PAwoke KAM V

Specialized Knowledge Area Module 5

Principles of Engineering Management Quality

“The Empirical study to examine the Impact of Quality Safety Measures in Organizational

Performance: Evidence from IOCs in Nigeria”

Student: Patrick Awoke, [email protected]

Student ID A00397720

Program: PhD in Management

Specialization: Engineering Management

KAM Assessor: Dr.Thomas Spencer [email protected]

Faculty Mentor: Dr. Aridaman Jain [email protected]

Walden University

July 17, 2017

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Abstract

Breadth

In the Breadth component, I will examine the application of total quality management

theory to the concepts of engineering management quality. Every organization needs to embed

quality in the manufacturing, production, and supply of goods and services. Quality impacts

organizational performance. Quality safety measures in workplace guarantees quality employee

performance, mitigation of incidents or accidents, and organizational safety performance. To

understand the principles and practices of total quality management, in this breadth component, I

will examine the theories of Armand Feigenbaum, Edward Deming, Joseph Juran, Philip Crosby,

and Kaoru Ishikawa in terms of their underlying principles about quality control, total quality

management evolution, and impact on the field of management. I will also compare, contrast,

analyze, and synthesize the works of these different theorists in engineering management field. I

will highlight both historical and contemporary works to give a broad range of perspectives on

engineering management quality.

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Abstract

Depth

In the depth component of this KAM, I will analyze current scholarly articles that will

present an annotated bibliography representative of the processes of total quality management

(TQM). The ideas from the analyzed scholarly articles disclose that the total quality

management can be used in analyzing engineering quality control in organizations. The articles

will also reveal the use of the concepts of TQM to provide the theoretical frameworks for the

impact of quality safety measures on organizational performance. Integration of the concepts

from the contemporary works on total quality management will aid in the analysis of the

methods, tools, and processes involved in the engineering management process and product

quality from the literature review in the annotated bibliography.

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Abstract

Application

The Application component of this KAM will demonstrate a quantitative research plan

using the total quality management concepts to evaluate the impact of quality safety measures on

organizational performance. Researchers have revealed performance as (1) Financial

performance (profits, return on assets, return on investment, etc.); (2) product market

performance (sales, market share, (3) shareholder return (total shareholder return, economic

value added etc.), and (4) safety behavior and performance. Performance of different

international oil companies (IOCs) have been affected by failures of these quality safety

measures. The qualitative research plan will utilize TQM concepts to find out and comprehend

an organization’s total quality management system, quality control, and processes for achieving

product quality. I will provide the cost implication of failures of quality safety measures in the

organization. I will also confirm the reliability of effective and efficient implementation of

quality safety measure in the daily operations of the offshore and onshore oil fields. Findings

from the research proposal will be adopted to propose a theoretical framework for the total

quality management of processes, controls, and supervision of workers to enhance performance

and quality safety behaviors.

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Table of Content

BREADTH COMPONENT.............................................................................................................1

Introduction..........................................................................................................................1

Evolution of total quality management...............................................................................4

Quality Experts ...................................................................................................................7

Armand Feigenbaum............................................................................................................9

Edward Deming.................................................................................................................16

Joseph Juran…...................................................................................................................24

Kaoru Ishikawa..................................................................................................................31

Philip Crosby.....................................................................................................................36

Analysis and synthesis of quality experts..........................................................................43

Summary…………………................................................................................................47

DEPTH COMPONENT.................................................................................................................51

Annotated Bibliography.....................................................................................................51

Literature Review...............................................................................................................70

Total quality management concepts……..............................................................97

Quality management in projects…......................................................................100

Quality and safety management systems……….................................................102

Quantifying quality management system performance ......................................104

Analysis of the quality management in the technical processes .........................106

Total quality Management Tools…………….....................................................120

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Conclusion...........................................................................................................126

APPLICATION COMPONENT.................................................................................................130

Introduction......................................................................................................................130

Application Project..........................................................................................................133

Qualitative Research Plan discussion..............................................................................133

Conclusion.......................................................................................................................154

REFERENCES............................................................................................................................160
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Breadth

AMDS 8514: Global Total Quality Management

Introduction

The principal purpose of KAM 5 – The principles of engineering quality management is

to demonstrate a different type of competency leading to a broad-based and integrated

knowledge in the subject matter of this KAM which is the theory and practice of engineering

management total quality. In this KAM, I demonstrate a broad-based knowledge of the

concepts, principles, and practices of total quality management as they have evolved over time

from the seminal 1951 work of Armand Feigenbaum on quality control, to the more recent

contributions by the stalwarts like Edward Deming, Joseph Juran, Philip Crosby, and Kaoru

Ishikawa. I compare and contrast the works of these experts and other seminal authors in the

field of engineering management.

In recent times, organizational mangers are focusing on quality to actualize productivity

increase, costs reduction, and meet the needs of customers. Managers have started to

comprehend the need to do a continuous improvement in quality of their goods, services, and

products to realize their ambitions. The great theorists of total quality management have carried

out diverse works in the quality management for over 30 years with different perspectives.

There is a constant order for information concerning the outstanding approach of the total

quality management theorists such as Edward Deming, Joseph Juran, Philip Crosby, and Kaoru

Ishikawa. There has been an early effort performed at the Navy Personnel Research and

Department Center (NPRDC). This research and development center addressed the importance

of applying the total quality management theorists’ approaches to the naval repair and
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maintenance facilities. The primary focus of the Navy was to identify the statistical process

control (Houston, Shettel-Neuber and Sheposh, 1986). This KAM exposes different quality

initiatives used by Edward Deming, Joseph Juran, Philip Crosby, and Kaoru Ishikawa. It

addresses the approaches adopted by these theorists to facilitate a long term improvement,

satisfaction of customers, development of quality products, and improvement of quality safety

standard in oil and gas companies.

Quality concept is changing gradually. Global competition has caused most countries to

open their economy. Different companies including international oil companies (IOCs) have

commenced according recognition to total quality as distinct by the companies’ customers for

their continued existence in this face of inflexible competition (Gupta, 2008, P.273). The

customer defines quality instead of the manufacturer, producer or the designer. Several

parameters connected with quality have been redefined. Quality level acceptable concepts are

now obsolete and the costs of quality have also been re-defined.

Many organizations are embarking on approving TQM. As a result, it is important to

comprehend the core issues, principal philosophy, drawbacks, and the aspects of TQM

implementations. TQM is considerably different from quality (Gupta, 2008. P. 273) as there are

many legends concerning TQM. A company may receive ISO 9000 and may not necessarily

achieve TQM goal. However, it is important to holistically comprehend the term ‘total’ and

‘quality’ in total quality management.

According to Gupta (2008), total in TQM is the development of all aspects of an

organization in satisfying the customer. TQM can be achieved if a partnership environment at

each stage of the process of the business is recognized in the organization internally and
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externally (p. 273). The total quality management embraces (1) customer-supplier relationship

based on mutual trust and respect, (2) organizations in-house requirements by the customers, (3)

customer’s needs are well understood by the supplier, (4) suppliers are partners in achieving zero

defect situation, and (5) regular monitoring of supplier’s processes and products by the customer

(Gupta, 2008, p. 273).

The customer needs and expectations define quality. Quality in a nutshell is what

customer wants. According to the American Society of Quality Control (ASQC), quality is the

totality of features and characteristics of products or services that bear on its ability to satisfy a

given need. Badiru & Ayeni (1993) defined quality as an equilibrium functionality level

possessed by a product or service based on the producer’s capability and the needs of the

customer. However, quality is a feature that the customer utilizes to estimate products or

services. Quality is driven by market-place, competition, and the customer.

The aim of this paper is to educate individuals, employees, and organizations who have

been or who are beginning their career in quality fields. In this KAM, I provide a biographical

sketch of Armand Feigenbaum, Edward Deming, Joseph Juran, Philip Crosby, and Kaoru

Ishikawa; describe their definition concerning total quality, and the indispensable principles

underlying their approaches. This paper presents the similarities and differences among these

total quality experts. I present a qualitative research plan on the empirical study to examine the

impact of quality safety measures on organizational performance.

Performance in this paper consists of safety behavior, productivity, product or service

quality, profitability, and competitiveness. Overall, I describe the direction that the department of

operations and production in Total exploration and production Nigeria limited company in its
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pursuit of safety behavior, quality safety measure, and improved productivity. The cost

implications and reliability of quality safety measures in oil and gas facilities are discussed.

Consequently, any failure in the quality safety measure will impact the business sustainability of

such organization and hence a presentation of the cost implication of failed safety measures.

Evolution of TQM

Quality management is a current occurrence but very vital for every organization. Highly

developed civilizations that sustained the crafts and arts permitted customers to select the goods

that meet higher standards of quality instead of normal goods. In civilizations where crafts and

arts are craftsmen’s or artists’ were accountable, they supervised and trained others and then lead

their studios in that civilization. The foundation of cyclic work practices and mass production in

the society reduced the importance of craftsmen. The purpose of the mass production was to

produce the same goods in large quantities. Eli Whitney was the first advocate in the United

States to recommend the manufacture of interchangeable parts for muskets. Therefore, Eli

advocated for the mass production of components that are identical and created assembly line of

muskets.

Next, several people including Frederick Winslow Taylor, who was a mechanical

engineer wanted to improve the efficiency of the industry. Taylor was known as the father of

scientific management. He was the leader of efficiency movement. Taylor’s approach to quality

management was to lay a further underpinning for quality management. He standardized and

adopted improved engineering practices.

Henry Ford was another quality management philosopher who brought the practices of

the process and quality management into operation in his lines of assembly. Karl Friedrich Benz
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was a German. Benz was known as car inventor. He equally pursued same practices of

production and assembly. Benz further improved the mass production of cars. However,

Volkswagen after World War II improved the real mass production of cars. From this period and

beyond, there was a predominant focus of the North American companies on real production

against lower cost with increased efficiency.

Next, a major step was made by Walter A. Shewhart in the evolution of quality

management. Walter created a method for production quality control with the statistical method

in 1924. The creation of the statistical method became groundwork for his work on statistical

quality control. Next, in the United State, W. Edwards Deming utilized the method of statistical

process control during the Second World War to improve quality effectively in strategically vital

products including munitions.

Over the past five to six decades, leadership in quality has changed from a national

viewpoint. After the World War II, Japan made a decision to carry out improvement of quality

as an imperative from the nation. Japan rebuilt their economy and required the aid of Deming,

Shewhart, and Juran amid others. The ideologies of Shewhart were then championed by W.

Edwards Deming in Japan from 1950 and beyond. Deming was possibly known for his

productivity, establishment of quality management philosophy, and competitive position

(Deming, 1986). Deming developed 14 points of managers’ attention. These points are a high

level concept of his deep ideas. These points also should be construed by learning and

comprehended by the deeper insights. The 14 points of Deming include the following major

concepts; (a) break down barriers between departments, (b) management should learn their

responsibilities, and take on leadership, (c) supervision should be to help people and machines
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and gadgets to do a better job, (d) Improve constantly and forever the system of production and

service, and (e) Institute a vigorous program of education and self-improvement.

In the 1950s and 1960s, the goods from Japan were identical with low quality and

shoddiness. Overtime, Japanese qualities started to be unbeaten with a very high level of quality

in different products from 1970s and beyond. For instance, the Japanese cars constantly top the

J.D. Power customer satisfaction ratings. In the 1980s, Ford Motor Company asked Deming to

commence an initiative of quality when Ford had realized that Japanese manufacturers were

ahead of them. The Japanese manufacturers invented series of successful initiatives of quality

such as Toyota production system, QFD, Taguchi, etc. People’s factor known as quality culture

play vital roles in the techniques or methods used by the Japanese manufacturers. The western

countries adopted these quality methods that Japan used for their products.

In the evolution of total quality management, customers have acknowledged that quality

is a vital feature in services and products. Suppliers in industries have acknowledged that quality

is a vital differentiator between what they offer and the ones offered by their competitors. The

differentiation in quality is known as gap in quality.

The gap in quality has been greatly decreased in the past two decades between services

and products. The reduction in quality gap was primarily due to outsourcing of goods and

services to countries like China and India. The gap reduction was also due to trade and

competition internationalization. China and Indian had raised their quality standards to achieve

customer demands and international standards. The International Standard Organization (ISO)

9000 is known as the quality management international standards. In recent time, quality

thinking has become a norm in many organizations. Quality thinking has extended to the walls
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outside manufacturing to service sectors. In addition, quality thinking has extended to areas such

as marketing, customer service, sales, and safety measures.

Quality Experts

The breadth component focuses on the works of total quality management theorists such

as Armand Feigenbaum, Edward Deming, Joseph Juran, Philip Crosby, and Kaoru Ishikawa.

