https://www.slideshare.

net/gauravhtandon1/clay-products-78685317

1. Clay Products Building Construction Material

2. 2. Introduction • Clay is naturally occurring mineral that is found almost every where on
the surface of the earth making the soil cover or the soft ground. • It is so widespread in
its occurrence that in common language it is often referred as earth.
3. 3. Introduction
4. 4. Introduction • Miner logically pure clay may be composed of one or more minerals of
clay group such as Kaolinite, Montmorillonite, illite, vermiculite and Allohane, etc. Kaolite
is the most important mineral component of common clays. • Clay occurs universally.
Man has used them since ancient times for making earthware of great variety.
5. 5. minerals of clay group
6. 6. Classification of Clays • Clays are classified in two ways: Genesis or their mode of
formation and their dominant characteristics. • All clays are classified in two ways: •
Genesis or their mode of formation and their dominant characteristics • The Residual
Clays • The Transported Clays
7. 7. The Residual Clays
8. 8. Classification of Clays • The Residual Clay includes all varieties of clays that are found
covering the rocks from which they are formed by natural processes. Such clays are pure
in their chemical composition that is related broadly to the parent rock. China Clay is the
best example of residual Clay.
9. 9. Residual Clay
10. 10. Classification of Clays The Transported Clays. • These are the most common clays
spread on the earth. They are formed by the disintegration and decomposition of the pre-
existing rocks by the natural agencies followed by removal and transportation of broken
pieces to far off places where they are finally deposited. Hence any such deposit of
transported clay will have all the particles transported from many places and different
source materials. The transported clay are, therefore quite heterogeneous in
mineralogical and chemical composition.
11. 11. The Transported Clays.
12. 12. Classification of Clays • The transported clays are sometimes further distinguished
into glacial clays, marine clays, alluvial clays and lacustarine clay when glaciers, seas,
rivers, and lakes respectively have played dominant roles in their formation.
13. 13. Classification of Clays • On the Basis of their dominant Characteristics, Clays are
classified as into four groups: • China Clay • Fire Clay • Vitrifying Clay • And Brick Clay
14. 14. Classification of Clays China Clay • It is the purest type of clay containing very high
percentage of mineral Kaolinite or Kaolin Al2Si2O5(OH)4. It is Considered high Grade
clay and is used for the manufacturing of crockery and other proclain ware
15. 15. China Clay
16. 16. Classification of Clays Fire Clay • They are also called refractory clay and contain,
besides Kaolinite, Silica and alumina in very high temperature without suffering any
deformation off shape given to them at the time of moulding. • They are mainly used in
manufacturing of refractory bricks that are of great importance in many metallurgical,
mechanical and chemical operations
17. 17. Fire Clay
18. 18. Classification of Clays Vitrified Clays • These clays are rich in fluxing compounds like
iron oxide and carbonates of calcium and magnesium. These are easily fusible. i.e.
cannot withstand high temperatures above 1100 0 C the fluxes get softened and form
glass like material that acts as a strong bonding agent between the other clay particles.
This results in the formation of a smooth surfaced hard burnt clay products. • The
Vitrifying clays called hard burnt clay are specially used for manufacturing of facing brick,
flooring tiles, sewer pipe and other similar ornamental and dense clay products.
19. 19. Vitrified Clays
20. 20. Classification of Clays The Brick Clays • These are low grade clays used most for the
manufacturing of building bricks and similar clay products. Brick clay are rich in silica,
 alumina, oxide of iron, calcium, magnesium and organic matter. It is mutual proportion of
these components that define their suitability or otherwise for making good quality bricks
for building construction. • The oxides of iron, calcium and magnesium act as fluxes that
fuse easily at brick-making temperature and bind the alumina and silica particles
thoroughly giving the brick desired properties of cohesion and strength.
21. 21. The Brick Clays
22. 22. Bricks • Building bricks may be defined as “Structural units of rectangular shape and
convenient size that are made of suitable clays by different processes involving
moulding, drying, and burning.
23. 23. Bricks
24. 24. Bricks • It is now established that even in remote ancient civilizations bricks were
common material of construction. It is believed that it was in Egypt that bricks were used
some 6000 years ago. Excavation in prehistoric sites in our country has revealed that
bricks were used abundantly in Indus valley civilization at Mohan jo daro and Harappa.
25. 25. Bricks
26. 26. Bricks • Even at present bricks is the most basic and favorable material for common
construction throughout the world. This may be attributed to no of factors:
27. 27. Bricks Availability of clay • Clay suitable for making bricks are available almost
universally. Hence brick making can be adopted anywhere in the world. This is not true
either for stones or for concrete that are material which compete with clay.
