PRI

NCI
PLESOFFLI
GHT

Thepr
inci
plesoff
li
ghtar
ethef
undament
alconcept
sthatexpl
ainhowanai
rcr
afti
s
abl
etoachi
eveandmai
ntai
ncont
rol
l
edf
li
ght
.Under
standi
ngt
hesepr
inci
plesi
s
cr
uci
alf
orpi
l
ots.Her
ear
ethef
ourpr
imar
ypr
inci
plesoff
li
ght
:

1.Li
ft
:Li
fti
stheupwar
dfor
cet
hatopposest
heai
rcr
aft
'swei
ghtandkeepsi
t
ai
rbor
ne.I
tisgener
atedbyt
hewi
ngsasai
rfl
owsov
erandundert
hem.The
shapeoft
hewi
ng(
air
foi
l
)andt
heangl
eatwhi
chi
tmeet
stheoncomi
ng
ai
rf
low (
angl
eofat
tack)ar
ekeyf
act
orsi
ngener
ati
ngl
i
ft.Ast
heai
rfl
ows
f
ast
erov
ert
hecur
veduppersur
faceoft
hewi
ng,i
tcr
eat
esl
owerpr
essur
e,
whi
l
ethe sl
ower
-mov
ing ai
rbeneat
hthe wi
ng cr
eat
es hi
gherpr
essur
e,
r
esul
ti
ngi
nli
ft
.

2.Wei
ght(
Grav
ity
):Wei
ghti
sthef
orceexer
tedbygr
avi
tyont
heai
rcr
aft
.Itact
s
v
ert
ical
l
ydownwar
dthr
ought
heai
rcr
aft
'
scent
erofgr
avi
ty.Tomai
ntai
nlev
el
f
li
ght
,li
ftmustequal
wei
ght
.Ifl
i
fti
sgr
eat
ert
hanwei
ght
,theai
rcr
aftwi
l
lcl
i
mb;
i
fli
fti
slesst
hanwei
ght
,theai
rcr
aftwi
l
ldescend.

3.Thr
ust
:Thr
usti
sthef
orwar
dfor
cet
hatpr
opel
stheai
rcr
aftt
hrought
heai
r.I
t
i
sgener
atedbyt
heengi
nes,whet
hert
heyar
epr
opel
l
ersorj
etengi
nes.The
engi
nespr
oducet
hrustbyexpel
l
ingahi
gh-
vel
oci
tyst
ream ofgasesi
nthe
opposi
tedi
rect
iont
othedesi
redai
rcr
aftmov
ement
,accor
dingt
oNewt
on'
s
t
hir
dlawofmot
ion(
forev
eryact
ion,
ther
eisanequal
andopposi
ter
eact
ion)
.

4.Dr
ag:Dr
agi
sther
esi
stanceencount
eredbyt
heai
rcr
aftasi
tmov
est
hrough
t
heai
r.I
topposest
hef
orwar
dmot
ionandi
scausedbyv
ari
ousf
act
ors,
i
ncl
udi
ngai
rfr
ict
ion,t
heshapeoft
heai
rcr
aft
,andt
hepr
esenceofpr
otr
udi
ng
obj
ect
sli
ke l
andi
ng gearorant
ennas.Pi
l
ots ai
m t
o mi
nimi
ze dr
ag t
o
maxi
mizeef
fi
ciencyandspeed.

Thesef
ourpr
inci
pleswor
ktoget
hert
oenabl
econt
rol
l
edf
li
ght
.Pi
l
otsmani
pul
atet
he
ai
rcr
aft
'scont
rol
s,suchast
heai
l
erons,
elev
ator
s,andr
udder
,tocont
rol
thef
orcesof
l
i
ft,
wei
ght
,thr
ust
,anddr
ag.Byadj
ust
ingt
hesef
orces,
pil
otscanper
for
m maneuv
ers,
cl
i
mb,
descend,
andmai
ntai
nst
abl
efl
i
ght
.It
'
simpor
tantt
onot
ethatt
hesepr
inci
ples
ar
esi
mpl
i
fiedexpl
anat
ionsofcompl
exaer
ody
nami
cconcept
s.

1
Mai
npar
tsanai
rcr
aft

Theansweri
s#t
hree.Andt
hey
’recal
l
ed#Ai
rf
rame,
#powerpl
antand#Av
ioni
cs.

1.Ai
rf
rame:
-ist
heext
ernal
l
yvi
sibl
est
ruct
ureofanai
rcr
aftasy
oui
texcl
udi
ng
t
he power
-pl
antpar
ts.Wi
ngs,pr
imar
ycont
rolsur
faces l
i
ke el
evat
orand
r
udder
,landi
nggear
set
car
ethegoodexampl
esofai
rcr
aftai
rf
ramepar
ts.

2.Powerpl
ant
:-i
sthepowerhouseofanai
rcr
aftasi
tsnamei
ndi
cat
es.I
t
i
ncl
udest
heengi
neofai
rcr
aftpl
ussomeaccessor
iesl
i
keengi
necowl
sthat
cov
ert
heengi
neandi
tssuppor
t.Wher
east
hef
inal
andt
hir
donei
scal
l
edt
he

3.Av
ioni
cs:
-par
tsofanai
rcr
aftt
hatconsi
stsofbot
h#el
ect
ri
caland#el
ect
roni
c
component
s.Forexampl
e,al
lthenav
igat
ioni
nst
rument
s,al
lthei
nter
naland
ext
ernall
i
ght
ingofanai
rcr
aft
,al
ltheheat
ersandgal
l
eysonboar
dtheai
rcr
aft
andal
ltheI
FU(
In-
fl
ightEnt
ert
ainmentUni
ts)l
i
kedi
spl
ayuni
tsar
epar
toft
he
#Av
ioni
csoft
heai
rcr
aft
.Ify
ouwoul
dli
ket
oknow mor
eabouti
t,y
oucoul
d
br
owseani
nter
netandgetmanyamazi
ngbookswr
it
tenont
hist
opi
c.

Av
ioni
csTechni
cian

An Ai
rcr
aft Av
ioni
cs Techni
cian speci
ali
zes i
nthe i
nst
all
ati
on,mai
ntenance,
t
roubl
eshoot
ing,andr
epai
rofav
ioni
cssy
stemsi
nai
rcr
aft
.Av
ioni
csr
efer
stot
he
el
ect
roni
csy
stemsusedi
nav
iat
ion,i
ncl
udi
ngcommuni
cat
ion,nav
igat
ion,andf
li
ght
cont
rolsy
stems.Ther
oleofanAi
rcr
aftAv
ioni
csTechni
ciani
scr
uci
ali
nensur
ingt
he
saf
e and ef
fi
ci
entoper
ati
on ofmoder
n ai
rcr
aft
.Let
's expl
oret
hei
rdut
ies and
r
esponsi
bil
i
ties:

1.Av
ioni
cs Sy
stem Mai
ntenance: Av
ioni
cs Techni
cians per
for
m r
out
ine
i
nspect
ionsandmai
ntenanceont
heai
rcr
aft
'
sav
ioni
cssy
stems.Theyensur
e
t
hatal
lcomponent
s,i
ncl
udi
ngr
adi
os,nav
igat
ioni
nst
rument
s,t
ransponder
s,
aut
opi
l
otsy
stems,
andot
herel
ect
roni
cdev
ices,
aref
unct
ioni
ngpr
oper
ly.

2.Sy
stem I
nst
all
ati
onandUpgr
ades:Av
ioni
csTechni
ciansar
eresponsi
blef
or
i
nst
all
i
ngnew av
ioni
cssy
stems,upgr
adi
ngexi
sti
ngsy
stems,orr
epl
aci
ng
out
dat
edequi
pment
.Theyf
oll
owt
echni
cal
speci
fi
cat
ionsandwi
ri
ngdi
agr
ams
t
o ensur
e pr
oper i
nst
all
ati
on,al
i
gnment
,and i
ntegr
ati
on of av
ioni
cs

2
 component
s.

Thef
usel
age

Thef
usel
agei
sthemai
nbodyst
ruct
ureofanai
rcr
aft
.Iti
sty
pical
l
ycy
li
ndr
icalor
t
ubul
ari
nshapeandhousest
hecockpi
t,passengerorcar
gocompar
tment
s,and
ot
heressent
ialcomponent
soft
heai
rcr
aft
.Her
ear
esomekeyaspect
soft
he
f
usel
age:

1.St
ruct
ure:Thef
usel
agei
sdesi
gnedt
opr
ovi
dest
ruct
urali
ntegr
it
yandsuppor
t
t
otheent
ir
eai
rcr
aft
.Iti
susual
l
yconst
ruct
edusi
ngl
i
ght
wei
ghtmat
eri
alssuch
asal
umi
num,
composi
temat
eri
als,
oracombi
nat
ionofbot
h.Thest
ruct
urei
s
r
einf
orcedwi
thf
rames,
longer
ons(
longi
tudi
nalst
ruct
uralmember
s),
str
inger
s
(
hor
izont
alorv
ert
ical
suppor
tmember
s),
andbul
kheads(
transv
ersepar
ti
ti
ons)
t
odi
str
ibut
eloadsandmai
ntai
ntheshapeoft
hef
usel
age.