The different works of these great thinkers focused on eight elements of total quality

management. TQM describes a management approach to long-term success through customer

satisfaction (Crosby, 1979; Deming, 1982; Feigenbaum, 1951; Ishikawa, 1982; Juran, 1981). In

a TQM effort, all members of an organization participate in improving processes, products,

services, and the culture in which they work. The eight primary elements of TQM include:

Customer-focused means that the customer eventually establishes the quality level. It is

only the customer that can determine whether the improvement of quality by an organization is

valuable. Organizations can carry out software upgrade, purchase new measuring tools, bring in

quality to the process of design, and train employees, but the customer has to confirm the level of

quality.

Involvement of total employee implies that the employees of an organization are

expected to work towards general objectives. The driving away of fear from the workplace

facilitates the commitment of the total employees in the occurrence of empowerment and

provision of adequate environment by management. In normal operations of business, there is an

integration of efforts of continuous improvement to facility high-performance system of work.

Process-centeredness implies that TQM centers on process thinking. The process

comprises of input, output and feedback system. There are series of systems involved in
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defining the performance measures and incessant monitoring of the process for continued

improvement.

Integrated system implies the diverse functional specialties in different organizations.

TQM focuses on organization’s vertically structured departments and the interconnection of the

functions via horizontal processes. For instance, employees must comprehend the missions,

guiding principles, and visions including quality objectives, policies and organizations’ critical

processes.

Systematic and strategic approach implies the critical aspect of quality management to

establish goals, mission, and vision of the organization. This TQM element is a process that

entails the forming of a strategic plan that adds quality as a central part.

Continual improvement is the main driver of TQM which analytically and creatively

drives the organization in x-raying different means of becoming more effective and competitive

at aligning with the expectations of stakeholders.

Fact-based decision making implies that data performance measures of organizations are

necessary to establish TQM. In this instance, organizations are expected to collect and analyze

data to enhance the accuracy of decision making, consensus achievement, and improve

prediction from past history.

Communications in organizations play a vital role in the establishment of morale and

motivation of employees at all levels. Effective communication during organizational change

improves the know-how among employees where strategies, timeliness, and method are

highlighted to improve total quality.

Additionally, these elements are indispensable to TQM. Organizations explain the

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elements as a set of principles and core values on which they operate. The total quality

philosophers taught these quality elements and methods for implementing them.

Armand Feigenbaum

Quality Control

Principles, Practice and Administration

Dr. Armand V. Feigenbaum is a quality leader who established the total quality control

concept. Feigenbaum summarized the principles of quality in 40 steps. His approach to quality

was through a total system approach (Feigenbaum, 1951). In the whole organization, the great

thinker advanced work environment initiative where developments of quality are incorporated.

In the work environment, employees and management possess a total commitment for quality

improvement and everyone learns from the success of others. In Japan, the quality control

philosophy of Dr. Feigenbaum was known as “company-wide quality control” (Feigenbaum,

1951).

Dr. Feigenbaum wrote his first book known as Total Quality Control in 1951 when he

was a PhD student at the Technological Institute of Massachusetts. During the Second World

War, this quality philosopher was an engineer at General Electric. He was very experienced in

statistics. Dr. Feigenbaum used the techniques in statistics to establish the problems with

engines of the early jet airplanes. At General Electric, Dr. Feigenbaum worked in the capacity of

a manager for ten years in quality controls and manufacturing operations. In major corporations

in the US and abroad, he was president in an international engineering company called General

Systems Company in Massachusetts where he lead the installation of integrated operational

systems. He had immensely contributed to quality and productivity in different capacities,

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making him the founding father of the International Academy for Quality (IAQ) and president of

American Society for Quality Control (ASQC). Throughout the industrialized world such as

Japan, America etc, Dr. Feigenbaum in his concept of TQC had impacted positively on

productivity and quality in many companies.

Total Quality Control (TQC)

Feigenbaum (1951) defined TQC as “an effective system for integrating the quality

development, quality maintenance, and quality improvement efforts of different groups in an

organization to enable production and service at the most economical levels which allow full

customer satisfaction”. He developed control of quality idea by constructing disjointed and

partial information of logical principles, practices, and technologies of a system called TQC.

To Feigenbaum, TQC is essential to realize market penetration, productivity, and

competitive advantage. Quality should start by identifying the requirements of customers, and

stop with a service or product in a satisfied customer’s custody (1951). Besides satisfaction of a

customer, his principles of quality include unadulterated management participation, employee

participation, leadership of first line supervision, and quality control of company-wide

(Feigenbaum, 1951). The works of TQC of Juran, Deming, and Shewhart facilitated movement

of quality en route for quality assurance and then to the management of quality.

This quality expert was further motivated by the philosophy that control of quality is the

responsibility of management. He stipulated that management should methodically comprehend

the portion of the quality control known as humans. Consequently, management requires

improving the consistency and quality of employee. To Feigenbaum, the tools of statistics

constitute a minute percentage of a control program of quality. Quality does not imply allocating
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the superlative product to the customer. Control is powerful tool that focuses on (1) planning of

clear and realizable quality standards, (2) improving current working conditions to attain

preferred quality standards, (3) introducing quality standards with the purpose of further

improvement (Feigenbaum, 1951, p. 83). He showcased quality in a holistic perception.

According to Feigenbaum (1951), quality should include all the segments in product

manufacturing. Manufacturing stages includes design, manufacturing, quality checks, sales,

after-sales services, satisfaction of customer upon the delivery of product to the customer (p. 79).

In this modern age, he proposed controls that can influence the product quality by affecting the

end product quality. His proposal includes “(a) new design control, (b) incoming control of

material, (c) control of product, and (d) special studies of the process” (Feigenbaum, 1951).

This quality thinker explained that his idea of modern control of quality was dependent

on management. He made the following recommendations as a modern way of quality control;

(a) enhancing the efficiency of an operator by enlightening them on quality to increase overall

quality, (b) planning to raise awareness of quality right through the organization, and (c) linking

the whole organization in all the quality initiative processes embarked on (Feigenbaum, 1951).

To Feigenbaum, control of quality should not be appraised as a tool for cost reduction but as an

attempt of the administration to offer knowledge integration, and communication channel for

improving quality of products.

Feigenbaum (1983) argued that Quality is in its quintessence a way of managing the

organization. Analogous to finance and marketing, quality has now become an indispensable

element of modern management. He presented 10 features that are very critical to organizations

today: (a) Quality control must be a company-wide process, (b) Quality is defined by the
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customer, (c) quality and cost is a sum, not a difference, (d) quality requires individual and team

enthusiasm, (e) quality is a way of managing, (f) quality and innovation are interdependent, (g)

quality is an ethic, (h) enhanced quality demands continuous improvement, (i) quality is the most

cost-effective and least capital-intensive route to productivity, and (j) quality is implemented

with a total system connected with customers and suppliers (Feigenbaum, 1983).

Cost of Quality

Feigenbaum (1951) viewed quality as “an objective entity that can be measured and

controlled with the help of various tools and techniques” (p. 77). Individuals have accorded

substantial attention to the quantification of quality through the costs of quality. To Feigenbaum,

cost of quality can be quantified through multiple purposes in the areas such as resources,

budgeting, and comparison between departments (p. 77).

Cost of quality is determined in the course of efforts to carry out process improvement.

In this effort to improve process, Feigenbaum (1951) noted that cost of quality quantifies the

total quality-related scarcity and efforts. Before the introduction of cost of quality, the wide-

ranging view was that an increased quality needs increased costs, either by purchasing better

machines or materials or hiring of more labor. Next, an evolution of cost accounting categorized

the transactions of finance into expenses, changes in shareholder equity, and revenues

(Feigenbaum, 1951). Cost of quality have categorized quality related entries arising from

general ledger of a company and made quality practitioners and management to be able to

estimate investments in quality based on improvement of cost and enhancement of profit.

Quality cost’s classification arose from the model from General Electric which is

reflected in both ISO 9000 series and British Standard BS 5750. Traditionally, Feigenbaum
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(1951) classified quality costs as follows:

Prevention costs

Prevention costs are costs that target reduction of the probability of occurrence of costs of

failure (either internally or externally). Examples of prevention costs are supplier assurance,

quality planning, design verification, training, and quality engineering (p.79).

Appraisal costs

These costs ensure that products and processes conform to the original requirements or

pre-set standards of quality. Examples of appraisal cost comprise of evaluation of stock, testing

of machine, process control, machinery inspection, inspection, maintenance, and calibration

(p.79).

Internal failure costs

If a product does not meet the pre-set requirements of product’s failure to conform to

requirement, it is said to have internal failure costs. Internal failure costs are normally identified

prior to delivering to the customers. Examples of internal failure are troubleshooting, rework,

repair, scrap, lost time of production, and failure analysis (p. 79).

External failure costs

These refer to costs that take place if a product does not meet the pre-set requirements

after products are delivered to the customer. Examples of the external failure costs are returned

material repairs, loss of sales, warranty claims, recall costs, and complaints (p.79).

Juran (1979) described total cost of quality as the sum of failure costs internal and

external (IFC and EFC) and defect control costs (DCC) composed of prevention costs (PC) and

appraisal costs of lost opportunity.

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TQC = PC + AC + IFC + EFC.

However, “PC and AC are related costs that ensure product conforms to specifications

(conformance costs), while IFC and EFC are costs of non-conformance” (Crosby, 1983). There

is also a non-conformance cost known as costs of exceeding requirements and costs of lost

opportunity (Banker 1992).

Bank (1992) categorizes costs of lost opportunity as (a) costs of conformance (prevention

costs + appraisal costs), (b) costs of non-conformance (internal failure costs + external failure

costs), (c) cost of exceeding requirements, and (d) cost of lost opportunities. To Feigenbaum,

costs of exceeding requirements refer to those costs incurred as a result of providing information

or services that are not indispensable(p. 79). They arise due to the fact that the customer’s

specification is not clear. Examples are documents that are redundant and not required and

report of management that are too expensive (p.79). Refer to figures 1 and 2 below for the

relationship between quality and costs.

Figure 1 & 2: Relationship between quality and costs (source from Bank, 1992 & Juran 1999)

Generally, the main idea of quality improvement is that in prevention, larger ventures

make larger savings in failures that are quality-related and appraisal efforts. To Feigenbaum,

classification of costs of quality can allow the organizations to confirm costs (Feigenbaum,
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1951). When organizations are faced with many defects of products, the organizations ideally

respond by flinging people increasingly into roles of inspection. As long as more people are

thrown into inspection, appraisal costs remains high and failure costs remain high since

inspection may not be entirely effectual. To Feigenbaum, the only way out of both high

appraisal costs and high failure costs is to implement the correct prevention quantity (p.80).

Successful categorization of costs of quality serves as a way to measure, analyze, budget, and

predict improvement or performance (p.80).

Use of quality costs

In figures 1 and 2 above, there are two good classes of quality costs and two bad classes;

prevention and appraisal and failure costs (internal and external). Both are commonly known as

cost of good quality and cost of poor quality. The standpoint of cost of quality is that it aids to

comprehend were people are investing or wasting their money. Cost of quality helps people to

know if they are spending money to prevent defects and assure quality or if people are spending

their money to perform rework and handle complaints of customer. Quality cost assists people

or organization to comprehend the disparity between product’s actual costs and of production

and product’s cost if quality is just right (Feigenbaum, 1951, p.81). From the diagram, quality

level is no x-axis and is from 0% conformance (left wards) to 100% conformance (rightwards).

There is a linear increase of the prevention and appraisal costs as movement is from 0%

conformance to 100% conformance and a corresponding sharp decrease of failure costs. At the

same time cost of quality decreases. To Feigenbaum and Juran, Cost of quality is lowest when

conformance is 100% meaning that cost of quality is equal to prevention and appraisal costs

(Feigenbaum, 1951 & Juran, 1999).

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Edward Deming

Quality, productivity, and competitive position

Edward Deming possesses a Ph.D. in physics, although by experience, he is a statistician.

Deming is an author, lecturer, educator, and a well-known consultant worldwide. This great

quality thinker is famous for leading the businesses in Japan on the route that has confirmed

them leaders in productivity and quality worldwide. He was called “The Father of the third

Wave of the Industrial Revolution (if Japan can…why can’t we)”? (NBC white paper, 1980).

In the 1920s, Deming started teaching physics and engineering as well as studying his Ph.D. in

Physics. He was also working in summers at the Hawthorne Electric plant in Chicago. This

great thinker worked for the department of agriculture in the United States of America. He met

Walter Shewhart in the US. Shewhart developed techniques to provide the processes of the

industry under the control of statistics. Deming studied the theories of Walter Shewhart which

became the theoretical framework to carry out his own works.