28. 28. Bricks Size Shape and handling • Bricks are made in ready –to-use sizes and
shapes. This affords very convenient handling and use. For stones, however, some
dressing is absolutely essential. In case of concrete, an elaborate formwork and
shuttering are basic requirements. Moreover transporting and lying of concrete also
requires great care, caution and expertise.
29. 29. Bricks
30. 30. Bricks Cost • Bricks as also brickwork are cheaper compared to stone masonry and
construction with concrete in most cases. This is because of the factors mentioned under
availability. Size and shape and construction methods
31. 31. Manufacturing of Bricks • The process of manufacturing of bricks is carried out in
number of stages It Is essential a sequential process. That is, next stage is reached only
when the previous stages have been completed in all respect. No jumping over or
omission of stage is possible. Each stage has its own significance in the process.
32. 32. Manufacturing of Bricks
33. 33. Manufacturing of Bricks The Stages are listed below: • Selection of suitable type of
clay • Preparation and tempering of mud • Moulding of brick units • Drying of moulded
bricks • Loading of dried bricks in kilns; • Firing or burning of dried bricks; • Cooling of the
units; • Unloading of the kiln;
34. 34. Selection of Suitable Brick Earth • A good type of bricks cannot be made from every
type of clay. A suitable brick earth should have the following composition in the desired
proportions: • 1) Alumina (20- 30 %) All clays are chemically hydrous aluminum silicates.
The alumina content is responsible for giving the plastic character to the clay in wet
conditions. When alumina content is higher than 30 % the bricks becomes more plastic
and also shrink on drying. But if Alumina Content is Less than 20 %, clay may be difficult
to mould to proper shapes. Hence desired content of Alumina is about 20 – 30 %.
35. 35. Alumina (20- 30 %)
36. 36. Selection of Suitable Brick Earth • Silica ( 50- 60 %) • Silica present in Ideal
Proportion i.e. 50- 60% imparts the qualities of hardness and strength to the bricks. It is
also responsible for resistance against shrinkage and durability of the brick to weather.
However while the proportion of silica are exceptionally high in the clay such bricks when
burnt would be quite brittle and porous.
37. 37. Selection of Suitable Brick Earth
38. 38. Selection of Suitable Brick Earth • Iron Oxide (4-6%) • This Oxide act as a flux, i.e. it
lowers down Softening temperature of Silica and other clay components during firing.
Further, The Iron Oxide in the clays may make their burning difficult and give them
yellowish appearance.
39. 39. Iron Oxide
40. 40. Selection of Suitable Brick Earth • Lime (4-6 %) • This Components make the burning
of bricks quicker. Provided, • It should not be more than 4 %, because in this case may
result in excessive softening of the clay on heating. • It must be present only in fine
powder form otherwise it may give rise to slaking, which is harmful and may cause slow
disintegration of bricks.
41. 41. Lime
42. 42. Selection of Suitable Brick Earth • Magnesia • Which is invariably associated with
lime, has similar effect
43. 43. Constituents & Desirable quantity Significance Effects if Excess quantity Effects if
lesser quantity Alumina (Al2O3) (20-30 %): plastic character to the clays in wet
conditions and resistance against shrinkage on drying more plastic and shrink more on
drying, which may develop cracks in on drying. clay may be difficult to mould in proper
shape Silica (SiO2) (50-60 %) free or combined form Impart hardness and strength to the
brick. Prevents the shrinkage, cracking and warping of raw bricks, so imparts uniform
shape to the bricks. Durability - depends upon proper composition of silica. not be
mouldable easily and may not burn easily. If burnt, would be quite brittle and porous. -
Iron oxides (CaCO3) (4- 6%) Acts as flux. Red colour to the burnt bricks causes brick too
soft during the burning stage, so shape is lost cause burning difficult and also gives
yellowish appearance Lime (Fe2O3) (4-6%): Makes burning and hardening of the bricks
quicker. It must be present only in powdered and thoroughly dispersed form. If lime is
present as nodules, it may give rise to slaking when brick comes in contact with moisture.
not be more than 5%, because it may result in excessive softening of clay on heating -
Magnesia (1% or less) Similar effect like lime so total percentage should be consider,
provides a yellow tint to the bricks - -
44. 44. Undesirable Components brick clay should be free from the following components:
The lime modules: • obstruct the proper burning, when bricks are placed in kiln. • If it
present, then burnt bricks are likely to cause disintegration of bricks by their slaking
action. The organic matter: • Roots of grasses, leaves and other organic matter, which
produces carbon on burning within the body of brick. • Brick darker in appearance and
too porous in nature, remove in preparation stage.