2.Cockpi
t:Thecockpi
tisl
ocat
edatt
hef
rontoft
hef
usel
ageandser
vesast
he
cont
rolcent
erf
ort
hepi
l
ots.I
thousest
hef
li
ghtcont
rol
s,i
nst
rument
s,and
nav
igat
ion equi
pmentnecessar
yforoper
ati
ng t
he ai
rcr
aft
.The cockpi
t
wi
ndowspr
ovi
dev
isi
bil
i
tyf
ort
hepi
l
ots.

3.Passenger
/Car
go Compar
tment
s: Behi
nd t
he cockpi
t,t
he f
usel
age
accommodat
est
hepassengerorcar
gocompar
tment
s,dependi
ngont
het
ype
ofai
rcr
aft
.Incommer
cialai
rl
iner
s,t
hef
usel
agei
sdi
vi
dedi
ntosect
ionswi
th
seat
sforpassenger
s,whi
l
eincar
goai
rcr
aft
,thef
usel
agei
sdesi
gnedt
ocar
ry
f
rei
ght
.

4.Door
sandWi
ndows:
Thef
usel
agehasv
ari
ousdoor
sandwi
ndowsf
oraccess,
v
ent
il
ati
on,
andemer
gencyexi
ts.Thesei
ncl
udepassengerdoor
s,car
godoor
s,
emer
gencyexi
ts,
andwi
ndowsf
ornat
ural
li
ghtandv
isi
bil
i
ty.

5.Av
ioni
csand Sy
stems:Thef
usel
agehousesav
ioni
cssy
stems,i
ncl
udi
ng
communi
cat
ion,nav
igat
ion,and f
li
ghtcont
rolsy
stems.I
tal
so cont
ains
el
ect
ri
calwi
ri
ng,hy
draul
i
cand pneumat
icsy
stems,f
uelt
anks,and ot
her
essent
ial
component
srequi
redf
ort
heai
rcr
aft
'soper
ati
on.

3
 6.Tai
lSect
ionAt
tachment
:Ther
earpar
toft
hef
usel
agei
swher
ethet
ail
sect
ion,knownast
heempennage,i
sat
tached.Theempennagei
ncl
udest
he
hor
izont
alst
abi
l
izer
,ver
ti
calst
abi
l
izer
,andcont
rolsur
facesl
i
keel
evat
orsand
r
udder
,whi
chhel
pcont
rol
theai
rcr
aft
'
spi
tchandy
aw.

7.Aer
ody
nami
c Consi
der
ati
ons:The shape oft
he f
usel
age i
s desi
gned t
o
mi
nimi
ze dr
ag and opt
imi
ze aer
ody
nami
c per
for
mance.Di
ff
erentai
rcr
aft
t
ypeshav
evar
yingf
usel
ageshapes,suchascy
li
ndr
ical
,ov
al,orst
reaml
i
ned,
dependi
ngont
hei
rint
endedpur
poseandper
for
mancer
equi
rement
s.

Thef
usel
agei
sacr
it
icalcomponentofanai
rcr
aft
,pr
ovi
dingst
ruct
urali
ntegr
it
y,
housi
ngessent
ialsy
stemsandcomponent
s,andaccommodat
ingpassenger
sor
car
go.I
ts desi
gn and const
ruct
ion ar
e car
eful
l
y engi
neer
ed t
o ensur
e saf
ety
,
ef
fi
ciency
,andopt
imal
per
for
mancedur
ingf
li
ght
.

1.Test
ing and Tr
oubl
eshoot
ing:Av
ioni
cs Techni
cians conductt
est
s and
di
agnost
icpr
ocedur
est
oident
if
ymal
funct
ionsori
ssuesi
nav
ioni
cssy
stems.
Theyusespeci
ali
zedt
ool
s,i
ncl
udi
ngmul
ti
met
ers,osci
l
loscopes,andot
her
t
estequi
pment
,to di
agnosepr
obl
emsand per
for
m necessar
yrepai
rsor
adj
ust
ment
s.

2.Repai
rs and Component Repl
acement
: When av
ioni
cs sy
stems or
component
s r
equi
re r
epai
r,Av
ioni
cs Techni
cians ar
e r
esponsi
ble f
or
t
roubl
eshoot
ing,
repai
ri
ng,
orr
epl
aci
ngf
aul
typar
ts.Thi
smayi
nvol
vesol
der
ing,
wi
ri
ngr
epai
rs,componentl
evelt
roubl
eshoot
ing,orcal
i
brat
ionofel
ect
roni
c
dev
icest
orest
orepr
operf
unct
ioni
ng.

3.Compl
iance and Document
ati
on:Av
ioni
cs Techni
cians mai
ntai
n accur
ate
document
ati
onofmai
ntenanceact
ivi
ti
es,
repai
rs,
inst
all
ati
onr
ecor
ds,
andany
modi
fi
cat
ions made t
o av
ioni
cs sy
stems.They ensur
e compl
i
ance wi
th
r
egul
ator
yrequi
rement
sandt
rackt
hehi
stor
yofav
ioni
cswor
ktof
aci
l
itat
e
f
utur
einspect
ionsorupgr
ades.

4.Sof
twar
eUpgr
adesandDat
abaseManagement
:Wi
tht
hei
ncr
easi
nguseof
sof
twar
einav
ioni
cssy
stems,Av
ioni
csTechni
ciansar
einv
olv
edi
nmanagi
ng
sof
twar
eupdat
es,l
oadi
ng dat
abases,and ensur
ing t
hecompat
ibi
l
ityand

4
 i
ntegr
it
yofav
ioni
cssof
twar
e.

5.Col
labor
ati
onandCommuni
cat
ion:Av
ioni
csTechni
cianswor
kcl
osel
ywi
th
ot
herai
rcr
aftmai
ntenancepr
ofessi
onal
s,i
ncl
udi
ngmechani
csandengi
neer
s.
Theycol
l
abor
atet
ocoor
dinat
eav
ioni
cs-
rel
atedt
asks,t
roubl
eshootcompl
ex
i
ssues,
andensur
etheov
eral
lfunct
ional
i
tyoft
heai
rcr
aft
.

6.Cont
inualLear
ningandTr
aini
ng:Av
ioni
csTechni
ciansneedt
okeeppace
wi
th adv
ancement
sin av
ioni
cs t
echnol
ogy
.They par
ti
cipat
eint
rai
ning
pr
ogr
ams,at
tendwor
kshops,andst
ayupdat
edwi
thi
ndust
ryst
andar
dsand
r
egul
ati
onst
opr
oper
lymai
ntai
nandr
epai
rav
ioni
cssy
stems.

Av
ioni
csTechni
ci
anscanwor
kinv
ari
ousav
iat
ionsect
ors,i
ncl
udi
ngcommer
cial
ai
rl
ines,gener
alav
iat
ion,aer
ospacemanuf
act
uri
ng,orai
rcr
aftmai
ntenanceand
r
epai
ror
gani
zat
ions.
Thei
rexper
ti
seandat
tent
iont
odet
ailar
ecr
it
icali
nmai
ntai
ning
t
her
eli
abi
l
ity
,per
for
mance,and saf
etyofav
ioni
cssy
stems,whi
ch ar
evi
talf
or
communi
cat
ion,
nav
igat
ion,
andf
li
ghtcont
rol
dur
ingai
rcr
aftoper
ati
ons.

Ai
rcr
aftMechani
c

AnAi
rcr
aftmechani
cisaski
l
ledpr
ofessi
onalwhoper
for
msmai
ntenance,r
epai
rs,
andi
nspect
ionsonai
rcr
aft
.Theyar
eresponsi
blef
orensur
ingt
hesaf
eoper
ati
onand
ai
rwor
thi
nessofai
rcr
aft
.Let
'sdel
vei
ntot
hei
rdut
iesandr
esponsi
bil
i
ties:

1.Mai
ntenance and I
nspect
ions: Ai
rcr
aft mechani
cs conduct r
out
ine
mai
ntenancet
asksandi
nspect
ionsonai
rcr
aftt
oensur
etheymeetr
egul
ator
y
r
equi
rement
s and manuf
act
urer
's speci
fi
cat
ions.Thi
sincl
udes i
nspect
ing
component
s,maki
ngadj
ust
ment
s,l
ubr
icat
ingpar
ts,
andr
epl
aci
ngorr
epai
ri
ng
sy
stemsasneeded.