Deming authored Statistical adjustment of data (1943 & 1964), Theory of sampling

(1950), Sample design in business research (1960), Quality, productivity, and competitive

position (1982) and out of the crisis (1986). Deming has a great influence in the recovery of the

economy of Japan World War II. The Japanese Union of Scientists and Engineers produced the

Deming’s price in recognition of Deming and awarded it to organizations and individuals who

have made outstanding contributions to quality in scholarly works or in the improvement of

quality services or products.

In 1980, US recognized Deming’s quality improvement methods. Deming’s quality

improvement was important in the world competitiveness. His leadership approach in quality
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improvement made him to be a great consultant in the US. He conducted a lot of seminars in

quality leadership and productivity. He received several awards in Japan and the US.

Deming’s Definition of Quality

To Deming, quality of any product can only be defined by the customer (Deming, 1982,

1986). Relatively, depending on the customer’s need, the definition of quality can change. To

exceed or meet the needs of the customers, managers need to comprehend the significance of

statistical thinking, research for customers, theory of statistics, and the appliance of statistical

methods to processes (Deming, 1986, p.161). As a statistician, he reflected his definition of

quality on quantitative methodology. The output of using the quantitative methods resulted to

the products that have a uniformity predictable degree from decreased inconsistency, lower cost,

market suitability (Lowe & Mazzeo, 1986). Deming was careful in defining quality in his book

known as Out of the crisis and typifies the complicatedness of accomplishing the definition. To

Deming, “the complicatedness in quality definition is to transform the user’s future need into the

characteristics that are measurable so as to facilitate the design of a product for a price

satisfaction payable by the user” (Deming, 1986, p.169).

Deming’s basic Quality Management Principles

Deming (1986 & 1991) uses the approach of leadership and systems to quality

management. The perceptions connected with Deming’s approach to quality comprise of (a)

profound knowledge system, (b) cycle of plan-to-check-act, (c) improvement of the process by

prevention, (d) quality improvement from chain reaction, (e) variation of common and special

causes, (f) the 14 points, and (g) dreadful and deadly diseases (Deming, 1989).

Profound Knowledge System

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Recognizing the philosophical knowledge is significant to comprehending Deming’s

approach to quality management. Deming (1991) noted that there is no replacement to

knowledge and hard work and best efforts are not the answer. In the lack of profound

knowledge, action of management can lead to nemesis (Deming, 1989, revised 1991). Profound

knowledge system comprises of four interconnected components such as (1) systems theory, (2)

variation theory, (3) knowledge theory, and (4) psychology knowledge.

1. Systems theory

Deming (1989) defined a system as a series of activities or functions within an

organization that work together for the aim of the organization. To Deming, with no aspiration,

there is no system (1989). The parts of a system include but are not limited to the style of

management, recruitment, shareholders, constrains in the environment, training, customers, and

employees. To Deming, the interconnectivity among these systems components is important to

the study of the system. If the components of the system are not recognized in organizations, it

results to fragmentation (i.e. division among people, people not aware of both external and

internal effects, and negative interactions in work place).

2. Variation theory

To Deming, statistical knowledge is imperative to significant knowledge (Deming, 1986).

Managers are expected to identify a steady-state system. They must be able to comprehend the

conceptions of common and special variation causes. Failure to identify the disparity will

increase variability, cause frustration, and increase costs (Deming, 1986). In this case,

management could solve problems without the knowledge of the causative agent of the problems

in the system at large. To Deming, variation measurement helps to predict the behavioral
 PAwoke – KAM V Breadth 19

patterns of the system.

3. Knowledge theory

Advancement of knowledge has a process. The process commences from slow, through

incessant flow of tests, and to experiments (Deming, 1989). Each of these stages advances

knowledge in every ramification. The advance in knowledge can be gradual or slow and rises on

incremental basis through experiments with a theoretical framework.

Deming (1989) is of the opinion that management should be able to develop and follow

scientific goals such as explanation of scientific principles, prediction, and control of phenomena

to obtain more insight on the organizational systems. Organizational managers should be

conversant with scientific accomplishments such as theory formulation, hypotheses formulation,

experimental designs, and conduction of experiments to enhance knowledge of the processes in

their organization (Deming, 1989). To Deming, managers should know about data collection

mechanism, analysis, interpretation, and application of the result from experiments to advance

their knowledge about organizational system. The use of theory in predictions should be made

simple such that it can be easy to predict that a particular training method can enhance

employee’s skills more than any other method.

Managers should not search for solution of a problem from elsewhere. Deming (1986)

criticized actions such as adoption of other works that are successful, or copy from other works

as remedy. He stipulated that an example is no help in management except studied with the aid

of theory, and copying a success example without comprehending it with the aid of theory may

lead to catastrophe (Deming, 1989, revised 1991). Use of theory moves knowledge forward and

use of scientific method facilitates knowledge.

 PAwoke – KAM V Breadth 20

Organizations can stumble upon a false start when starting to focus on quality if they fail

to comprehend the significance for learning quality management theory. To Deming, different

organizations are not the same since they have diverse requirements and may need modified

theoretical application.

Psychological Knowledge

Deming (1986) highlighted the fourth aspect of profound knowledge. The psychological

knowledge involves the people’s dynamics in place of work, team performance, group

performance, change in culture, and styles of learning (1986). Management is expected to have

people’s knowledge and their interrelationships in the organization, the needs of the individual,

and the styles of their learning and work (Deming, 1986, p210). Management should optimize

individual performances if they understand the different styles of work of the individuals.

The Cycle of Plan-Do-Check-Act

Deming (1986) stressed on continuous quality improvement in organization. His belief is

that management has the responsibility to incessantly facilitate systemic improvement of service

and production. The cycle of Plan-Do-Check-Act is the quality improvement concept of the

great quality thinker.

Improvement of the Process by Prevention

Deming (1986) stipulates that carrying out inspection of a product after completing the

process is rather too late and too costly. Deming’s approach to process improvement is a swing

from detection to prevention. He achieved his prevention approach to quality by analysis of the

process, control, and process improvement (Deming, 1986, P.175). To Deming, a process can be

defined as a set of causes or conditions that combine together to achieve a particular result. A
 PAwoke – KAM V Breadth 21

process usually comprise of “machines, methods, materials, and people” (p.176).

To minimize the probability of bringing out products or services that are not acceptable to

the customers, Deming (1986) advised that measurement should be used for process monitoring.

He noted that quality is obtained from the process study and change and not from the final

product inspection.

Quality improvement by chain reaction

Quality improvement via chain reaction depicts Deming’s philosophy in figure 3 below.

To Deming, any increase in quality decreases cost and improves productivity. Therefore, market

share increases due to a greater potential (Deming, 1986). In the chain reaction for quality

improvement, the first box implies that management needs to espouse the 14 management

principles and comprehend the process improvement statistical approach. Management should

comprehend the variation concept to fully understand Deming’s chain reaction to quality

improvement.

Common and special causes of Variation

According to Deming (1986), products possesses a uniform predictable degree to the end

user at a price that can be payable (p. 178). In everything we do, variation is intrinsic. There are

no identical services. In the production of quality, management should provide results that are

unavoidably identical as well as acceptable from the perception of a customer.

There are common causes of variation in improvement of quality. The workers are not

responsible for causes of variation but the people that control and manage the organizational

system. In organization, issues of the process can be corrected through the action of the

managers. Variation of common cause entails the arriving materials that are not conforming to
 PAwoke – KAM V Breadth 22

the condition, poor supervision, poor designs, and poor instructions (Deming, 1986, p. 179).

Special causes of variation are local meaning that these kinds of variation causes are not

integral part of the whole system. The special variation causes are normally identified and

expunged by the workers or their immediate supervisors. Tribus (1988) noted that “it is the

responsibility of management to work on the system and the responsibility of the workers to

work in the system”. There must be an absolute cooperation between supervisors and workers to

expunge the special causes of variation for management to work and transform the system.

Transformation of the system may not normally be easy and as result Deming (1982) noted that

“everyone doing his best is not the answer, it is necessary that people know what to do” (p. ii).

Deming added that “the responsibility for change rests on management. The first step being to

learn how to change” (Deming, 1982, p. ii).

Deming’s 14 points to quality improvement

The figure 3 below depicts the Deming’s 14-points to quality improvement. These points

to the improvement of quality are applicable in every organization, in spite of organizational

business type or size. These 14-points offer the framework for commencing and maintaining the

transformation of organization that centers on satisfaction of customer through quality. They

are management’s obligations and management cannot delegate them. To Deming, “adoption

and action on the 14-points are a signal that the management intends to stay in business and aim

to protect investors and jobs” (Deming, 1986, p.23). The 14 points is the responsibility of

management and Deming has done various revisions on them to achieve total quality

management. Refer to figure 3 for Deming’s 14 points;

 PAwoke – KAM V Breadth 23

Figure 3: Deming’s 14 Points (source from: Deming, 1986)

Dreadful and Deadly Diseases to quality management

The initiation and sustenance of organizational transformation does not come by easily.

There are stumbling blocks to the institutionalization of organizational transformation. Deming

(1986) refers to these roadblocks as dreadful diseases and deadly diseases (p. 23). These

diseases infect most western world companies. The deadly and dreadful diseases are not easy to

cure. It is only a complete management style change that can eradicate it. They are harmful

practices of management but to Deming, the diseases are easy to eradicate. However, in view to

curing these dreadful and deadly diseases, the great quality thinker recommends the 14-points of

quality improvement to management at the top. Refer to figure 4 below for the obstacles.
 PAwoke – KAM V Breadth 24

Figure 4: The dreadful and deadly diseases (Source from Deming, 1986)

Joseph Juran

The quality control process

Joseph M. Juran is a graduate of electrical engineering and law. Juran in his career life

has worked as an industrial executive, engineer, government administrator, labor arbitrator,

university professor, corporate director, and consultant in management. In the 1920s, Juran has

worked in Hawthorne Electric plant in Chicago. He has lectured at the New York University.

He contributed in Japan where he was famous for the total quality control practitioner after

World War II. He contributed to the development of the success and economic growth in Japan

as a result of his teachings. Juran taught the Pareto principle popularly known as “vital few and

trivial many”. The great thinker was known for the Juran trilogy and managerial breakthrough

concept.

Juran authored the quality control process (1999), the quality control handbook (1988),

Juran on leadership for quality (1989), Juran on planning for quality (1988), managerial
 PAwoke – KAM V Breadth 25

breakthrough (1964), case studies in industrial management (1955), management of inspection

and quality control (1945), and bureaucracy: a challenge to better management (1944) (Sqarez,

1992, p. 3). In 1975 Juran was recognized for his immense contributions to quality control in

Australian via the establishment of Juran Medal.

Juran’s Definition of Quality

Juran & Gryna (1988) defined quality as “suitability for use”. Juran struck equilibrium

between products that are without deficiencies and product features. To Juran, product implies

process output including services and goods (Juran & Gryna, 1988). In terms of product

features, Juran meant the product’s technological properties such as vehicle’s fuel consumption.

Features of a product are designed to conform to the needs of the customer. Delivery

promptness is an organization’s service feature which conforms to the needs of the customers.

Juran (1986) quality definition highlights the deficiencies in a product as scraps from

factory, invoice errors, late deliveries, and prolonged delivery lead time (p. 170). To Juran,

deficiencies in the product or service can create issues and dissatisfaction in customer relation.

Juran’s definition of quality is geared towards meeting expectation of customers. The quality of

a product or service affects the internal customers, manufacturers, and external customers

involved in the finished products, and that is the reason customer satisfaction is paramount

(Juran, 1986).

Juran’s Basic Principles of Quality Management

Juran’s approach to achieving quality is by project-by-project approach which is well

structured and strategic. He developed five thoughts to sustain his philosophy. These concepts

include (1) the quality spiral of progress, (2) the sequence of progress, (3) project-by-project
 PAwoke – KAM V Breadth 26

approach, (4) the Juran trilogy, and (5) the principle of vital few and trivial many.

The Quality’s Spiral of Progress

Juran (1988) stipulates that “any organization can produce and distribute its products

through a succession of specialized activities carried out by specialized departments”. The spiral

of progress in quality depicts this organizational action. This spiral of progress in quality

indicates necessary actions prior to introducing a product or service to the market. The spiral

contains specialized departments such as marketing, customer service, and purchasing. “These

departments have the responsibility of performing special functions that are assigned to it. There

is also an assignment of a distribution of responsibility to each of the department to perform

other functions such as finance, human relations, and quality” (Juran & Gryna, 1988, p. 24). To

Juran, quality arises from all departments’ interrelationships inside the spiral. He noted that the

functions of quality explain the different activities that make departments surrounding the spiral

to achieve quality. Organizations can perform their quality improvement projects through the

following approaches:

 Identification of the activities that could meet fitness for use of the company’s goals

 Convey the activities to different departments and organizations surrounding the spiral

 Provision of the tools and facilities required to accomplish these activities

 Conduction of the assigned activities inside the designated departments

 Making sure that these activities are performed appropriately

 Coordination of the departmental activities (Juran & Gryna, 1988)

The Sequence of Breakthrough in quality improvement

Juran (1964) explained breakthrough in quality philosophy as innovation and

 PAwoke – KAM V Breadth 27

improvement. To Juran, “breakthrough means higher level of performance, decisive, and

dynamic movement to new performance level” (Juran, 1964). The sequence of breakthrough

encompasses the activities that can yield improvement in quality. Breakthrough can result in

unmatched performance and can aid the organization initiate new products. According to Juran

(1964), breakthrough can result to (a) elucidation to an unwarranted number of field problems,

(b) quality leadership skill, and (c) improvement of the public image of organization.

