘Renewable Energy,’ Get Ready to Dig
https://www.wsj.com/articles/if-you-want-renewable-energy-get-ready-to-dig-11565045328

• Although there have in growing cases of closure of coal mines in many European countries
because cheap availability of renewable resources, for a country like India with 1.4 Billion
population, growing industrial demand, abundant coal resources and cheap workforce, coal
mining is here to stay at least for next 40-50 yrs.

• What about non-coal mining! Remember. It is impossible to sustain a life without mining.

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Indian Mining Industry

• India produces as many as 95 minerals, which includes 4 fuel, 10 metallic, 23 non-metallic, 3

atomic and 55 minor minerals (including building stones and other materials).

• India has large reserves of Coal, Iron ore, Bauxite, Chromium, Manganese ore, Baryte, Rare
earth and Mineral salts.

• India‟s ranking in 2017 in world production was 3rd in aluminium, steel (crude/liquid) & zinc (slab);
4th in chromite, iron ore, and lead (refined); 5th in bauxite, 6th in copper (refined), 7th in
manganese ore.

• Indian mining industry is characterized by a large number of small operational mines.

• The number of mines, which reported mineral production (excluding atomic, fuel and minor
minerals) in India, was 1405 in 2018-19.

• Out of 1405 reporting mines, most of the mines were reported in Madhya Pradesh followed by
Gujarat, Karnataka, Odisha, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Chhattisgarh, Rajasthan, Goa,
Maharashtra and Jharkhand.

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Indian Mining Industry

Mining Industry Structure & Overview (*Excluding atomic minerals, petroleum (crude), natural
gas (utilized) and minor minerals)

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Mineral Deposits in India

Mineral deposit map of India

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Mineral Deposits in India

Mineral deposit map of India

Mineral deposit map of India

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Mineral Deposits in India
Coalfields of India

List of Mines in India

(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_mines_in_India)

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Mining Industry Stakeholders

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Mining Industry Stakeholders

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 Some Basic Definitions
• Rock:

– It is a solid heterogeneous mixture of one or more

minerals, which may or may not be economic.

– For example, granite is a mixture of the minerals

quartz, feldspar, and biotite.

• Mineral: Rock (Ore when economic)

– It is a naturally occurring solid that has a crystalline

structure and a definite chemical formula.

– It is generally in solid form, the exceptions being

mercury, natural water, and fossil fuel.

– For example, gibbsite is a mineral of aluminium with

the formula Al(OH)3.

Copper high grade (Mineral)

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Some Basic Definitions
• Ore:

– A natural aggregation of one or more solid minerals that can be mined, processed and sold
at a profit.

– For example, bauxite is an aluminium ore. It is a heterogeneous mixture of various

aluminium minerals and other materials such as silica and iron oxides. The ores are then
refined to produce the concentrate/metals such as aluminium.

• In summary, rocks contain minerals, which in large concentration are called ores, and these are
mined to produce metal or concentrate.

• Cut-off Grade:

– It is the minimum economic assay grade of the mineral for a deposit below which the
mining operations become unviable in the present market dynamics or end use quality. It
may vary from deposit to deposit depending upon the market conditions.

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 Some Basic Definitions
• An ore deposit is a natural concentration of one or more metallic, non-metallic, and a combination of
minerals within the host rock.

– It has a definite three-dimensional shape/size based on economic criteria with finite quantity (tonnes)
and average quality (% grade).

– The shape varies according to the complex nature of the deposit such as layered, disseminated,
veined, folded, and deformed.

– It may be exposed on the surface or hidden below stony barren hills, agricultural soils, sand, rivers,
and forests.

– Ore deposits are rarely comprised of 100% ore-bearing minerals, but are usually associated with
rock-forming minerals during the mineralization process.

• Gangue Minerals: These associated minerals or rocks, having no significant or low commercial value, are
called gangue minerals. Pure chalcopyrite having 34.5% Cu metal in copper deposit and sphalerite with
67% Zn metal in zinc deposit are hosted by quartzite/mica schist and dolomite, respectively. The
constituent minerals of quartzite, mica schist, and dolomite are called the gangue minerals.