45. 45. Undesirable Components Sulphides and sulphates: • Iron sulphide in form of pyrite
and alkalkies in form of potash and soda are often present in some clays. • Iron sulphide
causes disintegration of the brick during burning stage itself. The alkali salts: • Act as
fluxes during burning and create additional softening. • If it is present in burnt bricks, it
absorbs the moisture from the atmosphere and form the solution within the body of brick.
• On evaporation, these solution form white patches. This effect is called efflorescence.
46. 46. Field Tests For Brick Earth • When the manufacture of brick is on large scale, it is
always advisable to go through survey of deposits of clays which include mapping of area
for considerable depth Analysis of chemical composition testing the engineering
properties of the specimen made from such earth. • Such survey assure the total quantity
and quality of the clay.
47. 47. Field Tests For Brick Earth
48. 48. Field Tests For Brick Earth Test for consistency • Small sized balls are made from the
soils by mixing it with appropriate quantities of sand and water. • Balls are allowed to air
dry under a shaded place. • When they are completely dry, each ball is observed for its
shape, size and appearance of any cracks. • If soil is of suitable type, it will not show any
deformation or crack in them. • If some shrinkage is there, we may vary the mutual
proportions of soil, sand and water and observed again. • By varying these proportion, a
right proportion is found for making good quality bricks. • If negative results are obtained
in all the trials, it means the brick clay is not suitable.
49. 49. Test For Consistency
50. 50. Test For Moulding Properties • Test is performed on the soil which have passed the
consistency test. • Soil is thoroughly mixed after adding some more water for preparing
homogeneous mud. • Thin threads, about 3-4 mm thick are made by rolling between the
palms of two hands from small amount of mud paste. • Length of such threads indicates
good plastic nature of the soil. • Longer and thinner the threads, the soil is of good
plasticity and threads break quickly on rolling in non-plastic type of clays. • Test bricks
 are made from such paste and allowed to dry. If the corners, edges and surface shape
remain intact even after drying, then clay is described as satisfactory.
51. 51. Field Tests For Brick Earth Test to determine deformation on burning • Test helps in
finding out approximate ratio of fluxes in the clays. • Test bricks are made from the mud
prepared in first two cases. • This bricks are air-dried. • Burnt in a potter’s kiln for three to
five days and cooled in air • The clays are of satisfactory quality when bricks show •
Typical red colour • Have maintained their dimensions at corners and edges • Have burnt
uniformly • If burnt bricks shows defects like warping of surfaces, twisting at edges and
swelling at places, the brick clay is considered defective and unsuitable for making good
bricks.
52. 52. Test to determine deformation on burning
53. 53. Field Tests For Brick Earth Strength tests: • If clays passes above all the tests, then
only this test is carried out. • Field test involves dropping the properly burnt bricks, one by
one, from a height of 2-3 meters on hard dry ground below. • If brick is of good quality,
then it should easily withstand this shock without breaking. • If brick is of poor quality,
then it break easily on falling from such heights.
54. 54. Strength tests
55. 55. Preparation Of Mud Winning: • Obtain brick earth from its natural deposit. • Clear off
from vegetation, pebbles and other organic matter. • Manual digging or mechanical
excavation are used to obtain dry soil or brick matter. • Clay is spread on even ground for
seasoning so that clay is exposed to atmosphere for good time. • At this stage, earth is
further cleaned off any pebbles, stones lime nodules and visible organic matter. • The
seasoned clay is ready for making mud by mixing with adequate amount of water.
56. 56. Winning
57. 57. Preparation Of Mud • Tempering: Converting the brick earth to mud of proper
consistency by thoroughly mixing with desired quantities of water. • Manual tempering:
Clay is spread on a platform and thoroughly mixed under feet of either man or cattle. •
Water is added gradually in small quantities till desired homogeneity and plasticity are
obtained. • Pug mill tempering (pugging): mechanical device called pug mill.
58. 58. Manual Tempering
59. 59. Pug Mill Tempering • A simple pug mill consist of steel cylinder covered at top and
hole at or near the bottom. • Most important part of pug mill is a central vertical shaft
provided at the base which can be rotated with the help of long arm through animal or
motor power. • Central shaft is attached with the horizontal blades, each carries some
knives. • Seasoned clay and water are added from an opening provided at the top. • The
churning effect to the clay-water mixture, that is converted into mud of desired plasticity
and consistency. • The mud is then taken out from the hole at the base and new charge
is field.
