The Particulate Nature of Matter

Matter:

Matter is defined as anything that has mass and takes space.

There are 3 states of matter:

∙ Solids
∙ Liquids
∙ Gases

Scientists have developed a model called the kinetic theory, which explains how solids, liquids and
gases behave.

Some of its main points are:

∙ All matter is made up of very small particles.

∙ The particles are moving all the time.
∙ Heavier particles move more slowly than lighter particles at the same temperature.

The particles also attract each other when close, but these attractions are weakened when the particles
are far apart.

The 3 states of matter also show different properties:

∙ Solids:
- Volume: Has a fixed volume. Not affected by changing
pressure.
- Density: High density compared to liquids and gases of
the same element.
- Shape: Has definite shape.
- Does not flow.

∙ Liquids:
- Volume: Has a fixed volume, with a slight effect of
pressure on it.
- Density: Moderate to high.
- Shape: No definite shape, takes the shape of the
container.
- It is a fluid; can flow.

∙ Gases:
- Volume: No fixed volume, expands to fill the
conatiner.
- Density: Low.
- Shape: No definite shape.
- It is a fluid; can flow.

These also show differences in how they respond to a change of pressure or temperature:

Generally, all shoe an increase in volume when the temperature is increase. They decrease in volume
when their temperatures are lowered.

But they have different magnitudes of expansion:

Gases Ammount of expansion
Liquids INCREASES UPWARDS
Solids

The kinetic theory explanation of thermal expansion:

“When, for example, a steel bar is heated, its particles speed up. They vibrate more and more, taking
more space. As they do, they take up more space, so the bar expands in all directions slightly.

If the temperature falls, the reverse happens.”

They also show differneces in their responds to pressure changes:

The volume of the gas at a fixed temperature can be easily reduced by increasing the pressure on the
gas.

This is because the intermolecular space between the particles is huge, and so the particles can be
easily brought together by decreasing the size of their container (appling pressure).

Liquids on the other hand can only be slightly compressed, because they have very small intermolecular
spaces between the particles.

Solid’s volumes are unaffected by changing atmospheric pressure on them.

Changes in physical states of substances: Gas

e

p
 Liquid
Solid
∙
m
Evapouration and condensation:
e

These happen between a liquid and a gas. The change of a liquid into a gas is called evapouration.
Condenstation is the reverse. These happen on a range of tempertures.

∙ Boiling:
This takes place at a specific temperature called a boiling point. It is the rapis change of a liquid into a
gas at a certain temperature.
The boiling point of a substance decreases if the pressure decreases. Impurities in the liquid can
increase the boiling point.

∙ Melting and freezing:

These happen at a particular temperature called the melting/freezing point. Melting is the change of
solid into a liquid and freezing is the reverse. Impurities in the solid/liquid can decrease the melting
point.

∙ Sublimation:
A few solids like carbon dioxide and iodine, do not melt when heated, but change directly into a gas.
This also happens at a specific temperature.
Pure and impure substances:

A pure substance consists of one substance only. There is nothing else in it – it has no contaminating
impurities.

A pure substance melts and boils at definite temperatures.

An impure substance (that has impurities in it) like sea water has salts and other impurities dissolved in
it. This make the sea water have a lower melting point and a higher boiling point.

Types of mixtures:

There are 2 ways in which mixtures can be formed between 2 substances:

1. Homogeneous mixtures, where the substance are totally mixed together and are indistinguisable,
e.g. salt dissolved in water.

There are many mixtures that are homogeneous:

∙ Solution of a soluble solid in a liquid
∙ Solution of 2 miscible liquids
∙ Solution of a gas in a liquid
∙ Mixture of a gas in a gas
∙ Alloy of two metals

2. Hetrogeneous mixtures, where the substances remain seperated and one substance is spread
throughout the other as small particles, droplets or bubbles, e.g. suspensions of insoluble solids in
water.

Some of these mixtures are:

∙ Suspension of a solid in a liquid
∙ Gel
∙ Emulsion of 2 immiscible liquids
∙ Aeorsol of either a liquid or a solid in a gas
∙ Foam of a gas in a liquid
∙ Solid foam of a gas in a solid
Diffusion:

It is the spreading out of particles in a liquid or a gas, which is cause by the random movement of
particles.

It is also the movement of particles from a region of higher concentration to a region of lower
concentration.

Diffusion in liquids is much slower than in gases.

Diffusion in liquids is also called dissolving.

e.g. Copper (II) Sulphate crystals in water:

A copper 2 sulphate cyrstal is put in water beaker. It is then left to stand. At first the water next to the
crystal becomes blue as the solid dissolves.
Particles move off the surface of the crystal.

Eventually the crystal dissolves completely and the whole solution become blue. The particles of the
crystal have spread out evenly in the liquid.

Diffusion in gases:

e.g.1 When a few drops of liquid bromine are put in gas jar and the lid is placed, the gas jar soon gets
fully brown.

Bromine vapourises easily and fills all the available space completely.

e.g.2 Not all gases diffuse at the same rate, ammonia and hydrochloric acid put in cotton wool on either
side of a closed glass tubing create some smoke near to the cotton wool soaked in HCl, as shown:
Mr NH3 = 14 + 1x3 = 17 (Ammonia)

Mr HCl = 1 + 35.5 = 36.5 (Hydrochloric Acid)

This shows that HCl molecules are heavier than NH3 molecules.
Factors affecting the rate of diffusion:
Experimental techniques
2.1 Measurement

Apparatus used in the lab:

Name Use Picture Beaker Used to hold liquids

Burette Used to add accurate

volumes of liquid

Conical Flask Used to hold liquids

Crystallizing dish Holds solutions

evapourating into
 crystals
Flat bottomed flask Used to
hold

liquids which don’t

require
heating

Filter funnel Used to

separate solids
from liquids

Condenser Used to condense vapours

Measuring cylinder Used to

measure
approximate volumes
 of a liquid
Clock Used to measure

time in experiments

Pipette Used to dispense an

accurate
volume of
liquid,
can
measure
volumes of 10ml to
25ml
flask
Used for heating
liquids evenly

Round bottomed

Spatula Used to handle small amounts of a

solid
Tap funnel Used to add a
 controlled volume of
a liquid

Tripod Used as a stand for flasks and

beakers
during heating

Test tube Used to hold liquids

while
being
mixed.
Boiling tube Used to hold
liquids
while it
is being
heated.

Dropping Pipette Used to collect a small

amount of
liquid and drop the
collect liquid as drops.
Gas syringe Used
to collect gases
emitted from
reactions. Can also
measure the volume
of gas collected.

Digital Balance

Used to measure the

mass of solids or
liquids in grams or
kilograms
2.2

(a) Criteria of purity

Chromatography:

Chromatography is used to separate several substances dissolved in a solution. A drop of

the solution is placed on the origin line at the bottom of a chromatography paper.
 The
different solutes in the solution move up the paper with the solvent, but at different
speeds. A solute, which is very soluble in the solvent, travels through the paper faster than
a solute, which is only slightly soluble.

When the solvent reaches the top of the paper, the process is stopped. Different solutes
will have traveled different distances. The result is a chromatogram.

Chromatography is only suitable for separating very small quantities. It is not only used to
determine what a mixture consists of, but it is also used as a purity test. A single pure
substance will produce only one spot.

Chromatography was originally devised to separate coloured substances in solution. It can

also be used to separate colourless substances, which can be seen by spraying the filter
paper by a suitable chemical called a locating agent, which colours the spots produced.

A chromatogram can be made of some known pure substances and one unknown. The
positions of the different components of the unknown substance can be compared to those
of the known substances. The figure below shows how results can be obtained by this
method.
Testing for purity:

Testing for purity of many substances such as foodstuffs and drugs can be carried by either
one of two methods:
1. By making a chromatogram for the substance. A single pure substance will produce only
one spot.

2. By measuring the melting point or the boiling point of the substance. Pure substances
have their own fixed melting & boiling points.