2.Repai
rsandTr
oubl
eshoot
ing:Wheni
ssuesormal
funct
ionsar
isei
nai
rcr
aft
sy
stems,
mechani
csar
eresponsi
blef
ordi
agnosi
ngpr
obl
emsandper
for
ming
r
epai
rs.Theyuse speci
ali
zed t
ool
s,di
agnost
ic equi
pment
,and t
echni
cal
manual
stot
roubl
eshootandr
ect
if
yissuesi
nar
eassuchasengi
nes,
elect
ri
cal
sy
stems,
avi
oni
cs,
fli
ghtcont
rol
s,hy
draul
i
csy
stems,
andmor
e.

3.Component Ov
erhaul and Repl
acement
: Mechani
cs ar
e pr
ofi
cient i
n

5
 ov
erhaul
i
ng,r
epai
ri
ng,and r
epl
aci
ng v
ari
ous ai
rcr
aft component
s and
sy
stems,suchasengi
nes,l
andi
ng gear
,br
akes,f
uelsy
stems,pr
opel
l
ers,
i
nst
rument
s,andot
hermechani
calorel
ect
ri
calpar
ts.Thi
sensur
est
hatt
he
ai
rcr
aft
'scr
it
icalsy
stemsar
efunct
ioni
ngpr
oper
lyandi
naccor
dancewi
th
r
egul
ati
ons.

4.Compl
iancewi
thRegul
ator
ySt
andar
ds:Ai
rcr
aftmechani
csadher
etost
ri
ct
av
iat
ion r
egul
ati
ons, i
ncl
udi
ng t
hose set by t
he Feder
al Av
iat
ion
Admi
nist
rat
ion(
FAA)orot
herr
elev
antaut
hor
it
iesdependi
ngont
hecount
ry.
Theymustf
oll
owmai
ntenancepr
ocedur
esandcompl
ywi
thsaf
etyst
andar
ds
t
omai
ntai
nai
rwor
thi
nessandensur
eregul
ator
ycompl
i
ance.

5.Document
ati
onandRecor
d-Keepi
ng:Ai
rcr
aftmechani
csmai
ntai
nthor
ough
r
ecor
ds of al
lmai
ntenance and r
epai
rs per
for
med on ai
rcr
aft
. Thi
s
document
ati
oni
scr
uci
alf
orcompl
i
ance,t
racki
ngmai
ntenancehi
stor
y,and
ensur
ing t
raceabi
l
ity ofwor
k per
for
med.Accur
ater
ecor
d-keepi
ng hel
ps
mai
ntai
nsaf
ety
,faci
l
itat
esf
utur
einspect
ions,
andai
dsi
ntr
oubl
eshoot
ing.

6.Saf
ety and Qual
it
y Assur
ance:Mechani
cs pr
ior
it
ize saf
ety and qual
i
ty
assur
ancei
nthei
rwor
k.Theyf
oll
owpr
operpr
ocedur
es,
prot
ocol
s,andsaf
ety
measur
est
omi
nimi
zer
isksandensur
ethatai
rcr
aftar
emai
ntai
nedt
othe
hi
ghestst
andar
ds.Theyal
sopar
ti
cipat
einsaf
etypr
ogr
amsandcont
ri
but
eto
f
ost
eri
ngacul
tur
eofsaf
etywi
thi
ntheav
iat
ioni
ndust
ry.

7.Cont
inuous Lear
ning and Cer
ti
fi
cat
ion:Ai
rcr
aft mechani
cs engage i
n
cont
inuous l
ear
ning and pr
ofessi
onaldev
elopmentt
o st
ayupdat
ed wi
th
ev
olv
ing t
echnol
ogi
es,r
egul
ati
ons,and i
ndust
rybestpr
act
ices.Theymay
pur
sueaddi
ti
onalcer
ti
fi
cat
ions,at
tendt
rai
ningpr
ogr
ams,andpar
ti
cipat
ein
wor
kshopst
oenhancet
hei
rski
l
lsandknowl
edge.

Ai
rcr
aftmechani
cswor
kinv
ari
ousset
ti
ngs,i
ncl
udi
ngaer
ospacemanuf
act
uri
ng
compani
es,ai
rl
ines,mai
ntenance and r
epai
ror
gani
zat
ions (
MROs)
,and pr
ivat
e
av
iat
ionmai
ntenancef
aci
l
iti
es.Thei
rexper
ti
se,
att
ent
iont
odet
ail
,anddedi
cat
ionar
e
cr
uci
alf
ormai
ntai
ningt
her
eli
abi
l
ityandsaf
etyofai
rcr
aft
.

Becomi
nganai
rcr
aftmechani
cty
pical
l
yinv
olv
escompl
eti
nganappr
ovedav
iat
ion

6
mai
ntenancet
echni
ci
anpr
ogr
am,aswel
lasobt
aini
ngr
elev
antcer
ti
fi
cat
ionsf
rom
av
iat
ionr
egul
ator
yaut
hor
it
ies.

Wi
ngsofAi
rcr
aft

Thewi
ngsofanai
rcr
aftar
ethepr
imar
yli
ft
ingsur
facest
hatgener
atet
hemaj
ori
tyof
t
hel
i
ftr
equi
redf
orf
li
ght
.Theyar
eat
tachedt
othef
usel
ageandpl
ayacr
uci
alr
olei
n
t
heaer
ody
nami
cper
for
manceoft
heai
rcr
aft
.Her
ear
esomekeyaspect
sofai
rcr
aft
wi
ngs:

1.ShapeandAi
rf
oil
:Thewi
ngshav
easpeci
fi
cshape,
knownasanai
rf
oil
,whi
ch
i
sdesi
gnedt
ogener
atel
i
ftef
fi
cient
ly.Theai
rf
oilshapei
scur
vedont
het
op
sur
faceandf
lat
teront
hebot
tom sur
face.Thi
sasy
mmet
ri
calshapecr
eat
esa
pr
essur
e di
ff
erence,wi
thl
owerpr
essur
e on t
he t
op sur
face and hi
gher
pr
essur
eont
hebot
tom sur
face,
resul
ti
ngi
nli
ft
.

2.Wi
ng St
ruct
ure:The wi
ngs ar
ety
pical
l
y const
ruct
ed usi
ng l
i
ght
wei
ght
mat
eri
alssuchasal
umi
num,composi
temat
eri
als,oracombi
nat
ionofbot
h.
Theyconsi
stofspar
s(l
ongi
tudi
nalst
ruct
uralmember
s),r
ibs(
transv
erse
st
ruct
uralmember
s),
andski
npanel
sthatpr
ovi
det
henecessar
yst
rengt
hand
r
igi
dit
y.I
nter
nalwi
ngst
ruct
ureal
sohousesf
uelt
anks,cont
rolmechani
sms,
andot
hersy
stems.

3.Wi
ngt
ip:Theout
ermostpar
toft
hewi
ngsi
scal
l
edt
hewi
ngt
ip.Wi
ngt
ipscan
hav
evar
iousshapes,suchasr
ounded,squar
ed,orwi
ngl
ets.Wi
ngl
etsar
e
v
ert
icalext
ensi
onsatt
hewi
ngt
ipt
hathel
preducedr
agandi
mpr
ovef
uel
ef
fi
ciencybymi
nimi
zi
ngt
hef
ormat
ionofv
ort
icesatt
hewi
ngt
ip.

4.Wi
ngFl
aps:Wi
ngsof
tenhav
emov
abl
esur
facescal
l
edf
laps,l
ocat
edal
ong
t
het
rai
l
ingedge.Fl
apscanbeext
endedorr
etr
act
edt
ochanget
hewi
ng'
s
shapeandi
ncr
easel
i
ftdur
ingt
akeof
fandl
andi
ng.Byi
ncr
easi
ngt
hewi
ng'
s
sur
facear
ea,
flapsal
l
owt
heai
rcr
aftt
ofl
yatsl
owerspeedswhi
l
emai
ntai
ning
l
i
ft.

5.Wi
ngSweep:
Someai
rcr
aftwi
ngshav
easwept
-backorswept
-f
orwar
ddesi
gn,
wher
ethewi
ngsar
eangl
edbackwar
dorf
orwar
drel
ati
vet
othef
usel
age.
Wi
ngsweephel
psi
mpr
ovehi
gh-
speedper
for
mancebyr
educi
ngdr
agand

7
 i
ncr
easi
ngcr
it
icalMachnumber(
thespeedatwhi
chai
rf
low ov
ert
hewi
ng
becomessuper
soni
c).

6.Wi
ngAr
eaandAspectRat
io:Thewi
ngar
ear
efer
stot
het
otalsur
facear
eaof
t
hewi
ngs,whi
l
etheaspectr
ati
oist
her
ati
ooft
hewi
ngspant
otheav
erage
chor
dlengt
h(wi
dth)oft
hewi
ng.Thesef
act
orsaf
fectt
hel
i
ftand dr
ag
char
act
eri
sti
csoft
hewi
ngs.Al
argerwi
ngar
eagener
all
ypr
ovi
desmor
eli
ft
,
whi
l
eahi
gheraspectr
ati
oreducesdr
ag.