60. 60. Pug Mill Tempering
61. 61. Moulding Of Bricks • Moulding: is the process of making green bricks of proper shape
and size from thoroughly tempered clay. • Two Main Methods: hand moulding and
machine moulding.
62. 62. Moulding Of Bricks • Hand Moulding: Using skilled manpower. • Most common
method in India. • The quality of tempered clay is kept soft. • More water content (18-25%
by weight). So, we can call this method as soft mud process. • Ground moulding: bricks
are shaped from such a soft mud by hand on a specially prepared ground. • Table
moulding: bricks are shaped from such a soft mud by hand on a specially designed table.
63. 63. Moulding Of Bricks
64. 64. Table Moulding
65. 65. Tools For Hand Moulding • A brick mould: • wood or steel. • Its inside dimensions are
kept slightly bigger than the desired dimensions of finished brick because bricks on
drying are liable to shrink in size. • It may be a single unit or a multiple unit type. • The
stock board (moulding board): • Small wooden board with raised central projection
carrying the identification marks (frog) of the manufacturer.
66. 66. A Brick Mould
67. 67. The Stock Board (Moulding Board)
68. 68. Tools For Hand Moulding • The Pallets: • Thin wooden plates used for handling the
green bricks from the moulding boards to the drying field. • The Strike: • Wood or metal •
Has its one edge quite thin to slash surplus mud from the top of the moulded brick, while
it is in the mould. • Sometimes a thin wire strung in a wooden block for holding is used for
the same purpose, it is called cutting wire.
69. 69. Tools For Hand Moulding Wooden mould & Steel mould Stock board
70. 70. Ground Moulding • Common method of moulding bricks in India • A stretch of land is
first flattened, levelling and cleaned and made smooth by mud plastering. • Some sand is
sprinkled uniformly over it to make it non-sticky.
71. 71. Ground Moulding
72. 72. Ground Moulding (a) For making ordinary bricks: • Mould is either dipped in water
(slop moulding) or some sand is sprinkled on its inside surface (sand moulding). • Mould
is placed on the ground at desired spot. • Lump of mud is dashed into the mould by hand.
Mud should reaches to the sides and corners of the mould. • Any surplus mud is removed
by using the strike or the cutting wire. • The mould is then lifted up with a jerk and leaves
behind the moulded brick on the ground below.
73. 73. Ground Moulding • Moulding bricks with frog (pallet moulding) • By using a stock
board and pallets. • The stock board is provided with a raised projection carrying the
identification mark. • The mould is placed on the stock board (instead of ground) and a
brick is moulded. • The brick is then taken away using two pallet to the drying field.
74. 74. Ground Moulding • Frog: an identification mark during the moulding stage with the
help of a stock board. It serves following purposes: • The name of the manufacture of the
brick is easily found and can be known for the quality of the brick. • The frog-faced side is
placed upward during use, which accommodates some extra mortar, which develops
structural grip between upper and lower brick.
75. 75. Frog
76. 76. Table Moulding • The skilled worker – moulder carries out all the moulding operations
on a specially designed table of suitable dimensions. • Table is large enough to
accommodate all the materials required in hand moulding such as stock board, moulds,
cutting edge, water, sand and tempered mud.
77. 77. Table Moulding
78. 78. Table Moulding • Process is similar to pallet moulding on ground. • The moulder is
placed on the stock board and then sprinkles some sand inside the surface of mould. •
Dashes a lump of mud into it, press it thoroughly and skillfully. • Cuts away any surplus
mud with the strike or the cutting edge. • Places a pallet over the mould and turn it over. •
The moulded brick is transferred to the pallet, which is carried away by a helper. • This
process is repeated for each brick. • Initial cost is slightly higher than ground moulding
but more efficient and economical in the long run because production is better in quality
and quantity.
79. 79. Table Moulding
80. 80. Machine Moulding • Essential process in all mechanized brick making plants. •
Cheaper in longer run and gives uniform quality brick. • Main two methods: Stiff mud
method and Dry process method. • Stiff mud method: Small quantity of water (8- 12 % by
volume) is added to the clay to create plasticity. • This stiff mix is made to pass out under
pressure from moulding machine.