(b) Methods of purification

1) Filtration:

This method is used to separate:

- A solid from a liquid
- An insoluble solid from a soluble one. The soluble solid is dissolved and can be
removed by evapouration
Filtration is carried out by pouring the mixture through the filter paper. The liquid that goes
through is called the filtrate; the solid that remains behind is the residue. To obtain the
pure sample of the soluble solid the filtrate is evapourated.

Decantation
It is an alternative method in which the solid is left to settle. Then the liquid is poured
leaving the solid behind.
2) Evapouration:

This evapouration is used to recover a solute form its solution. For example, to recover NaCl
from sea water, sea water is boiled so that water is released as a vapour and NaCl is left in
the evapourating basin.
The solution is boiled so that the liquid is released as a gas and the solid is left in the
evapourating basin.

Crystallization
It is an alternative method to recover a solute from its solution. The solution is evapourated
to the crystallization point, i.e. the point at which crystals of the solute will form on cooling,
which can filtered out, washed and dried.
3) Distillation

This method is used to recover a solvent from a solution e.g. getting pure water from sea
water. Distillation involves boiling followed by condensation. When the flask is heated the
solution boils and steam passes into the condenser where it is cooled by cold water passing
through the outer condenser tube. The steam condenses and the distillate (distilled water)
collects in the receiver. The salts (impurities) are left in the flask.
4) Sublimation:

Sublimation is used to separate a mixture of two substances where only one of the
two substances sublimes.

For example, if a mixture- of ammonium chloride and sodium chloride is heated, the
ammonium chloride turns directly to vapour (sublimes) but the sodium chloride remains
unchanged. When the vapour is cooled, solid ammonium chloride collects free from sodium
chloride.
5) Fractional distillation:

This method is used to separate a mixture of miscible liquids with different boiling points.
e.g. a mixture of ethanol (78°C) and water (100°C).
The mixture in the flask is heated so that it boils. Both ethanol vapour and water vapour go
up the fractionating column until the vapour of water (the liquid with higher boiling point
100°C) condenses in the fractionating column and drips back into the flask, while the
vapour of alcohol (the liquid with lower boiling point 78°C) reaches the top of the column
and distils over and is collected first.

Important applications of fractional distillation

a. The separation of liquid air into oxygen and nitrogen.
b. The separation of crude oil (petroleum) into useful fractions.
c. The separation of fermented liquor into alcohol and water.
If the liquids are immiscible (such as a mixture of oil and water) they can be separated using
a tap funnel.
 Atoms, elements and compounds
3.1 Atomic structure and the periodic table

All elements are made up of atoms. An atom is the smallest part of an element than can
retain the properties of that element. The atom consists of a minute heavy nucleus of
protons and neutrons and a surrounding region of space containing fast moving electrons.
Particles Charge Mass
Proton (p) + 1u
Neutron (n) 0 1u

Electron (e-) - 1/1836 (negligible)

Because the atom is electrically neutral, the protons in any atom equal the number of
electrons.

Atomic (proton) # and Mass (nuclear) #:

Atomic number is the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom.

Mass number is the number of protons + neutrons in the nucleus of an

atom.
Isotopes:

Isotopes are atoms of the same element having the same proton number but different
mass number. In other words, it is an atom having the same number of protons but
different number of electrons.

E.g. Hydrogen’s isotopes:

Hydrogen Deuterium Tritium

e= 1 1 1 n= 0 1 2 p= 1 1 1
The isotopes of an element have different physical properties but because they all have the
same electron configuration, their chemical reactions are the same.

Radioactive isotopes:

Radioactive isotopes have unstable nuclei. Unstable nuclei are particularly those of heavy
elements, such as uranium and radium. Some light elements also have a little number of
naturally occurring radioactive isotopes. Most artificial isotopes are radioactive.

Radioactive isotopes eject alpha and beta particles from their nuclei, so that they can
become more stable. They are often accompanied by a release of energy in the form of
gamma rays.

Uses of radioactive isotopes:

Medical uses:

1. Treatment of cancer by subjecting cancerous tumour to controlled amounts of gamma

rays from a cobalt-60 source.

2. Sterilizing medical equipment using gamma rays.

Industrial uses:

1. Controlling the thickness of paper, rubber, metal and plastic accurately.

2. The energy produced by radioactive fission of uranium-235, is used within a nuclear

power station to produce electricity.

Electron configuration:
 1. Electrons move rapidly around the nucleus in energy levels or shells.

2. These shells from the nucleus outward are:

KLMNOPQ
No. of shell (n) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

3. The number of electrons that can b held by a certain shell = 2n2

K Shell 2 x 12= 2e

L Shell 2 x 22= 8e

M Shell 2 x 32= 18e

N Shell 2 x 42= 32e

4. The outermost shell cannot hold more than 8 electrons, except the first shell, which can
hold up to 2 electrons only.

5. When 8 electrons are in the third shell, there is a degree of stability and the next 2
electrons added go into the fourth shell. Then the extra electrons enter the third energy
level until it contains a maximum of 18 electrons.

6. The electron configuration is written to show the number of electrons present in each
shell.

7. The electrons in the outermost shell (valence electrons) are the only involved in the
chemical reactions and therefore determine how reactive the atom is and also its valency.
Group I (one) II (two) III (three) IV(four) V (five) VI (six) VII (seven) 0

Valency 1 2 3 4 3 2 1 0

8. When an atom reacts, it tries to have a full outer shell:

- Noble or inert gases all have full outer shell, which makes it difficult for them to gain or
lose electrons. They are therefore unreactive.

- Other elements are reactive because they do not have full outer shells:

∙ Atoms of metals with a nearly empty outer shell, lose electrons and so become
positive ions.
E.g. Na (2.8.1) –e-= Na+(2.8)
∙ Atoms of non-metals with a nearly full shell, gain electrons and so become
negative ions.
 E.g. Cl (2.8.7) + e-= Cl-(2.8.8)
3.2 Bonding – the structure of matter

Elements, compound and mixtures

Pure substances are either elements or compounds.

An element is a substance, which cannot be broken chemically into a simpler substance.

There are over 105 elements, most of them are metals.

Elements can be classified as metals, non-metals, or metalloids. There are only 22 non
metals.

Some elements such as silicon (Si) have both metallic and non-metallic properties and are
known as metalloids.

A comparison between metals and non-metals

Metals Non-metals
- All are solids except mercury - Solids, gases and one liquid (bromine) -
- Have high melting points except Have low melting points except carbon
alkali metals and silicon
Shiny - Dull
- Malleable and ductile (can be beaten - Brittle
into sheets and drawn into wires)
- Good conductors of heat and electricity - Bad conductors of heat and
electricity except graphite

Compounds are pure substances, which consists of two or more elements chemically
combined.

The properties of the compound are completely different from those of its elements.

Mixtures are impure substances containing two or more compounds (elements and/or
compounds) mixed together, not chemically combined. Its components can be easily
separated by physical methods such as filtration, distillation and crystallization.

Mixtures are either clear and in one phase or cloudy and in more than one phase
(suspensions)

The substances making up a solution are often solute and solvent.

The solute is the part of the solution that is dissolved, while the solvent is the part that
does the dissolving.
A saturated solution is a solution, which has as much solute dissolved in it as is possible at
that temperature.
Solubility is the maximum mass of solute that will dissolve in 100g of the solvent at a stated
temperature. For most solutes, solubility increases with temperature. It follows that when a
saturated solution is cooled the solution can hold less solute at the lower temperature.
Some solute comes out of the solution; it crystallizes.

Alloys:

An alloy is a mixture of a metal with other elements especially metals.

It is made by weighing out correctly the different constituents and melting them together.

Steel is the most important alloy. It is an alloy of iron and about 1% carbon.

Brass is an alloy of 80% copper and 20% zinc. It is harder than copper, does not corrode and
is easily worked. It is often used for ornaments and picture frames.

