PLANT PHYSIOLOGY • Transpiration - the process by which plants lose water from

Plant Physiology – study of processes that take place within a leaves and stems through evaporation.
plant. • Translocation - the process by which food and nutrients are
Closely related fields: moved within a plant from one plant part to another.
• plant morphology (structure of plants) • Reproduction - the plant process that increases plant
• Plant ecology (interactions with the environment) numbers.
• Phytochemistry (biochemistry of plants)
• Cell biology, genetics, biophysics & molecular biology Review of Cell Structure – their Role in in Physiological
Processes
Plant physiologists – interested in the “Typical” Plant Cell
nutrition of plants, influence of the environment upon plant The term ‘Cell’ is derived from the Latin word ‘cella’, meaning
processes, the products of plant activities, and the sequence of storeroom or chamber.
events that results in growth and development of plants. • It was first used in biology in 1665 by the English botanist
Robert Hooke
Julius Sachs (1868): The father of plant physiology • Plant cells are the basic unit of life in organisms of the
kingdom Plantae.
⮚ Plants respond to a variety of Environmental conditions
• Light (photoperiod) Plant cell
• Temperature • The size of individual cells varies from 0.5 μm in diameter
• Gravity (0.5 μm = micrometer; 1 μm = about 1/26,000 in.) to
• Nutrient and water availability mascropic units up to 10 cm.
• Disease • In higher plants, the general range in diameter is 10-100
⮚ Activities of many plant species: μm.
• Seed germination • A single leaf on a tree may have more than 40,000,000
• Growth (stems, roots, leaves, buds, etc.) cells.
• Flowering
• Opening and closing of stomata Eukaryotic cells
• Tropism, etc. • Contain organelles surrounded by membranes
⮚ What plants do? • Most living organisms
• Find water and nutrients and transport them to where they • Plant cells are eukaryotic cells, which have a true nucleus
are needed within the plant along with specialized structures called organelles that carry
• Carry out photosynthesis and respiration out different functions.
• Grow and reproduce • They also have a cell wall that provides structural support.
• Protect themselves from herbivores and pathogens, etc.
Characteristics of Plant Cells
The Role of Plant Physiology in Forest • Plant cells have cell walls, constructed outside the cell
membrane and composed of cellulose, hemicellulose and
How the plants grow and how the benefits accruing from their pectin.
presence can be maximized. • Plant cells contain large central vacuole, a water-filled
volume enclosed by a membrane known as the tonoplast.
Common practices followed in forestry like leaf and branch • Plant cells contain a specialized cell-to-cell communication
pruning, timber stand improvement techniques, mulching, pathways known as plasmodesmata.
weeding, etc. have physiological basis. • Plant cells contain plastids, e.g. chloroplasts, amyloplasts,
chromoplasts, mitochondria.
1. Relation of Physiological Processes and Forest Growth
Forest – defined as a community of plants dominated by trees. Cell Parts and their Role in Plants
Forest growth – a result of physiological processes of the plant. Cell wall – it gives shape and structure to the cell and to the whole
plant as well.
Growth, Development and Reproduction Cytoplasm – the living part of the cell where organelles are
Growth - a process of irreversible increase by cell division and embedded.
enlargement, including synthesis of new cellular material and Chloroplast – a plastid containing the green pigment called the
organization of sub cellular organelles. It is the process involving chlorophyll.
conversion of reserve materials into structural materials. Nucleus – controls the activities of the cell; the presence of the
DNA in the nucleus explains why it is this part of the cell that
Development - process of qualitative change in plants over time. controls cellular activities. Cell wall
It is phasic in nature (vegetative and reproductive) which is Mitochondrion – the site of respiration.
controlled by various environmental and genetic factors. Ribosomes – the site of protein synthesis.
Endoplasmic reticulum – involve in cell transport.
Reproduction – is the production of new individual plants or Plasma membrane – the cytoplasmic membrane separating the
offspring by sexual or asexual means. cytoplasm from the cell wall; controls the entry or exit of materials
into the cell.
Processes of Plant Growth Golgi bodies – involved in the synthesis of new cell walls
Plants carry out a number of processes that are Vacuole – fluid-filled organelles bound by a single membrane
essential to their survival: called the tonoplast, and contain a wide range of inorganic ions
• Photosynthesis - the food and manufacturing process in and molecules.
green plants that combines carbon dioxide and water in the Other microbodies – site of other activities, e.g. peroxisomes and
presence of light to make sugar and oxygen. glyoxysomes
• Respiration - the process through which plant leaves, stems
and roots consume oxygen and give off carbon dioxide. Ergastic substance
• Absorption - the process by which plant roots take in water • non-protoplasm materials found in cells.
and air. • the living protoplasm of a cell is sometimes called the
bioplasm
 • usually organic or inorganic substances that are products of structural support in plants; principal supporting cells in
metabolism, and include crystals, oil drops, gums, tannins, plant tissues that have ceased elongation; “Sclerenchyma"
resins and other compounds that can aid the organism in is derived from the Greek word "sklē-rós” meaning "hard“;
defense, maintenance of cellular structure, or just substance Include fibers and sclereids
storage.
• may appear in the protoplasm, in vacuoles, or in the cell Types of Sclerenchyma
wall. • Fibers
• Sclereids
1. Carbohydrates
• Cellulose and starch are the main ergastic substances Plant tissues systems
of plant cells. 1. Dermal – for protection and prevention of water loss
• Cellulose is the chief component of the cell wall, and (epidermis, peridermis)
starch occurs as a reserve material in the protoplasm. 2. Ground – for photosynthesis, food storage, regeneration,
• Starch, as starch grains, arise almost exclusively in support and protection (parenchyma, collenchyma,
plastids, especially leucoplasts and amyloplasts. sclerenchyma tissues)
3. Vascular – for transport of water and minerals; for transport
Starch grains of food (xylem and vessel tissues)
• storehouse of glucose sugar units
Review of Related Chemistry Topics
2. Proteins