81. 81. Machine Moulding
82. 82. Machine Moulding • Two versions of machines can be used such as: • Worm gear
moulding machine • A vacuum press for brick moulding. Worm gear moulding machine:
consists of • A feeding chamber provided with a worm gear to apply pressure. • A hopper
at the top to receive the clay mix from the pug mill • A fixed die provided at the front
narrow end • A conveyor belt on a set of rollers • Cutting wire device adjusted in front of
the die
83. 83. Worm Gear Moulding Machine The operation steps on machine consist of • Feeding
the properly mixed stiff mud into the chamber through the hopper • Forcing forward the
mud charge using the worm gear. The pressed mud comes out through the die in the
form of continuous rectangular ribbon having the height and width of the bricks. This
ribbon gets cut into brick lengths by pressing down the cutting wire device, when the
 conveyor belt is under the device. Capacity of machine: 1000 – 2000 units per hour or
more depending upon the machine.
84. 84. Worm Gear Moulding Machine
85. 85. Machine Moulding • Dry press process: a very small quantity of water is added to
finely crushed and thoroughly cleaned batch of clay. • Mix is almost dry, at best damp. •
Such damp clay is fed through hoppers to special brick moulds. • Pressure - 50-150
Kg/cm2 through hydraulic presses. • This pressure is sufficient enough to convert the
loose damp clay mass into dense and very compact brick unit. • Brick is removed from
the mould. • These bricks are having perfect shapes on all the sides, edges and corners.
• Such bricks are also called as pressed bricks.
86. 86. Drying Of Bricks • Reasons To Dry The Green Bricks: • To Make Green Brick Strong
Enough To Bear Rough Handling During Stacking In The Kiln For Burning. • To Allow
Loss Of Moisture At A Slow Rate To Avoid Disintegration. • To Save Fuel During Burning
Stage. Drying Artificial method drying in the chamber drying in the tunnel Natural method
Air drying and Sun drying
87. 87. Drying Of Bricks
88. 88. Drying Of Bricks • Natural method (stacking method): there are two different stages
involved in the drying process such as: 1) Pre stacking stage: Moulded bricks are laid
sidewise and flat wise for 2 – 3 days in the drying fields. So, that they become hard
enough to handle for stacking in heaps. 2) Stacking stage: Bricks are arranged in the
layers (100 cm wide and 10 brick layer height) by skilled workers. • Staking is done in
specially prepared drying ground. • Enough space is left in between the individual bricks
and between layers.
89. 89. Natural method (stacking method)
90. 90. Drying Of Bricks • Artificial drying: essential in mechanized brick making unit. •
Independent of weather condition. Chamber Drying: • Arrange in stacks in drying
chamber by keeping sufficient spaces for free circulation of hot air around them. • Hot air
is circulated under control condition of temperature and humidity. • 2 – 4 days or more,
and then next batch is stacked.
91. 91. Chamber Drying
92. 92. Drying Of Bricks Tunnel drying: • Bricks are stacked on mobile cars that are made on
travel on rails within a specially designed drying tunnel. • The tunnel is divided into
compartments and each car is made to stay in a particular compartment for pre-fixed
duration. • The cars come out from other end. • 2 – 3 days for a car load of bricks to dry
to desired extent.
93. 93. Tunnel Drying
94. 94. Burning Of Bricks • Absolutely essential to develop in brick making the desired
building properties such as sufficient strength, hardness, durability and resistance to
decay and disintegration.
95. 95. Burning Of Bricks
96. 96. Burning Of Bricks • 3 chemical changes take place during burning process: •
Dehydration: complete removal of water from the pores of the bricks. • Completed at the
temperature range of 425 – 7650C. • Losses all the free water.
97. 97. Burning Of Bricks • Oxidation: it start taking place during heating of the bricks at the
above temperature and gets completed at about 6500C-9000C. • All the organic matter in
the brick earth gets oxidized. Carbon and sulphur are eliminated as oxides. • Fluxes
(lime, magnesia, iron) become reactive at these temperature. • Brick acquires the red
colour due to the oxidation of iron in the clay.
98. 98. Burning Of Bricks • Vitrification: last reaction takes place at temperature range of
9000C to 11000C. • The alumina and silica start softening in the presence of the fluxing
compounds. • The constituent grains get bound firmly.
99. 99. Burning Of Bricks • Bricks can be burnt using the following methods: (a) Clamp
Burning (b) Kiln Burning
100. 100. Burning Of Bricks Clamp Burning: • (Open kiln or Pazawah) • Temporary
structure, constructed over the ground • Height - about 4 to 6 m. • Used for lower scale
bricks, not suitable in monsoon season. • Trapezoidal in plan, whose shorter edge among
 the parallel sides is below the ground and slope angle of about 15 ⁰ • A vertical brick and
mud wall is constructed at the lower edge to support the stack of the brick.