7.Wi
ngFuelTanks:I
nmanyai
rcr
aft
,thewi
ngsal
soser
veasf
uelst
oraget
anks.
Thi
sdesi
gnal
l
owsf
oref
fi
cientuseofspaceandhel
psmai
ntai
ntheai
rcr
aft
's
cent
erofgr
avi
tyasf
uel
isconsumeddur
ingf
li
ght
.

Thedesi
gnandconf
igur
ati
onofai
rcr
aftwi
ngsar
ecar
eful
l
yengi
neer
edt
oopt
imi
ze
l
i
ft,mi
nimi
zedr
ag,andensur
est
abi
l
ityandcont
roldur
ingf
li
ght
.Di
ff
erentt
ypesof
ai
rcr
aft
,such ascommer
cialai
rl
iner
s,mi
l
itar
yfi
ght
ers,and gl
i
der
s,hav
ewi
ngs
t
ail
oredt
othei
rspeci
fi
crequi
rement
sandper
for
mancechar
act
eri
sti
cs.

Theempennage

Theempennage,al
soknownast
het
ailsect
ion,i
sther
earpar
tofanai
rcr
aftt
hat
i
ncl
udest
hehor
izont
alst
abi
l
izer
,ver
ti
calst
abi
l
izer
,andassoci
atedcont
rolsur
faces.
I
tpl
aysacr
uci
alr
olei
nst
abi
l
ity
,cont
rol
,andmaneuv
erabi
l
ity
.Her
ear
esomekey
aspect
soft
heempennage:

1.Ver
ti
calSt
abi
li
zer
:Thev
ert
icalst
abi
l
izer
,al
socal
l
edt
hef
in,i
sav
ert
ical
sur
facel
ocat
edatt
her
earoft
heai
rcr
aft
.Itpr
ovi
desst
abi
l
ityi
nthey
awaxi
s
(
side-
to-
sidemov
ement
)andhousest
her
udder
,whi
chi
samov
abl
econt
rol
sur
faceat
tachedt
othet
rai
l
ingedgeoft
hev
ert
icalst
abi
l
izer
.Ther
udderi
s
usedt
ocont
rol
theai
rcr
aft
'
syaw,
all
owi
ngi
ttot
urnl
eftorr
ight
.

2.Hor
izont
alSt
abi
li
zer
:Thehor
izont
alst
abi
l
izeri
sahor
izont
alsur
facel
ocat
ed
att
he r
earoft
he ai
rcr
aft
,ty
pical
l
yat
tached t
othe v
ert
icalst
abi
l
izer
.It
pr
ovi
desst
abi
l
ityi
nthepi
tchaxi
s(up-
and-
downmov
ement
).Thehor
izont
al
st
abi
l
izermayhav
efi
xedormov
abl
econt
rolsur
facescal
l
edel
evat
ors.The

8
 el
evat
orsar
eused t
o cont
rolt
heai
rcr
aft
'
spi
tch,al
l
owi
ng i
tto cl
i
mb or
descend.

3.El
evat
ors:Theel
evat
orsar
emov
abl
econt
rolsur
facesat
tachedt
othet
rai
l
ing
edgeoft
hehor
izont
alst
abi
l
izer
.Theyar
eusedt
ocont
rolt
heai
rcr
aft
'spi
tch
bychangi
ngt
heangl
eoft
hehor
izont
alst
abi
l
izer
.Whent
heel
evat
orsar
e
def
lect
ed upwar
d,t
he ai
rcr
aftpi
tches up,and when t
hey ar
e def
lect
ed
downwar
d,t
heai
rcr
aftpi
tchesdown.

4.Rudder
:Ther
udderi
samov
abl
econt
rolsur
faceat
tachedt
othet
rai
l
ingedge
oft
hev
ert
icalst
abi
l
izer
.Iti
susedt
ocont
rolt
heai
rcr
aft
'sy
awbychangi
ngt
he
angl
eoft
hev
ert
icalst
abi
l
izer
.Whent
her
udderi
sdef
lect
edt
oonesi
de,i
t
cr
eat
esaf
orcet
hatcausest
heai
rcr
aftt
oyawi
ntheopposi
tedi
rect
ion.

5.Tr
im Tabs:Tr
imt
absar
esmal
l
,adj
ust
abl
esur
facesl
ocat
edont
het
rai
l
ing
edgesoft
heel
evat
orsandr
udder
.Theyar
eusedt
ofi
ne-
tunet
hecont
rol
f
orcesandmai
ntai
nthedesi
redf
li
ghtat
ti
tudewi
thoutt
heneedf
orcont
inuous
pi
l
oti
nput
.Byadj
ust
ingt
het
ri
mtabs,t
hepi
l
otcanr
eli
evecont
rolpr
essur
es
andachi
eveabal
ancedf
li
ght
.

6.Ant
i-
Ice and De-
Ice Sy
stems:I
n some ai
rcr
aft
,the empennage maybe
equi
ppedwi
thant
i-
iceorde-
icesy
stemst
opr
eventi
ceaccumul
ati
onont
he
cont
rolsur
faces.Thesesy
stemst
ypi
cal
l
yuseheat
ingel
ement
sorpneumat
ic
sy
stems t
oremov
e orpr
eventi
ce f
ormat
ion,ensur
ing pr
opercont
rol
ef
fect
iveness.

Theempennagei
sdesi
gnedt
opr
ovi
dest
abi
l
ity
,cont
rol
,andmaneuv
erabi
l
ityt
othe
ai
rcr
aft
.It
sconf
igur
ati
onandcont
rolsur
facesal
l
ow pi
l
otst
omai
ntai
nthedesi
red
f
li
ghtpat
h,maket
urns,
andcont
rol
theai
rcr
aft
'
sat
ti
tudedur
ingv
ari
ousf
li
ghtphases.
The si
ze,shape,and pl
acementoft
he empennage component
s ar
e car
eful
l
y
engi
neer
edt
oensur
esaf
eandef
fi
cientf
li
ghtoper
ati
ons.

Engi
neofAi
rcr
aft

Thepr
opul
sionsy
stem ofanai
rcr
afti
sresponsi
blef
orgener
ati
ngt
henecessar
y
t
hrustt
oov
ercomedr
agandpr
opelt
heai
rcr
aftt
hrought
heai
r.Ther
ear
edi
ff
erent
t
ypesofpr
opul
si
onsy
stemsusedi
nai
rcr
aft
,butt
hemostcommononesar
e:

9
 1.JetEngi
nes:Jetengi
nesar
ewi
del
yusedi
nmoder
nai
rcr
aft
.Theywor
kont
he
pr
inci
pleofj
etpr
opul
sion,wher
eai
risdr
awni
ntot
heengi
ne,compr
essed,
mi
xedwi
thf
uel
,igni
ted,andexpel
l
edathi
ghspeedst
hroughanozzl
eatt
he
r
earoft
heengi
ne.Thef
orcegener
atedbyt
heexpel
l
edgasescr
eat
esf
orwar
d
t
hrust
.Jetengi
nescanbef
urt
hercl
assi
fi
edi
ntot
urboj
et,
tur
bof
an,
tur
bopr
op,
andt
urboshaf
tengi
nes,
dependi
ngont
hei
rspeci
fi
cdesi
gnandappl
i
cat
ion.

2.Pi
stonEngi
nes:Pi
stonengi
nes,al
soknownasr
eci
procat
ingengi
nes,ar
e
commonl
y used i
n smal
l
er gener
alav
iat
ion ai
rcr
aft
.They oper
ate by
conv
ert
ingt
her
eci
procat
ingmot
ionofpi
stonsi
ntor
otat
ionalmot
ion,whi
ch
dr
ivesapr
opel
l
er.Thepr
opel
l
ert
hengener
atest
hrustbycr
eat
ingapr
essur
e
di
ff
erencebet
weent
hef
rontandbacksur
facesofi
tsbl
ades.

3.El
ect
ri
cPr
opul
sion:El
ect
ri
cpr
opul
sionsy
stemsar
egai
ningpopul
ari
tyi
nthe
av
iat
ioni
ndust
ry,
par
ti
cul
arl
yforsmal
l
erai
rcr
aftandunmannedaer
ial
vehi
cles
(
UAVs)
.Thesesy
stemsuseel
ect
ri
cmot
orspower
edbybat
ter
iesorf
uelcel
l
s
t
o dr
ive pr
opel
l
ers orf
ans,gener
ati
ng t
hrust
.El
ect
ri
c pr
opul
sion of
fer
s
adv
ant
agessuchasr
educednoi
se,l
oweremi
ssi
ons,andpot
ent
ial
l
ylower
oper
ati
ngcost
s.