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 Some Basic Definitions
• Metallic ores:

– Those are ores of the ferrous metal (iron, manganese, molybdenum, and tungsten), the base metals
(copper, lead, zinc, and tin), the precious metals (gold, silver, the platinum group metals), and the
radioactive minerals (uranium, thorium, and radium).

• Non metallic minerals-(also known as industrial minerals):

– The non fuel mineral ores that is not associated with the production of metals. These include
phosphate, potash, halite, trona, sand, gravel, limestone, sulfur, and many others.

• Fossil fuels-(also known as mineral fuels):

– The organic mineral substances that can be utilized as fuels, such as coal, petroleum, natural gas,
methane, and tar sands.

• Mineral resource

– It is a concentration of potentially valuable material that naturally occurs in the earth that can potentially
be mined for economic profit. Whether it is worth extracting now or later may depend on the amount,
form, location, and quality of the material, a concept called geological confidence.

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 Some Basic Definitions
• Deleterious Substances:

– Metallic ore minerals are occasionally associated with undesired minerals that impose extra
processing costs, and even penalties on the finished product.

– Arsenic in nickel and copper concentrate, mercury in zinc concentrate, phosphorus in iron
concentrate, and calcite in uranium concentrate enforce financial penalties by a custom smelter for
damaging the plant.

– Similarly, extra acid leaching costs are required for processing limonite-coated quartz sand used in
the glass-making industry.

• Exploration:

– The search for a mineral deposit (prospecting) and the subsequent investigation of any deposit
found until an ore body, if such exists, has been established.

• Development

– Work done on a mineral deposit, after exploration has disclosed ore in sufficient quantity and
quality to justify extraction, in order to make the ore available for mining.

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 Some Basic Definitions
• Production:

– The mining of ores, and as required, the subsequent processing into products ready for marketing.

• Exploration information.

– Information that results from activities designed to locate economic deposits and to establish the size,
composition, shape and grade of these deposits.

– Exploration methods include geological, geochemical, and geophysical surveys, drill holes, trial pits
and surface underground openings.

• Ore reserve

– It is the part of the mineral resource that can be economically profitable to mine (i.e., there is enough
valuable metal to be worth removing it and extracting it from all of the surrounding rock).

– After a deposit has been identified as an inferred, indicated, or measured mineral resource, it is next
labeled as a “probable” or “proved” ore reserve.

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Phases of mining life cycle

• Mining is a process of excavation of any mineral or ore, which can be defined as the portion of a
mineral deposit that can be extracted economically (i.e. with profit).

• More elaborately, Mining is the process of excavation of economic ore deposits after exposing
the fresh ore blocks through mechanical excavation generating a direct waste called overburden
rock or development rock, and the ore upon beneficiation through stages of mineral processing
produces a readily usable material called concentrate with the rejection of processed wastes
called tailings.

• But, as we are just planning to start mining. How Should we approach ?

– Doing mining is not a Gambling!

– We don‟t directly jump into mining or mine development. Do we ? and why ?

– It is a step-by-step procedure, starting from evaluating each & every activities and/or
operation with respect to feasibility of mining operation.

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Phases of mining life cycle

The rule of Thumb is:

• The better you know the extent and nature of the deposit, better are the chances of proper
evaluation.

• Evaluating the financial aspects is easy, what difficult is how well you know the ore body, with
limited information available with varieties of uncertainties.

• We have to be first assured that whatever is in there is worth our investment in time, money &
resources.

• The level of this assurance to pour all of your money doesn‟t come at once. It is a iterative
process, as you gain more information on the nature & properties of the deposit, thereby
elimination some of the uncertainties, the confidence to invest or not to invest OR mine or not to
mine becomes more clearer.

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Phases of mining life cycle

• Before digging into the earth by taking a spade along with your overexcited chaps, you must ask
yourself the following questions:

– First you got the find the deposit and the commodity of interest ?

– Now have you, to a reasonably accuracy, been able to quantify the resources there, such as
its size (volume), quantity of recoverable minerals, grade, etc. just to begin with.

– Is it feasible to exploit the deposit technically and economically ?

– Have you have any idea about the cost involved, capital required ?

– Is there any possibility of getting a return on the investment ?

– Is there any associated legal, social or environmental obligation involved ?

• And, the answer to these questions brings us to the Phases of Mining and

Studies.

