VU THANH CONG, MPP

1. Types of political participation

2. Voting
2.1. Voting Paradox
2.2. Low Turnout
2.3. Reasons for Low Turnout
3. The Logic of Collective Action
4. Voting Behavior
Questions to ponder:
▪ Is democracy all about voting?

▪ A citizen can enjoy democracy by voting as the only means, can’t he?

▪ Can democracy be manipulated by a group of people?

Voting is central to democracy, but when voting is the only form of

participation available, there is no real democracy.

In addition to casting votes, citizens must also be able to discuss politics, form
interest groups, contact public officials, campaign for competing parties, run
for office, or protest government decisions.
▪ VOTING: voting in a presidential election is the most common type of
political participation
Why you should do it: lets you select the people who run the country
▪ CONTACTING GOV’T OFFICIALS or MEDIA: can be through letters,
email, phone calls, or in person
Why you should do it: gives direct access; can target specific issues
▪ CAMPAIGN DONATION
Why you should do it: giving $ is an easy way to advocate for your beliefs
▪ CAMPAIGN VOLUNTEER
Why you should do it: have contact with candidate while spreading your preferences
▪ MEMBERSHIP IN INTEREST GROUP/POLITICAL ORG
Why you should do it: Solidarity with others of your beliefs; strength in numbers
▪ PERSUASIVE DISCUSSION: talk to others about the political issues that
matter to you
Why you should do it: focuses attention on issues you think are important; can win new converts
▪ PROTEST: preferably nonviolent; marches, rallies, street corners
Why you should do it: low-cost way to attract a lot of attention to your cause
▪ LITIGATION: sue over a law or gov’t action
you think is wrong
Why you should do it: don’t need to be in the majority to be right
according to the Constitution
▪ RUN FOR OFFICE: local, state or national office
Why you should do it: allows you directly influence the government
Why do some people refuse to get involved
in political participation?
▪ These assumptions are particularly associated with Herbert Simon (1957) who
suggested that individuals do not/cannot maximise some functions but rather
they are content with choosing from a range of alternatives that they consider.

▪ He argued that each person is characterised by a certain level of what he

considers an adequate choice and does not try to improve beyond this level.

▪ Other authors have suggested other variations on the mechanisms of

individual choice under the general framework of “Bounded Rationality”.
▪ Having the right to vote is one thing.

▪ Choosing to exercise it is another, and how people choose to exercise it is still

another.
▪ Americans are more likely to vote than engage any other form of political
participation
▪ Yet Americans vote at lower rates than most western democracies. Why?
▪ In addition to their role in selecting officeholders, elections also serve to

(1) socialize political activity,

(2) institutionalize access to political power

(3) bolster the state’s power and authority.

Majoritarian participation focuses on elections and emphasizes equality and

order. This type of pluralism emphasizes freedom of individuals and groups.
 Voting and Voter-turnout (Arend Lijphart)

▪ First, the decision to vote: which we refer to as voter turnout. Voter turnout
is the percentage of eligible voters who cast a ballot in an election.

▪ Second, the decision who to vote for: which we refer to as voting behavior.
1. Three kinds of elections:
▪ Primary elections: voters select party nominees

▪ General elections: contested between nominees of each party

▪ Elections on specific policy questions for legislation—recently become more

common in some states and in European countries (EU vote, etc.)
2. Two ways for public to pass legislation directly:
▪ Referendum—Whereby voters are given the opportunity to approve or
disapprove some legislative act
▪ Initiative Petition –Requires gaining signatures on a proposed law equal to 10%
of the number of voters in the previous election
▪ (24 states do this: SD, CA, OR, CO, etc.)
▪ U.S. has low voter turnout

▪ Those who see clear differences

between parties are likely to vote.
▪ If indifferent about politics, then one
may rationally abstain from voting.
▪ Political Efficacy: the belief that one’s
political participation really matters
▪ Civic Duty: the belief that in order to
support democratic government, a
citizen should always vote
▪ Registration requirements restrict
voting (some other countries have
compulsory registration, automatic
registration, or resident registration)
America’s voting rate looks better if
you look at the percent of registered
voters who vote.
▪ Lack of penalties for not voting
(Australia fined; Italy shamed)
▪ Expanded suffrage lowered
turnout by enfranchising
populations less likely to vote (poor,
minority, young)
Problematic Trends
▪ Party voters declining as issue voters
increase (Party ID is BEST predictor
of voting and Party affiliation is most
often used to make voting decisions)
▪ Independents increasing (less
partisan = less engaged)
▪ Decreasing trust in government leads
to decreasing efficacy and lower
voter turnout
▪ Cross pressure reduces turnout
▪ Voter apathy/rational ignorance
Organization for Economic Co-operation and
Development
Why does voting turnout matter?
▪ It is assumed to reflect the health of a democratic republic.