4.Ramj
etsandScr
amj
ets:Ramj
etsandscr
amj
etsar
especi
ali
zedt
ypesofj
et
engi
nesusedf
orhi
gh-
speedf
li
ght
.Ramj
etsoper
atebycompr
essi
ngi
ncomi
ng
ai
rusi
ngt
hef
orwar
dspeedoft
heai
rcr
aft
,whi
l
escr
amj
etsachi
evesuper
soni
c
combust
ion by compr
essi
ng and sl
owi
ng down i
ncomi
ng ai
r bef
ore
combust
ion.These engi
nes ar
ety
pical
l
y used i
n hy
per
soni
c ai
rcr
aftor
mi
ssi
l
es.

Thechoi
ceofpr
opul
si
onsy
stem dependsonv
ari
ousf
act
ors,i
ncl
udi
ngt
hesi
zeand
t
ypeofai
rcr
aft
,desi
redper
for
mancechar
act
eri
sti
cs,oper
ati
ngcondi
ti
ons,andf
uel
ef
fi
ciencyr
equi
rement
s.Eachpr
opul
sionsy
stem hasi
tsadv
ant
agesandl
i
mit
ati
ons,
andai
rcr
aftmanuf
act
urer
ssel
ectt
hemostsui
tabl
eopt
ionbasedont
hespeci
fi
c
needsoft
heai
rcr
aftandi
tsi
ntendeduse.

Landi
nggear

Thel
andi
nggearofanai
rcr
afti
sthest
ruct
uret
hatsuppor
tst
hewei
ghtoft
he

10
ai
rcr
aftdur
ing l
andi
ng,t
akeof
f,and gr
ound oper
ati
ons.I
tconsi
sts ofsev
eral
component
sdesi
gnedt
opr
ovi
dest
abi
l
ity
,shockabsor
pti
on,
andmaneuv
erabi
l
ityon
t
hegr
ound.Her
ear
esomekeyaspect
sofai
rcr
aftl
andi
nggear
:

1.Mai
nLandi
ngGear
:Themai
nlandi
nggeari
slocat
edbeneat
hthewi
ngsor
f
usel
ageandsuppor
tst
hemaj
ori
tyoft
heai
rcr
aft
'swei
ght
.Itt
ypi
cal
l
yconsi
sts
oft
woormor
ewheel
sat
tachedt
ost
rut
sorshockabsor
ber
s.Themai
n
l
andi
nggeari
sresponsi
blef
orabsor
bingt
hei
mpactf
orcesdur
ingl
andi
ngand
pr
ovi
dingst
abi
l
itydur
inggr
oundoper
ati
ons.

2.Nose Landi
ng Gear
:In ai
rcr
aftwi
that
ri
cycl
e conf
igur
ati
on,t
her
eis an
addi
ti
onall
andi
nggearl
ocat
edatt
hef
rontoft
heai
rcr
aftcal
l
edt
henose
l
andi
nggear
.Itsuppor
tst
hewei
ghtoft
heai
rcr
aft
'snosesect
ionandpr
ovi
des
st
eer
ingcapabi
l
itydur
inggr
oundoper
ati
ons.Thenosel
andi
nggeari
susual
l
y
asi
ngl
ewheel
oradual
-wheel
assembl
y.

3.Wheel
sandTi
res:
Thel
andi
nggearwheel
sar
emadeofst
rongmat
eri
alssuch
asal
umi
num orst
eelandar
eequi
ppedwi
tht
ir
est
opr
ovi
decushi
oni
ngand
t
ract
iondur
ingl
andi
ngandgr
oundoper
ati
ons.Thet
ir
esar
edesi
gnedt
o
wi
thst
and hi
gh l
oads,absor
b shocks,and pr
ovi
de good gr
ip on v
ari
ous
sur
faces.

4.ShockAbsor
ber
s:Landi
nggearsy
stemsi
ncor
por
ateshockabsor
ber
s,al
so
knownasol
eost
rut
s,t
oabsor
bthei
mpactf
orcesdur
ingl
andi
ng.Thesest
rut
s
cont
ain hy
draul
i
corpneumat
icsy
stemst
hatcompr
essand dampen t
he
f
orces,
reduci
ngt
hest
ressont
heai
rcr
aftst
ruct
ureandpr
ovi
dingasmoot
her
l
andi
ngexper
ience.

5.Ret
ract
ionMechani
sm:
Manyai
rcr
afthav
eret
ract
abl
elandi
nggear
,whi
chcan
ber
aisedorl
ower
eddur
ingf
li
ght
.Thi
sal
l
owsf
ori
mpr
ovedaer
ody
nami
c
ef
fi
ciencybyr
educi
ngdr
ag.Ther
etr
act
ionmechani
sm consi
stsofhy
draul
i
c
orel
ect
ri
csy
stemst
hatr
etr
actandext
endt
hel
andi
nggearascommandedby
t
hepi
l
otoraut
omat
edsy
stems.

6.Br
akes:Thel
andi
nggeari
sequi
ppedwi
thbr
akest
osl
owdownandst
opt
he
ai
rcr
aftdur
ing l
andi
ng and gr
ound oper
ati
ons.The br
akes ar
ety
pical
l
y

11
 hy
draul
i
corel
ect
ri
cal
l
yact
uat
edandar
econt
rol
l
edbyt
hepi
l
ott
hrought
he
ai
rcr
aft
'sbr
aki
ngsy
stem.

7.Emer
gencyExt
ensi
onSy
stem:I
ntheev
entofaf
ail
urei
nthenor
mall
andi
ng
gearext
ensi
onorr
etr
act
ionsy
stem,ai
rcr
aftar
eequi
ppedwi
themer
gency
ext
ensi
onsy
stems.Thesesy
stemsal
l
ow t
hel
andi
nggeart
obemanual
l
yor
mechani
cal
l
yext
ended,
ensur
ingasaf
elandi
ng.

Thedesi
gnandconf
igur
ati
onofl
andi
nggearv
arydependi
ngont
het
ypeofai
rcr
aft
,
i
tsi
ntendeduse,andt
heoper
ati
ngcondi
ti
ons.Landi
nggearsy
stemsar
ecar
eful
l
y
engi
neer
edt
opr
ovi
dest
abi
l
ity
,shockabsor
pti
on,
andmaneuv
erabi
l
ityont
hegr
ound,
ensur
ingsaf
eandef
fi
ci
entoper
ati
onsdur
ingt
akeof
f,l
andi
ng,
andt
axi
i
ng.

Fl
i
ghtCy
cles

Af
li
ghthas8phases.

Theyar
enamel
y-Taxi
i
ngt
other
unway
;Per
for
mingt
akeof
frol
l
;Takeof
f;Cl
i
mb;
Cr
uise;
Descent
;Fi
nal
Appr
oach;
Landi
ng.

I
fan ai
rcr
aftcompl
etet
heseal
lst
agesoff
li
ght
,then i
tissai
dto hav
ebeen
compl
etedoneFl
i
ghtCy
cle.Nowwewi
l
lexpl
ainy
oual
lthesephasesoff
li
ghtoneby
one:

1.Taxi
ingt
other
unway
:Af
tercompl
eti
onoft
heBef
oreSt
artCheckl
i
st,t
he
pushbacki
sappr
oved.A smal
lpushbackt
ruck,wei
ghi
ngabout54t
ones,
pushest
heai
rcr
aft
;byat
tachi
ngat
ow bart
otheai
rcr
aft
’snosegear
.Then
t
heai
rcr
afti
sbr
oughtt
othet
axi
li
ne.t
hent
het
ruckgoesaway
.Pi
l
otst
hent
he
st
artt
heengi
nesandcommencef
ort
axi
i
ng.Taxi
i
ngi
sthatst
agei
nwhi
cht
he
ai
rcr
aftmov
est
other
unwayunderi
tsownengi
nepower
.Taxil
i
nesar
e
al
way
smar
kedbyay
ell
owcol
or.

12
2.Per
for
mingt
akeof
frol
l
:Af
terl
i
ningupt
other
unway
,thepi
l
otswai
tfor
t
akeof
fcl
ear
ance.Af
terget
ti
ngt
het
akeof
fcl
ear
ance,f
ullengi
nepoweri
s
appl
i
ed.Theai
rcr
aftst
art
srol
l
ingdownt
her
unwayandspeedsup.

13
3.Takeof
f:Atr
eachi
ngt
heVrspeedort
heRot
ati
onspeed,t
henoseoft
he
ai
rcr
afti
sli
ft
edupi
ntheai
randt
heai
rcr
aftt
akesof
ffr
om t
her
unway
.That
’s
t
heendoft
het
akeof
fphase.

4.Cl
imb:Now st
art
sthecl
i
mbphase.Thel
andi
nggear
sar
eret
ract
edandt
he
t
hrusti
sreducedt
ocl
i
mbpower
.Thi
sphasei
ncl
udesgai
ningofal
ti
tudeand
i
ncr
easi
ngt
hespeedst
epbyst
ep.Thef
lapsar
eret
ract
edandAf
terTakeof
f
Checkl
i
sti
scompl
eted.