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Phases of mining life cycle
• In a life of the mining projects involves 4 stages:

1) Prospecting and Exploration,

2) Development;

3) Extraction, and

4) Closure/Reclamation

• This diagram below assumes that the deposit is already discovered and we have a rough or some
estimate about its nature & extend.

• The planning phase involves through evaluation of the deposit in terms of resource & reserve and
from economic point of view.

• The conclusion of planning phase will be the preparation of a feasibility report and planning
details. Based upon this, the decision will be made as to whether or not to proceed.

• If the decision is „go‟, then the development of the mine and concentrating facilities is undertaken.

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Phases of mining life cycle

Phase of mining project lifecycle (Source: Hustrulid)

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Phases of mining life cycle
Phases and activities during life of a mining project

• After completion of the prospecting and exploration stages, a feasibility study is performed to
formally determine whether it is economically worth developing the mineral deposit into a mine.
• A feasibility report is generated, in which factors such as production rate, operating costs,
income tax, etc. to calculate final rate of return.
• The mining organization can then make a decision about whether the project will be abandoned
or continued at this stage

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 Phases of Mineral Discovery
• Finding of any mineral deposit/reserve starts can be done:

1. In new barren area (Virgin discovery): Mainly a virgin discovery and subsequent levels of
mineral deposit quantification is done through a number of studies such as desktop study &
analysis following reconnaissance, prospecting & exploration. At the end of these two programs,
the geologists will be able to know the details of the mineral deposit parameters (extent, grade,
quality, quantity, orientation, etc.) to a level of accuracy depending upon the type and methods of
study employed.

2. In operational mines (Ongoing exploration): Typically for an underground mines, ongoing

exploration is a continuous process throughout the entire life of the mine to supplement the
reserve of depleted ore. Exploration continues during mine development and production. This is
primarily conducted by underground diamond drilling to enhance reserve down-dip in the strike
direction. The aim of the mine geologist is to delineate or find ore reserve that will increase the
life of the mine and continue mining operations. It also upgrades the category of reserve from
inferred or indicated category to proven.

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Phases of Mineral Exploration
Phase of Mineral Exploration

• The first stage in a very new program is to acquire information about the areas selected or the
area to be selected.

• Besides background information on geology, data on the occurrence of nearby mines and their
economic status are essential.

• This information are gathered based largely on published material but could also include
geological surveys maps, data & reports from department of mines, data from institutions and
consultants with particular expertise in the area concerned.

A. Reconnaissance or Grassroots exploration (G4),

B. Preliminary Exploration (G3),

C. General Exploration (G2) and

D. Detailed Exploration (G1).

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 Phases of Mineral Exploration
Stages of an
exploration project
(Modified from
Eimon 1988.)

In the course of finding and quantifying a mineral deposit, often a phase-by-phase is approached to
minimize the risk involved.

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 Phases of Mineral Exploration
• As the resources engaged (manpower, capital, time, etc.) may or may not result is a significant
economic discovery. Exploration can be divided into a number of interlinked and sequential stages
which involve increasing expenditure and decreasing risk.

• The discovery of a mineral occurrence or a deposit is characterized by a measureable quantity

and grade, which indicates an estimated amount of contained minerals or metals.

• The mineral explorer or exploration geologist must find the deposit first, and then engineers convert
theoretical resources into producible reserves.

• An uneconomic discovery now may become economic tomorrow, and vice versa. There are two types
of discovery: greenfield and brownfield.

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 Reconnaissance Or
Grassroot Exploration (G4)
Reconnaissance (G4)

• The aim of reconnaissance is to evaluate areas of interest highlighted in the desk study rapidly and to
generate other, previously unknown, targets preferably without taking out licenses.

• Reconnaissance identifies areas of enhanced mineral potential based primarily on results of regional
geological studies, regional geological mapping, airborne and indirect methods, preliminary field
inspection, as well as geological inference and extrapolation. The objective is to identify mineralised
areas worthy of further investigation towards deposit identification.

• For example, a considerable number of disseminated gold prospects have been found by helicopter
follow-up of Landsat data processed to highlight argillic alteration and siliceous caps in arid areas,
particularly in Chile.

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Reconnaissance Or
Grassroot Exploration (G4)

Remote sensing techniques to gather data on mineralogical occurrences

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 Prospecting (G3)
• In the earlier days, prospectors often with a team of geologists and chemists would explore a region
on foot or by using horses with hand drawn maps and some tools.

