ELECTRICAL NETWORKS

UNIT I
DC Network Theorems
Mesh analysis, Nodal analysis using voltage and current sources, Superposition theorem
Thevenin theorem, Norton theorem, Maximum power transfer theorem, Active and passive network, Linear and Non
Linear network
UNIT II
AC Fundamentals
Generation of alternating Voltage and current Difference between ac and dc, Equation of alternating quantity,
AC Terminology: waveform, cycle, frequency, time period, amplitude, instantaneous value, alternation, and their
important relations (time period and frequency, angular velocity and frequency etc.)
Values of alternating voltage and current: Instantaneous value, peak value average value, r.m.s. value, form factor and
peak factor, Vector representation of alternating quantities Concept of phase, phase difference and phasors ,
Representation of electrical quantities through phasors Addition of two alternating quantities: parallelogram method,
component method
UNIT III
Single Phase AC Series Circuits
3.1 A.C circuit containing pure Resistance, Inductance, Capacitance with the concept of power consumed, phase Angle,
inductive and capacitive reactance etc.
3.2 AC series circuit: R-L, R-C, R-L-C along with the concept of phasor diagram, phase angle, Impedance, impedance
triangle, power, power triangle etc.
3.3 Concept of True power, apparent power and reactive power, Power factor and its significance, disadvantages of low
power factor, cause of low power factor, improvement of power factor.
3.4 Active and reactive components of current
3.5 Resonance in RLC series circuit, Quality (Q) factor

UNIT IV
Single Phase AC Parallel Circuits
4.1 Concept of AC parallel circuit
4.2 Methods of solving parallel AC circuit: vector method, admittance method, symbolic or
J-method
4.3 Parallel Resonance, Q-factor
4.4 Comparison of series and parallel resonance.
4.5 Introduction to transient and Harmonics in A.C. circuits
UNIT V
Polyphase Circuit
5.1 Principle of generation of 3 –ø alternating emf.
5.2 Advantages of Polyphase circuit over single phase circuit, Phase Sequence.
5.3 Types of three phase connections-Star connection and delta connection.
5.4 Concept of balanced and unbalanced load.
5.5 Relation between phase and line quantities of star and delta connection
 UNIT I (DC Network Theorems)

Mesh Analysis, Nodal Analysis

A mesh is a loop that has no other loops inside of it. Meshes are used to analyses planar circuits. (Planar circuits are
circuits that can be drawn without the wires crossing on).
The mesh has no other branches inside it.

A loop is any closed path in a circuit, in which no node is encountered more than once
Loop can be found by starting from a point and travelling through a path, to finish at the same point. Loops can include
other branches inside it in a circuit.
Procedure of Mesh Analysis
Follow these steps while solving any electrical network or circuit using Mesh analysis.
 Step 1 − Identify the meshes and label the mesh currents in either clockwise or anti-clockwise direction.
 Step 2 − Observe the amount of current that flows through each element in terms of mesh currents.
 Step 3 − Write mesh equations to all meshes. Mesh equation is obtained by applying KVL first and then Ohm’s
law.
 Step 4 − Solve the mesh equations obtained in Step 3 in order to get the mesh currents.
Example - Find the voltage across 30 Ω resistor using Mesh analysis.

Step 1 − There are two meshes in the above circuit. The mesh currents I1 and I2 are considered in clockwise direction.

Two mesh having two equations

20−5I1−10(I1−I2)=0 4I2=6I1−8 eq1

−10(I2−I1)−30I2+80=0 4I2=I1+8 eq2

After solving two equations we will get

I1=16/5 A

I2 = 14/5 A

Superposition theorem
In a network of linear resistances containing more than one generator (or source of e.m.f.), the current which flows at
any point is the sum of all the currents which would flow at that point if each generator where considered separately
and all the other generators replaced for the time being by resistances equal to their internal resistances.

Step 1 − Find the response in a particular branch by considering one independent source and eliminating the remaining
independent sources present in the network.
Step 2 − Repeat Step 1 for all independent sources present in the network.
Step 3 − Add all the responses in order to get the overall response in a particular branch when all independent sources
are present in the network

Thevenin Theorem
It provides a mathematical technique for replacing a given network, as viewed from two output
terminals, by a single voltage source with a series resistance. It makes the solution of complicated
networks (particularly, electronic networks) quite quick and easy.

Steps
1. Temporarily remove the resistance (called load resistance RL) whose current is required.
2. Find the open-circuit voltage VOC which appears across the two terminals from where resistance has been removed.
It is also called Thevenin voltage VTH.
3. Compute the resistance of the whose network as looked into from these two terminals after all voltage sources have
been removed leaving behind their internal resistances (if any) and current sources have been replaced by open-circuit
i.e. infinite resistance. It is also called Thevenin resistance RTh .
4. Replace the entire network by a single Thevenin source, whose voltage is Vth or Voc and whose internal resistance is Rth
5. Connect RL back to its terminals from where it was previously removed.
6. Finally, calculate the current flowing through RL by using the equation,

I = VTh/(Rth + RL) or I = VOC/(RTh + RL)