• Although proteins are the main component of Concentration of Solutions
livingprotoplasm, proteins can occur as inactive, 1. MOLARITY/MOLAR SOLUTION
ergastic bodies—in an amorphous or crystalline (or • A molar solution(M) is produced by dissolving a gram
crystalloid) form. A well-known amorphous ergastic molecular weight of a water-solute substance in enough
protein is gluten. water to make a liter of solution.
• Gluten is a protein composite that appears in foods
processed from wheat and related species, including Molecular weight
barley and rye. • weight of a substance in grams equal in number to the
3. Crystals weight of the substance in atomic weight units.
• Waste/metabolic products or protective (deter • this contains 6.02 x 1023 molecules of that substance.
herbivory); e.g. The gram molecular weight of glucose (C6H12O6)
• Plants mostly deposit such material in their tissues.
Such mineral matter is mostly salts of calcium (e.g., 2. MOLALITY/MOLAL SOLUTION
raphides, druses) and anhydrides of silica. • A molar solution contains a gram molecular weight of a
• Rhombohedron, Raphides, Cystolith, Druse substance dissolved in 1 liter of water. The difference
4. Fats, Oils, Waxes between a molar and molal solution is that molal’s final
• tri-/di-glyerides (storage, secretion) volume of solution may be greater than 1 liter depending
• fats (lipids) and oils are widely distributed in plant on the solute.
tissues. • Equal volumes of molal solution may not contain the same
• substances related to fats—waxes, suberin, and number of solute molecules but equal concentration of
cutin—occur as protective layers in or on the cell wall. molal solutions have the same mole fractions of solute
5. Aleurone grains - protein (storage) and solvent.
6. Tannins - phenol derivatives (deter herbivory, deter
infection) 3. PERCENT SOLUTION
Types of Plant Cells • Concentration is expressed as the percent composition by
1. Parenchyma cells – living cells that functions for storage weight.
and support to photosynthesis and phloem loading. Have e.g. 5% NaCl solution = 5 grams of NaCl + 95 grams of water
thin, permeable primary walls enabling the transport of
small molecules; involved in metabolic reactions; mainly 4. NORMALITY
present in the soft areas of the stems, leaves, root, • Normal solution contains a gram equivalent weight of a
flowers, fruits, etc. substance in a liter of solution.
2. Collenchyma cells - alive at maturity and have thickened o Gram equivalent weight of an element is the weight in
cellulosic cell walls; elongate; rich in pectins. grams of the element that combines with or is otherwise
‘Collenchyma' derives from the Greek word "kól-la”, equivalent to 1.008 grams of Hydrogen.
meaning "glue", which refers to the thick, glistening
appearance of the walls in fresh tissues. Provide structural 5. PARTS PER MILLION
support, particularly in growing shoots and leaves (e.g. • One ppm is 1 part in 1 million or the value is equivalent to
resilient strands in stalks of celery) the absolute fractional amount multiplied by one million.
Principal types of collenchyma: 1 ppm = 1/1,000,000 = 0.000001 = 0.0001%
1. Angular collenchyma - thickened at intercellular 10 ppm = 10/1,000,000 = 0.00001 = 0.001%
contact points 100 ppm = 100/1,000,000 = 0.0001 = 0.01%
2. Lacunar collenchyma - have intercellular space and
thickening proximal to the intercellular space In the metric system ppm can be expressed in terms of
3. Lamellar/tangential collenchyma – wall thickening is milligram versus kg where
restricted to tangential walls of the cells; cells 1 mg/kg = 1 part per million
appeared to be arranged as tangential rows or layers
4. Lacunar collenchyma - have intercellular space and Colloids – small particles suspended in water with sometimes
thickening proximal to the intercellular space glue-like consistency smaller than “suspension” particles and
larger than true solute particles, minute size give them these
3. Sclerenchyma cells - Sclerenchyma tissue are dead cells properties.
at maturity; have heavily thickened walls containing lignin, ● a mixture of two phases of matter
hemicellulose, and a high cellulose content; providing Properties of colloids:
 1. Optical properties (Viability through a microscope) Independent diffusion – the direction of diffusion of a substance
Tyndall effect - the effect of light scattering on particles in colloid is determined entirely by the differences in diffusion pressure of
systems, such as suspensions or emulsions. the substance and is completely independent of the diffusion
pressure of surrounding substances.
2. Kinetic properties
Brownian movement - random moving of particles suspended in a Factors affecting rate of diffusion (of gases)
fluid 1. Temperature – the rate at which a substance (gas) will
diffuse increases with increase in temperature. An increase
3. Electrical properties in temperature increases the kinetic energy of substance
4. Filtration properties (gas) molecules.
2. Density of diffusing molecules
Graham’s Law – the rates of diffusion of gases are
PLANT-WATER RELATIONS inversely proportional to the square roots of their
Importance of water to plant life densities
• Water is essential to plant life. To survive, plants need 3. Medium in which diffusion occurs
water, as well as nutrients, which are absorbed by the ● The more concentrated the medium is, the slower is
roots from the soil. diffusion.
• Water typically constitutes 80- 95% of the mass of growing 4. Diffusion pressure gradient
plant tissues and plays a crucial role for plant growth. ● The steeper the diffusion pressure gradient, the faster is the
rate of diffusion. Steepness of gradient is controlled by the
Water accomplishes its many functions because of its differences in concentration of diffusing substance.
unique characteristics: 5. Size of diffusing molecule
a) Polarity of the molecule H2O (which makes it an excellent ● True to diffusion of solutes in solvents, liquids in liquids and
solvent) gases in liquids
b) Viscosity (which makes it capable of moving through plant 6. Solubility of diffusing molecule
tissues by capillary action)
c) Thermal properties (which makes it capable of cooling plant Osmosis
tissues) ● Special type of diffusion which is actually the movement
of water through a differentially permeable membrane
⮚ Plants require water for a number of physiological processes from an area of high concentration to an area of low
(e.g. synthesis of carbohydrates) and for associated physical concentration.
functions (e.g. keeping plants turgid). ● Osmosis will stop once forces controlling movement of
water into tube balance those that controls water out of
Root System the tube.