▪ Democratic theory predicated on the idea that somehow the vote reveals
“the will of the people”
➢ Move from individual preferences to something like a “social preference”

▪ The winner of the election is, in some meaningful sense, reflective of what
“the people” want

However, it may not be possible to move from individual to group

preferences smoothly or meaningfully.
 Rational choice theory
▪ Voting in our best interest, supporting the candidate whose platform will give
us the most favorable outcomes.
However,
▪ Anthony Downs: it is rational to not vote (expected utility theory)

▪ “Your vote doesn’t count”, sadly it is true. This is a fundamental problem

for a democratic republic.

▪ A stable republic must rest on a rational population, but if voting is an

irrational act (lottery voting), there is little reason to expect that a republic can
be maintained.

➢ This is a fundamental dilemma in democratic republics.

▪ The Logic of Collective Action (1965) by Mancur Olson explains why some
groups are able to have a larger influence on government policy than others.
▪ Olson’s Two Key Questions to Traditional Theory of Rational Group
Behavior: Purpose of the organization= Increase in Common Interests
▪ What makes collective action possible?

▪ What is the relationship between group size and the group?

▪ Olson’s Answer: rational and self-interested individuals will not act

voluntarily to achieve their common or group interests.
▪ Why? --Logic of Collective Action ➔“The larger the group, the less it will further
its common interests” ➔Free-Rider Problem
“The amounts of the collective good that a member of the group receives free from
other members will further reduce his incentive to provide more of that good at his
own expense” (p. 35)
▪ A free-rider problem is a situation in which individuals or businesses are receiving
benefits without contributing anything.
▪ You would expect that if a group of people have a common interest that they will
naturally get together and fight for the common goal. However, this is generally not
the case.
▪ Olson’s argument of Free-Rider Problem become a central concern in public policy,
political science or economic theory of politics.
▪ Voting can also be a reflection of a group’s strength.

▪ It may demonstrate the ability of a group to hold elected representatives

accountable if they pass laws they oppose. But these threats only work if they
are backed up.
▪ This makes voting rational after all.

▪ Political strength depends on who votes, specifically which groups tend to

vote, and vote in all elections, including primary elections.
▪ This helps explain why certain policies tend to be prioritized more than
others.
▪ Now you can
understand the
Brexit, as well as
why a certain
policy in Vietnam
may favor one
group over others.
Tea Party
▪ More educated people vote are more
likely to vote (biggest factor)
▪ Older people
▪ People part of an organized religion
▪ People with higher incomes
▪ Whites vote most reliably (but Blacks
vote at a higher rate if you correct for
income & education)
▪ Women (but males and females vote in
similar proportions in Presidential
elections)
▪ Married people
▪ Union members
▪ Strong party identification
▪ A citizen’s personal affinity for a political party

▪ Usually expressed by his or her tendency to vote for the candidates of that
party
▪ Sources:
✓Parents Marriage and other aspects of adult life can change one’s party
loyalty
✓Charismatic political personalities, cataclysmic events, and maybe intense
social issues
▪ Social class remains a powerful indicator of likely partisan choice
▪ An election can be considered fully fair and democratic if which of the
following conditions is met:

a. Voting is done by a secret ballot

b. Candidates and parties can witness the counting of ballots

c. An impartial organization oversees the election

d. All adult citizens can vote

e. All of the above

▪ What are U.S. mid-term elections?

a. The elections for Congress and some of the Senate

b. The elections for Governors
c. Elections in which members of Congress and some Governors are not being
elected, but the President is

▪ What term do we use to describe the percentage of eligible voters who

actually voted in a given election?
a. direct primary b. voter turnout
c. class-action numbers d. supportive behavior
e. franchise percentage
▪ Why do we know more about conventional participation than about
unconventional participation?
a. Unconventional participation is very difficult to study and rarely occurs.
b. Unconventional participation is usually violent and thus very dangerous to
study.
c. Unconventional participation is usually studied by foreign political scientists.
d. Unconventional participation is hard to study, and political scientists prefer
not to study it.
e. Unconventional participation is illegal, and thus, the research is illegal too.
▪ A key characteristic that defines a state:
a. sovereignty b. coercion
c. capitalism d. autonomy e. militarism

▪ Which of the following is the best definition of political participation?

a. activities of people to influence or support government and policies
b. actions to protect and defend our way of life
c. people who do their civic duty and vote in every election
d. activities necessary to ensure the survival of our form of government
e. actions of governmental officials to compel the electoral activities of its
citizens
▪ Countries like France, Japan, or China concentrate their power in the
national government, and are thus examples of:

a. Failed states b. Weak states

c. Federal states d. Unitary states

e. Devolved states
▪ Which of the following statements best explains the differences in the
distribution of electoral votes across the U.S.?

A. The number of electoral votes is equal in number to that state’s combined

total of U.S. senators and representatives.

B. The number of electoral votes is determined by the geographical size of

each state.

C. The number of electoral votes is proportionate to the size of each state’s

legislative body.