There are certain obstacles that can affect breakthrough opportunities. In change process,

managers who focus on quality control traditionally, can resist change and then hinder

breakthrough. In quality control management, managers tend to sustain the current performance

level to foil unfavorable change (Juran, 1964). Problem solving is a control activity in quality

management. To Juran, control activities in short-term can stick to profits but will not produce

innovation and improvement (Juran, 1964). The activities leading to breakthrough are required

to realize higher performance levels and to surpass customer contentment.

Performance plateau and cycle of gains encompass breakthrough and control of quality.

All managers are expected to ensure that their activities are geared towards breakthrough or

control. To Juran, all breakthroughs should follow the same trajectory as follows ; (a) policy

making, setting objectives for breakthrough, (b) breakthrough in attitude, (c) use of Pareto

principle, (d) organizing for breakthrough in knowledge, (e) creation of steering arm, (f) creation

of diagnostic arm, (g) diagnosis, (h) breakthrough in cultural pattern, and (i) transition to new

level (Juran, 1964).

The Project-by-Project approach to quality improvement

The implementation of a project-by-project approach is a methodology for quality

 PAwoke – KAM V Breadth 28

improvement. Juran (1964) formed two kinds of teams which are (a) the steering arm and (b) the

diagnostic arm, both for problem analysis. Juran formed managerial committee for solicitation

of project recommendation from all employees, for selection of projects for the year, and

appointment of teams for addressing each of the projects (Juran & Gryna, 1988). Any member

of the project teams is expected to develop leadership skills, team participation, and develop

knowledge of problem solving tools (Juran, 1991). The team members comprising of employees

must take part in the process of improvement and possess skills to achieve the improvement.

The main drive of the teams is for problem solving.

This quality expert differentiates between instilling patches on problem and searching for

and eliminating the problem causes. To Juran, process of problem investigation is known as

“journey from symptom to cause” (Juran & Gryan, 1988). He stipulated that symptom being the

evidence that something is wrong, must be examined at commencing point of any action team.

The findings for the project-by-project is documented and escalated to the organization as audit.

The Juran Trilogy

The Juran trilogy is a systematic approach in performing the Juran’s approach to quality

management. The implementation of this approach involves an active leadership performance

from the top management. The trilogy means that quality management is categorized into three

inter-connected processes that are quality-oriented namely (1) quality planning, (2) quality

control, and (3) quality improvement (Juran, 1986; 1999, p. 95).

1. Quality planning

To Juran, quality planning is a structured process for developing products such as goods

and services that ensure customer needs are met by final result (Juran, 1999, p. 45). He noted
 PAwoke – KAM V Breadth 29

that the tools and methods of quality planning are included along with the technological tools for

the particular product being developed and delivered (Juran, 1999, p. 45). For instance,

designing of a new automobile needs automotive engineering and related disciplines, developing

an effective care path for juvenile diabetes will draw on the expert methods of specialized

physicians, and planning a new approach for quest services at a resort will need the techniques of

an experienced hotelier.

2. Quality control

Juran (1999) describes quality control as a universal managerial process for conducting

operations so as to provide stability, prevent adverse change, and maintain the status quo (p. 95).

To maintain process stability, the quality control process evaluates actual performance, compares

actual performance to goals, and takes action on the difference. Control manages quality. For

instance, quality control does not allow wastes to increase rather it ensures that process is in

steady state to maintain gains. It controls any sporadic variation spikes in a quality process.

3. Quality improvements

Juran (1999) defined improvement as the organized creation of change that is beneficial

and the attainment of performance level (p. 129). Improvement means breakthrough. There are

two kinds of beneficial change namely (a) product features which increases customer’s

satisfaction and are income-oriented for companies and (b) freedom from deficiencies which can

develop customer dissatisfaction and creation of wastes. Quality improvement increases income

through product development by creating new features. It can increase income through business

process improvement to decrease the time required to provide better service to customers. The

creation of one-stop-shopping can decrease frustration of customer over dealing with plenty
 PAwoke – KAM V Breadth 30

people for service acquisition (p. 129). The quality improvement that averts deficiencies and

develop persistent wastes may comprise of actions such as (a) increase of the yield of factory

processes, (b) reduction of the error rates in offices, and (c) reduction of field failures (Juran,

1999, p. 129). In quality improvement, the cost of poor quality is lowered in existing processes

and the lessons acquired will aid in enhancing performance level.

The processes of quality improvement such as planning, control and improvement are

inherent in any organization that focuses on quality. To achieve quality, important activities in

Juran trilogy are customer’s identification, measurements establishment, and diagnosis of causes

(Juran, 1986). To Juran, the language of management is money and quality planning is

equivalent to budgeting, quality control to cost control, and quality improvement to cost

reduction (Juran, 1986; 1999).

Figure 5: The Juran trilogy (Source from Juran, 1991)

The Vital few and the trivial many

Juran (1986; 1999) used the Pareto diagram to prioritize problems to be solved. The

diagram was developed by an economist from Italy known as Vilfredo Pareto. Pareto found out
 PAwoke – KAM V Breadth 31

that enormous majority of his society was possessed by a small population percentage.

Generally, the principle of Pareto states that “a few factors account for the largest percentage of a

total” (Suarez, 1992, p. 16).

In quality management, Juran applied the Pareto concept to prioritize and categorize

quality problems. Majority of the cost of poor quality is ascribed to a very tiny number of causes

known as a vital few. The trivial many is known as the other defects and useful many is then

overlooked a bit.

Kaoru Ishikawa

Introduction to quality control

Professor Ishikawa Kaoru was an organizational theorist in Japan. He was a professor at

the engineering faculty at Tokyo University and was famous for management innovations in

quality. The great quality thinker is well thought-out personnel in the quality initiatives

development in Japan especially the quality circle. The professor is well known as Ishikawa

outside Japan. Ishikawa can also be known as cause and effect diagram or fishbone diagram

used for industrial process analysis (Ishikawa, 1982).

The development of tools known as cause-and-effect diagram or fishbone is for solving

quality problems. As a quality guru, Ishikawa was the first to highlight significance of internal

customer in the process of production. Ishikawa was also the first to emphasize the meaning of

total quality control of a company that focused on services and products. To Professor Ishikawa,

everyone should have a common goal and a shared vision in a company. He stipulated that

everyone including all employees in an organization should pursue quality initiatives at

organizational level (Ishikawa, 1982; 1985). Dr. Ishikawa advocated quality circle
 PAwoke – KAM V Breadth 32

implementation. Quality circle depicts miniature group of employees that are unpaid for

assisting in solving problems of quality.

Ishikawa’s Definition of Total Quality Control

According to Ishikawa (1990), total quality management is a revolution of thought in

management. This quality expert noted that practicing quality control is to develop, design,

produce, and service a quality product which is most economical, most useful, and always

satisfactory to the customer (Ishikawa, 1982; 1990). To achieve this target, everyone in the

organization must participate in and promote quality control, including top executives, all

divisions, within the company, and all employees. The engagement in the control of quality

implies making total quality control the foundation of business process, focusing complete level

efforts on cost, price, and profit controls, and controlling quantity (i.e. the amount of stock and

production) (Ishikawa, 1985).

Total quality Control (TQC)

Ishikawa (1990) recommends that total quality control should be a persistent process.

The review, revision, and improvement of quality standards should be done continuously to

achieve quality control of products and services. Dr. Ishikawa contributed to the espousal of

post of total quality control in Japan during World War II. There was introduction of researches

in design cycles such as in sales, production, and marketing which lead to another cycle that

commenced with redesign of products from previous experience. With this cycle of design,

Ishikawa facilitated a continuous improvement in quality of products and services (Ishikawa,

1982). In this design cycle approach, Ishikawa (1990) stated that the manufacturer must always

be enthusiastically meticulous to customer requirements, and customers’ opinions must be

 PAwoke – KAM V Breadth 33

projected as the manufacturer develops his own standards. Unless this is done quality control

cannot realize its goal, nor can it guarantee quality to consumers.

Being one of the leading quality control authorities in the world, Dr. Ishikawa has

assisted many companies such as Bridgestone, Komatsu, and IBM to produce high quality

products at much lower costs (Ishikawa, 1982). To Ishikawa, through total quality control with

the participation of all employees, including the president, any company can create better

products (or services) at a lower cost, increase sales, improve profit, and make the company into

a better organization (Ishikawa, 1982).

Ishikawa’s Approach to TQM

According to Ishikawa (1985), management of quality widens beyond the product and

covers the individuals’ quality, the management quality, service of after sales, and company

itself. The great quality control thinker asserts that a company’s achievement depends on the

treatment of quality improvement as a mission that is boundless. An obligation to incessant

improvement guarantees that there is no stopping of employees or people from learning.

Ishikawa was a supporter that participation of employee is vital to thriving TQM realization.

Quality circles are an imperative medium to achieving TQM (Ishikawa, 1985). He accentuated

the significance of education as per quality commencing and ending with education.

Ishikawa (1985) recommended that the customer requirement’s evaluation become a tool

to advance cross-functional cooperation, suppliers’ selections should be based on quality to a

certain extent than exclusively on price, cross-functional teams are successful ways for

identifying and solving quality problems. Ishikawa (1985) reveals six fundamental principles of

TQM concepts: (1) quality should be first and not short term profits, (2) customer orientation and
 PAwoke – KAM V Breadth 34

not producer orientation, (3) customer should be the next step and not breaking down sectional

barrier, (4) use of facts and data for presentation with statistical methods, (5) respect for

humanity and use of management that is cross-functional (Ishikawa, 1985). He advocated and

developed seven quality control tools in universal education.

Quality Control Tools

The quality control tools support the process of problem solving. They are known as the

seven statistical tools that are universally used to develop quality of products (or services). The

seven quality tools constitute a practical tool for structuring and visualizing multifaceted

problems which sustain all segments in the process of problem solving (Ishikawa, 1985; 1990).

To Ishikawa, the tools are used when the data to be used in the problem-solving are in place and

are analyzed. According to Ishikawa (1982), quality controls include:

1. Cause-and-effect diagram

Ishikawa (1982) describes this diagram as fishbone or Ishikawa diagram. This tool

analyzes facts and identifies the cause of the effect that has been defined. The problem is

focused on the fish head. The fish bones are the major manipulating variables. The bones

contain the individual causes. The rules that are manipulating variables repeatedly match the 7M

checklist such as “Man, Machine, Material, Method, Marginal conditions, Management, and

Measurement” (Ishikawa, 1990).

2. Histogram

The histogram aids in the interpretation of the rationale for distribution by showing data

values distribution. The values of data are classified according to rules of statistics. The

abscissa of the diagram is formed by the statistical rules. The values of the data will be indicated
 PAwoke – KAM V Breadth 35

on the y-axis. The scatter type and value of the average are displayed in a distribution curve.

3. Correlation or Scatter diagram

The correlation diagram explains the graphical correlation between variables X and Y i.e.

the problem and manipulating variable. The factors are plotted in an X-Y diagram. The

information concerning correlation between one another is obtained. Values pairs are then

plotted by adjusting the problem variable and obtaining the corresponding manipulating variable

called measured points. The points of distribution or scatter can show the correlation as positive,

or negative, weak or strong. At the instance of correlation value, the potential cause is concluded

(Ishikawa, 1990).

4. Control chart

To Ishikawa, activities of quality improvement begin with collection of data (1985).

Samples are normally taken at regular intervals with control charts. The statistical factors such

as the scatter and average value are entered in the control chart. A control limit indicated and

progress feature of data value in the chart determine the necessary interventions in the process.

5. Pareto analysis

Individuals or organizations can be confronted with different problems or reason of faults

which cannot be tackled concurrently. The basis for Pareto analysis is to start dealing with the

faults from the greatest or highest cost issue or problem first. Pareto analysis can also be known

as ABC analysis. It imagines the order of rank based on the significance of the influencing

variables to an exacting problem. The rank is enumerated based on the influence level and

numerical importance. The analysis presents the cumulative percentage. During examination of

a quality problem, there is emergence of significant few causes and others are not significant
 PAwoke – KAM V Breadth 36

(Ishikawa, 1990).