101. 101. Clamp Burning
102. 102. Burning Of Bricks • Clamp Burning: • (Open kiln or Pazawah) • First layer -
fuel is laid as the bottom most layer with the coal, wood and other locally available
material like cow dung and husk. • Another layer - 4 to 5 rows of bricks • Then again a
fuel layer is laid over it. • Thickness of the fuel layer decreases with the height of the
clamp. • Top surface - covered with the mud so as to preserve the heat. • Fire is ignited
at the bottom, once fire is started it is kept under fire by itself for one or two months and
same time period is needed for the cooling of the bricks. • In a clamp of 10 m * 7.5 m
sides, about one- lakh bricks can be burnt in two months.
103. 103. Burning Of Bricks • Advantages of Clamp Burning: • Easy to erect and
operate • Any type of fuel can be used • Not requires skilled labour and least supervision
after burning • Economical • Clamp is not liable to injury from high wind or rain
104. 104. Burning Of Bricks • Disadvantages of Clamp Burning: • Burning of bricks is
not uniform, such as bricks at the bottom are over-burnt while at the top are under-burnt.
• Bricks loose their shape, and reason may be their descending downward once the fuel
layer is burnt. • This method can not employed for the manufacturing of large number of
bricks and it is costly in terms of fuel because large amount of heat is wasted. • It can not
be employed in monsoon season. • Time required for burning is too long. • No possibility
to regulate heat, once it start burning.
105. 105. Burning Of Bricks (Kiln Burning) • Kilns are permanent structures, used for
burning. • Fuel - Coal and other locally available materials like wood, cow dung etc. • Two
types based on their principle of construction:
106. 106. Burning Of Bricks (Kiln Burning) Intermittent Kilns: periodic kilns, only one
process can take place at one time. • The brick supply from such kilns is intermittent and
not continuous. • e.g. The Allahabad kiln Continuous Kilns: possible to get supply of
bricks almost continuously. • Used when the bricks are demanded in larger scale and in
short time. • Operations in these chambers are so controlled that at any given time, when
one chamber is in the loading process, another chamber may be in burning stage, third
chamber in the preheating stage, fourth chamber in the cooling stage and fifth chamber
in the unloading or supply stage. • e.g. The Bull’s trench kiln, The Hoffman’s continuous
kiln, The Tunnel kiln.
107. 107. Burning Of Bricks (Kiln Burning) Intermittent Kiln • Rectangular, Four
Permanent Walls. • Totally Underground Or Partly Underground And Partly Over Ground.
• The Longer Walls Are Raised Perpendicular To The Direction Of Prevailing Winds. •
Provided With Number Of Opening Called Flues (F), Exactly Opposite To Each Other For
Charging Fuels And Controlling Air. • Openings Are Provided With Door Sheets, Which
Can Be Raised Or Lowered. • The Shorter Walls Are Provided With Doors For Loading
And Unloading The Bricks. • There Are Four Stages In The Working Of Kiln: • Loading •
Firing • Cooling • Unloading
108. 108. Intermittent Kiln
109. 109. Burning Of Bricks (Kiln Burning) Loading: dried bricks are laid in rows on the
raised portions. • Each row - two to three brick thick. • Height - 8 to 10 brick layers. • Brick
laying in such a manner that make arch-shaped opening for, a) supply of fuel b) supply of
air • While staking, some space is provided between individual bricks for circulation of air
around each brick. • Top layer - covered with thick layer of dry earth, which helps in
preventing escape of heat from the kiln during the burning process.
110. 110. Burning Of Bricks (Kiln Burning) Firing: After loading, fuel is supplied in the
opening at the base, is fired through the arch shaped opening provided for this purpose. •
Low fires: 1 – 2 days for removing moisture left in the brick during the process of drying. •
Firing is brought to full strength. • The flames spread upward baking and burning the
bricks stacked within the body of the kiln in 2 – 3 days time.
111. 111. Burning Of Bricks (Kiln Burning) Cooling: After visual inspection and
ensuring that all the fuel has been burnt, the kiln openings are closed for 7 – 10 days,
which helps in natural slow cooling of the burnt lot of bricks. • Slow cooling is essential for
avoiding development of cracks in the cooling bricks. • If cooling at fast rate, cracks are
 likely to occur and spoil the brick. Unloading: after sufficient cooling, the top layer of the
dust is removed. • Burnt bricks are removed from the top layer to downwards. • The
entire kiln is emptied and thoroughly clean for loading next batch.
