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Cell respiration

Chapter 10: Cell Respiration

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Key Concepts 10: Cell Respiration

10.1 Catabolic pathways yield energy by oxidizing organic fuels

10.2 Glycolysis harvests chemical energy by oxidizing glucose to pyruvate

10.3 After pyruvate is oxidized, the citric acid cycle completes the energy-yielding oxidation of organic molecules

10.4 During oxidative phosphorylation, chemiosmosis couples electron transport to ATP synthesis

10.5 Fermentation and anaerobic respiration enables cells to produce ATP without the use of oxygen

10.6 Glycolysis and the citric acid cycle connect to many other metabolic pathways
How is the chemical energy stored in food used to generate ATP,
the molecule that drives most cellular work?

• Plant and animal cells break down organic molecules by cellular respiration
in the mitochondria.

• The chemical energy in food is transformed into chemical energy in ATP

• Some energy is released to the environment as heat

Energy enters ecosystems as light and exits as heat

The chemical elements essential to life are recycled

• Photosynthesis uses CO2 and H2O to make organic
molecules and O2
• Cellular respiration uses O2 and organic molecules
to make ATP; CO2 and H2O are produced as waste
Concept 10.1: Catabolic pathways yield energy by oxidizing
organic fuels
• Catabolic pathways release stored energy by breaking down complex molecules

• Electron transfer plays a major role in these pathways

• These processes are central to cellular respiration

Catabolic Pathways and Production of ATP

• The breakdown of organic molecules is exergonic

• Fermentation is a partial degradation of organic molecules that occurs without O2

• Aerobic respiration consumes organic molecules and O2 and yields ATP

• Anaerobic respiration is similar to aerobic respiration but consumes compounds other

than oxygen

• Cellular respiration
Cellular Respiration

• Cellular respiration includes both aerobic and anaerobic respiration but is often used to
refer to aerobic respiration

• Although carbohydrates, fats, and proteins are all consumed as fuel, it is helpful to trace
cellular respiration with the sugar glucose

C6H12O6 + 6 O2 → 6 CO2 + 6 H2O + Energy (ATP + heat)

• The transfer of electrons during chemical reactions releases energy stored in organic
molecules

• This released energy is ultimately used to synthesize ATP

The Principle of Oxidation and Reduction-à Redox

• Chemical reactions that transfer electrons between reactants are called oxidation-
reduction reactions, or redox reactions

• In oxidation, a substance loses electrons, or is oxidized (oil)

• In reduction, a substance gains electrons, or is reduced (rig)

becomes oxidized
(loses electron)

becomes reduced
(gains electron)
Redox Reaction

• The electron donor is called the reducing agent

• The electron receptor is called the oxidizing agent

• Some redox reactions do not transfer electrons but change the electron sharing in
covalent bonds

• An example is the reaction between methane and O2

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Methane combustion as an energy-yielding redox reaction

Reactants Products
becomes oxidized

becomes reduced

Methane Oxygen Carbon dioxide Water

(reducing (oxidizing
agent) agent)
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Oxidation of Organic Fuel Molecules During Cellular Respiration

• During cellular respiration, the fuel (such as glucose) is oxidized, and O2 is reduced

• Energy is released as the electrons associated with hydrogen ions are transferred to
oxygen, a lower energy state

becomes oxidized

becomes reduced
Stepwise Energy Harvest via NAD+ and the Electron Transport
Chain
• In cellular respiration, glucose and other organic molecules are broken down in a series of
steps

• Electrons from organic compounds are usually first transferred to Nicotinamide adenine
dinucleotide (NAD+ ) a coenzyme

• As an electron acceptor, NAD+ functions as an oxidizing agent during cellular respiration

• Each NADH (the reduced form of NAD+) represents stored energy that is tapped to
synthesize ATP
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The Stages of Cellular Respiration
• Harvesting of energy from glucose has three stages
• Glycolysis (breaks down glucose into two molecules of pyruvate)
• The citric acid cycle (completes the breakdown of glucose)
• Oxidative phosphorylation (accounts for most of the ATP synthesis)
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Electron Transport Chains

H2 + ½ O2 2H + ½ O2
Unlike an uncontrolled reaction, the
Controlled electron transport chain passes
2 H++ 2 e− release of
energy electrons in a series of steps instead of
Free energy, G

Free energy, G

Elec chain ATP

one explosive reaction.
tron
ATP
Explosive
release ATP
tran

2 e−
spo

2 H+
½ O2 The energy yielded is used to
rt

regenerate ATP.
H2O H2O

(a)Uncontrolled reaction (b)Cellular respiration

Energy is released as the electrons associated

with hydrogen ions are transferred to oxygen, a
lower energy state
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Electrons
via NADH