6. Flow chart

Flow chart explains the presentation forms such as line, spider, pie, and bar charts.

Depending on the purpose of the analysis, one or other forms of visualization is suitable for

demonstrating correlations or flows.

7. Frequency distribution

The frequency of the occurrence of individual types of faults and the frequency with

which data values occur at certain intervals in the range can be presented in the form of

frequency distributions. Fault clusters at individual points can thus be recognized and the causes

investigated.

Philip Crosby

Quality and me: Lessons from an evolving life

Philip B. Crosby is a quality expert who is known internationally. He popularized

concept of zero defect that began in the United State of America where he worked during the

1960s. Crosby is an engineer. His career commenced in a quality department in Martin Marietta

Corporation as a junior technician. This quality thinker worked his way through other thinkers

and the corporate company and rose to the position of Quality Director and ITT Corporation’s

vice president for 14 years.

In 1979, Crosby published his first book called ‘Quality is Free’ and the book became the

best seller in management’s field. Crosby further created PCA consulting firm and the College

of quality in 1979. Crosby is equally the authors of the art of getting your own way (1972),

quality without tears: The art of hassle-free management (1884), Running things: The art of
 PAwoke – KAM V Breadth 37

making things happen (1986), the eternally successful organization (1988), let’s talk quality

(1989), and Quality and me: Lessons from an evolving life (1999). The PCA established by

Crosby went public and amalgamated with Alexander Proudfeet in 1985 and 1989 respectively.

Crosby’s company is the largest consulting quality company in the whole world with 350

employees in 15 countries.

Crosby’s Definition of Quality

Crosby (1979) defined quality as conformance or compliance to requirements.

Organizations need to act based on substantial targets and not from opinions or experiences for

quality to be defined in a clear and measurable declared terms. To Crosby, the term quality can

be regarded as being present or not present. Quality does not have conflicting quality level. He

noted that management is expected to determine quality by the continuous tracing of the cost of

failures. Crosby (1979) refers the cost of failures or cost of doing things wrong to a non

conformance price. He helped managers by developing the formula to calculate the cost of

quality (COQ). According to Crosby (1979), COQ = Price of Conformance (POC) + Price of

Nonconformance (PONC). To Crosby, POC means “cost of having things done right the first

time it is done” (Crosby, 1979). The price of nonconformance affords organizational

management with all the information concerning costs that are wasted. It reveals a clear progress

indication that there is improvement in an organization.

Basic Principles of Quality Management by Crosby

Crosby’s underpinning approach to quality management is ‘prevention’. The following

conceptions describe Crosby’s approach to quality according to (Crosby, 1979; Squarez, 1992);

(1) do it right the first time, (2) Zero defects and zero defect day, (3) the four absolutes of
 PAwoke – KAM V Breadth 38

quality, (4) the process of prevention in quality improvement, (5) the quality vaccines, and (6)

the six C’s.

Do it the right First Time

Crosby (1986) focused on do things right the first time and every time (p.170). He did

not categorize quality levels. Crosby did not also differentiate quality levels as either good or

poor, and high or low. Crosby (1986) believed that there is no reason for planning and investing

on policies that are implemented in case something happens wrongly or in case items does not

kowtow to their requirement. He noted that organizations should manage quality by prevention

and not by testing and detection. Quality management entails that everything should be done

rightly the first time. Products are expected to be in line with its design specification. To

Crosby, if a product is in tandem with its specification design, then the product is referred to as a

quality product (Crosby, 1986; Garvin & March, 1986).

Crosby (1986) changed the management’s attitudes about and discernment of quality.

Managers have the belief that error is inevitable and Crosby has a negative perception about it.

Managers believe that even though policies are right, errors can occur. He does not believe that

errors are normal occurrences. To Crosby (1986), management developed its problem via the

practices and attitudes of what organizations support. For example, schedule could become the

focus of work in an organization if management reinforces adherence to schedule.

Zero Defects and Zero Defects Day

Crosby (1987)’s definitive goal in terms of the process of quality improvement is

products or services that are zero defect. Zero defects are a commitment and attitude to

prevention. Zero defects of services or products do not imply that the products or services have
 PAwoke – KAM V Breadth 39

to be just right. Zero defects mean that at first time or every time, products or services must

meet the requirements (Crosby, 1987). He noted that organizations should be committed to

always meet up with their products requirement or specifications at first time or every time. Any

deviation from maintaining the product requirement will not be tolerated or acceptable. To

Crosby, the compliance of every individual to requirements needs the involvement of everyone

in the process of quality improvement. According to Crosby (1987), it is better to do it right the

first time by adhering to product requirements or specifications. His approach to quality

improvement was highlighted in a zero defect day which is the day that management and

employees reaffirm their total commitment to improvement in quality.

Four Absolutes of Quality

Crosby (1979) presented the four absolutes of management of quality. He considered

these absolutes of quality management as the nucleus conceptions of the process of quality

improvement. They include (1) conformity of quality to the requirements, (2) prevention as

system of quality, (3) zero defects as performance standard, and (4) quality measurement as the

nonconformity price.

1. Conformity of quality to the requirements

Every individual in an organization must agree with the policy governing the running of

an organization. The agreement must extend to the customers in terms of product or service

requirement. The customers need to adhere strictly to the specifications of the product to achieve

the product quality. To Crosby, management of an organization should communicate vividly the

scope of the product requirement if they want the customers to do it right the first time and every

time (Crosby, 1979). Management should facilitate the communication via training, leadership,
 PAwoke – KAM V Breadth 40

and in a cooperation climate.

2. Prevention as a system of quality

To Crosby, prevention produces quality. Prevention means elimination of errors prior to

their occurrence (Crosby, 1979). He noted that using example, leadership, discipline, and

training can establish prevention. Management of every organization is expected to intentionally

entrust themselves to the work environment that is prevention oriented for quality improvement.

3. Zero defect as performance standard

To Crosby, organizational management must do it the right way the first time and every

time, and failure to comply is not acceptable (Crosby, 1979). Management should not ignore

errors because errors are too costly to overlook. Leaders in organizations should provide time,

training, and tools to all employees of every organization to aid the quest for conformity to

product requirement.

4. Nonconformance price as quality measurement

Management uses nonconformance as a tool to resolve organization’s effectiveness and

efficiency. Crosby (1979) presented conventional wisdom which is “the idea that if quality

increases, then cost increases” (p. 110). The absolutes presented by Crosby aid in the focus of

management on the improvement of quality. To Crosby, as quality increases, cost decreases, and

so quality does not cost leading to the well known phrase of Crosby that says that “Quality is

free, but it is not a gift” (Crosby, 1979).

Crosby (1987) defined a 14-step approach to implementation of the process of quality

improvement. The 14-step approach comprises of all the actions belonging to the top

management’s responsibility and that of the employees. These steps illustrate his techniques for
 PAwoke – KAM V Breadth 41

the management of quality improvement and the four absolutes communication. Figure 6 below

shows the 14-step approach of Crosby:

Figure 6: Crosby’s 14 steps approach (Source from Crosby, 1987)

Process of Prevention in quality improvement

The approach to quality improvement by Crosby deals with prevention instead of error

inspection and correction as shown in figure 7 below. Crosby (1987) portrayed prevention as

being the involvement of thinking, planning, and analysis of the process to predict where

occurrence of error could emanate from and to take action to evade their occurrence. He noted

that problem can occur due the lack of products or services’ requirement or error. To Crosby,

establishment of product or service requirement, product or service development, data gathering,

data requirement comparison, and action of result are the starting point of the prevention process

to improve quality.

Figure 7: The prevention process (Source from Crosby, 1987)

 PAwoke – KAM V Breadth 42

Quality Vaccine

Crosby (1984) holistically looked at problems as “nonconformance bacteria” that needs

vaccination with antibodies for problems’ prevention. He has invented a “quality vaccine”

(p.19) that comprises of three different actions of management which includes (1) determination,

(2) education, and (3) implementation.

To Crosby, determination aspect of management action is when management notices the

need to effect change and identifies that change necessitates management action (Crosby, 1984).

Education aspect implies the process of presenting the quality common language to all

employees. Education aids the employees to comprehend what their function is in the process of

quality improvement. It equally aid employees in the development of knowledge base for

averting problems. Thirdly, implementation aspect of management action comprises the plan

development, resources assignment, and environmental support that are consistent with the

philosophy of quality management. In this particular aspect, management has to proffer

education and lead by example (Crosby, 1984).

The Six C’s

Crosby (1984) stipulates that “education is multi-stage that every organization must go

through a process known as six C’s. The six C’s include comprehension, commitment,

competence, communication, correction, and correction (Crosby, 1984, p.85).

In the first “C”, comprehension starts at the top. Communication consists of employees

also. In organization, quality management will not take place without communication. The

second “C” known as commitment starts from the top and indicates when management of

organizations (managers) has developed a quality policy. Third “C”, competence shows where
 PAwoke – KAM V Breadth 43

organizations have developed training and education plan for its employees. Competence is vital

in the establishment of process of quality improvement in a systematic mode. Communication

is the fourth “C” and entails the documentation of the published success stories to foster overall

comprehension of quality by all employees or people within the confines of same culture. The

fifth “C” is correction. Correction centers on performance and prevention. Continuance is the

sixth “C”. Continuance implies that the organization must use the process as a way of life.

Continuance aspect of quality improvement process means it is never quicker or cheaper to

perform anything right the second time. Quality should be incorporated into all routine

operations.

Analysis and Synthesis of the theorists

The theorists, Armand Feigenbaum, Edward Deming, Joseph Juran, Philip Crosby, and

Kaoru Ishikawa concurred that management should be responsible for the establishment of an

organizational culture in which commitment to quality is the principal emphasis. They agreed

that organization’s mission must be vivid to everyone. The action of every management must

tend towards the contentment of that mission. Organizational culture should be categorized by

the commitment from organization’s top management (Crosby, 1984; Deming, 1982;

Feigenbaun, 1951; Ishikawa, 1982; Juran, 1944). The theorists concurred that for a common

language of quality to be achieved, incessant education and training at all levels is vital to

improve the skills and knowledge of the employees. It is essential to have quality cooperation,

teamwork, and communication throughout the organization.

These quality philosophers agreed that policy or action of the management causes about

85 percent of all quality problems in every organization. This assertion by the theorists implies
 PAwoke – KAM V Breadth 44

that the action of management is required to realize continuous improvements. The experts

established that customer-focused quality pursuit should be a long-term process that can produce

no result overnight. Continuous improvements can only be show-cased or evidenced overtime as

per reduced costs. Organizations should be able to antedate and avert quality problems.

The quality experts envisage that quality improvements do not happen on final products

but concurred that the current methods of inspection of products are not effective in the

production of quality products at a reasonable cost. Inspections could always be required in

certain processes such as the flying of helicopters after an overhaul has been performed. Quality

of airplanes is vital especially when major tasks or operation in terms of overhauls has been

carried out to evade any mishap. They agreed that it is important to remove inspection as part of

the means to realize or improve quality. To the experts, cost and quality are parallel and are not

competing in any form.

The quality gurus differentiated vividly between internal and external customers. They

are all in the same page regarding the practices of including suppliers in the effort of total quality

management. If suppliers provide inferior services or products, it is impracticable to realize total

quality. They used the measurement and problem-solving methodology to achieve total quality

with varied emphasis. The approaches of gurus of quality do not characterize “programs” in the

typical logic of the word as per the experts not having starting or ending dates. They exhibit

philosophies of management targeted at improvements in long-term via adoption of planning

strategy for total quality.

The quality philosophies of the quality experts have been accomplished many years ago

in diverse organizations in various countries. Concerning these philosophies, quality goes

 PAwoke – KAM V Breadth 45

beyond organizational economic concerns and addresses organizational employees too. The

quality theorists give high concession to egotism in education, workmanship, and work

environment (Crosby, 1984; Deming, 1982; Feigenbaun, 1951; Ishikawa, 1982; Juran, 1944).

There is also high priority in teamwork, team building, participation, and cooperation which are

tantamount to cultural change.

These quality philosophers have differences in some of their approaches to quality

management. The difference exhibited by the quality experts affected such areas as supplier

relationship, leadership, measurement use, and goal setting.

In supplier relationship, the five advocates of quality view supplier’s role differently.

Deming is of the opinion that the practice of working with a single supplier, where feasible,

reduces variability of incoming materials, and states that this practice should be built on a long-

term relationship of trust and understanding between supplier and purchaser (Deming, 1986).

Deming noted that the suppliers are expected to produce customer’s materials that can be fit-for-

purpose and perform the organizational needs. Suppliers should probably improve their

processes in order to maintain continuing contracts with organizations.