▪ Roots absorb water from the soil, which is then carried through Parameters of Plant-Water Relations
the plant. 1) Osmotic pressure
▪ Water is a solvent that moves minerals from the soil up through ● can be measured indirectly; pressure needed to prevent
the plant. the passage of pure water into an aqueous solution
through a differentially-permeable membrane, thereby
Growth preventing an increase in the volume of the solution.
• Cell division and cell expansion are the two ways plants grow. ● Directly proportional to the number of solute molecules in
Cells grow by taking in water. a given amount of solvent.
• If water is limited during periods of growth, the final cell size is ● Theoretically, a molal solution of an undissociated
diminished, which leads to fewer and smaller leaves, smaller substance at 0oC has an OP of 22.4 atm.
fruit, shorter, and smaller root system.
• The lack of water results in smaller, weaker plants. 2) Turgor pressure
TP = actual pressure responsible for pushing the cell membrane
Wilting against the cell wall
• Well-watered plants keep their shape because of the
internal pressure of water in the cells, called turgor TP= wall pressure being exerted by the rigid cell wall, in this
pressure. When there is insufficient water, the pressure condition (TP=WP) plant cell is turgid
drops and causes the plant to wilt. This pressure is also
essential for plant cell expansion, which leads to plant 3) Diffusion pressure deficit
growth. ● Sugar solution has a lower DP than that of water; if both
is subjected to the same pressure, the difference in
Diffusion, Osmosis and Imbibition pressure between the 2 is equal to the OP of the solution.
e.g., OP of solution = 8 atm then DPD of that solution is 8 atm
Diffusion – movement of atoms or molecules from an area of
high concentration to an area of low concentration. DPD = water potential difference in pressure between a solution
and pure water solvent when both are subjected to the same
Kinetic energy – power of a moving body to accomplish work. At atmospheric pressure (same temperature)
temperature
above absolute zero (0oK or -273oC), all components of matter Plasmolysis
are in motion. ● Process whereby the water from the cytoplasm of cells is
removed causing the cytoplasm to shrink