Some examples are:

Alloy Typical composition Particular
properties
Brass copper 70% Harder than
pure copper;
zinc 30% gold
coloured

Bronze copper 90% Harder than

pure copper
tin 10%
Mild Steel iron 99.7% Stronger and
harder than pure
carbon 00.3% iron

Stainless Steel iron 70% Harder than

pure iron; does
chromium 20% not rust
nickel 10%
Solder tin 50% lower melting
point than either
lead 50% tin or
lead

3.2 (a) Ions and ionic bonds

Ionic bonding involves complete transfer of elements from a metallic atom to a non
metallic atom.
An ion is a charged particle formed by the loss or gain of electrons. A cation is a positive ion
and an anion is a negative ion.

Ionic bond is the electrostatic forces of attraction between two oppositely charged ions
Electrovalency is the number of electrons lost or gained by an atom.

Properties of ionic compounds:

1. Have high melting and boiling points because the bonds between positive
and negative ions are strong and therefore a large amount of energy is needed
to break them.

2. Usually soluble in water (a polar solvent) but insoluble in organic (non-polar)

solvents such as ethanol and petrol. (If they do not dissolve in water it is often
because they have very high lattice energy).

3. Conduct electricity when molten or dissolved in water because ions ar free

to move towards the electrodes.

Examples of ionic compounds:

1. Sodium Chloride (NaCl):

- A sodium atom has an electronic configuration of 2.8.1

- A chlorine atom has an electronic configuration of 2.8.7
- Sodium atom loses one electron to form Na+ion, and chlorine gains one
electron to form Cl Ion.
 - The oppositely charged ions are held
together by strong electrostatic attraction
called ionic bond. Sodium chloride formed
is an ionic compound.
- Ionic compounds tend to form
crystals. A crystal of an ionic compound is a
regular arrangement of a great number of
alternating negative and positive ions.
2. Magnesium oxide (MgO):

- One atom of magnesium, Mg (2.8.2), gives 2 electrons to one atom of oxygen, O (2.6) -
The ions Mg2+ and O2-are formed. The electrostatic attraction between them is an ionic
bond.

3.2 (b) Molecules and covalent compounds

Covalent bonding involves sharing of electrons between non-metallic atoms. By sharing all
the bonded atoms gain a full outer shell of electrons and the particle they form is a covalent
compound.

Single covalent bonds:

In a single covalent bong, one pair of electrons is shared between the two atoms. One
electron comes from each of the two atoms.

A single covalent bond is the force of attraction between a shared [pair of electrons and the
nuclei of the two bonded atoms.

Hydrogen

Water (Hydrogen oxide)

Double covalent bonds:

In double covalent bond two pairs of electrons are shared between the two atoms. Two
electrons come from each of the two atoms.

A double covalent bond is the force of attraction between 2 shared pairs of electrons and
the nuclei of the two bonded atoms.

e.g. carbon dioxide

Oxygen
Triple covalent bonds:

In a triple covalent bond three pairs of electrons

are shared between the two atoms. Three
electrons come from each of the 2 atoms.

Triple covalent bonds are the force of attraction

between three shared pairs of electrons and the
nuclei
of the two bonded atoms.
A covalent bond is the forces of attraction
between the shared pairs of electrons and
the nuclei of the two bonded atoms.

Covalency is the number of electrons which an atom shares when a bond is

formed. Properties of covalent compounds:

∙ May be a solid, a liquid or a gas.

∙ Solids are not very hard and have low melting and boiling points because the
forces of attraction between the molecules are very weak.
∙ Do not dissolve in water (a polar solvent) but dissolve in organic solvent (non
polar) solvents.
∙ Do not conduct electricity because there are no free electrons to carry the

charge. 3.2 (c) Macromolecules

1. Diamond

∙ Diamond is a macromolecular solid in which each carbon atom is covalently

bonded to four other carbon atoms terahedrally.
∙ It has very high melting and boiling points and is very hard, the hardest
substance known, and is mainly used in cutting and drilling equipment
because all the atoms in the lattice are bonded together by rigid strong
covalent bonds.
∙ It does not conduct electricity because there are no free electrons in the
lattice structure to conduct electric charge.
2. Graphite
∙ Graphite has a layer structure. In each layer, each carbon atom is covalently bonded to
other three carbon atoms. The remaining electron from each carbon atom is
delocalized between the layers. It is these free electrons which allow graphite to
conduct electricity.
∙ Since the bonds between the layers in graphite are very weak, the layers can slide past
each other giving graphite its slippery feel and the ability of being used as a lubricant.

The broken lines show the weak bonds and the lines show the strong bonds.

3. Silicon (IV) oxide

∙ Silicon dioxide is a macromolecular solid in which each silicon atom is covalently
bonded with 4 other oxygen atoms and each oxygen atom to 2 silicon atoms in such a
way that each silicon atom is at the centre of a regular tetrahedron of oxygen atoms.
∙ This structure is similar to the macromolecular structure of diamond. ∙ Silicon
dioxide is hard has a high melting point and does not conduct electricity.
3.2 (d) Metallic bonding

Atoms of a metal can form lattices. All metal lattices consist of a close packed arrangement
of positive ions, which are surrounded by a sea of delocalized electrons that bind the ions
together.

Definition of lattice: a regular three-dimensional arrangement of atoms, molecules or ions

in a crystalline solid.

Properties of metals:

∙ Metals generally have high densities because thee ions are close packed in the lattice ∙
Metals generally have high melting and boiling points because of the strong metallic
bonds holding the lattice.
∙ Metals are good conductors of heat and electricity, because the delocalized electrons
are free to move through the lattice.
∙ Metallic bond is the force of attraction between two positive metal ions and the
delocalized electrons in the lattice between them.
Moles
Mole:
The amount of substance that contains exactly the same number of
particle(atoms, molecules, ions) as the number of atoms in 12g of carbon-12.

Important:
1. The mass of one mole of a substance is numerically equal to it’s atomic mass
or molecular mass.
2. For example, mass of one mole of hydrogen is:
🡺 Hydrogen consists of 2 hydrogen atoms. (H2)
🡺 The molecular mass of one hydrogen atom is 1.
🡺 Therefore, the mass of one mole of hydrogen gas is 2x1=2g 3. Mass of one
mole of oxygen is 32g
4. Mass of one mole of magnesium is 24g
5. To find the mass of one mole water:
🡺 A molecule of water consists of 2 hydrogen atoms and 1 oxygen atoms.
🡺 The composition of water is H2O
🡺 Mass of 1 mole of 2 hydrogen atoms is 2g and mass of 1 mole of and oxygen
atom is 16g
🡺 Thus, the mass of one mole of water is 18g.
6. Mass of 1 mole of sulphuric acid is(H2SO4 98g
7. Mass of 1 mole of sodium chloride(NaCl) is 58.5g

Molar mass:
Mass in grams of 1 mol of a substance is called its molar mass.
Formula:
Moles x Molar mass= Mass (g)

Formula for converting moles to number of particles No. of particles= No. of

moles x 6x1023 (Avogadro’s Constant).

Molar gas volume:

The volume of 1 mole of a gas in dm3 (Cubic decimeter) Formula:
Moles x Molar gas volume=Volume of gas in dm3
One mole of each gas has a volume of 24 dm3at room temperature.

Questions:
Q1: State the number of moles.
I. 90g of water
II. 100g of calcium
III. 14g of iron(II)oxide
Q2: State the mass of:
I. 1.5mol of sulphuric acid
II. 0.5mol of nitrogen dioxide
III. 0.1mol of calcium carbonate

Percentage Composition:
Percentage composition refers to the percentage of the mass of 1 particular
atom in its compound. For example, the percentage composition of sulphur in
sulphur dioxide (SO2) is 50%.

How to calculate Percentage composition?