Crosby and Juran are mere advocates of supplier reduction to achieve better quality.

They identify some merits of the need for single suppliers. Crosby and Juran advocate the need

to have diverse suppliers for the same materials or products if the material is a critical one. By

so doing, there will be availability of this critical material and within quality. Organizations

within this jurisdiction will not stop production or suffer because of problems, accidents or

strikes by suppliers. Walton (1986) recognizes the issue of strike and noted that organizations

can use alternative suppliers to mitigate or solve problems of production by fixing problems. To
 PAwoke – KAM V Breadth 46

Deming, customers are able to receive services or products from alternative suppliers for a

continuous production.

These quality advocators believe in leadership commitment but their emphasis on

leadership commitment or participation were highlighted differently. Crosby explains the zero

defects day as the time when management reaffirms its commitment to quality and

communicates to all employees of organization (Crosby, 1987). In the same vein, Juran and

Feigenbaum have trajectory for involving top management. Their yearly quality programs are

used by organizational managers to disseminate information to all employees’ commitment of

management to the improvement of quality. They noted that the decisions and actions of

managers must be concerned with establishment of a council for managing quality, goal

deployment, resources provision and services of the quality improvement.

Deming acknowledged the imperativeness of commitment from top management, but did

not explain any program for realizing it. Anything that works in an organization may not work

in other organization. Deming acknowledged the need for the commitment of management. Top

management’s responsibility is to indicate her commitment via leadership. He said that leaders

should not keep record of failures and should not start to point their fingers on any employee or

individuals. Deming (1982) noted that the new jobs of the leaders should be to expunge

obstacles. Leaders should develop the culture of aiding others for a better workmanship.

Leaders should be coachers for the improvement of an organizational system.

In terms of goal setting, the quality experts noted that the definitive goal should

encompass services and products that are defect free. Crosby (1986) stipulated that

organizations should set intermediate goals to enable them possess a defect free products and
 PAwoke – KAM V Breadth 47

services. The consistent production of services and products that falls within defined

specification is the premier step to process improvement (Crosby, 1987; Feigenbaum, 1951;

Ishikawa, 1982). Goal setting in quality management ensures products conform to standards. It

ensures the maintenance of status quo and continual improvement in the process.

The quality philosophers advocated that cost of quality is the quality measurement.

Crosby, Deming, and Juran stipulate that measurement entails efforts to measure improvement of

quality. With cost, the experts refer money as the measurement’s language, measurable as per

dollars. Cost reduction is the yardstick to measure the process efficiency and effectiveness to

achieve requirements of the customers. To all the quality experts, organizations should endeavor

to measure and meet the expectations and needs of the customers as per their products and

services for quality improvement.

Summary

In this KAM, engineering management quality has been examined in organizational total

management. Every organization needs to embed quality in the manufacturing, production, and

supply of goods and services. Quality management impacts organizational performance.

Quality safety measures in workplace guarantees quality employee performance, mitigation of

incidents or accidents, and organizational safety performance. This paper illustrated the role of

managers in enforcing total quality management. Managers are expected to aid their

organizations in the improvement of quality in the organization with diverse approaches.

Organizations have devised to use any of the electronic approach in the components of five great

quality experts. Organizations may also combine the quality approach of two or more of the

quality experts to build the quality management of their organization.

 PAwoke – KAM V Breadth 48

Education, training, and implementation efforts of the quality experts such as Crosby,

Deming, and Juran reflect the electronic approaches to quality management. Some organizations

use midstream approach to quality management where they commence with Crosby, divert to

Juran, and then anchor on Deming. By so doing, the organizations may anticipate quality

improvements dramatically in a short while. Such organization may equally possess passion in

quality management which may have immediate results that are capable of forcing them to have

their hands in diverse approaches such as trial and error aspects.

Leadership is the key to a successful implementation of the principles and methods of

quality. In fact, the absence of leadership commitment and management as piloted by Crosby is

considered as a major cause of the failure in quality improvement. Juran (1981) noted that every

successful revolution of quality has added the active participation of management at the upper

echelon. Deming (1982) concurred and said it is the job of top management to transform

organizations for the improvement of total quality.

Engineering quality management is not an express tool to realize and address the

problems of management. Engineering quality management is only a transformation tool. The

top management should be familiar with the need to adopt an integrated organization-wide,

assessment, and strategic planning approaches. Organizational leaders should develop diverse

policies and planning that will define the organization’s position as per quality management and

improvement. Leaders in the organizations should provide a customer orientation with the aim

of defining the need for engineering quality improvement via training and educating the

employees. In any case, whether there is success or failure in the correct evaluation of how to

realize quality and leadership criteria of the customer, the organization has to use the most cost-
 PAwoke – KAM V Breadth 49

effective and cost-accepted way to achieve quality.

The great quality expert, Ishikawa expanded beyond the product and covered the quality

of individuals or employees. He also covered quality management, service of after sales, and the

company or organization itself. Organizational engineering quality achievement is dependent

upon the treatment of quality improvement as a mission that is boundless. Companies should

never stop employees from the learning process and by so doing, quality improvement is

guaranteed. TQM achievement as supported by Ishikawa was by allowing employees to

participate in all quality improvement processes. Education is paramount in the achievement of

quality where he accentuated the significance of education as per quality commencing and

ending with education.

In this breadth component, I have concentrated on various aspects of the principles of

engineering TQM and demonstrated a different type of competency leading to a broad-based and

integrated knowledge of this KAM which is the theory and practice of engineering management

total quality. This KAM exposed the different quality initiatives used by Edward Deming,

Joseph Juran, Philip Crosby, and Kaoru Ishikawa. It addressed the approaches adopted by these

theorists to facilitate a long term improvement, satisfaction of customers, development of quality

products, and improvement of quality safety standard in oil and gas companies. As an engineer

and educationist involved in decision making and engineering problems solving, I will further

improve and develop the use of TQM in achieving quality, assessment, trouble-shooting, repairs,

and maintenance of the control systems organization. This paper will help me develop a model

quality tool to improve organizational performance. I will further develop the quality theories

through the representation of the recent studies and articles of the engineering management
 PAwoke – KAM V Breadth 50

quality tools in the depth component of this KAM.

 PAwoke – KAM V Breadth 51

Depth component

Annotated Bibliography

Reference 1: Link between soft and hard total quality management

Al-Khalili, A., & Subari, K. (2013). Understanding the linkage between soft and hard total

quality management: Evidence from Malaysian manufacturing industries. Jordan

Journal of Mechanical & Industrial Engineering, 7(1), 57-65. Retrieved from

http://web.a.ebscohost.com.ezp.waldenulibrary.org/ehost

SUMMARY: In this article, Al-Khalili & Subari (2013) investigated the connectivity

between two dimensions of TQM such as (a) soft TQM and (b) hard TQM. The authors noted

that few empirical studies have examined the interconnectivity between the quality dimensions in

Malaysia’s developing economy. They proposed a multidimensional theoretical framework to

examine both quality dimensions. The authors used seven variables to measure soft TQM (ST)

and eight variables for hard TQM (HT) with one hypothesis. Their hypothesis was that there is a

significant and positive relation between the two dimensions. They confirmed the validity of this

study by testing it via 40 ISO 9000 certified Malaysian manufacturing industries. The authors

tested the hypothesis with a structured self-administered questionnaire based on a five point

likert scale for quality management. They tested the corollary hypothesis with a multiple

regression analysis. The data analysis for the outcomes and results showed that all their seven

variables of ST were significantly associated with some HT variables. The authors contributed to

quality management.

CRITICAL ASSESSMENT: Al-Khalili & Subari carried out an actual research. The

methodology used in this research as mentioned earlier was the use of questionnaire based on
 PAwoke – KAM V Breadth 52

five point Likert-scales for quality management for all the items including the survey. The

authors used 32 lists of literatures to evaluate the linkage between soft and hard total quality,

making the research possess a strong theoretical base. There was one research question and a

main hypothesis to answer the research question. The authors tested the hypothesis by using two

steps: (a) correlation analysis and (b) multiple regression technique. This piece of work

contributed to scholarly discourse on total quality management. Validity and reliability of this

study were confirmed by using a panel of experts and 40 ISO 9000 certified personnel, making

the study replicable. This piece of work immensely contributed to existing body of knowledge.

VALUE: This piece of work lends credence in the application component of this KAM.

I will also apply this piece of work to the introduction aspect of my dissertation. The authors

concluded that soft and hard total quality management can be integrated together. This piece of

work can be used by Malaysian quality managers if implemented and practiced correctly. This

paper provided essential guidelines for Malaysian managers dealing with quality management

inside organizations. It deals with roles of manufacturing companies’ top managers, and the

quality managers in increasing the practicing of soft and hard total quality management. The

effectiveness of this study produces desired results and contributes to organizational

performance.
 PAwoke – KAM V Breadth 53

Reference 2: Quality Audits as a Tool for Quality Improvement

Balague, N., Duren, P., Juntunen, A., & Saarti, J. (2014). Quality audits as a tool for quality

Improvement in selected European higher education libraries. Journal of Academic

Librarianship, 40(5), 529-533. doi:10.1016/j.acalib.2014.01.002

SUMMARY: Balague et al, (2014) carried out an informative discussion in quality

audits as a tool for quality improvement in selected European higher education libraries. They

noted that diverse quality management types and systems of evaluation have become

incorporated into higher institutes of education throughout Europe from the beginning in the

1990s. Their study stipulated that libraries of universities have learned how to evaluate and

improve their services and quality. They also noted that quality audits are one tool that helps to

assess how well the management of organizations is carried out. This piece of work described

the application of internal and external auditing in three academic libraries in Europe such as

Medical library in Germany, Barcelona library in Spain, and Finland Library in Finland. The

result of their audit investigation revealed the best practices of auditing in these universities.

This piece of work made recommendations for further library auditing development and

improvement of library co-operations.

CRITICAL ASSESSMENT: Balague et al did not carry out any actual research but

used the methodology of benchmarking to confirm quality auditing as a quality tool in total

quality management. There were no research questions and therefore no hypotheses. This piece

of work investigated the building of quality systems and auditing of three European academic

libraries. Using three different academic libraries for this investigation made this work

generalizable. They selected these libraries based on ISO 9000 quality management system
 PAwoke – KAM V Breadth 54

(QMS), making the study replicable. Benchmarking as a method is widely used in the QMS

building. Benchmarking is used to ensure that organizations learned from one another and

implement the best practices seen during the process. It also evades the pitfalls other

organizations experienced during the auditing processes. This work contributed to existing

literature as the authors used 15 lists of references to conduct this investigation.

VALUE: This study contributed to the existing body of knowledge. It lends credence to

scholarly discourse and will form an integral part of the introduction section of my dissertation

and the application components of this KAM. Based on the benchmarking performed in this

piece of work, auditing has a positive impact on QMS building process and the development of

library service. Different universities can use quality audit described in this piece of work as a

tool for managing quality in their libraries. This significance of internal audits in the paper is to

prepare organizations for external audit, thereby improving their QMS. I will apply this QMS in

the safety management process in my organization. This piece of work will also be applied in

crafting the literature review section of my dissertation.

 PAwoke – KAM V Breadth 55

Reference 3: Quality Management of Aerodynamic

Bityurin, V., Efimov, A., Kazanskiy, P., Klimov, A., & Moralev, I. (2014). Aerodynamic quality

Management for the NACA 23012 airfoil model using the surface high-frequency

discharge. High Temperature, 52(4), 483-489. doi:10.1134/S0018151X1404004X

SUMMARY: Bityurin, et al (2014) carried out a research on aerodynamic quality

management for the NACA 23012 airfoil model using the surface high-frequency discharge.

They noted that the surface capacity high frequency discharge effect on airflow occurred when

the oncoming flow velocity is 20 m/s and Reynolds numbers are = 105. The power delivered to

discharge was modulated with a frequency of 3 × 102–2 × 104 Hz, which corresponds to a

Strouhal number of St = 1.2–80, and the average electric power (Wav) were 50–400 W. This

quality management study in aero dynamics showed that drag of the aerodynamics decreased and

the lift increased at stall and post stall angles of attack the high frequency dielectric barrier

discharge was turned on. They observed that at a stall angle in the St = 4-10 range of Strouhal

numbers, the power of the aerodynamics was insufficient.

CRITICAL ASSESSMENT: Bityurin, et al did not carry out an actual research but used

experimental model to confirm the quality of NACA 23012 airfoil high frequency discharge.