GLYCOLYSIS

Glucose Pyruvate

CYTOSOL MITOCHONDRION

ATP

Substrate-level
Concept 10:2 Glycolysis harvests chemical energy by oxidizing
glucose to pyruvate
• Glycolysis (“sugar splitting”) breaks down glucose into two molecules of pyruvate (10
Step Process)

• Glycolysis occurs in the cytoplasm and has two major phases

• Energy investment phase
• Energy payoff phase

• Glycolysis occurs whether or not O2 is present

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Energy Investment Phase

Glucose

2 ATP used 2 ADP+ 2 P

Energy Payoff Phase

4ADP+ 4 P 4 ATP formed

2NAD++ 4 e−+ 4 H+ 2 NADH + 2 H+

2Pyruvate + 2H2O

Net
Glucose 2 Pyruvate + 2H2O
4 ATP formed − 2 ATP used 2 ATP
2. 2 NAD++4 e− + 4 H+ 2NADH+ 2 H+
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Electrons Electrons
via NADH via NADH
and FADH2

GLYCOLYSIS PYRUVATE
OXIDATION CITRIC
ACID
Glucose Pyruvate Acetyl CoA CYCLE

CYTOSOL MITOCHONDRION

ATP ATP

Substrate-level Substrate-level
Concept 10.3: After pyruvate is oxidized, the citric acid cycle
completes the energy-yielding oxidation of organic
molecules

• Most of the energy in glucose remains stored in the pyruvate molecules produced by
glycolysis

• In eukaryotic cells, in the presence of O2, pyruvate enters the mitochondrion (in
eukaryotic cells) where the oxidation of glucose is completed

• This occurs in the cytosol for aerobic prokaryotes

Oxidation of Pyruvate to Acetyl CoA

• Before the citric acid cycle can begin, pyruvate must be converted to acetyl Coenzyme A
(acetyl CoA), which links glycolysis to the citric acid cycle

• This step is carried out by a multienzyme complex that catalyses three reactions
The Citric Acid Cycle
Acetyl CoA
• The citric acid cycle, also called the Krebs
CoA-SH

NADH
cycle, completes the break down of
H2O
+ H+ 1
NAD+

pyruvate to CO2 8
Oxaloacetate
2
Malate Citrate Isocitrate
NAD+
• The cycle oxidizes organic fuel derived CITRIC NADH
3
7 ACID + H+
from pyruvate, generating 1 ATP, 3 NADH, H2O
CYCLE
CO2

and 1 FADH2 per turn Fumarate CoA-SH

a-Ketoglutarate
6 4
CoA-SH

FADH2 5 NAD+
CO2
FAD
NADH
Succinate Pi
+ H+
GTPGDP Succinyl

ADP CoA
ATP
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Electrons Electrons
via NADH via NADH
and FADH2

GLYCOLYSIS PYRUVATE OXIDATIVE

OXIDATION CITRIC PHOSPHORYLATION
ACID
Glucose Pyruvate Acetyl CoA CYCLE (Electron transport
and chemiosmosis)

CYTOSOL MITOCHONDRION

ATP ATP ATP

Substrate-level Substrate-level Oxidative

Phosphorylation

• The process that generates most of the ATP is called oxidative phosphorylation because
it is powered by redox reactions
• Accounts for almost 90% of the ATP generated by cellular respiration
• A smaller amount of ATP is formed in glycolysis and the citric acid cycle by substrate-
level phosphorylation
• For each molecule of glucose degraded to CO2 and water by respiration, the cell makes
up to 32 molecules of ATP
Concept 10.4: During oxidative phosphorylation, chemiosmosis
couples electron transport to ATP synthesis

• Following glycolysis and the citric acid cycle, NADH and FADH2 account for most of the
energy extracted from food

• These two electron carriers donate electrons to the electron transport chain, which
powers ATP synthesis via oxidative phosphorylation
The Pathway of Electron Transport

• The electron transport chain is in the inner membrane (cristae) of the mitochondrion

• Most of the chain’s components are proteins, which exist in multiprotein complexes

• The carriers alternate reduced and oxidized states as they accept and donate electrons

• Electrons drop in free energy as they go down the chain and are finally passed to O2,
forming H2O
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NADH

50
2 e− NAD+
FADH2

Free energy (G) relative to O2 (kcal/mol)

2 e− FAD
Multiprotein
I complexes
40 FMN
II
Fe•S Fe•S
Q
III
Cyt b

Free-energy change during 30 Fe•S

Cyt c1

electron transport Cyt c

Cyt a
IV

Cyt a3
20

2 e−
10
(originally from
NADH or FADH2)

2 H+ + ½ O 2
0

H2O
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H+ ATP
Protein H+
synthase
Free-energy
H+
complex H+
Cyt c
of electron
change during carriers
IV
electron I
Q
III

transport II
FADH2 FAD
2 H+ + ½ O2 H2 O

NADH NAD+
ADP + P i ATP
(carrying
H+
electrons
from 1 Electron transport chain 2 Chemiosmosis
food)
Oxidative phosphorylation
Chemiosmosis: The Energy-Coupling Mechanism