Example: sulphur dioxide.
Mass of 1 mole of sulphur is 32g where as mass of
1 mole of oxygen is 16. Total mass of sulphur
dioxide is:
32+ (16x2) =64g
Percentage of sulphur= 32/64 x100% =50%
Percentage of Oxygen= (16x2)/64x100%=50%

Questions:
Q3: Calculate the percentage composition of:
I. Methane
II. Sodium hydroxide
III. Magnesium nitrate
Empirical Formula:
Empirical formula gives simplest numerical ratio in which atoms of different
elements combine to form a compound.
Molecular Formula:
A molecular formula gives the actual number of atoms of each element that
form a molecule.
Examples:

No. Name of compound Molecular formula Empirical formula 1

Benzene C6H6 CH 2 Ethane C2H6 CH3 3 Ethene C2H4 CH2 4 Methane
CH4 CH4 5 Glucose C6H1206 CH20 6 Ammonia NH3 NH3 7 Water H20 H2O
8 Sulphuric acid H2SO4 H2SO4 9 Sucrose C12H22011 C12H22011 10 Ethanoic
acid CH3COOH CH20

How to calculate empirical formula if percentage is given?

Q: Magnesium nitrate in which 72% is magnesium combines with nitrogen. Find
the simplest formula.
Magnesium Nitrogen

Percentage 72 100-72=28

Molar mass 24 14

Moles 72 =3 28 =2
24 14

*Empirical formula is Mg3N2

Steps:
I. Calculate the percentage of an element in the compound.
II. Divide the percentage by that element’s molar mass to obtain the number of
moles.
III. Number of moles of an element shows its number of atoms in empirical
formula.
How to calculate empirical formula if mass is given?
Q: 0.8g of methane contains 0.6g of Carbon. Calculate the empirical formula.
Carbon Hydrogen

Mass 0.6 0.8-0.6=0.2

Molar mass 12 1

Moles 0.6 =0.05 0.2 =0.2

12 1

Mole Ratio 1 0.2/0.05=4

*Empirical formula is CH4

Tip:
IV. In case of given mass divide it by the molar mass to get moles V. When
moles are attained in decimals then obtain the ratio of the moles of the
elements present in the compound.

Questions
Q4: Find the empirical formula of:
I. Silicon oxide given that 6g of the oxide contains 2.8g of silicon II. Iron
bromide if 0.378g of iron reacts with bromine to form 2g of compound.
III. Hydrated Calcium sulphate (CaSO4) contains 21% water. Work out the
empirical formula.

Calculations from equations

Now this is a difficult method to understand. From this method we calculate
moles, mass or volume of one of the products/reactants. This method uses
different types of relationship. Well! Just focus on what I am about to tell you.
Q: Hydrogen is burned to form water. When 1.5g of hydrogen is burned
calculate: 1. Mass of water
2. Mass of oxygen
Sol: First form an equation for this reaction
2H2 + O2 = 2H2O
Mass of hydrogen is given! Find the mass of water
Now form a ratio:
Compound H2 H2O
 Molar mass 2g 36g

Mass 1.5g X

Form a ratio:
2/1.5 = 36/x
Solve the ratio!
2X=36x1.5
X=27g (Correct answer as given in by book)
Now we have to find the mass of oxygen in a similar manner
Compound H2 (Take any of the O2
compound whose mass in
known)

Molar mass 2g 32g

Mass 1.5g X

Solve!
2/1.5g=32/X
2X=1.5x32
X=24g
Q: What moles of iron are obtained form the reduction of 3mol of the
oxide? Sol: Equation of reaction.
Fe2O3 + 3CO = 2Fe + 3CO2
Form a ratio. Note that now it asks for ‘MOLES’ therefore, we will form a ratio
according to the moles of equation.
Notice that the co-efficient of Iron oxide is 1 there fore it has 1 mole as
stated by the equation. Similarly, the co-efficient of Iron is 2 there for it has
2 moles in the equation. Form a ratio:
Compound Fe Fe2O3

Moles in equation 2 1

Moles in actual X 3

Solve!
2/X = 1/3
X=2/3 moles
I made this question. It is not authentic but was just to make you understand
that how to solve a problem asking for moles of a substance.
Q: What mass of aluminum is required to react with dry chlorine gas to
make 20 moles of anhydrous aluminum chloride?
Sol: Note that it has now asked mass but has given the number of moles in the
question. First form an equation.
2Al + 3Cl2 = 2AlCl3
Now notice we have to find the mass so then convert the number of moles into
mass of aluminum chloride.
Use the formula: Moles x Molar mass = Mass
20 = X/267
X= 5340 grams
Form a ratio
Compound AlCl3 Al

Molar mass 267 54

Mass 5340 X

Solve!
267/5340=54/X
X= 1080g
There fore mass of Aluminum is 1080 grams.
Q: A mixture of 60 cm3 methane and 100 cm3oxygen is ignited in a close
container. If all the products are gases what is the volume composition of
there resulting mixture.
Now first form an equation: CH4 (g) + 2O2 (g) = CO2 (g) + 2H2O (g) Notice that all
the products and reactants are gases. Focus on the method to solve this
problem.
Methane in the equation has 1 mole, oxygen has 2 moles, Carbon dioxide has 1
mole and water has 2 moles. Now we have to recognize that which reactant is in
excess.
Methane has 1 mole and 60 cm3of volume where as oxygen has 2 moles and its
volume is 100 cm3
So, 1 moles of oxygen has 50 cm3of volume and this makes equal number of
moles for both Methane and oxygen which makes it clear that 50 cm3of
Methane is required; therefore, Methane is 10 cm3excess!
In the equation 1 mole of gas has a volume of 50 cm3. As stated by equation
there is 1 mole of carbon dioxide which makes it Volume to be 50 cm3and 2
moles of water which makes its volume to be 100 cm3
The Composition of the resulting mixture:
10 cm3of Methane
100 cm3of Water
50 cm3 of carbon dioxide
Q: Calculate the volume of carbon dioxide given off at room temperature, when 0.9g of
glucose ferments. C6H12O16 (s) = 2C2H5OH (aq) + 2CO2 (g)
Sol: Note that all the reactants and products are not gases so we cannot apply the formula in
previous questions. So we will first find the mass of carbon dioxide and then convert it into
volume.

Compound C6H12O6 CO2

Molar mass 180 44

Mass 0.9g X

Solve!
180/0.9 = 44/X
X = 0.22g
Convert mass into volume.
Moles of carbon dioxide = 0.22/ 44
= 0.005 x 2 mol (In equation carbon dioxide has 2 co-efficient and has 2 moles).
0.01 = Volume/24000
Volume = 240 cm3

Q: When 6.4g of copper were heated in air 7.6g of copper (II) oxide, CuO, were obtained
2Cu (s) + O2 (g) = 2CuO:
(a) Calculate the mass of copper (II) oxide that would be formed.
(b) Calculate the PERCENTAGE YIELD that was actually obtained.
Sol: In part a find the mass of CuO
Compound Cu CuO

Molar mass 128 (Copper has 2 as co-efficient) 160

Mass 6.4 X

Solve: 128/6.4 = 160/X

X = 8g, there fore 8 g of CuO is formed but in question it is given 7.6 g of CuO was formed.
What is the confusion? It is revealed in part (b).
Now the formula of finding percentage yield is:
Percentage Yield = (Actual yield/Theoretical yield) x 100%
Actual yield refers to that of given in the question and theoretical yield refers to that of we
calculated in question by using theory formula.
Now observe,
Percentage yield = (7.6/8.0) x 100%
= 95%
Q: A 0.68g of impure zinc was reacted with excess hydrochloric acid and
hydrogen formed collected in a gas syringe. Hydrogen collected measured
240 cm3 at room temperature. Calculate:
(i) The mass of pure zinc that reacted with acid (ii) Percentage purity of
the sample of zinc.
Form and equation: Zn + 2HCl = ZnCl2 + H2
Now first convert the volume of HCl into mass
Mole = 240/24000
Moles of HCl = 0.01 moles
0.01= mass/36.5
Mass= 0.365g
Form ratio
Compound HCl Zn

Molar mass 36.5 65

Mass 0.365 X

Solve!
36.5/0.365 = 65/X
X= 0.65g
Now how to calculate Percentage purity:
 Formula for percentage purity is:
Percentage purity = (Theoretical yield/total mass) x 100% = (0.65/0.68) x 100%
=95.6%
Molar Concentration:
The moles of solute per unit volume of solution.
Formula:
Concentration = Moles of solute/Volume of solution (dm3)

OR
Concentration = Mass of solute (g)/ [Molar mass x volume of solution (dm3)]

Q: Calculate the concentration of 30g of Ethanoic acid, C2H4O2 in 500

cm3of solution.
Convert 500 cm3into dm3
500/1000 = 0.5 dm3
Apply to formula:
Concentration= 30/ (0.5 x 60)
Concentration = 1 mol/dm3

Hope you understand!