112. 112. Burning Of Bricks (Kiln Burning - The Bull’s Trench Kiln) • Principle:
continuous type of kiln. • Number of compartments, which can be operated in sequential
process. • Possible to obtain a regular supply of burnt bricks.
113. 113. Burning Of Bricks (Kiln Burning - The Bull’s Trench Kiln) • Construction:
rectangular, circular or oval shape in the plan. • Below the ground level by excavating a
trench of the required width for the given capacity of brick manufacturing. • Range of
dimension of trench depending upon the desired capacity of the bricks: – Length: 50 –
78m – Width: 6 – 8 m – Depth: 1 – 2 m • A typical trench kiln has two walls: – Inner wall -
continuous and close contact with the inner land part. – Outer wall - number of openings
or gates provided with dampers or doors which can be opened or closed.
114. 114. Burning Of Bricks (Kiln Burning - The Bull’s Trench Kiln)
115. 115. Burning Of Bricks (Kiln Burning - The Bull’s Trench Kiln) • This Trench is
divided generally in 12 chambers so that 2 numbers of cycles of brick burning can take
place at the same time for the larger production of the bricks. • The structure is under-
ground so the heat is conserved to a large extent so it is more efficient. • Once fire is
started it constantly travels from one chamber to the other chamber, while other
operations like loading, unloading, cooling, burning and preheating taking place
simultaneously. • Such kilns are generally constructed to have a manufacturing capacity
of about 20,000 bricks per day. • Drawback: not a permanent roof, so it is not easy to
manufacture the bricks in the monsoon seasons.
116. 116. Burning Of Bricks (Kiln Burning - The Bull’s Trench Kiln)
117. 117. Burning Of Bricks (Kiln Burning - The Bull’s Trench Kiln)
118. 118. Burning Of Bricks (Kiln Burning - The Bull’s Trench Kiln) • Working: • first
prepare to keep all compartments of the kiln in operation. • Each compartment has to
pass through following six stages such as loading, unloading, cooling, burning,
preheating and cleaning.
119. 119. Burning Of Bricks (Kiln Burning - The Bull’s Trench Kiln) • Loading: •
stacking of brick is done carefully within the kiln boundaries • Enough space is left
between any two bricks in a layer for free circulation of hot gases. • Fuel galleries are
made in the lower regions that are continuous with the flues in the outside wall. • Vertical
flues (holes) are left connecting the fuel galleries and horizontal flues. These holes
should be left at approximately every meter during loading. • Arched openings are left at
the end for placing the chimney.
120. 120. Burning Of Bricks (Kiln Burning - The Bull’s Trench Kiln) • The top of the
loaded section is thoroughly covered with 20 – 30 cm deep layer of ash and dust. • Metal
plates may be placed over them during the operation to cover the top.
121. 121. Burning Of Bricks (Kiln Burning - The Bull’s Trench Kiln) • Preheating: • hot
and waste gases from a preceding burning chamber are made to pass to the loaded
chamber by raising the dampers between the two chambers. • Gases are not very hot. •
To make the bricks completely dry and make them ready for final burning. • Burning: •
required volume of air is supplied by regulating the opening by raising of the gates
provided in the outer wall. • Additional quantities of fuel may be added from the flues
provided at the top. • 24 – 30 hours for perfect burning.
122. 122. Burning Of Bricks (Kiln Burning - The Bull’s Trench Kiln) • Cooling: • All the
outer gates are closed by lowering the dampers. • The interdepartmental gates are
opened up for leading the hot gases to the preheating section. • 3 – 4 days to cool down
completely before unloading. • Unloading: • The top layer of ash and dust are first
removed from the top of the section.
123. 123. Burning Of Bricks (Kiln Burning - The Bull’s Trench Kiln) • Advantages : 1)
Cost of fuel is less as heat of hot gases is fully utilized for pre-heating of bricks 2)
Continuous supply 3) High percentage of first class bricks • Disadvantages : 1. High initial
cost 2. Constant skilled supervision is essential
124. 124. Burning of bricks (Kiln Burning - The Hoffman’s continuous kiln) • Principle:
modern and more refined type of brick kiln. • For large number of bricks. • Control
condition of temperature.
125. 125. Burning of bricks (Kiln Burning - The Hoffman’s continuous kiln)
Construction: over ground • It is sometimes known as flame kiln. • Circular in plan and it
is divided into a 12 number of chambers. • Permanent roof - can be worked throughout
the year. • The adjacent chambers are inter connected by doors which can be open or
closed by raising or lowering dampers. • Central chimney is provided, which is connected
to all twelve chamber. • Each chamber is also provided with separate gate in the outer
wall through which it can be loaded, unloaded and fired.