This piece of work examined the effect of high frequency actuator plasma DBD installed at the

leading edge of the airfoil model. This experiment revealed the parameter dependence of the

model lift and aerodynamic drag on the discharge modulation frequency at different airfoil

angles of attack and discharge energy depositions. There was no research question and therefore

no hypothesis. To balance the aerodynamic in the experiment, the authors balanced it with four

T24A 0.01 C3 strain, a PD 004 dynamic converter, and AIP 012 interface and power adapter to
 PAwoke – KAM V Breadth 56

order to manage quality, thereby making this study replicable. The authors used 19 lists of

references for this study, thereby having a strong theoretical base. Also this study contributed to

the existing literature in quality management.

VALUE: This piece of work specifically contributed to scholarly works in aerodynamic

industries. The experiment used was able to fine-tune or manage quality. The indication was

that the capacity high frequency discharge affected the near wake characteristics and the Сх and

Су aerodynamic characteristics beyond the NACA23012 airfoil model, if the oncoming flow

velocity is 20 m/s and the stall and post stall angles of attack are α > 12°. Organizations in the

business of aero-dynamism have benefit from the mathematical model in this piece of work.

This paper will form an integral part of the introduction section of application component of this

KAM. I will also apply this paper in the literature review of my dissertation.
 PAwoke – KAM V Breadth 57

Reference 4: Strategic vendor selection criteria

Chun-Ying, S., (2014). Strategic vendor selection criteria discussed in relation to demand and

supply perspectives. Journal of Industrial & Production Engineering, 31(7), 405-416.

doi:10.1080/21681015.2014.975161

SUMMARY: Chun-Ying (2014) carried out an informative research on the quality and

strategic vendor selection criteria in relation to demand and supply perspective. The author use

keywords such as supplier positioning and selection, two-factor theory, supplier integration, total

quality management, and variance weighting method to perform the research. Chun-Ying noted

that vendor selection is a decision-making problem involving quality strategic management. In

vendor selection, quality is an important consideration. Criteria and importance of weights have

to be cautiously chosen to meet supply chain competitive strategies. The author used demand

and supply views of 108 valid respondents to examine importance weights of vendor selection

criteria under four operations strategies. To categorize the individual relative importance, the

author used multi-nominal probability distribution analysis and variance weighting method. This

study further used exploratory explanations by conducting in-depth interviews with 12 functional

managers to confirm importance weighting of vendor selection criteria. The study provided

recommendations for future research on vendor selection.

CRITICAL ASSESSMENT: Chun-Ying carried out an actual research. The

methodologies used were in two stages. First was the use of sample questionnaires from firms of

different main industries. Second method was a qualitative exploratory by conducting interviews

with 12 functional managers focusing on their divergent perspectives on importance of weighting

of vendor selection criteria. Using both the questionnaire and interview made this study
 PAwoke – KAM V Breadth 58

generalizable. This piece of work ensured a mutual agreement concerning importance of weights

of the vendor selection criteria under four operation strategies such as mass production,

continuous improvement, mass customization, and innovation strategies. This paper contributed

immensely to existing literature by using 58 lists of references to perform the study. These lists

of references made this study have a strong theoretical base. The sampling method adopted was

the stratified and purposive method due to the business functional positions of respondents to

increase research validity.

VALUE: This piece of work used quality management and strategy in vendor selection

criteria. This study investigated and discussed divergent views concerning strategic vendor

selection criteria. The author confirmed three vendor selection criteria such as quality, service,

and cycle time. They are important and necessary for the satisfaction of a company’s

competitive requirements despite the strategy of operations employed by the company. This

piece of work presented prominent and exceptional strengths such as the important lessons from

the supplier integration approach and operating philosophy of TQM for mitigating the impacts of

the abuse in explicit criteria of vendor selection. This study provides a reference for managers

and academic researchers. I will apply this study in the literature review section of the

application component of this KAM. This work will also form part of the review of literature in

my dissertation.
 PAwoke – KAM V Breadth 59

Reference 5: Quality Management in Projects

Cirina, L. M., Cirina, D., & Constanta Radulescu, C. (2013). Quality management

in projects – establish the quality objectives of the project. Fiability & Durability, 12(2),

42-46.

SUMMARY: Cirina, Cirina & Constanta (2013) provided an informative discussion on

quality managment in projects and established the quality objectives of projects. They defined

project as ensemble coordinated by some activities achieved to research a well determined

rationale. The authors defined projects as a process. They noted that quality management in

project embraces the necessary processess for providing the fact that the project satisfies the

necessities it had been accomplished for. Cirina et al discussed the strategic objective of the

project is normally attained to represent quality planning in projects.

CRITICAL ASSESSMENT: The authors did not carry out actual research but made

vital discussions about qaulity management in projects. This paper contributed to existing body

of knowlede in quality project management as 14 lists of references were used to carry out the

study. This piece of work highlighted the main objective of a project to include performance,

cost, and time available. To understand the objectives of project management quality, the

authors answered questions such as (a) why I want to do this project? (b) What will I receive at

the end of the project and do not have at present? Though this study was without research design

and methodology but answered two objective questions. They were no hypothesis and hence no

research questions. This piece of work offered a conclusion that planning was important to

achieve quality in project and to achieve the following: quality planning, quality assurance,

quality control, and improvements in process, making the discussion conclusive.

 PAwoke – KAM V Breadth 60

VALUE: This piece of work lends credence to scholarly discourse in project quality

management. It concluded that (a) the quality objectives are a moving target, (b) the settlement

of the quality strategic objective of the project is virtually important and provides the

transformation of the manager’s vision into practice, (c) the project management needs to

establish the strategic quality objective and make the lower quality objectives assigned to the

team members of the project. This study will form part of the literature review section of my

dissertation. I will apply the learning outcomes of this study in crafting the introduction section

of the application component of this KAM.

 PAwoke – KAM V Breadth 61

Reference 6: Risk Factors and Monitoring for Water Quality

H., Leenen, E. M., van Knapen, F., & de Roda Husman, A. M. (2014). Risk factors and

monitoring for water quality to determine best management practices for splash parks.

Journal of Water & Health, 12(3), 399-403. doi:10.2166/wh.2014.127

SUMMARY: Leenen, Knapen, & Husman (2014), carried out an informative research to

investigate the risk factors and minotoring for water quality to determine best management

practices for splash parks. Leenen et al had a background study about splash parks having been

associated with infectious disease outbreaks due to exposure to poor water quality. Quality is

very importnat in the products and services of every establishment. This work was informative

as it was used to protect public health. They identified the risk factors that ascertained a poor

water quality. They took water samples from seven splash parks where participant operators

were willing to participate in this study. They measured higher concentrations of escherichia

coli in water of splash parks filled with rainwater. The authors compared the water with tap

water that was independent of routine intervals and employed disinfection. This paper concluded

with management practices to include prevention of fecal contamination and maintenance of

good water quality at splash parks with source water of acceptable quality.

CRITICAL ASSESSMENT: This study was enlightening since it was used to protect

public health. It contrbuted to original literatures and the existing body of knowledge. This

work has theoretical base since it used 18 lists of references to confirm the difference in quality

between rainwater and tap water. This piece of work sampled seven splash parks in Netherlands

for four months, making the study valid and reliable. Selection of the setting or locations was

based on the information from local authorities about operators who are willing to participate in
 PAwoke – KAM V Breadth 62

the study, thereby reducing bias. The methodology used was the maximum likelihood method to

estimate the concentration of E. Coli in the undiluted sample. This study has a strong theoretical

base since it employed the model of Schijven et al., making the study generalizable.

VALUE: This study indicated that splash parks using tap water as source water have

better water quality than splash parks using rainwater as source water. This work formed base

for communities to discover that rainwater is not fit for drinking since it is not disinfected but a

disinfected tap is fit for purpose. This piece of work illustrated that quality is meausrable and it

is important to perform a risk analysis to find out the risk level of consuming water to avoid

being infected with disease. Monitoring of the public health is important and this piece of

information lends credence to the protection of public health. It informed that quality should be

managed in all ramification of life. I will apply this study in the literature review section of the

application component of this KAM. This piece of work will also form an integral part of the

introduction section of my dissertation.

 PAwoke – KAM V Breadth 63

Reference 7: An analysis of the causes of complaints about sheets in metallurgical product

quality management systems

Gajdzik, B., & Sitko, J. (2014). An analysis of the causes of complaints about sheets in

metallurgical product quality management systems. Metallurgical, 53(1), 135-138.

Retrieved from http://web.a.ebscohost.com.ezp.waldenulibrary.org/ehost/

dfviewer/pdfviewer? vid=9&sid=c50d3d3b-2221-47e6-a5f3- 7e9321f565e%40

sessionmgr4002&hid=4104

SUMMARY: Gajdzik & Sitko (2014) conducted a study on the causes of complaints

about metallurgical products, illustrated with an example of steel sheets, and with exceptional

focus on the reasons of having their source in the human factor. The final quality of a

metallurgical product quality is determined mainly by physical features such as chemical

composition, physical and chemical properties, precision of workmanship functionality etc. The

authors noted that metallurgical products’ phyical and chemical properties must comply with

both the standards of production in force and the specific characteristic of the customer’s order.

The authors used a direct research and analysis of complaunts collected from a metallurgical

plant. The obtained results were enriched with with theoretical considerations on quality

management systems for metallurgical products.

CRITICAL ASSESSMENT: Gajdzik & Sitko carried out this analysis based on

research carried out in a plant producing steel sheets. The plant producing steel sheets has a

certificate of quality management system conformity with ISO 9001standard, making this study

replicable. The authors used the information made available by the enterprise as well as direct

investigation to determine the common causes of complaints, making the data collection
 PAwoke – KAM V Breadth 64

instrument reliable. Although, each measurement tool used by the authors had a number of

individual errors which needed to be analysed. The errors made by employees collecting a

measurement result from the imperfection of human senses was due to limited ability to properly

assess a distance by the human eye. This piece of paper has strong theoretical foundation as the

authors incorporated the theory of a great total quality thinker such as Crosby Philip. The

authors also contributed to the existing body of knowledge by reviewing various literatures on

total quality management.

VALUE: This piece of work contributed to scholarly discourse in total quality

management of an enterprise of steel sheets. It highlighted the main causes of complaints about

steel sheets produced by the analyzed enterprise as the material factors which include cold shuts,

surface scratches, material delamnination, corrosion pits, uneven application of a zinc or

aluminium layer. This paper lends credence to the introduction section of the application

component of this KAM. I will use this piece of work in the crafting of the literature review of

my dissertation.
 PAwoke – KAM V Breadth 65

Reference 8: Quality and safety management systems

Gerolamo, M. C., Carpinetti, L. R., Vitoreli, G. A., Sordan, J. E., & Lima, C. B. (2014).

Quality and safety management systems: Joint action for certification of small firms in an

industrial cluster in Brazil. South African Journal of Industrial Engineering, 25(1), 189-

202.

SUMMARY: Gerolamo et al., 2014 presented and discussed a proposal for joint action

among small firms in an industrial cluster in Brazil for the certification of quality and safety

managment systems. This paper proposed a management system model, the implementation

process, and periodic auditing. This presentation is the result of an action research project

developed in a metal mechanical cluster. The quality certification of companies is led by the

cluster governance agency to enhance the collective efficiency of a cluster. The authors recorded

some obstacles but helped to however, reduce the difficulties faced by small businesses in

implementing and maintaining management systems. This proposal also fosters a culture of

quality and safety management.

CRITICAL ASSESSMENT: Gerolamo et al dwelled on the result of an action research

project developed in a metal mechanical cluster, implying that they did not carry out actual

research. There were no research questions and hence, no hypothesis to answer. The authors

contributed to existing body of knowledge on project management system. The authors used 61

lists of references to support the theoretical framework in total quality management, thereby

consolidating on a strong theoretical base. The authors noted that the team of the project

management responsible for assuring project planning and execution included the project
 PAwoke – KAM V Breadth 66

manager, a student, and one management assistant from the cluster governance agency. There is

a strong organizational structure comprising the technical committee which sought to follow the

recommendations of Popplewell and Hayman to ensure internal and external validity.

VALUE: This piece of work was in alliance with ISO9001international quality system

standard. It specified requirements for a quality management system where an organization (a)

needs to demonstrate its ability to consistently provide product that meets customer and

applicable statutory regulatory requirements, and (b) aims to increase customer satisfaction

through the effective application of the system, including processes for continual improvement

of the system and the assurance of conformity to customer and applicable statutory and

regulatory requirements. This study made companies to define the requirements of the

management system and the general procedure to implement it. This work contributed to

scholarly discourse and lends credence to the application component of this KAM. I will apply

this study in the introduction section of the application component of this KAM. This piece of

work will form an integral part of the literature review of my dissertation.