Electricity and Chemistry conduct electricity such as distilled water. Weak

Electrochemistry: electrolyte:

It is a branch of chemistry that deals with the A poor conductor of electricity, because it is only
reactions involving the conversion of chemical partially ionized. (E.g. ethanoic acid) Strong
energy into electrical energy and vice-versa.
electrolyte:
Electrochemical reactions:
It is a good conductor of electricity because it is
A chemical reaction which takes place when completely ionized.
electricity flows through the substance. (E.g. potassium chromate, sulphuric acid)
Electrolysis: Conductors:
The decomposition of an ionic compound A conductor is a substance that conducts
(molten or aqueous) by electricity is called electricity but is not chemically changed in the
electrolysis. process.
The liquid that decomposes is called the (E.g. carbon, metals and alloys)
electrolyte.
Insulators:
Non-electrolyte is any substance that does not
Solid covalent non-metals don’t conduct
electricity as there are no electrons that can Electrodes: Carbon (graphite) or platinum
carry electricity as they are involved in bonding.

Some insulators include all non-metals (except Reactions:

silicon and such) and plastics. - At anode (Positive electrode):

2 Br--2e = Br2

- At cathode (Negative electrode):

Page | 33
Electrolysis of molten salts using inert Pb2+ + 2e-= Pb
electrodes:

The electrolysis of molten salts is comparatively - Net reaction:

easy to understand because only one of type of
positive ion (cation) and negative ion (anion) is PbBr2 = Pb + Br2 which is molten Pb at the
present. cathode and Bromine gas at anode.

Molten salts are elctroysed into their elements; a

metal is produced at the cathode and a
Page | 34
non-metal is produced at the anode.

Electrolysis of molten lead (II) bromide PbBr2:

Electrolyte: Lead (II) bromide

Page |
35
Cations (Positive) The ease Anions (Negative)
K of discharge SO42-

Na NO3-
INCREASES
Ca OH
downwards
Mg CL

H Br

Cu I-

Ag

Electrolysis of aqueous electrolytes

In the electrolysis of aqueous solutions there will always be a few H+ions and OH
ions from water.
 These may be discharged at the electrodes instead of the ions of the electrolyte.
This table shows the ease of discharge of ions:

1) Electrolysis of Concentrated hydrochloric acid

Electrolyte: Concentrated Hydrochloric acid

Electrodes: Graphite electrodes
Ions present: H+ and Cl
Cathode reaction:
2H++ 2e-= H2 (A colourless gas is produced at the cathode which burns with a pop)
Anode reaction:
2Cl-- 2e-= Cl2 (A yellow gas is produced at the anode which bleaches litmus paper)
This apparatus is used:
Electrolyte: Sodium Chloride (NaCl)
2) Electrolysis of
Electrodes: Platinum electrodes

Page | 36

concentrated Sodium Chloride (Brine)

 Na Cl
+

H+ OH-

Ions present:
Cathode reaction:
Here H+is more easily discharged than Na+so Hydrogen gas is produced.
2H++ 2e-= H2
Anode reaction:
Here Cl- is more easily discharged that OH- so Chlorine gas is
produced. 2Cl-- 2e-= Cl2

Net reaction:

NaCl(aq) = NaOH + H2 + Cl2

Page |
37
3) Electrolysis of copper(II) sulphate with:
a) Graphite electrodes:
Cathode:
Cu2+ + 2e-= Cu
Anode:
4OH-= 2H20 + O2 + 4e
This electrolysis produces Copper at the cathode and oxygen at the anode.

Page |
38

b) Copper electrodes (Purifying impure copper)

Metals can be refined or purified by electrolysis. The impure metal forms the anode and the
pure metal forms the cathode. The electrolyte is an aqueous metal salt.
In the purification of copper, impure copper is used as the anode and a thin sheet of pure
copper is used as the cathode.
The following reaction occurs:
At anode, the copper is ionized (becomes an ion):
Cu -2e-= Cu2+
At the cathode, the copper ion is unionized, which produces solid copper on the cathode:
Cu2+ +2e-= Cu

As electrolysis takes place the pure copper sheet gains mass and the anode (impure copper)
loses mass and the impurities are deposited under the anode in the container.

This means that the copper ions had left the impure copper side and joined the pure copper
side.

The colour of the copper (II) sulphate solution does not change as the concentration of
copper ions in the solution does not change.

This is done on large scale and is the way how impure copper is purified.

Page |
39

Electroplating of metals:
Electrolysis can be used to form a very thin coating of a metal on the surface of another
metal object. This can be used for decorative purposes or for protection against corrosion.

If for example an object made of copper is to be silver plated, the object is made to be the
cathode, a piece of silver is the anode and silver (II) sulphate solution is the electrolyte.

Anode reaction:

Ag –e-= Ag+(aq)
Cathode reaction:

Ag++ e-= Ag

Uses of electroplating:
∙ To give a protective layer of the metal on the strip of metal M
object. This also happens when galvanizing with ∙ The object to be plated has to be very clean
zinc. with no grease or smudges on it ∙ The object has
∙ To give an attractive layer, e.g. electroplating to be rotated in the electrolyte so an even layer
steel with chromium gives it a shiny appearance of the metal M can be plated over it.
and a protective anti-scratch layer. The steel also
has to be electroplated with layers of copper The manufacture of aluminium:
and nickel before it is electroplated with The method used to extract the metal form its
chromium. ore depends on the position of the metal in the
Conditions for electroplating an object with a reactivity series. If the metal is high up in the
metal M: series, its ores are stable and can be only be
obtained by electrolysis.
∙ The object must be made the CATHODE
∙ The electrolyte must be a solution of salt of Aluminium is extracted from bauxite (Al2O3) by
metal M (commonly a nitrate) ∙ The anode is a electrolysis. However, bauxite has a very high
melting point but can be dissolved in molten Other types of cell use either a flowing mercury
cryolite at 900 degrees Celsius. In other words, cathode, or a diaphragm (partition) made from
the cryolite is used to lower the melting point of asbestos.
bauxite.
The membrane cell has a titanium anode and a
nickel cathode. Titanium is chosen for the anode
as it is not attacked by chlorine. The anode and
cathode compartments are separated by an ion
exchange membrane. This membrane is
selective; it allows Na+ ions and water to flow
through, but no other ions. This means that,
while Na+ ions can move freely to the cathode,
the products are kept separate and cannot react
with each other. The Na+ and OH- ions collect in
the cathode compartment.

Cathode reaction:

4 Al3+ + 12 e-= 4 Al

Page | 40
Anode reaction:

6 O2-= 3O2 + 12 e
Carbon dioxide is also produced from this
reaction. It is produced from the carbon
electrodes burning in the heat and oxygen
produced.
The electrolysis of water:
Manufacture of sodium hydroxide from brine
(Conc. NaCl):

Several different types of electrolytic cell have

been used for the electrolysis of brine. The
Page | 41
modern membrane cell is the safest for the
environment and uses the least electricity.

Page |
 42

Pure water is a very poor conductor of electricity. However it can be made to decompose if
some dilute sulphuric acid is added.

A Hoffmann voltameter can be used to keep the gases produced separate.

After some time the volume of the gas in each arm can be measured and tested. The gas
collected in the anode is oxygen gas, while the one collected at the cathode is hydrogen.