Norton Theorem
it is the dual of Thevenin’s theorem. Norton’s theorem replaces the network by an equivalent constant-current source
and a parallel resistance. OR
Any two-terminal active network containing voltage sources and resistance when viewed from its output terminals is
equivalent to a constant-current source and a parallel resistance.
Procedure to solve
1. Remove the resistance (if any) across the two given terminals and put a short-circuit across them.
2. Compute the short-circuit current Isc.
3. Remove all voltage sources but retain their internal resistances, if any. Similarly, remove all current sources and
replace them by open-circuits i.e. by infinite resistance.
4. Next, find the resistance R1 (also called RN) of the network as looked into from the given terminals. It is exactly the
same as RTh.
5. The current source (Isc) joined in parallel across Ri between the two terminals gives Norton’s equivalent circuit.
Maximum Power Transfer Theorem
A resistive load will abstract maximum power from a network when the load resistance is equal to the resistance of
the network as viewed from the output terminals, with all energy sources removed leaving behind their internal
resistances

Let Ri = Rg + R = internal resistance of the network as viewed from A and B.

According to this theorem, RL will abstract maximum power from the network when RL = Ri.
Maximum power will be PL= V2/ 4Ri = V2/4RL

Electric Network. A combination of various electric elements, connected in any manner

whatsoever, is called an electric network.
Passive Network is one which contains no source of e.m.f. in it.
Active Network is one which contains one or more than one source of e.m.f.
Circuit. A circuit is a closed conducting path through which an electric current either flows or is intended flow.
Linear Circuit. A linear circuit is one whose parameters are constant i.e. they do not change with voltage or current.
Non-linear Circuit. It is that circuit whose parameters change with voltage or current.
 8 AC Fundamentals

Alternating current or voltage is the one which changes in value (or magnitude) and direction with time. See wave
shape in difference

Alternating Current (A.C.) Direct Current (D.C.)

1. The magnitude of AC varies continuously w.r.t. 1 It does not changes its direction
time 2. Frequency of DC is 0HZ
2. Frequency of AC in india is 50HZ 3. Battery or cell
3. Obtained from AC generator 4 HVDC Method of long transmission is used
4. HVAC transmission is used for long transmission 5 Passive parameter is Resistance
5 Passive parameter is impedance 6 Shape of DC
6 Shape of AC

Important terminologies of AC quantity

Wave Form
Amplitude: The amplitude of sine wave is the maximum value (V/I) reached during a positive or negative alternation.
Cycle: One complete set of positive and negative values of an alternating quantity is called cycle.
i.e. during one cycle the wave from trace 0 to +max to 0 to -max to 0.
Time Period: The time taken for one cycle is known as time period or periodic time(T). Its unit is time in seconds
Frequency: Number of cycles made in one second is called as frequency of the alternating quantity.
It is denoted by f. The unit is Hertz or cycles/second
Scalar quantity: A quantity which has only magnitude but no direction ( ex. Resistance)
Vector quantity: A quantity which has both direction and magnitude (ex. Force)
Phase Angle: It is an angular displacement between two alternating quantities.
Peak value: It denotes the maximum value of the alternative quantity reached during a positive or negative direction. It
is denoted as Vm , Im
Instantaneous value: The value of voltage or current at a particular instant (time) is known as instantaneous value.
Generally it is denoted by small alphabet (v for voltage and i for current).
Average Value: The arithmetical average of all the values of an alternating quantity over one cycle is called as average
value.
For sine waveform the average value is IAvg = (2/π)Im = 0.637Im
Root Mean Square (RMS) Value:
The rms value of an alternating current is defined as that steady current which when flowing through a given resistance
for a given time produces the same amount of heat as produced by the alternating current when flowing through the
same resistance for the same time.
For sine waveform the root mean square (RMS) value is
VRMS =(1√2)* Vm = 0.707Vm
IRMS =(1√2)* Im = 0.707Im
Peak Factor:
It is defined as the ratio of the peak or maximum value, to the r.m.s. value, of a waveform.
For sine waveform = Vm /0.707Vm = 1/0.707 = 1.414
Form Factor:
It is defined as the ratio of the r.m.s. value to the average value.
Form Factor = RMS value / Average Value. For sine waveform = 0.707 / 0.637 = 1.11

Representation of sinusoidal quantities by phasor diagrams

E = Em Sinωt
Maximum values of two sinusoidal voltage waves represented by e1 = Em1 sin ωt and e2 = Em2 sin(ωt-ϕ)
E r = e1 + e2
Phase – it is defined as divisional part of a cycle through which it moves forward from a given point.
Phase difference –It is the angular phase difference between their maximum value having the same frequency.
It can be Lagging or leading.
Phasor – It is a vector which represents a sinusoidal variable quantity mathematically phasor can be represented in
- Polar form
- Rectangular form
- Exponential form
Addition of two alternating quantity
- Parallelogram method
- Component method
 Single Phase AC Series Circuits

A.C. Through Resistance, Inductance and Capacitance

In each case, we will assume that we are given the alternating voltage of equation e = Em sin ωt

The average power consumed in the circuit over a complete cycle is given by

As the valve of cosωt is zero.

So, putting the value of cosωt in equation (4) the value of power will be given by

Where,
 P – average power
 Vr.m.s – root mean square value of supply voltage
 Ir.m.s – root mean square value of the current