D. The Constitution specifically mandates the number of electoral votes

granted to each state and cannot be changed.
▪ A long-standing monarchy, where a particular family holds the office
over generations, might be said to exhibit which form of legitimacy?
a. Traditional b. Charismatic
c. Rational-legal d. Religious e. Coercive

▪ Which of the following are factors that can contribute to conventional

political participation in U.S. politics?
a. education b. race
c. age d. gender
e. all of these
▪ Some countries – like Russia, India, and Spain – devolve power
unevenly to their regions. This is known as:
a. Autonomy b. Asymmetric federalism
c. Devolution d. Sovereignty e. Centralization

▪ This is the process by which a unitary state “sends down” power to

regional or local government:
a. Autonomy b. Asymmetric federalism
c. Devolution d. Sovereignty
e. Centralization
▪ Because it placed the authority of the political over that of the spiritual,
political scientists date the beginning of state sovereignty to:

a. The birth of Greek city-states (8th-7th Centuries B.C.E.)

b. The fall of the Roman Empire (5th Century C.E.)

c. The Dark Ages (500 C.E. to 1000 C.E.)

d. Christopher Columbus’s voyage to the new world (1492)

e. The Treaty of Westphalia (1648)

▪ In a comparative study that analyzes the impact of the rule of law on
economic development, which of the following might be the “dependent
variable”?
a. Degree of rule of law b. Weak states
c. Economic growth d. Trick question: this study has no
variables

▪ According to Mancur Olson, which of the following is a basic dilemma in

political life, especially in voting?
A. Principal-agent problem
B. Collective action problem
C. Chicken-Egg problem
D. Mind-Body problem
▪ Which of the following statements best describes the scientific
character of comparative politics?
a. Comparative political analysis is just like the physical sciences in its ability
to produce certain knowledge
b. Comparative political analysis is a type of science that probably cannot
produce knowledge of the same degree of certainty as in the physical sciences.
c. Comparative political analysis is a non-explanatory mode of science
d. Comparative political analysis is basically reducible to ideology and
opinions
▪ Which of the following could be a good comparative politics
explanation of the revolutions of the Arab Spring?
a. Every country naturally turns to democracy: its just a matter of when
b. The revolutions were products of revolutionary processes.
c. The Arab Spring happened because the relevant countries have culture.
d. Important groups felt discontent, the capacity to organize increased, and the
relevant states were unable to repress dissenters
▪ In a two-party system where there are many voters clustered at the center of
the political spectrum, the leading strategy for both parties will often be:
A. Run to the margins
B. Pursue the median voter
C. Pursue the modal voter
D. Mount a third-party campaign

▪ Comparative politics tends to produce certain kinds of arguments. Which of

the following is the best label for those arguments?
a. Basic Descriptions
b. Rationalizations
c. Explanations
d. Tautologies
▪ Which of the following does not have a single written document that
serves as its constitution?
a. The U.S.
b. China
c. Russia
d. The U.K.

▪ Which of the following is not a political system?

a. Secular totalitarian.
b. Theocratic totalitarian.
c. Democracy.
d. Market driven.
▪ An important lesson that derives from prisoner’s dilemma is that

a. individual rationality leads to collective irrationality.

b. two wrongs do not make a right.
c. absolute power corrupts absolutely.
d. individual actors can control outcomes by their own decisions.

▪ A policy measure that is voted on by all the people is called

A. a mixed electoral system. B. an initiative.

C. first past the post (FPTP). D. a referendum.
▪ Which of the following is the best definition of political participation?

A. activities of people to influence or support government and policies

B. actions to protect and defend our way of life
C. people who do their civic duty and vote in every election
D. activities necessary to ensure the survival of our form of government
E. actions of governmental officials to compel the electoral activities of its
citizens
▪ Which of the following applies most to those who prefer direct political
action?
a. They distrust the political system.
b. They have a sense of political efficacy.
c. They have access to a network of organized groups.
d. They identify strongly with members of a group.
e. All of the above.
▪ Which of the following best describes political participation of U.S.
citizens in comparison with activities of citizens in other democracies?
a. Americans are more likely to vote and participate in lower-initiative activities.
b. Americans are more likely to participate in all forms of activities.
c. Americans are just as likely to participate in all forms of activities.
d. Americans are less likely to participate in all forms of activities.
e. Americans are less likely to vote and participate in lower-initiative activities.
▪ Which of the following forms of voting necessarily requires ranking
candidates in order of preferences?
a. Open-list proportional representation (PR)
b. Parliamentary-style voting
c. Single-member district (SMD)
d. Single transferable vote (STV)
▪ An electoral system in which seats in a legislature are allocated based on
the percentage of votes each party receives in the election is called
A. first past the post (FPTP). B. Run-off, or majority.
C. proportional representation (PR).
D. single-member district (SMD) plurality.
▪ Thank you very much for your listening!
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