The ratio of the volumes is 1:2

This experiment is effectively the electrolysis of water:

∙ At the anode:

Hydroxide ions from the water are attracted and become oxygen gas:

4OH-(aq) = O2 (g) + 2H2O (l) + 4e-

∙ At the cathode:

Four hydrogen ions pick up these 4 electrons to form TWO molecules of hydrogen
gas

2H+ (aq)+ 2e-= H2(g)

This apparatus can also be used in the electrolysis of concentrated hydrochloric acid, where
the products are hydrogen at the cathode and chlorine at the anode.
Why are copper and other metals used as wires? is a very good conductor of electricity.

Copper and other metals have free electrons in The wires are steel-cored to make them stronger.
their lattices that can carry the electrical charge
from one end of the metal to the other.

Aluminium steel-cored wires are used to

transmit very high voltages of electricity on
pylons from power stations to industries,
factories, homes and offices, because aluminium
 Page | 43

Chemical changes
6.1 Energetics of a reaction

All chemical reactions involve an energy change. Energy is taken in or given out in the form
of heat. So the reactions are divided into 2 groups – Exothermic and Endothermic.

All exothermic reactions release heat energy to the surroundings.

Reactants = Products + Heat energy

The chemical energy of the reactants is bigger than the chemical energy of the products.
The difference is transferred to the surroundings in the form of heat energy.

Reactants
Energy (Kj) Products Progress of reaction 🡺
Heat given out

This is an energy level diagram.

An endothermic reaction absorbs energy from the surrounding.

Reactants + Heat energy = Products

 The chemical energy of the reactants is smaller than the products, so this difference in
energy is transferred from the surrounding to the chemicals.

Products
Energy (Kj)

Heat taken in

Reactants
Progress of reaction 🡺

An energy level diagram for an endothermic reaction.

For a reaction to be exothermic, the total energy taken in to break the bonds should be less
than the energy given out when forming the bond.

For a reaction to be endothermic, the total energy taken in to break the bonds should be
more than the energy given out when the bonds are formed.

So in conclusion, bond breaking is endothermic and bond forming is

exothermic. e.g. H2 + Cl2 🡺 2HCl

∙ Bonds present:
H-H and Cl-Cl
These 2 bonds at first have to be broken.
The H-H bond needs 436 kJ/mol to be broken.
The Cl-Cl bond needs 242 kJ/mol to be broken
So total energy need to break the bonds = 436 + 242 = 678 kJ
∙ Bonds to be made:
2x H-Cl
These bonds release 431 kJ/mol when made.
So total energy released = 431 x 2 = 862 kJ/mol.

678-862= -184 Kj/mol

The – sign indicates that the reaction was exothermic, as energy was released.
The hydrogen and chlorine reaction is actually explosive, which obviously show that the
reaction is exothermic.
e.g. 2, the decomposition of ammonia:

If ammonia is heated strongly the following reaction occurs:

2NH3 🡺 N2 + 3H2

∙ Bonds present:
6x N-H
The energy needed to break these bonds = 391 kJ/mol x6 = 2346 kJ/mol

∙ Bonds to be made:
3x H-H
N≡N
H-H bond releases 436 kJ/mol
N≡N bond releases 946 kJ/mol
Total = 3(436) + 946 = 2254 kJ/mol

2346 – 2254 = 92 kJ/mol

This shows that this reaction is endothermic as the energy released is less than the energy
taken in.

6.2 Production of energy

∙ Production of heat energy by burning fuels:

The most common way of producing heat energy is by burning of fossil fuels. Heat
energy and then electrical energy is then produced from this energy in power
stations.

e.g. Methane (natural gas) being burnt:

CH4 + 4O2 🡪 2CO2 + 2H2O + (ENERGY)

∙ Hydrogen as a fuel:
The combustion of hydrogen is highly exothermic.
It is used as rocket fuel, in experimental vehicles and in fuel cells.
Advantages:
- It is the most energy rich fuel. It releases more energy per kg than any other
conventional fuel.
- The only product of combustion is water, no pollutants are formed.
- Oxides of nitrogen are not formed.

H2 + O2 🡪 H2O + (ENERGY)
∙ Nuclear reactions:
Energy is released in nuclear reactions. This nuclear energy can be released in an
explosive and controlled manner.

- Fission (splitting of uranium-235)

It was used in the atom bomb. If the nuclear energy from the fission of the U-235 is
released in a safe regulated manner, it can be used to produce electrical energy in
nuclear power stations.

-Fusion (joining together)

The fusion of the hydrogen nuclei is the source of energy in the hydrogen bomb. The
sun obtains its energy from the fusion of the hydrogen atoms.
It is also how the sun gets its heat!
∙ Electrolytic cells

Metals and solutions of their own salts can be used to generate electricity. If the above
experiment is set up, a bulb will glow showing that electricity has been produced in the
zinc and copper half-cells.

Zinc is higher than copper in the reactivity series, so is the producer of electrons at THE
CATHODE. The copper takes the electrons at THE ANODE.

The reactions are:

CATHODE (-) Zn(s) = Zn2+(aq) + 2e-(OXIDATION LOSS OF ELECTRONS)

ANODE (+) Cu2+(aq) + 2e-= Cu (REDUCTION GAIN IN ELECTRONS)

Although zinc/copper is used here as the example, you can get electricity from any pair
of metals set up in a diagram like the one shown above.

The amount of electricity produced depends on the position of the metals in the
reactivity series. The rule is:

THE FURTHER APART THE METALS ARE IN THE REACTIVITY SERIES – THE MORE
ELECTRICITY WILL BE PRODUCED.
∙ Hydrogen fuel cells

In a fuel cell there are 2 electrodes usually containing platinum. An electrolyte of

aqueous sodium hydroxide and the reactants which are continuously supplied
through the electrodes supplies electrical energy continuously.

At the negative electrode hydrogen is supplied. The molecules lose electrons and
form ions in the electrolyte.

H2 🡺 2H++2e

The electrons move through the external circuit to the positive electrode to which O2
is supplied

O2 + H2O +4e- 🡺 4OH

The ions react to produce water

H++ OH- 🡺 H2O

The overall reaction is 2H2 + O2 🡺 2H2O

 Chemical reactions
7.1 Speed of reaction

Some reactions are very fast, e.g. the formation of silver chloride precipitate when silver
nitrate and silver chloride solutions are mixed. Other reactions are very slow, e.g. the
rusting of iron.

Factors affecting speed of reactions:

∙ Particle size (surface area)

∙ Concentration
∙ Temperature
∙ Presence of catalyst
∙ Light

Measuring the speed of a reaction that produces a gas:

Take for example the reaction between magnesium and excess dilute hydrochloric acid.

The speed of the reaction can be followed by measuring the volume of gas evolved over a
period of time using the apparatus below:
The flask is divided into 2 compartments. The acid is put into one compartment and the
metal into the other. The reactants are separated whilst setting the apparatus so that the
starting time of the reaction can be accurately determined. When the flask is tipped up, the
reactants mix and start producing the gas. The gas pushes its way out of into the syringe;
the plunger of the syringe is forced back. Readings of the volume are taken every minute,
using the scale marked on the side of the syringe.
The reaction is much faster at the start: 12 cm3 are produced during the first minute, but
only 3 cm3 during the fifth minute (33 cm3 – 30 cm3 = 3 cm3).

Notice that the curve is steepest at the start: after nine minutes it has gone completely flat.
That means that the reaction is complete.
The collision theory:

The collision theory is the most common one used to explain the facts concerning the
speed of reactions.

The two main statements of this theory are:

∙ Particles must collide before they can react.

∙ The colliding particles must contain enough energy to cause bonds to break.

Effect of particle size (surface area):

The effect of particle size can be examined by doing 2 experiments, A and B. The
experiment using the divided flask can be done with calcium carbonate and acid. HCl

of the same concentration is added in excess to:

∙ Powdered marble in A
∙ Marble chips in B

1. Curve A is steeper than curve B showing that the reaction was faster in case of powdered
marble. This explains why mixtures of air and coal dust in mines sometimes explode.