126. 126. Burning Of Bricks (Kiln Burning - The Hoffman’s Continuous Kiln) • Working:
at any time, some chambers can be in burning, other in the preheating, still others in
cooling and some in the unloading stage. • The most important condition for the working
is establishment of upward current of air within the kiln, which can be done by closing all
the outer gates except of the chamber, which is being unloaded. • Natural air enters the
kiln through this gates.
127. 127. Burning Of Bricks (Kiln Burning - The Hoffman’s Continuous Kiln)
128. 128. Burning Of Bricks (Kiln Burning - The Hoffman’s Continuous Kiln) • It is
made to pass through different chambers by opening their interconnecting doors. • The
flue at the back of each chamber is kept closed. • The air will do the job of cooling,
burning and pre- heating. • The air is then enter the chimney for pre-heating stage. • A
scheme of cyclic operation is prepared in advance for working. • There are many
possibilities. Based on time requirement for each stage, we can decide the operation of
the kiln.
129. 129. Burning of bricks (Kiln Burning - The Hoffman’s continuous kiln) •
Advantages : 1. High percentage of first class bricks 2. Regular out-turn of bricks 3.
Bricks are evenly burnt 4. Economy in fuel as all the heat of combustion is utilized •
Disadvantages : 1. High initial cost 2. Constant skilled supervision is essential 3.
Economy demands regular consumption of its output, which may not be possible
everywhere.
130. 130. Burning Of Bricks (Kiln Burning - The Tunnel Kiln) • In form of tunnel. •
Continuous type and highly efficient. • The tunnel is provided with rail tracks for cars. •
Raw bricks are placed in trolleys which are then moved from one end to the other end of
tunnel.
131. 131. Burning Of Bricks (Kiln Burning - The Tunnel Kiln) • Three sections: pre-
heating section, the burning section and the cooling section. • The car loaded with raw
bricks is moved into the pre- heating chamber. The bricks are heated by the waste gases
coming from the burning section. • After few hours stop, the car is moved into the burning
chamber for 20 to 24 hrs. • Then the car is moved to the cooling chamber. • When bricks
are sufficiently cooled, they are unloaded. • The kiln proves to be economical when the
bricks are manufactures on a large scale. • As temperature is under control, uniform
bricks of better quality are produced.
132. 132. COMPARISON BETWEEN CLAMP-BURNING AND KILN-BURNING No.
Item Clamp-burning Kiln-burning 1. Capacity About 20000 to 100000 bricks can be
prepared at a time. Average 25000 bricks can be prepared per day. 2. Cost of fuel Low
as grass, cow dung, litter, etc. may be used. Generally high as coal dust is to be used. 3.
Initial cost Very low as no structures are to be built. More as permanent structures are to
be constructed. 4. Quality of bricks Percentage of good quality bricks is small about 60%
or so. Percentage of good quality bricks is more about 90% or so. 5. Regulation of fire It
is not possible to control or regulate fire during the process of burning Fire is under
control throughout the process of burning. 6. Skilled supervision Not necessary
throughout the process of burning. Continuous skilled supervision is necessary. 7.
Structure Temporary structure. Permanent structure. 8. Suitability Suitable when bricks
are to be manufactured on a small scale and when the demand of bricks is not
continuous. Suitable when bricks are to be manufactured on a large scale and when
there is continuous demand of bricks. 9. Time of burning and cooling. It requires about 2
to 6 months for burning and cooling of bricks. Actual time for burning of one chamber is
 about 24 hours and only about 12 days are required for cooling of bricks. 10. Wastage of
heat. There is considerable wastage of heat from top and sides and hot flue gas is not
properly utilized. Hot flue gas is used to dry and pre-heat raw bricks. Hence wastage of
heat is the least.
133. 133. Comparison Between Bull’s Trench And Hoffmans Kiln No. Item Bull’s
Trench kiln Hoffman’s kiln 1. Continuity Semi-continuous in strict sense because it has no
roof and can not burn bricks during monsoon. Perfect, because it has a permanent roof
and burning operations can be carried out through out the year. 2. Initial cost Low,
because construction is ordinary type. High, because construction requires perfect
designing and high quality material. 3. Operating cost Higher, because quantity of fuel
consumed is more and conservation of heat is less. Lower, because maximum
conservation of heat is possible in this type of kiln 4. Quality of bricks Ratio of best quality
to total bricks is less. Ratio of best quality to total bricks is quite high. 5 Suitability
Suitable for low investment production of bricks Most suitable for semi mechanized and
mechanized production