Diffusion pressure Isotonic solution – solution with OP equal to OP of the plant cell
● a hypothetical term describing the potential ability of a gas, sap –> plant cell normal
liquid or solid to diffuse from an area of its greatest
concentration to an area of lesser concentration. Hypotonic solution – solution with OP lesser than OP of plant
cell sap; water will enter the cell causing more turgidity
 lost as heat, therefore an increase in temperature after
Hypertonic solution – solution with OP greater than OP of cell imbibition.
sap -> loss of turgor, shrinking of vacuole, pulling away of the cell
membrane from the cell wall implying the cell has been Adsorption – binding of molecules or particles to a surface
plasmolyzed. Absorption - filling of pores in a solid
Desorption - the release of an adsorbed substance from a surface
Measurement of OP TRANSPIRATION
● Measure of any of the colligative properties of solutions: ● Process whereby water is lost in the form of vapor
a. boiling point through the leaves.
b. freezing point depression (used to measure OP) ● Only 5% water vapor is utilized. Ninety five percent (95%)
c. vapor pressure is lost in the form of vapor through transpiration.

● Theoretically freezing point depression of a molal solution Three types of transpiration:

of unionized substance is 1.86oC compared to pure 1) Stomatal – transpiration occurring in the stomata of the leaf.
water; its OP=22.4 atm. Therefore: 2) Cuticular - loss of water from the cuticle of the leaves, fruits and
stem
3) Lenticular/epidermal – loss of water through a pore-like
The method making use of freezing point in determining structure found in the branches or stem; slow
the OP is called cryoscopic method.
Magnitude of water lost due to transpiration
2) Plasmolysis phenomenon ● An acre of corn can transpire up to 3~4,000 gallons of
water per day
OP = 22.4 MT ● A large tree can transpire 40,000 gallons per year
273
M = concentration of external solution at incipient plasmolysis Methods of Measuring Transpiration
T = absolute temperature (applicable for small seedlings or part of a big plant)