• Often they starts with tracing outcrops along with making some crude on-site observation based on
combination of physical & chemical properties (colour, texture, strength, hardness, smell, PH, etc.).

• Indirectly they used to find minerals through indications of host rock, traces in river streams, colour of
water, possibilities of geological continuity, among others.

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 Prospecting (G3)
Prospecting (G3)

• Prospecting is the process of searching promising region for mineral deposits identified during initial
desk study & reconnaissance. In the earliest stage, the most important work is finding signs of the
mineral in the locality or general indications. The objective is to increase definitive exploration for
developing geological confidence leading to further exploration.

• Prospecting means searching of minerals, and therefore, it is carried out first of all. Even if, a mineral
is found, the prospecting is continued till it gives enough information for the preliminary appraisal of
any mineral deposit; so that decision can be taken whether to carry out further exploration work or
not?

• The program starts by obtaining a prospecting license (PL) from the state/provincial/territorial
government within the framework of area and duration. PL is granted to conduct prospecting, general
exploration, and detailed exploration.

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 Prospecting (G3)
• Activities include mapping on a 1:50,000e1:25,000 scale, linking maps with a Universal Transversal
Mercator (UTM), lithology, structure, surface signature, analysis of history of mining, if it exists, ground
geophysics, geochemical orientation survey, sampling of rock/soil/debris of background and anomaly area,
pitting/ trenching, reverse circulation and diamond drilling depending on mineral type, core sampling,
petrographic and mineragraphic studies, borehole geophysical logging, and baseline environment.
Estimates of quantities are inferred, based on the interpretation of geological, geophysical, and
geochemical results.

– During this stage an attempt is made to establish some of these parameters:

– Area/location of the deposits and its shape

– Depth of deposits, dip and strike directions

– Thickness details

– Type of surrounding rocks i.e. as over burden, h/w, f/w.

– Grade, mineralogical and chemical composition

– Quantity and variation with respect to depth etc.

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 Preliminary/ General Exploration (G2)
Preliminary/ General Exploration (G2)

• General exploration is the initial delineation of an identified deposit. It is the systematic process of
searching for a mineral deposit by narrowing down areas of promising enhanced mineral potential.

• The objective is to establish the major geological features of a deposit, giving a reasonable indication
of continuity, and providing an estimate of size with high precision, shape, structure, and grade. The
estimates are in the Indicated and Inferred categories. The activity ends with preparation of broad
order of economic or prefeasibility or scoping studies

• Methods include mapping on a 1:25,000, 1:5000, or larger scale for narrowing down the drill interval
along the strike and depth, detailed sampling and analysis of primary and secondary commodities,
value-added trace and deleterious penalty elements, ~10% check sampling, analysis for quality
assurance/quality control, borehole geophysical survey, bulk sampling for laboratory and bench-scale
beneficiation tests, and recoveries and collection of geoenvironmental baseline parameters.

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Preliminary/ General Exploration (G2)

Exploration drilling to collect core or crushed sample at depth

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 Detailed Exploration (G1)
Detailed Exploration (G1)

• Detailed exploration is conducted before the start of the mining phase or mine development.

• It involves three dimensional delineation to outline contacts of the orebody, rock quality designation
(RQD) for mine stability, and planning and preparation of samples for pilot plant metallurgical test
work.

• The works envisaged are mapping at 1:5000 and 1:1000 scales, close space diamond drilling
(100×50, 50×50 m), borehole geophysics, a trial pit in case of surface mining, and subsurface entry
with mine development at one or more levels in case of underground mining.

• The sample data are adequate for conducting three dimensional geo-statistical orebody modeling
employing inhouse or commercial software for making due diligence reports.

• The reserves are categorized as Developed, Measured, Indicated, and Inferred with a high degree of
accuracy. The sum total of Developed, Measured, and Indicated reserves and investment decisions
are used for preparation of a bankable feasibility study report.

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Studies Required during Prospecting &
Exploration

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Finding a Ore deposit
In exploration, experts use several techniques to determine the possible size
and value of the mineral deposit discovered during prospecting.

Samples that are collected by drilling undergo various analyses by geologists

and metallurgists to determine the richness and extent of the mineral, both
vertically and horizontally.