5.Cr
uise:Thi
sist
he l
ongestphase ofa f
li
ght
.Her
e an ai
rcr
aftget
sthe
maxi
mum f
ueleconomy
.Nowaday
s,mostcommer
cialai
rcr
aftcr
uisesar
ound

14
 36000t
o39000f
eet
.Si
ncemostoft
heai
rcr
aft
’sf
ueli
sbur
nedi
nthi
sphase,
t
heai
rcr
aftbecomesl
i
ght
erandl
i
ght
ert
her
ebyget
ti
ngmor
eandmor
efuel
economy
.Ty
picalcr
uisi
ngspeedf
orl
ong-
dist
ancecommer
cialpassenger
f
li
ght
sis475-
500knot
s(878-
926km/
h;547-
578mph)
.

6.Descent
:Af
tercompl
eti
onoft
hecr
uisephase,i
tst
art
sthedescentphase.I
n
t
hisphase,t
heai
rcr
aftst
artr
educi
ngi
tsal
ti
tudest
epbyst
ep.Thepi
l
ots
pr
epar
eforl
andi
ng.Theengi
nepoweri
sreduced.An ai
rcr
aftmai
ntai
ns
const
antangl
eofdescentwi
thaconst
antai
rspeed.Thef
lapsandl
andi
ng
gear
sar
edepl
oyedt
oreducet
hespeedandgeti
ncr
easedl
i
ftatl
owspeeds.

15
7.Fi
nalAppr
oach:Thi
sist
hesecondl
astphaseoft
heai
rcr
aft
’sf
li
ght
.Her
ethe
ai
rcr
afti
sli
nedupwi
tht
her
unwayanddescendedf
urt
her
.Thespeedoft
he
ai
rcr
afti
sreducedbutt
heheadi
ngi
ssameast
hatoft
her
unway
.Theai
rcr
aft
f
oll
owst
heAppr
oachSl
opeandt
orchesdown.

8.Landi
ng:Landi
ngi
sthatphaseofaf
li
ghtwher
eal
lthewheel
soft
heai
rcr
aft
t
ouchest
her
unwayandSpoi
l
ersandRev
erseThr
usti
sengaged.Theai
rcr
aft
i
sdecel
erat
edandcommenceont
axi
i
ngt
otheai
rpor
tter
minalbui
l
dingand
st
opsatt
hegat
e.

16
Fi
nal
ly
,af
terl
andi
ng,t
heai
rcr
aftexi
tst
her
unwayandt
rav
elst
othepar
kingar
eaor
gat
e,f
oll
owi
ng desi
gnat
ed t
axi
way
s.Shut
down:Once par
ked,t
he ai
rcr
aftgoes
t
hroughshut
downpr
ocedur
es,i
ncl
udi
ngt
urni
ngof
fengi
nes,secur
ingsy
stems,and
al
l
owi
ngpassenger
stodi
sembar
k.

Thesephasescol
l
ect
ivel
ymakeupaf
li
ghtcy
cle,cov
eri
ngt
heent
ir
esequenceof
ev
ent
sfr
om pr
e-f
li
ghtt
oshut
down.

Fl
i
ghtcont
rol
sar
ethemechani
smsandsy
stemst
hatal
l
ow pi
l
otst
ocont
rolt
he
mov
ementandat
ti
tudeofanai
rcr
aft
.Theyenabl
ethepi
l
ott
omaneuv
ert
heai
rcr
aft
i
nvar
iousf
li
ghtphases,
incl
udi
ngt
akeof
f,cl
i
mb,
crui
se,
descent
,andl
andi
ng.

Fl
i
ghtcont
rol
sfoundi
nmostai
rcr
aft
:

1.Ai
ler
ons:Ai
l
eronsar
econt
rolsur
facesl
ocat
edont
hewi
ngs,neart
het
rai
l
ing
edge.Theymov
einopposi
tedi
rect
ionst
ocont
rol
ther
oll
oft
heai
rcr
aft
.When
oneai
l
eronmov
esup,t
heot
hermov
esdown,causi
ngt
heai
rcr
aftt
orol
land
bankl
eftorr
ight
.

2.El
evat
ors:El
evat
orsar
econt
rolsur
facesl
ocat
edont
hehor
izont
alst
abi
l
izer
att
het
ailoft
heai
rcr
aft
.Theymov
einuni
sont
ocont
rolt
hepi
tchoft
he
ai
rcr
aft
.Whent
heel
evat
orsmov
eup,t
heai
rcr
aftpi
tchesup,andwhent
hey
mov
edown,
theai
rcr
aftpi
tchesdown.

3.Rudder
:Ther
udderi
sacont
rolsur
facel
ocat
edont
hev
ert
icalst
abi
l
izeratt
he
t
ailoft
heai
rcr
aft
.Itcont
rol
sthey
awoft
heai
rcr
aft
.Whent
her
uddermov
es
l
eftorr
ight
,itcr
eat
esay
awi
ngmot
ion,
all
owi
ngt
heai
rcr
aftt
otur
nlef
torr
ight
.

4.Fl
aps:Fl
apsar
elocat
edont
het
rai
l
ingedgeoft
hewi
ngsandar
eusedt
o
i
ncr
easel
i
ftanddr
agdur
ingt
akeof
fandl
andi
ng.Byext
endi
ngt
hef
laps,t
he
wi
ng'
ssur
facear
eai
ncr
eases,
prov
idi
ngmor
eli
ftatl
owerspeeds.Thi
sal
l
ows
f
orshor
tert
akeof
fandl
andi
ngdi
stances.

5.Spoi
ler
s:Spoi
l
ersar
epanel
sont
hewi
ngst
hatcanber
aisedt
odi
sruptt
he
ai
rf
low ov
ert
hewi
ngs,r
educi
ngl
i
ftandi
ncr
easi
ngdr
ag.Theyar
epr
imar
il
y
usedf
orspeedcont
rol
,descent
,andt
oassi
sti
nrol
lcont
roldur
ingcer
tai
n

17
 f
li
ghtcondi
ti
ons.

6.Thr
ott
le:Thet
hrot
tl
econt
rol
stheengi
nepowerout
put
.Byadj
ust
ing t
he
t
hrot
tl
e,t
hepi
l
otcani
ncr
easeordecr
easet
het
hrustpr
oducedbyt
heengi
nes,
al
l
owi
ngf
orchangesi
nspeedandal
ti
tude.

7.Cont
rolYokeorSt
ick:Thecont
roly
okeorst
icki
sthepr
imar
ycont
roli
nput
dev
iceusedbyt
hepi
l
ott
omani
pul
atet
heai
l
eronsandel
evat
ors.I
tist
ypi
cal
l
y
awheel
oraj
oyst
ick-
li
kedev
icet
hatt
hepi
l
otusest
omakecont
rol
input
s.

Thesef
li
ghtcont
rol
sar
eint
erconnect
edt
hroughasy
stem ofcabl
es,r
ods,and
hy
draul
i
cs,
dependi
ngont
heai
rcr
aft
'
sdesi
gn.I
nmoder
nai
rcr
aft
,fl
y-
by-
wir
esy
stems
use el
ect
roni
c si
gnal
stot
ransmi
tcont
roli
nput
sfr
om t
he pi
l
ott
othe cont
rol
sur
faces.

I
t'
simpor
tantt
onot
ethatt
hespeci
fi
cconf
igur
ati
onandoper
ati
onoff
li
ghtcont
rol
s
canv
arybet
weendi
ff
erentt
ypesofai
rcr
aft
,suchasf
ixed-
wingai
rpl
anes,
hel
i
copt
ers,
orgl
i
der
s.Addi
ti
onal
l
y,adv
ancedai
rcr
aftmayhav
eaddi
ti
onalf
li
ghtcont
rolsur
faces
orsy
stemst
oenhancemaneuv
erabi
l
ityandst
abi
l
ity
.

Ai
rcr
aftj
etengi
nes

Ther
ear
esev
eralt
ypesofj
etengi
nes,eachwi
thi
tsowndesi
gn&f
unct
ional
i
ty.The
mai
nty
pesar
e

1.TURBOPROPENGI
NE:

I
tusesagear
ingsy
stem t
oconnectt
otheai
rcr
aftpr
opel
l
er.

I
tisf
uel
-ef
fi
cientandr
otat
esatami
d-r
angespeed,buti
tsgear
ingsy
stem can
cr
ippl
efastduet
othewei
ght
.Iti
susedi
nsmal
l
erai
rcr
aftandr
egi
onalai
rl
ines.
I
nst
eadofpr
oduci
ngt
hrustsol
elyf
rom exhaustgases,i
tusesat
urbi
net
odr
ivea
pr
opel
l
er,
whi
chgener
atesmostoft
het
hrust
.Tur
bopr
opsar
emor
eef
fi
cientatl
ower
speedsandal
ti
tudes.

18
19
 2.TURBOJETENGI
NE:

I
tist
hesi
mpl
estandol
destt
ypeofj
etengi
ne.