Imbibition 1.Gravimetric method

● special type of diffusion; net movement of water is along Involves loss of weight of plant from one period of time to another
a diffusion gradient surface of soil covered so as to eliminate water loss due to
● type of diffusion occurring between a liquid substance evaporation.
causing a recognizable change in the volume of the 2. Potometer method
latter. Bubble is introduced in the capillary
Assumption: amount of water loss is the same as the amount of
Importance of imbibition: water absorbed
a) Initial stage of water absorption by the roots
b) Initiate seed germination 3. Cobalt-chloride method
c) Adhering water to the walls of xylem elements Specially prepared filter paper coated with cobalt- chloride is used,
d) Helps fruits to retain water placed and pressed over a transpiring leaf blade, when not
e) Plays a major role in young and actively growing tissues saturated it is colored blue, when saturated colored pink – time
it takes to change color is compared to a given table to give the
Conditions necessary for imbibition to occur: rate of water loss.
1) A DP gradient must exist between the imbibant and the
substance imbibed 4. Box method
2) A certain affinity must exist between components of the Plant is enclosed in a box, CaCl2 is used, oven-dried first then
imbibant and the imbibed substance weighed, placed inside U-tube, blow in air into box for plant to
transpire. The pump will aid CaCl2 to absorb the water transpired.
Imbibition pressure (IP) – analogous to OP in the sense that it
represents the potential maximum pressure developed by the Anatomy of Stomata
imbibant if submerged in pure water (Meyer, 1938). Movement of stomata is dependent upon the turgidity of the guard
DPD = IP – TP cells: Open -> turgid; Close -> flaccid
DPD = IP if imbibant is placed in an unconfined condition
● Chloroplasts of guard cells undergo photosynthesis,
Factors affecting rate and extent of imbibition: CH2O will be produced and will accumulate thereby
1)Temperature increasing the DPD of the guard cell resulting in the
● affects rate of imbibition not the amount of water imbibed movement of water from the accessory cell to the guard
because after the equilibrium has been reached, water cell.
will freely move in and out. ● Thinner wall expands more than thicker wall so pore will
● increase in temp. increases rate of imbibition open.