Such analyses of geological confidence and technical and economic evaluation

allow experts to label the deposit as a “mineral resource” and/or an “ore reserve,”
to better establish the economic value of the deposit and to estimate mining costs.

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 Methods used during Prosecting &
Exploration
• Geophysical methods/studies/surveys

• Gravity surveys

• Electromagnetic surveys

• Electrical resistivity

• Magnetic surveys

• Seismic method

• Nuclear surveys

• Remote sensing

• Prospecting & Exploration drilling

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Geophysical Techniques

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 Geophysical methods
• Geophysics is the study of physics of the earth with regard to its physical properties, composition and
structure.

• In mineral exploration various physical properties of earth are measured by a variety of methods to
detect directly or indirectly areas which are anomalous as related to their surroundings (term anomaly
is defined as a statistically significant departure from the normal values).

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 Geophysical methods
• Survey may be carried out prior to, during and after prospecting drilling.

• This type of survey generally has two objectives: to cut the total exploration costs, and to ensure that
the prospecting drilling has the highest chance of success.

• More often than not, it is necessary to use a combination of two or more methods to acquire sufficient
data for a reliable interpretation.

• An interpretation of the geophysical survey results, together with geological and drilling data, can
provide a firm basis for deciding whether to continue or abandon an exploration project.

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 Seismic
• Seismic surveys are an extremely useful geophysical method for studying the ground conditions to a
significant depth and over a large area.

• The method operates by emitting a percussive force to the ground, producing seismic waves which
travel through the subsurface, reflecting back or refracting each time a structure of geological
boundary is encountered.

• Thus from this, the depth and shape of underground structures can be interpreted from seismic
profiles. The initial force can be generated by means of dropping a significant weight onto the ground
surface using a hammer-plate or buffalo gun.

• Refracted waves are detected by an array of geophones which are spaced at regular intervals. The
geophones record the time taken by direct waves, reflected waves and refracted waves and outputs
this data to a seismograph for processing so it can be interpreted for underground structures.
Analysing the time that the soundwaves take to return provides valuable information about rock
types and possible fluids in the rocks.

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Radiometric survey

• Also known as Gamma ray spectrometry are an airborne method which measures the amounts of
natural radiation produced at the Earth's surface.

• Radioactive uranium, thorium and potassium minerals occur naturally in rocks, producing
relatively high amounts of radiation which can be measured in contrast to the surrounding rocks.

• Due to gamma radiation only being able to penetrate several centimetres of earth/ground, the
radioactive materials must be present in outcrops to be detected. However, through atmosphere,
these rays can penetrate up to a couple of hundred metres, and so low-flying aircraft are useful in
this method for covering large regional areas.

• Because the energy of gamma radiation received is distinctive of the specific element, it can be
used to map uranium-thorium-potassium concentrations over wide areas.

• This in turn is used to infer rock types such as granite and zones within rocks that may have been
altered by metal-rich fluids passing through. It is extremely important to note that these surveys
measure levels of naturally occurring radiation in the rocks.

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 Magnetic Survey
• Certain rock-forming minerals have a naturally occurring magnetic property, which when surveying for
magnetism of the rocks, allows them to be identified beneath the surface. In particular these are the iron-
containing minerals magnetite and pyrrhotite.

• These are common constituents in volcanic metal sulphide deposits, and so may highlight an area of high
copper, lead or zinc concentrations.

• Magnetic surveys are conducted using equipment called a magnetometer, which can be operated
manually as a handheld version for geologists in the field, or attached to planes for larger regional
surveys.

• Magnetic surveys have several important uses outside of mineral exploration including archaeology and
locating steel and iron man-made structures beneath the surface, including looking for underground
mineshafts from historic mines.

• This method allows deep penetration and is unaffected by high electrical ground conductivities, making
them useful at sites with saline groundwater, clay or high levels of contamination where other geophysical
methods struggle.

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 Electromagnetic (EM) Survey
• EM surveys differ from magnetic surveys in that as opposed to relying on the signature of naturally high
intensity magnetic minerals, it induces an electromagnetic current into the ground and measures the
resulting field.

• Because it is not limited to the presence of magnetite and pyrrhotite, it is useful for exploring for a wide
range of metallic minerals, including important metals such as cobalt which is used in batteries for
renewable energy sources. .