Thi
sengi
net
akesai
rfr
om i
tsr
earsi
deandt
hencompr
essesi
t,addi
ngf
uelatt
he
combust
ionchamber
.Itconsi
stsofacompr
essor
,combust
ionchamber
,tur
bine,
andnozzl
e.Ai
riscompr
essedbyt
hecompr
essor
,mi
xedwi
thf
ueli
nthecombust
ion
chamber
,andi
gni
tedt
opr
oducehi
gh-
pressur
egas,whi
cht
henpassest
hrought
he
t
urbi
neandnozzl
etopr
oducet
hrust
.Theseengi
neshav
eanexcel
l
entdesi
gnbut
t
heyar
enoi
sy.

3.TURBOSHAFTENGI
NE:

I
tisaf
orm ofgas-
power
edt
urbi
net
hatoper
atest
hesameasat
urbopr
opengi
nebut
i
tdoesn’
tdr
iveapr
opel
l
er.I
tiscommonl
yusedi
nhel
i
copt
ers&somesmal
lai
rcr
aft
.

Tur
boshaf
tengi
nesar
esi
mil
art
otur
bopr
opsbuthav
eapowershaf
tinst
eadof
dr
ivi
ngapr
opel
l
er.Theypr
ovi
depowerf
orr
otar
y-wi
ngai
rcr
aft
,suchashel
i
copt
ers,
wher
ethet
rusti
sgener
atedbyr
otat
ingbl
ades.

20
 4.TURBOFANENGI
NE:Al
soknownasaf
an-
jetengi
ne.

Theseengi
nesuseamassi
vef
anf
orsucki
ngi
nai
r.

Theypowermostoft
oday
’sai
rl
iner
s.Thef
ancool
stheengi
ne,cr
eat
esaddi
ti
onal
t
hrustandl
ower
sthenoi
seoft
heengi
ne.I
tist
hemostcommont
ypeusedi
n
commer
cialai
rcr
aft
.Itconsi
stsofal
argef
anatt
hef
ront
,whi
chpr
oducesaddi
ti
onal
t
hrustbypassi
ngsomeoft
heai
rar
oundt
hecompr
essorandcombust
ionchamber
.
I
tpr
ovi
desgr
eat
eref
fi
ci
encyandqui
tt
eroper
ati
oncompar
edt
otur
boj
ets.

5.RAMJETENGI
NE:

Thesear
ethel
i
ght
estt
ypesofengi
nesofapl
anet
hatcomewi
th no mov
ing
component
s.

I
tisasi
mpl
eyetef
fi
ci
entt
ypeofai
r-
breat
hingj
etengi
ne.I
tdoesnothav
eany
mov
ingpar
ts.Theengi
ner
eli
esont
hef
orwar
dmot
ionoft
heai
rcr
aftt
ocompr
ess
i
ncomi
ngai
r,whi
chi
sthenmi
xedwi
thf
uel&i
gni
tedi
nthecombust
ionchambert
o
pr
oducet
hrust
.Ramj
etsar
ehi
ghl
yef
fi
cientatsuper
soni
cspeeds.

6,

21
 6.SCRAMJETENGI
NE:I
tisadv
ancedt
ypeofai
r-
breat
hingengi
nedesi
gnedf
or
hy
per
soni
cfl
i
ght(
abov
eMach5)
.Si
mil
art
oramj
ets,scr
amj
etengi
nesdonot
hav
e mov
ing par
ts.They di
rect
ly compr
ess i
ncomi
ng ai
r,add f
ueland
combusti
ttopr
oducet
hrust
.Scr
amj
etsar
est
il
linexper
iment
alst
agesand
hav
ethepot
ent
ialf
orext
remel
yhi
ghspeeds.Eacht
ypeofj
etengi
nehasi
ts
ownadv
ant
agesandappl
i
cat
ions,dependi
ngont
heai
rcr
aft
'spur
pose,speed
r
equi
rement
s,andoper
ati
ngcondi
ti
ons.

BERNOULLI
’
SPRI
NCI
PLE

I
ftheai
rfl
owi
ngpastt
het
opsur
faceofanai
rcr
aftwi
ngi
smov
ingf
ast
ert
hant
heai
r
f
lowi
ngpastt
hebot
tom sur
face,t
henBer
noul
l
i'
spr
inci
plei
mpl
i
est
hatt
hepr
essur
e
ont
hesur
facesoft
hewi
ngwi
l
lbel
owerabov
ethanbel
ow.Thi
spr
essur
edi
ff
erence
r
esul
tsi
nanupwar
dsl
i
fti
ngf
orce.

22
23
BestPi
lotI
nter
viewQuest
ionsandAnswer
s:

Thef
oll
owi
ngment
ionedar
efewcommonav
iat
ioni
nter
viewquest
ionsandanswer
s.

1.Accor
dingt
oyouwhatdef
inesapr
ofessi
onal
pil
ot?

Someonewhohasknowl
edge,punct
ual
i
ty,ef
fect
iveandexcel
l
entcommuni
cat
ion
ski
l
ls,t
aket
hef
ir
st-
handcommandi
nal
lcr
it
icalsi
tuat
ions,wel
lunder
standhi
s
l
i
mit
ati
ons,
wil
l
fuli
ncont
inui
ngt
rai
ningandadher
encet
ocompanypr
ocedur
eatt
he
samet
imev
erysy
stemat
ici
nal
lappr
oaches.

2.St
atet
hei
mpor
tanceofpr
ofi
ciencyi
nanumberofl
anguagesf
orapi
l
ot?

3.Thosepi
l
otswho f
lypr
ivat
elyonl
yrequi
reunder
standi
ng cont
rolt
ower
s,
knowi
ngonl
yEngl
i
shcanbej
ustenough,butf
orpi
l
otswhoneedt
ofl
y
publ
i
clyi
nar
egul
arbasi
smustbef
luenti
nlanguagesot
hert
hanEngl
i
shal
so.

4.Thi
sthenbecomesanaddedadv
ant
agef
ort
hePi
l
oti
nhandl
i
ngsi
tuat
ions.

5.3.Pi
l
otsar
erequi
redt
otakemanysi
mul
taneousr
esponsi
bil
i
tiesdur
ingf
li
ght
.
Saysomet
hingaboutt
his?

6.I
tist
heKeyr
esponsi
bil
i
tyoft
hepi
l
otst
onav
igat
ethef
li
ght
,moni
torand
gui
dehi
steam ofcr
ew member
s,check&mai
ntai
nther
equi
redt
echni
cal
i
nst
rument
saswel
lkeepr
egul
art
rackoft
heweat
hercondi
ti
onatt
hesame
t
imecont
rol
l
ingt
hehei
ght&ai
rtr
aff
ic.

7.Pi
l
otsar
erequi
redt
obeski
l
ledenought
oper
for
m al
lthesedut
iesandmor
e,
besi
dest
hese,
theyar
erequest
edt
ohav
esal
i
entabi
l
iti
esi
nmul
ti
-t
aski
ngwi
th
st
rongconcent
rat
ionpower
.

8.4.Whatwoul
dbeapi
l
ot’
srol
edur
inganemer
gency
?

9.Ananswert
othi
squest
ionshoul
dbet
oexpr
essy
ourf
eel
i
ngf
ir
st.

10.
Itwoul
dbebestt
opr
oveci
ti
ngexampl
es,t
haty
ouwi
l
lbeabl
etokeepy
our
ment
alcal
mnessi
ntactdur
ingsuchpr
obl
emat
icsi
tuat
ionsandy
oucanwi
th
y
ourexper
ti
seeasi
l
ysel
f-
cont
rolt
heemer
gencyandassi
gnt
asksf
orcr
ew
member
sifnecessar
y.

24
11.
5.Di
dyouev
erhav
etomodi
fyt
hef
li
ghtcour
se?

12.
Dependi
ngont
hei
nter
nal
orext
ernal
condi
ti
ons;
pil
otsar
etr
ainedenoughand
abl
etor
efor
mthecour
sei
nfl
i
ght
.Modi
fi
cat
ionoft
hef
li
ghtcour
sei
sav
ery
v
italr
esponsi
bil
i
ty and r
equi
res cl
ose cont
actwi
th cont
rolt
ower
s and
at
tent
iont
odet
ail
.

7.Howwoul
dyouassessy
oursuccessi
nthi
sjob?

13.
Ther
ear
eanumberofway
sinwhi
chy
oucoul
dassessy
oursuccessi
nthe
f
iel
d.Yousetbi
gchal
l
engesf
ory
our
sel
fandmett
hem.

14.
Theachi
evement
syougai
nedcount
sasy
ourbi
gsuccess.Yourbosst
oldy
ou
t
haty
ouhaddoneagr
eatper
for
mance.Al
lthoseachi
evementcar
ds,
rewar
ds
& awar
dswi
l
lspeakabouty
oursuccess.Yourdr
eam i
stowor
kfort
he
companyandy
oucancr
ossanyhur
dlet
oachi
evesuccessi
nthi
scompany
t
oo.