• The energy released as electrons are passed down the electron transport chain
is used to pump H+ from the mitochondrial matrix to the intermembrane space

• H+ then moves down its concentration gradient back across the membrane,
passing through the protein complex ATP synthase
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Free-energy
change during
electron
transport

ATP synthesase
BioFlix® Animation: Electron Transport
An Accounting of ATP Production by Cellular Respiration

• The H+ gradient is referred to as a proton-motive force, emphasizing its capacity to do

work

• During cellular respiration, most energy flows in this sequence:

glucose → NADH → electron transport chain → proton-motive force → ATP

• About 34% of the energy in a glucose molecule is transferred to ATP during cellular
respiration, making about 32 ATP
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Electron shuttles
span membrane
CYTOSOL MITOCHONDRION
2 NADH
or
2 FADH2
2 NADH 2 NADH 6 NADH 2 FADH2

GLYCOLYSIS PYRUVATE OXIDATIVE

CITRIC
OXIDATION PHOSPHORYLATION
Glucose 2 ACID
2 Acetyl CoA (Electron transport
Pyruvate CYCLE
and chemiosmosis)

+ 2 ATP + 2 ATP + about 26 or 28 ATP

Maximum per glucose: About

30 or 32 ATP
Concept 10.5: Fermentation and anaerobic respiration enables cells to
produce ATP without the use of oxygen
• Most cellular respiration requires O2 to produce ATP

• Without O2, the electron transport chain will cease to operate

• In that case, glycolysis couples with anaerobic respiration or fermentation to produce ATP
Types of Fermentation
• Fermentation consists of glycolysis plus reactions that regenerate NAD+, which can be
reused by glycolysis

• Two common types are alcohol fermentation and lactic acid fermentation
2 ADP + 2 Pi 2 ATP 2 ADP + 2 Pi 2 ATP

Glucose GLYCOLYSIS Glucose GLYCOLYSIS

2 Pyruvate
2 NAD+ 2 NADH 2 CO2 2 NAD+ 2 NADH
+ 2 H+ + 2 H+
2 Pyruvate

2 Ethanol 2 Acetaldehyde 2 Lactate

(a) Alcohol fermentation (b) Lactic acid fermentation
Comparing Fermentation with Anaerobic and Aerobic Respiration
• All use glycolysis (net ATP = 2) to oxidize glucose and
harvest chemical energy of food Glucose

Glycolysis
• In all three, NAD+ is the oxidizing agent that accepts CYTOSOL
electrons during glycolysis Pyruvate
No O2 present: O2 present:
• Obligate anaerobes carry out fermentation or Fermentation Aerobic cellular
anaerobic respiration and cannot survive in the respiration
presence of O2
MITOCHONDRION
• Yeast and many bacteria are facultative anaerobes, Ethanol, Acetyl CoA
meaning that they can survive using either lactate, or
fermentation or cellular respiration other products
CITRIC
ACID
• In a facultative anaerobe, pyruvate is a fork in the CYCLE

metabolic road that leads to two alternative

catabolic routes
Concept 10.6: Glycolysis and the citric acid cycle connect to many
other metabolic pathways

• Gycolysis and the citric acid cycle are major intersections to various catabolic and anabolic
pathways
The Versatility of Catabolism Proteins Carbohydrates Fats

Amino Sugars Glycerol Fatty

• Catabolic pathways funnel acids acids
electrons from many kinds of
organic molecules into cellular GLYCOLYSIS
Glucose
respiration
Glyceraldehyde 3-P

• Glycolysis accepts a wide range of NH3 Pyruvate

carbohydrates
Acetyl CoA
• Proteins must be digested to
amino acids; amino groups can CITRIC OXIDATIVE
feed glycolysis or the citric acid ACID PHOSPHORYLATION
CYCLE
cycle
Biosynthesis (Anabolic Pathways)

• The body uses small molecules to build other substances

• These small molecules may come directly from food, from glycolysis, or from the citric
acid cycle
Regulation of Cellular Respiration via Feedback Mechanisms
Glucose
AMP
• Feedback inhibition is the most common mechanism GLYCOLYSIS
Fructose 6-phosphate Stimulates
for metabolic control Phosphofructokinase

Fructose 1,6-bisphosphate
Inhibits Inhibits

• If ATP concentration begins to drop, respiration

speeds up; when there is plenty of ATP, respiration
slows down
Pyruvate

ATP Citrate
• Control of catabolism is based mainly on regulating Acetyl CoA

the activity of enzymes at strategic points in the

CITRIC
catabolic pathway ACID
CYCLE

Oxidative
phosphorylation
Thank You

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