2) OP of substance to be imbibed affects amount and rate of water Factors affecting stomatal movement:
diffusion
● Addition of solute to pure water lowers diffusion pressure 1. Light – stomates open in light and close in dark; some will not
of water open when exposed to far red or UV while some will open
● Decrease in DP gradient will decrease rate at which
water is imbibed and amount of water taken up Light affects stomatal movement through:
a. Photosynthesis
Volume and energy changes: ● Under light condition, chloroplasts of the guardcell
● Volume of whole system decreases after imbibition photosynthesize resulting in an increase of osmotically
because water molecules are adsorbed tightly and as active substances
such are packed closer together. As a result some KE is
b. pH
 ● Illumination of the guard cells increases its pH; at high pH ● transpiration stream provides an efficient means of
opening of the stomates favored and at low is closing. transport and distribution once salts have been absorbed.
● A high pH is accompanied by a decrease in starch and
an increase of the reducing sugars which are osmotically ABSORPTION AND TRANSLOCATION
active resulting in an increase of turgor. I. Anatomy of xylem tissue
Cell types and Functions
2. Water 1.Tracheary elements (tracheids and vessels)
● H2O deficit closes (usually) stomata ● cells most concerned with water translocation in the
● The greater the degree of water deficit, the sooner the plants
stomates close ● both are more or less elongated, lignified walls, dead
when mature and functional
3. Air temperature – as air temperature increases, stomates open ● death at maturity favors efficient translocation of water
because there is no protoplast to interfere
How is transpiration done by Plants:
A continuous water system exists from the mesophyll cells to the Vessel or xylem duct
veins <-> midrib<-> petiole<-> branches <-> stem<->roots<->soil ● restricted to angiosperms only;
● formed by several cells arranged end to end and
Factors affecting rate of transpiration: dissolved cross walls;
1)Plant factors ● network of xylem ducts extends to all areas of plant
giving all cells an easily accessible supply of water
a)Root-shoot ratio
● If conditions for transpiration are good, rate of Tracheids
transpiration is controlled by the efficiency of the ● found in all types of vascular plants;
absorbing surface (root surface) and evaporating surface ● form the principal pathway in gymnosperms because
(leaf surface) vessels are not present;
● Transpiration increase with increased root-shoot ratio ● long spindle-shaped cells with sharply inclined end walls
Pits
b.) Leaf area ● for lateral movement of water; occur in pairs called pit
● Greater leaf area, greater amount of water loss pairs (may occur between two vessels, two tracheids,
c) Leaf structure tracheids and vessels, living parenchyma cell).
d) Leaf orientation
2. Xylem fibers
2) Environmental factors ● Dead at maturity
a) Light ● Function for support
● causes opening of stomates ● Water translocation through fibers is uncertain
b)Humidity of air
● Increased relative humidity of air decreases rate of 3. Xylem parenchyma
transpiration because vapor pressure between the leaves ● Components of xylem rays called wood and ray
and the atmosphere is not very steep. parenchyma
Relative humidity ● Function as storage
● is the ratio of the actual vapor pressure to the vapor ● Xylem ray parenchyma facilitates lateral distribution of
pressure of atmosphere when saturated at the same water and nutrients
temperature.
II. Absorption of Water by Plants
c) Temperature ● Water is absorbed most in the root hair zone, it diffuses
● All other factors constant – increase in temperature within into the root hair as a result of DPD gradient (DPD of cell
a certain physiological range almost increases the rate of sap greater than soil, water will move into the cell).
transpiration. ● Increase in solute concentration of cell or decrease in TP
will increase DPD
● This is due to effect of temperature on stomatal
movements and vapor pressure gradients. Root hairs
Range 0°C– 30°C– increased stomatal opening ● lack cuticle and provide a large surface area
● extensions of the epidermal cells
d) Wind ● have sticky walls by which they adhere tightly to soil
● disperses vapor accumulating or concentrating in the particles
vicinity of the leaf as a result of transpiration and thus ● extremely thin and large in number, thus provide
may increase transpiration at the immediate onset of enormous surface area for absorption
application. But cooling effect of wind may decrease ● take in water from the intervening spaces mainly by
temperature and hence decrease transpiration. osmosis
e) Availability of soil water
Water in the roots move by two pathways.
They can be classified as:
1) Apoplast pathway
2) Symplast pathway
Significance of transpiration:
1.Cooling effect Apoplast pathway:
● some would say this is not at all important because some ● the movement of water occurs exclusively through cell
plants transpire negligibly do not overheat. wall without the involvement of any membranes.
2. Effect on growth and development ● majority of the amount of water goes through this
● protein synthesis is inhibited and protein breakdown is pathway.
enhanced
3. Effect of mineral salt absorption Symplast pathway:
 ● movement of water molecules is from cell to cell through – Active process because living roots are essential for it to occur.
the plasmodesmata.
● The plasmodesmata forms a network of cytoplasm of all B. Vital force theory – vital activities of plants especially those of
cells. living xylem tissues, fibers and parenchyma control ascent of
water.
Casparian strips:
● separates the cortex and the endodermis – The conduction of water up the xylem vessel is a result of vital
● composed of a wax like substance called suberin, which action of the living cells in the xylem tissue.
blocks water and solute molecules through the cell wall of
the endodermis C. Cohesion-tension theory - Continuous column of water from
● water is forced to go through the cell membranes of the root to the stem to the shoot is maintained by the cohesive
different cells leading to a transmembrane pathway forces of water and adhesive force that makes the column
adhere to the surface of the xylem ducts. When the leaf tissues
A. Mechanism of water absorption (mesophyll cells) exposed to the environment are put into tension
1. Passive as a result of evaporation of its water, this tension will be
● Rapidly transpiring plant vessels and tracheids are transmitted through the unbroken column thereby draining water
generally in state of negative tension or reduced pressure up.
● At situation where transpiration exceeds absorption a ● Tensile strength of water up to 300 bars can support the
suction force is produced by the moving columns of water column of H2O that would be necessary to reach the tips
literally pulling water into the root from the soil of the tree and this can also overcome frictional and
● DPD is increased by the negative tension, thus increased gravitational forces encountered in its vertical rise.
water uptake Evidences: indirect