2. 40 cm3of CO2 were produced in both the two experiments: in 1.5 minutes in A, but in 5.5
minutes in B.

Conclusion:

The speed of a reaction increases with increase of the surface area of a solid reactant.

This is because a reaction can only take place at the surface of a solid. Breaking a solid into
smaller pieces increases its surface area, allowing more collisions with other reactants.

This also results in explosions in flour mills and coal mines where flour and coal are
powdered and the surface area in contact with air is huge.

Effect of concentration:
The effect of concentration can be examined by doing 2 experiments A and B. Hydrochloric
acid of different concentrations (1 M in A and 0.5 M in B) is added in excess of equal masses
of Magnesium ribbon (e.g. 0.06 g)

The acid in B is twice as

concentrated as in A. Both
sets of results are shown on
the same graph.

1. Curve A is steeper than

curve B showing that the
reaction is faster in the case of 1 M acid.

2. 60 cm3 of hydrogen was produced in both experiments: in 60 seconds in A, but in 120

seconds in B.

Conclusion:

The speed of the reaction increases with the increase of the concentration of the
reactants.

Reason:

This is because increasing the concentration of reactants increases the number of particles
in a given volume and so increases the number of collisions between the reactants which
means an increase in successful collisions.

Effect of temperature:

The speed of the reaction increases with an increase of temperature.

A rise of 10 degrees C approximately doubles the speed of the reaction.

Reason:

This is because increasing the temperature makes the particles move faster and increase
the number of successful collisions.

The reverse decreases the rate of the reaction. This is what fridges do, by lowering the
temperature, lowers the rate of food decay.

Effect of catalyst:

A catalyst is a substance which speeds up reactions, but remains chemically unchanged at

the end of the reaction. Enzymes are biological catalysts.

Some industrial reactions need high temperatures in order to give good yield or products. If
a powerful catalyst is used, the reaction will take place faster and at a lower temperature.
The decreases fuel costs and lower the cost of eventual products.

For example:

∙ A finely divided iron catalyst in Haber’s process to produce ammonia ∙

Vanadium (V) oxide in the contact process to process sulphuric acid.

Catalysts are mostly transitional elements or their compounds.

Since catalysis takes place at the surface of the catalyst; the catalyst must be finely divided
in order to increase the surface area in contact with the reactants.

E.g. At room temperature, Hydrogen Peroxide decomposes into water and oxygen, but very
slowly. Using manganese (IV) oxide, the reaction speeds up.

This reaction is done twice, once without the catalyst and once with the catalyst:
If the manganese (IV) oxide is filtered off at the end of the reaction, washed, dried and
reweighted, it will be found that its mass has not changed.

Effect of light:

The speeds of some reactions are increased by exposure to light. Light, like heat, is a form
of energy. Therefore, light has a similar effect to an increase temperature.

The reactions which are speeded up by light are called photochemical reactions.

Examples:

∙ A mixture of Hydrogen and Chlorine explodes in light forming hydrogen chloride

(Hydrochloric acid in water).

∙ Photography:

The darkness of a silver bromide coating on a film in a camera when a light is shown
on it is the basis of photography.
The photochemical reaction that takes place is:

It takes place in two steps:

Oxidation
And

Reduction
 ∙ Photosynthesis:

It is the process by which plants make glucose from water (in the soil) and carbon
dioxide (in the air) by using sunlight energy, which is absorbed by chlorophyll present
in the chloroplast in the plant’s cells. The chlorophyll here is a catalyst.

Photosynthesis is an endothermic reaction, in which the energy of sunlight is

transformed into the energy of the chemical bonds in the glucose.

Respiration:
On the reverse, it is an exothermic reaction, in which the energy in glucose is
released by oxidizing it with atmospheric oxygen in animal cells.

7.2 Reversible Reactions

Most chemical reactions can only go in one direction.

Example:

There is no way that the reverse reaction would occur. Hydrogen will not react with
magnesium chloride to make magnesium and hydrochloric acid.

Some reactions, however, are reversible.

A reversible reaction is a reaction that can go in either direction from the left to the right
and vice-versa, depending on the conditions of the reaction.

The sign in an equation show that the reaction is reversible and is at equilibrium.

Some examples:

∙ When blue copper (II) sulphate crystals are heated, the water of crystallization is
driven off. The blue crystals become white crystals of anhydrous copper (II) sulpahte.

()()
 When water is added to the copper sulphate, the reverse happens, so the sign is
used instead of the forward arrow sign.

∙ When ammonium chloride crystals are heated, the ammonium chloride decomposed
into ammonia gas and hydrogen chloride gas. As the gas cools the reverse happens.

∙ Hot iron reacts with steam forming iron oxide and hydrogen

The reverse can also happen; hot iron oxide is reduced to iron and steam by passing
dry hydrogen over it.
An interesting consideration now is what would happen if the four chemicals were
together in a seal container.

Iron would react with steam forming iron oxide and hydrogen, but at the same time
iron oxide would be reacting with hydrogen to make iron and steam.

After some time the reactions stops, which is said to be at a state of equilibrium,
where the rate of the forward reaction equals the rate of the backward reaction.

Equilibrium means:

Le Chatelier’s Principle:

For any system in equilibrium, any change in an external factor such as temperature,
pressure or concentrations), the equilibrium moves to oppose the change.

∙ The effect of temperature:

Exothermic reactions are favored by decreasing the temperature and opposed by

increasing the temperature, which is because exothermic reactions give out heat.

The reverse happens with endothermic reactions.

∙ The effect of pressure:

 This applies only to reactions involving gases.

Reactions accompanied with a decrease in volume (produce less molecules) are

favored by increasing the pressure, and opposed by decreasing it.

e.g. the formation of ammonia in the Haber’s process:

1 Mol 3 Mols 2 Mols

On the left side 4 volumes and on the right 2 volumes

The reverse happens with reactions accompanied with pressure.

∙ Effect of concentration

For a system in equilibrium, if the concentration of one reactant is increased, the

equilibrium will move in the direction which tends to decrease the concentration of
the substance.

The reverse happens when the concentration of one substance is decreased or if it

is removed, where the equilibrium would move to direction that would produce
more of that product.

7.3 Oxidation and reduction

Oxidation is the gain of oxygen or the loss of electrons.

Reduction is the loss of oxygen or the gain of electrons.

OIL RIG of electrons

Oxidation is Loss and Reduction is Gain
1. Oxidation:

Oxidation is the gain of oxygen or the loss of electrons.

An oxidizing agent is a substance that will add oxygen to other substances during a reaction.

∙ It gives oxygen to other substances

∙ Takes hydrogen from other substances
 ∙ Takes electrons from a substances

Common oxidizing agents are:

∙ Oxygen
∙ Hydrogen peroxide
∙ Potassium manganate (VII)
∙ Potassium dichromate (VI)
∙ Chlorine
∙ Sulphuric acid
∙ Nitric acid

Oxidation is:

∙ The addition of oxygen:

Example:

The oxygen here is added to the copper, so the copper is oxidized

∙ Removal of Hydrogen:

Example:

Hydrogen was removed from the HCl by oxidation.

∙ Loss of electrons:

∙ The increase in oxidation state

What is an oxidation state?

It is the number of electrons lost or gained during a chemical reaction to form an octet
configuration.
 Group Oxidation State Valency
1 +1 1
2 +2 2
3 +3 3

4 ±4 4
5 -3 3
6 -2 2
7 -1 1
8/0 0 0

Rules for the oxidation state:

∙ The oxidation state on any atom in the elemental state is 0

E.g. Na⁰, Mg⁰, Cl⁰

∙ The sum of oxidation states of all atoms in a molecule is 0

E.g. Cl⁰ + Cl⁰ -> Cl20

∙ The oxidation state of an ion is the charge on the ion

E.g. Cl-1, Na+1, NO3-1

∙ The oxidation state of Hydrogen is +1, for example, in HCl is H+1 Cl -1. When
it combines with metals to form hydrides, the oxidation state is -1.