• The EM system consists of a transmitter and receiver coil which is suspended above the ground. A
primary electromagnetic field is output by the transmission coil which induces a secondary field in the
ground – the magnitude of which is measured by the receiving coil which also measures the ratio between
the primary and secondary fields.

• The magnitude of the secondary field is proportional to the conductivity of the material and can be used to
detect signs of changes in rock type, potential mineralisation, groundwater, ground contamination and
buried metal man-made objects.

• Similar to magnetic surveys, EM is conducted on a grid of sampling points at set intervals.

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 Electrical Resistivity

• Electrical resistivity, also known as resistivity, is a bulk electric property of all material that shows how
strongly it opposes the flow of electric current. A low resistivity indicates a material that readily allows the
flow of electric current – i.e. it is conductive.

• Resistivity surveys can allow for imaging the subsurface of the Earth on both land and in water, with scans
in either 2D sections or 3D volumes of rock.

• It is used by applying a small and highly controlled electric current across an array of electrodes, and so
resistivity surveys are often coupled with induced polarisation surveys as the latter also make use of such
electrodes.

• Because of the conductive properties of various metal-bearing minerals, resistivity can be used in mineral
exploration for metallic ore bodies. However resistivity is an important method for many other studies
including geotechnical and groundwater exploration. For example, geologists can use resistivity imaging
to create a time-lapse of biological or hydrological events over time, to capture % change of dynamic
conditions e.g. examining how water discharges underground, or see how dangerous chemical spillages
are moving underground.

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Remote sensing

• Remote sensing: This includes aerial photography, side looking airborne radar (SLAR), false color
infrared (IR) photography, thermal IR photography, and multi special scanning from satellites or high
altitude aircraft.

• The use of such imagery is mainly to locate lineaments (distinct features) and their lengths and
orientations.

• The lineaments located by means of such techniques should be always checked on ground, as
there are many reasons for lineaments other than those associated with rock structure.

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Applicability of Geophysical methods

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 Trenches/Pitting
• Putting exploratory headings

• For this purpose prospecting or exploratory trenches, pits, adits and drives are driven. The type of entry
will depend upon the geometry and location of the deposit w.r.t. to surface datum.

• If the over burden is thin and dip is steep, trenches can be dug for exploration. Vertical pits can prospect
more gently dipping deposits with small over burden cover. Boreholes can prospect the flat and shallow
to deep-seated deposits.

• For the steeply dipping bedded deposits, some times pitting, cross cutting, driving and borehole drilling
are essential.

• Due to the uncertainty of projecting geological information obtained from surface mapping towards the
depth, excavation of adits or shafts may be required as part of the site investigation program.

• This is most relevant in very complex geology and/or when very detailed information of the rock mass
conditions are required. Sometimes, the main purpose may also be in-situ measurement (for instance of
rock stresses) or testing (e.g. the shear strength of discontinuities).

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Drilling

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Exploration Drilling in a mines

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 Exploration Practice in India
• GSI-The oldest of the organizations, set up in 1851. Central govt. organization shouldered exploration
activity in India.

• IBM- Primarily concerned with conservation and development of minerals in India.

• NMDC-For detailed exploration and development of metallic minerals deposits. Continues to be a premier
organization in India, in Iron ore and Diamond.

• MECL-Mineral Exploration Corporation Limited As an autonomous public sector enterprise with the prime
aim of bridging the time gap between discovery of a mineral prospect and exploration. This organization
carries out detailed exploration on both commercial and promotional basis.

• CMPDIL- Coal Mine Planning and Design Institute, an independent autonomous organization under CIL,
objective is to give advice on planning and designing of coal mines, and it also undertakes exploratory
drilling for other subsidiaries of CIL.

• In addition to these central and state govt organizations, there are scores of central and state govt U/Ts,
whose primary function is to exploit minerals, but which also carry out detailed exploration-cum-development
work. Private mining companies such as TISCO, JSPL etc. too have their own exploration activities.

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 Mining Project timeline: Example

• To put in the contexts: Read: Case Study: The Oyu Tolgoi Copper-Gold Discovery, Mongolia (https://www.visualcapitalist.com/visualizing-
the-life-cycle-of-a-mineral-discovery/)

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