2. Active – Dendrograph measure changes in diameter of a

● Does not concern the shoot trunk as a result of transpiration –> decrease
diameter at high transpiration.
Factors affecting rate of absorption of water:
1. Soil temperature IV. Translocation of Food and Hormones
● Low soil temperature reduces water absorption because
at low temperature water mobility is reduced, also the Phloem transport
protoplasm is less permeable and root growth is inhibited. A highly specialized process for redistributing:
2. Concentration of soil solution -Photosynthesis products
● More concentrated soil solution means higher OP than -Other organic compounds (metabolites, hormones)
OP of root cells thus water will be drawn out of the plant. -Some mineral nutrients
● Halophytes are plants that can tolerate high soil OP
3. Aeration of soil Phloem transport: sources and sinks
● More O2, more H2O is absorbed because of its effect on Sources: any exporting region that produces photosynthesis
● transpiration above and beyond that of its own needs.
● Accumulation of CO2 in soil decreases protoplasm Sink: any non-photosynthetic organ or an organ that does not
permeability retarding water absorption produce enough photosynthate to meet its own needs.
4. Availability of soil water
● Not all water in the soil is available to the plant, it is only Substances translocated in the phloem
those in the immediate vicinity of the root system that –Water
water is readily available. –Sugars
–Nitrogenous compounds – amino acids (aspartic and glutamic
Field capacity (FC) – water content of the soil after thoroughly acids), amides (asparagine and glutamine), ureides (allantoic acid,
wetting and then allowed to drain until capillary movement of water allantoin)
has essentially ceased, different types of soil may have different –Hormones – auxins, gibberellins, cytokinins and abscisic acid
field capacity. –Proteins – P proteins, etc.
–Inorganic solutes –
Permanent wilting percentage (PWP) – a percentage of soil
water left when the leaves of the plant growing in the soil first Protective mechanisms in phloem
exhibit symptoms of permanent wilting, dependent upon ability of 1.P proteins (Phloem proteins)
plant to draw water so a type of soil may have different PWP Strands of cytoplasm that transverse the small pores of sieve cells
depending on plant species. and the larger ones of sieve elements. It is not known whether P-
protein is active in transport or merely serves as a seal against
Total soil moisture stress (TSMS) – sum of osmotic pressure of leakage in case of injury.
soil solution and soil moisture tension (gravitational, adsorptive
and hydrostatic forces that hold water to the soil). A protein found in large amounts in the sap-conducting sieve
elements of phloem tissue in plants. It takes various forms in the
III. Translocation of water and minerals mature sieve element, depending on plant species, ranging from a
Translocation is the movement of materials from leaves to other network of filaments to discrete crystalline bodies.
tissues throughout the plant. The water and minerals absorbed by
roots are conducted upwards to the leaves, flowers and other 2. Callose
parts of the plant. It takes place through xylem tubes. The upward A Beta-1-3-Glucan, is a carbohydrate which is also deposited at
movement of sap that contains water and minerals is called ascent the sieve plate in response to injury.
of sap.
Callose is a plant polysaccharide. Its production is due to the
A. Root pressure theory – cut end of a stump maybe observed to glucan synthase-like gene (GLS) in various places within a plant. It
exclude xylem sap is produced to act as a temporary cell wall in response to stimuli
– Pressure developing in the tracheary elements of the xylem as a such as stress or damage
result of the metabolic activities of the roots.
Phloem loading: where do the solutes come from?
Sucrose made in the mesophyll travel the symplast. Some sucrose
exit the symplast and accumulate in sieve-tube members and
companion cells via the apoplast.

Proton pumps generate an H+ gradient, driving sucrose

accumulation in the cell by cotransport.

Energetics of phloem transport

● Phloem transport is driven by xylem transport
● Phloem transport depends on water potential differences
● The water potential differences are created by the
selective transport of solutes (photosynthates) into and
out of the phloem

Factors regulating loading of the sieve tube elements

● Existing solute potential and/or turgor pressure of the
sieve elements
● External (apoplastic) sucrose concentration
● Availability and expression of sucrose transporters
● Nutrient supply

Source-sink pathways follow patterns

▪Proximity – upper leaves to upper portions, lower leaves to lower
portions
▪Vascular connections – more direct vascular connection preferred
▪Development – importance of sinks changes with
life cycle (reproductive)

Alterations of translocation pathway

● Anastomoses (singular anastomosis) provide a means
of rerouting photosynthate if the existing phloem is
altered.

Four main differences between xylem and phloem:

(1)Xylem is dead, where as phloem cells are alive.
(2)Xylem carries mainly water and minerals, while organic
compounds such as sugar and amino acids are transported to the
phloem.
(3)The flow of liquid in xylem is upward only, whereas the flow of
liquid in phloem is bidirectional.
(4)The contents in phloem can move up and down the plant
simultaneously.