8.Whatdoy
oumeanbyV1?

15.
Takeof
fdeci
si
onspeedi
sknownasV1.

9.Whatdoy
oumeanbyV2?

16.
Takeof
fsaf
etyspeedi
sknownasV2.

10.
Inasi
tuat
ionwhent
hegr
oundcr
ew i
srunni
ngbehi
ndorwasbusywi
th
anot
herj
ob,
whatwoul
dbey
ourr
olei
nloadi
ngt
heai
rpl
anewi
thboxes?

17.
Insuchasi
tuat
ionwher
ethegr
oundcr
ewneedsmyhel
p,Iwoul
d,ofcour
se,
st
andbyhi
m andhel
ploadt
heai
rpl
anewi
thboxes.

11.
Whatdoy
oumeanbyLDA?

18.
Apr
eci
sionappr
oacht
hati
sof
fsetf
rom t
her
unwayi
sknownasLocal
i
zer
Ty
peDi
rect
ional
Aid,
itmayhav
eGr
oundSpeed.

12.
Howy
ourcur
rentbosswoul
dli
ket
odescr
ibey
ou?

19.
Hedescr
ibesmyqual
i
tiesasadedi
cat
edt
eam pl
ayerwhoal
way
slookst
o

25
 makeadi
ff
erence.

13.
Iny
ouropi
nionwhatqual
i
tiesmakeagoodpi
l
ot?

20.
Agoodpi
l
ott
akeshi
sorherj
obser
iousl
yandi
sagoodr
iskev
aluat
or,
nota
r
isk-
taker
.He i
s one who consi
stent
lycar
ri
es hi
s abl
e at
tr
ibut
es as hi
s
per
sonal
baggageoneach&ev
eryf
li
ght
.

14.
Whatwasy
ourmot
tobehi
ndbecomi
ngapi
l
ot?

21.
Tryl
i
sti
ngt
her
easonsbehi
ndy
oubecomi
ngapi
l
otbef
orehandandci
te2-
3
mostst
rongoft
hem.

15.
Whatl
essonhav
eyouachi
evedf
rom mi
stakesf
rom y
ourpi
l
otj
ob?

22.
Youhav
etobev
eryhonestaboutsuchaquest
ion.Youranswerhast
obe
br
iefandt
othepoi
nt.

26
 Do'
sofaGr
oupDi
scussi
on

1.I
ntr
oducey
our
sel
ftot
hegr
oup.Bespeci
fi
cand br
ief
.Inmostcases,i
t
suf
fi
cest
oment
iony
ourname,
inst
it
uti
onandacademi
cst
ream.

2.Takey
ourseatasdi
rect
edbyt
hei
nter
viewer
,andsi
tat
tent
ivel
y.

3.Li
stencar
eful
l
ytot
het
opi
cbei
ngpr
oposedf
ordi
scussi
on.Youmayaskf
ori
t
t
ober
epeat
ed,
ify
ouneedcl
ari
fi
cat
ion,
butbecl
ear
.

4.Car
ryapi
eceofpaperandapenci
ltonot
edownt
het
hemeandmai
ntal
ki
ng
poi
nts.Makeanot
eofonl
ythosepoi
nts,whi
chy
ouwoul
dli
ket
obui
l
dyour
di
scussi
onon.

23.
Avoi
dwr
it
ingl
ongessay
-l
ikesent
encesont
hepaperast
hei
nter
viewermay
notl
i
kei
t.

5.Concept
ual
i
zey
ourappr
oachandi
deasbyj
ott
ingdownaf
ewpoi
nts,
butdoi
t
qui
ckl
y.

6.Oncer
eady
,taket
hel
eadt
ospeakf
ir
st,pr
ovi
dedt
hatnoot
hercandi
dat
ehas
al
readybegunt
alki
ng.

7.I
fyougett
hechancet
obegi
nfi
rst
,st
artwi
thsay
ing,"
MayIst
artwi
tht
he
per
missi
onoft
hechai
randt
hegr
oup?
",andt
hencont
inue.

8.Bebr
iefandanal
yti
cal
inwhat
every
ousay
.

9.Dur
ingt
hedi
scussi
on,addr
essy
ourgr
oupmember
s,andnott
hechai
r(t
he
i
nter
viewer
s),
maki
ngey
econt
actwi
thal
l
.

10.
It
'sbestt
ospeakf
orashor
twhi
l
eatf
ir
st(
sayf
or1t
o11/
2mi
nut
e),
andt
hen
t
aket
heoppor
tuni
tyl
atert
oaddsomecr
it
icalpoi
ntsaf
teraf
ewot
her
shav
e
spoken.

11.
All
ow ot
her
stospeakwi
thoutanyi
nter
rupt
ion.I
fnecessar
y,i
nter
venet
o
conv
incet
heot
her
stoal
l
owt
hespeakert
oexpr
esshi
sorherv
iews.

12.
Tryt
oexhi
bity
ourl
eader
shi
pqual
i
tybyt
aki
ngt
hel
eadi
nset
tl
ingapoi
nt
underdi
scussi
ont
hati
sbei
ngdi
sput
edbyot
her
s.

27
13.
Exhi
bity
ourt
eam spi
ri
tbyco-
oper
ati
ngwi
thot
her
sdur
ingt
hedi
scussi
on.Be
r
eadyt
osummar
iest
hemai
ndi
scussedpoi
ntsi
nyourownwor
dsatt
heend.
Thi
scanbebestdonebyj
ott
ingdownt
hepoi
ntsont
hepaper
.So,
cont
inuet
o
payat
tent
iont
owhatt
heot
her
sar
esay
ingt
il
ltheendoft
hedi
scussi
on.

14.
Thankt
hegr
oupmember
sandt
hei
nter
viewer
satt
heend.

24.
Youhav
etobev
eryhonestaboutsuchaquest
ion.Youranswerhast
obe
br
iefandt
othepoi
nt.

Don'
tsofaGr
oupDi
scussi
on

1.Don'
tl
eanont
het
abl
e.Si
tst
rai
ghtandcomf
ort
abl
y,andl
ookupateachot
her
.

2.Don'
ttal
k or whi
sper amongsty
ou af
ter t
he i
nter
viewer has st
art
ed
i
ntr
oduci
ngt
het
opi
c.

3.Don'
trepeatexact
lywhatanot
hercandi
dat
ehasal
readysai
d.Youmusthav
e
y
ourownv
iewsandpoi
ntst
oadd.

4.Don'
tremai
nsi
l
entf
orl
ong;
youmustspeakandcont
ri
but
etot
hedi
scussi
on.
Geti
ntot
hedi
scussi
onatt
heear
li
estoppor
tuni
ty.

5.Don'
tst
artwi
thanyar
gument
ati
vest
atement
s.Agr
oupdi
scussi
oni
snotf
or
ar
gument
,butf
orcont
ri
but
ionf
rom eacht
oaddv
aluet
othedi
scussi
onandt
o
makei
tanenr
ichi
ngexper
ience.

6.Don'
tcutshor
tori
nter
ruptany
onet
oent
eri
ntot
hedi
scussi
on.Wai
tfort
he
oppor
tuni
tyt
oent
er.I
fthespeaki
ngcandi
dat
eist
aki
ngt
ool
ong,t
ryt
oent
er
i
ntot
hedi
scussi
onbysay
ing,"
MayIaddsomeext
rapoi
ntst
owhaty
ouar
e
say
ing?
"

7.Don'
tsi
mpl
ysay
,"Iagr
eewi
thhi
m."Youmustsaysomet
hingbasedony
our
ownt
hought
sandv
iews.

8.Don'
ttr
ytodomi
nat
ethedi
scussi
onbyi
nter
veni
ngi
nev
ery
body
'sdi
scussi
on
orbyt
aki
ngt
ool
ongt
ospeakort
oof
requent
ly.

9.Don'
tst
ayawayf
rom t
hecor
eissue(
s).

28
10.
Don'
tgetangr
yoragi
tat
edbecauseofdi
ff
erenceofv
iewswi
thot
her
s.

11.
Don'
tmakeanyper
sonal
att
ackorr
emar
k.

25.
Remembert
hatt
hisi
sat
eam game.

12.
Don'
ttr
ytoaddanynew poi
ntofy
ourown(
whi
chhasnotbeendi
scussed)
dur
ingsummar
izi
ng.

13.
Don'
tshowanysi
gnofi
ndi
ff
erencedur
ingt
hedi
scussi
on;beent
husi
ast
ical
l
t
hrought
hedi
scussi
on.Thesear
eeasi
ersai
dthanpr
act
iced.Hence,apar
t
f
rom t
hecont
ent
sofadi
scussi
on,agr
eatdealofpr
act
icei
sneededt
otai
l
or
one'
sbehav
iorandr
esponsei
nagr
oupdi
scussi
on.

29