∙ Oxidation state of oxygen is -2, except when it forms peroxides, for example, H2O2

∙ Transitional elements show variable valency so they have variable oxidation states,
for example, Iron (II) and Iron (III).

2. Reduction:

Reduction is the loss of oxygen or the gain of electrons.

A reducing agent is a substance that will remove oxygen from other elements.

∙ Takes oxygen from other substances

∙ Gives hydrogen to other substances
∙ Gives electrons to other substances

Some examples are:

∙ Hydrogen
 ∙ Carbon
∙ Carbon monoxide
∙ Metals

Reduction is:

∙ The loss of oxygen:

Example:

∙ Addition of hydrogen:

Example:

∙ Gain of electrons:

Example:

∙ Decrease in oxidation state

REDOX – Reduction and Oxidation in the same

time In redox reactions, reduction and oxidation occur together.

If one substance is oxidized the other is reduced.

Example:
 ∙ Copper (II) oxide here is reduced into Copper. It had lost oxygen, so it is the oxidizing
agent.
∙ Hydrogen is oxidized. It had gained oxygen, so it is the reducing agent.

Conclusion:

The substance oxidized is the reducing agent and the one reduced is the oxidizing agent.

Example:

()()

Identification of redox reactions:

1. Change in oxidation state:

Since oxidation is the loss of electrons, the oxidation of the reducing agent would increase,
which means more protons and less electrons.

e.g.
 Fe2+ 🡪 Fe 3+ + e

Since reduction is the gain of electron, the oxidation state of the element would decrease.

Fe3+ + e - 🡪 Fe 2+

2. Change in colour:

∙ Potassium Iodide K+I-solution turns from colorless to brown when the iodide ions are
oxidized by a oxidizing agent into iodine (Brown)

∙ Potassium manganate (VII) KMnO4 solution (acidified with dilute sulphuric acid) turns
from purple to colourless when the manganate (VII) ions are reduced by a reducing
agent into manganese ions Mn-

∙ Potassium dichromate (VI) K2Cr2O7 solution (acidified with dilute sulphuric acid) turns
from orange to green when the dichromate ions are reduced by a reducing agent to
chromium (III) ions Cr3+
Acids, bases and salts
Acids:

An acid is a substance which forms H+ions when dissolved in water. E.g. HCl 🡺

H+ + Cl

The H+ion is a proton, which is a hydrogen atom which had lost its electron.

Acids therefore are called proton donors, because they provide H+ions. General

properties of acids:

The H+ions are responsible for all the general chemical reactions to all acids. ∙

Turns BLUE litmus paper RED

∙ Acids reacts with reactive metals to produce metal salt + hydrogen

Metal + Acid 🡺 Metal Salt + Hydrogen Gas Magnesium + Hydrochloric acid 🡺

Magnesium Chloride + Hydrogen
Mg + HCl 🡺 MgCl2 + H2

∙ Acids react with bases to produce metal salt and water

Metal (oxide or hydroxide) + Acid 🡺 Metal Salt + Water Magnesium Oxide +

Hydrochloric Acid 🡺 Magnesium Chloride + Water MgO + HCl 🡺 MgCl2 +H2O
∙ Acids react with carbonates to produce metal salt, water and carbon dioxide

Metal Carbonate + Acid 🡺 Metal Salt + Water + Carbon Dioxide

Magnesium Carbonate + Hydrochloric Acid 🡺 Magnesium Chloride + Water +
Carbon Dioxide
MgCO3 + HCl 🡺 MgCl2 + H2O + C2O
Examples of Common acids:

∙ Hydrochloric Acid
∙ Sulphuric Acid
∙ Nitric Acid

Strong and Weak Acids:

A strong acid is and acid that is completely ionized in solution.

E.g. HCl 🡺 H+ + Cl

Common strong acids:

∙ Hydrochloric acid
∙ Sulphuric acid
∙ Nitric Acid

A weak acid is an acid which is partially ionized in solution.

Some molecules remain unionized in solution.

e.g.

CH3COOH CH3COO- + H+
Common weak acids:

∙ Ethanoic acid
∙ Carbonic acid
∙ Sulphurous acid

How to distinguish between a strong and weak acid:

∙ At the same concentration, the stronger acid would have the lowest pH ∙ The
stronger acid would be a better conductor of electricity at the same
concentration ∙ At the same concentration and temperature, the stronger acid
will react faster with solids
Bases:
A base is a substance that can accept H+ions, and therefore is a proton

acceptor. Bases are metal oxides and metal hydroxides, e.g.

∙ Copper (II) Oxide (CuO)

∙ Iron (III) Oxide (Fe2O3)
∙ Copper (II) Hydroxide (Cu(OH)2)
∙ Iron (III) Hydroxide (Fe(OH)3)
Bases which are soluble are called alkalis, e.g.

∙ Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH)

∙ Potassium Hydroxide (NaOH)

Alkalis dissolve in water forming alkaline solutions. Alkaline solutions turn RED
litmus paper BLUE.

Sodium Oxide + Water 🡺 Sodium Hydroxide

Na2O + H20 🡺 2 NaOH

NaOH 🡺 Na+ + OH

It is the OH- ion that causes the red litmus paper to turn blue.

Strong and weak alkalis:

A strong alkali is an alkali which is completely ionized in solution.

e.g.

NaOH 🡺 Na+ + OH

Common strong alkalis are:

∙ Sodium hydroxide
∙ Potassium hydroxide

A weak alkali is an alkali which is a partially ionized in solution.

E.g. Ammonium hydroxide (Ammonia gas dissolved in water)

NH3 + H2O 🡺 NH4OH NH4OH NH4++ OH-

How to distinguish between a strong and a weak alkali:

∙ The stronger alkali at the same concentration has the highest pH

∙ At the same concentration the strongest alkali would be the best conductor of
electricity

pH scale:
pH scale is a scale of numbers, which usually ranges from 0 to 14. The pH
number of a solution is a measure of its acidity or alkalinity.

0-1 = Very strong acid

2-4 = Strong acids

5-6 = Weak acids

7 = Neutral

8-9 = Weak alkalis

10-13 = Strong alkalis

14 = Very strong Alkalis

Universal indicator:

It is a very useful indicator, which is a mixture of different dyes and gives a

greater range of colour changes. It can be used to determine the pH value of a
solution.
 pH 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Colour

Can also be used to determine the strength of the acid or the alkali.

Types of oxides:

1. Basic oxides – oxides of metals

These react with acids to make salt and water.

E.g. CuO + 2HCl 🡺 CuCl2 + H2O

∙ Most basic oxides are insoluble in water

∙ The ones soluble are called alkalis

2. Acidic oxides

These are oxides of non-metals

React with bases to form salt and water:

CO2 + Ca(OH)2 🡺 CaCO3 + H2O

Most acidic oxides dissolve in water to form acids.

Carbon dioxide + water 🡺 Carbonic acid

3. Neutral oxides

Neutral oxides are oxides of some non-metals

e.g.

∙ Carbon monoxide
∙ Nitric Acid
∙ Hydrogen Oxide

These don’t react with any acid or alkali.

4. Amphoteric oxides

These are oxides of some metals such as aluminium, zinc, and lead.

They show both acidic and basic properties, i.e. they react with both alkalis and
acids forming salts and water.

e.g. Hydrochloric acid + Aluminium oxide 🡺 Aluminium chloride + water 6 HCl +

Al2O3 🡺 2 AlCl3 + 3 H2O

The Periodic Table of the Elements

The periodic table is a table which contains all the elements that have been
discovered, which are arranged in the increasing order of atomic number.

The vertical columns of elements with similar properties are called Groups. The

horizontal rows of elements are called Periods.

The periodic table can also be used to predict the properties of elements,
whether chemical or physical.

The groups show the number of electrons in that element in this group. E.g. in
group 5, Nitrogen has 5 electrons in its outer shell.

The elements get smaller less metallic as going to the right.

Atoms getting smaller, less metallic

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