 PAwoke – KAM V Breadth 67

Reference 9: Future-proofing six sigma

Goh, T. N. (2014). Future-proofing six sigma. Quality & Reliability Engineering International,

30(8), 1389-1392. doi:10.1002/qre.1561

SUMMARY: Goh (2014) presented an informative paper on what it would take for Six

Sigma to face the future world. The author analyzed from both strategic and operational

directions a number of maneuvers to sustain its relevance. The author noted that Six Sigma

started three decades ago as a problem solving framework for quality improvement. It is being

implemented in industry and evolved into a management approach to performance excellence.

The discussion continued to ponder whether it will continue to enjoy the attention it has been

getting and keep embraced by practitioners is dependent on if its implementation can be in line

with new organizational needs in the twenty-first century. The author explained various

inclusive and proactive characteristics for remaking the Six Sigma to remain in demand for many

years to come.

CRITICAL ASSESSMENT: Goh (2014) did not carry out an actual research since there

is no research question and hypothesis. The author carried out discussions based on existing

literatures on quality management to confirm the future of Six Sigma. Six Sigma Institute of

Motorola was developed in the 1980s with a view to improving product quality. Organizations

world-wide adopted this institute and it is the longest surviving modern approach to quality

improvement. This piece of work noted that Six Sigma has evolved from a specific quality

improvement methodology to a framework for management. This study contributed to scholarly

discourse and lends credence to existing body of knowledge. No much was said about the
 PAwoke – KAM V Breadth 68

theoretical framework, but this study contributed immensely to existing literature as 16 lists of

references were used to anchor the study.

VALUE: The Six Sigma is widely held as the key to excellence in performance and

business competitiveness. This piece of work shows that Six Sigma can vitalize itself. This

study shows that every organization should have continues improvement in their production

quality to ensure competitiveness. The improvement of effectiveness and relevance shows that

the Six Sigma undergoes remaking process along three dimensions such as professional,

academic, and corporate dimensions. This study emphasizes the use of analytical tools for the

professional dimension. At academic level, the contents of the six sigma methodology and

techniques incorporated for rigorous investigations. At the corporate level, six sigma is

implemented with needed cultural background and thinking process for problem solving and

performance improvement. This piece of work will be useful in the introduction part of the

application component of this KAM. I will use this work in the development of the literature

review section of my dissertation.

 PAwoke – KAM V Breadth 69

Reference 10: Depiction of total quality management

Gupta, V., Garg, D., & Kumar, R. (2014). Depiction of total quality management during a span

of 2003-2013. Journal of Engineering & Technology, 4(2), 81-86. doi:10.4103/0976-

8580.141170

SUMMARY: Gupta et al (2014) carried out a study on a depiction of one decade’s

quality movement. The authors carried out the depiction, aiming to ease in establishing the

existing standard of total quality management (TQM) and endorsing in accepting and influencing

its imminent course. The authors collected all potential circulated articles during the period

under the question of TQM. These data were analyzed and reflected upon in order to show the

delineations, elements, and methods that have been cited by various scholars, professionals,

academics and so on. The results displayed the basis to build a renowned philosophy in terms of

employee’s empowerment, ownership; leadership, cultural change, and continuous

improvements based on facts and focus on the customer satisfaction have been improving more

during the last decade. The authors noted the emergence of quality as the single most critical

factor needed for the survival and growth of an organization. Organizations need to apply

quality methodologies in the form of strategic quality management, quality systems, quality

assurance, and quality control.

CRITICAL ASSESSMENT: Gupta et al conducted a review of steering literatures such

as a systematic review methodology, a meta-analysis, and a narrative literature review. The

authors considered only systemic review methodology for the purposes to abate prejudices,

which process the literature in three phases such as planning, conducting, and reporting. The

review of literatures made this paper to contribute to existing literature. This paper clearly
 PAwoke – KAM V Breadth 70

specified the objectives of this literature review as (a) to know the facets of total quality

management and (b) to work out the most used elements and methods, which shows a clear

direction of the study. The authors did not carry out actual research. There were not research

questions and hence no hypotheses. The detailed review of various articles or literature exposed

the authors to various research methodologies such as survey method (i.e. questionnaire, group

interviews, telephone, literature review etc), modeling, case study and observation, analytical

research, and applied research. The authors contributed to scholarly discourse.

VALUE: This piece of work showed TQM as an approach and a philosophy. It is based

on the implementation of TQM on the constraint of the concerned organization. The authors

categorized the elements of TQM as (a) strategic elements (employee’s empowerment, top

management commitment and approach, etc.), (b) human elements (motivation, employees’

commitment and participation, etc.), (c) circumstantial elements (customers and suppliers’

relations, employees’ satisfaction and employment continuity, etc.), and (d) procedural elements

(continuous process improvement, performance measures, design management). This piece of

work is useful in crafting the introduction section of the application component of this KAM. I

will apply this paper in the literature review section of my dissertation.

 PAwoke – KAM V Breadth 71

Reference 11: Feasibility of certified quality management

Handschu, R., Scibor, M., Wacker, A., Stark, D. R., Köhrmann, M., Erbguth, F., & ... Marquardt,

L. (2014). Feasibility of certified quality management in a comprehensive stroke care

network using telemedicine: Steno project. International Journal of Stroke, 9(8),

1011-1016. doi:10.1111/ijs.12342

SUMMARY: Handschu et al. (2014) carried out a comprehensive study on the feasibility

of certified quality management in a comprehensive stroke care network using telemedicine.

There has been an established stroke networks with or without telemedicine in several countries

over the last decade to provide specialized stroke expertise to patients in rural areas. The authors

used the stroke network with Telemedicine in Northern Bavaria to carry out this study. The

authors used 20 medical institutes that are caring for over 5000 stroke patients each year. The

authors initiated implementation of a network-wide total quality management with respect to ISO

standard 9001 in 2010, cooperation with the German stroke society, and a third-party

certification organization in 2008. They found out that certification as per ISO 9001, 2008 was

awarded in 2011 and maintained a complete certification cycle of 3 years without major

deviation. The authors also found out that thrombolysis rated significantly increased from 8.2%

(2009) to 12.8% (2012). It is concluded that certified quality management within a large stroke

network using telemedicine is possible and can improve stroke care procedures and thrombolysis

rates.

CRITICAL ASSESSMENT: Handschu et al clearly mentioned the problem of the study

and acknwledged that the scientific work of reflecting systematic quality management in acute

stroke care is scarse. There was no publication on stroke care use in telemedical stroke care
 PAwoke – KAM V Breadth 72

networks. The authors tested the possibility of implementing and achieving a certification of a

networkwide quality management system within a large telestroke network, there by making this

study generalizable. There were no research questions and no hypotheses but the study had a

strong theoretical base since the study was anchored on the Internation Standard Organization

(ISO) 9001 of 2008 and 2010 total management quality. This piece of work lends credence to

scholarly discuss on total quality management since 26 lists of references were used to conduct

the study. However, the authors contributed to existing literature on total quality management.

VALUE: Handschu et al showed the feasibility of certified quality management in a

comprehensive stroke care network using telemedicine. This piece of work contributed to

scholarly discuss in quality management system. This study showed that Telemedical stroke

care networks benefited from quality management and certification. Telemedical requires

continuous effort for quality maintenance and strengthens internal and trans-institutional

cooperation. I will reference this study in the literature review section of the application

component of this KAM. This piece of work widens the scope of stroke care in contemporary

hospitals and care institutions. This study will form an integral part of the literature review of

my dissertation.
 PAwoke – KAM V Breadth 73

Reference 12: Framing and enhancing distributed leadership in the quality management

Holt, D., Palmer, S., Gosper, M., Sankey, M., & Allan, G. (2014). Framing and enhancing

distributed leadership in the quality management of online learning environments in

higher education. Distance Education, 35(3), 382-399.

SUMMARY: Holt et al. (2014) conducted a study on framing and enhancing

distributed leadership in the quality management of online learning environments in higher

education. The authors reported on the findings of senior leader interviews in a nationally

funded project on distributed leadership in the quality management of online learning

environments (OLE) in higher education. The authors framed questions around the development

of an OLE quality management framework and the situation of the features of leadership

distribution at the core of the framework. The aim of this project is that distributed leadership is

a descriptive reality of managing OLEs given the diverse parties of leadership involved and the

complexities of the contemporary technological landscape. The authors examined leaders’

understandings of distributed leadership, its nature, value, and potential to progress the quality

management of OLEs. The authors confirmed the reality of OLE, but its meaning and value

were not uncritically accepted.

CRITICAL ASSESSMENT: Holt et al carried out an actual qualitative research with

appropriate research questions. The qualitative research was in four phases via a round of

interviews that sought perceptions of nominated leaders of five partner universities: developing

distance learning within the OLE space; using this and other strategies to manage change within

the OLE space. Twelve interviews of 30 – 45 minutes duration were done with leaders.

Interviews were also undertaken by independent consultant who also analyzed and wrote up the
 PAwoke – KAM V Breadth 74

final report. These interviews by various participants made this study to be generalizable.

Further interviews were conducted on three deputy vice-chancellors and pro vice-chancellors,

three teaching and learning directors, one assistant director, a principal advisor, and two

managers, thereby making the study replicable. The authors contributed to existing literatures on

quality management.

VALUE: This piece of work is useful in the establishment and quality management of

distance learning and online learning environment. This paper confirmed that distributed

leadership is dependent on the individual relationship and that leadership should be at the right

level of maturity. This study is supportive of the distance learning programmes and confirms it

to be reasonable in the development of change and quality management that works in the online

learning environments. I will include this piece of work in the introduction section of the

application component of this KAM. This work will form a part of the literature review of my

dissertation.
 PAwoke – KAM V Breadth 75

Reference 13: Implementing integrated and systems approaches to quality management

Hranova, R. (2014). Implementing integrated and systems approaches to water quality

management considering data uncertainty. Civil Engineering & Environmental Systems,

31(3), 270-282. doi:10.1080/10286608.2013.853742

SUMMARY: Hranova (2014) carried out research on the implementation of integrated

and systems approaches to water quality management. The author emphasized the need for a

system analysis approach at all scales in a water system considering all elements, subsystems and

their interactions. The authors presented the best management practices of monitoring and

regulation of water resources. In carrying out this study, the author recommended the integration

of the modeling, decision, and information support tools with the corresponding monitoring

practices, regulatory instruments, and management activities in a closed-loop cycle. This paper

illustrated the estimation and implications of monitoring data uncertainties by two case study

examples based on water quality monitoring data in the Southern African region. One case study

is related to compliance with regulatory instruments and the other to pollution load assessments.

The authors discussed the implications of monitoring data characteristics and uncertainty.

CRITICAL ASSESSMENT: Hranova’s piece of work confirmed acceptance of

integrated water resources management (IWRM) as an important concept of quality

management. The author used two case study approaches to study the implementation of

integrated and systems approaches to water quality management. One case study was the

incorporation of data uncertainty in regulatory documents by monitoring data as random

quantities and well defined regulatory basis, specifying the measurement frequency, the level of

accuracy and the value to be used for comparison. The other case study is use of PL assessment
 PAwoke – KAM V Breadth 76

which requires the consideration of uncertainties related to both water quantity and quality

parameters. The two case studies reflect application of quality management tool to water quality.

The author has a strong conceptual framework by adopting a water engineering subsystem at

basin level and at population center level. This piece of work contributed to scholarly discourse

in quality management. There were no research questions and no hypothesis.

VALUE: This piece of work contributed to the regulation of water system quality. It

lends credence to the existing body of knowledge in total quality management. This piece of

work shows that developing countries face considerable challenges during integrated water

resources management process, due to lack of economic, technical, and human resources. This

study helps to support and improve existing practices and decision support practices. This piece

of work helps to improve quality assurance and quality control practice in order to obtain reliable

information. Sharing information at the regional level would reduce the necessary investments

and would allow for sustainable solutions in the whole region. I will apply this paper in the

literature review of the application component of this KAM. This piece of work will form an

integral part of the introduction section of my dissertation.

 PAwoke – KAM V Breadth 77

Reference 14: A conceptual framework for quality cost management training

Jooste, K., & Mothiba, T. M. (2014). A conceptual framework for cost management training in

the Limpopo Province of South Africa. Journal of Nursing Management, 22(7), 872-883.

doi:10.1111/jonm.12065

SUMMARY: Jooste & Mothiba (2014) conducted an informative research on a

conceptual framework for cost management training in the Limpopo Province of South Africa.

The authors described the perceptions of nurse managers about their dual role in nursing units as

quality cost centres. The authors noted that the development of a conceptual framework for a

context-specific programme for quality cost centre managers is the first institution of its nature in

South Africa. The methodology used was the qualitative, exploratory, descriptive, and

contextual designs in conducting this research. The authors used target population as the nurse

managers which are appointed as quality cost centre managers with a dual role delivering quality

care and cost management. The authors conducted a focus group and individual interviews until

data saturation occurred. The authors found out that personal and professional distress, an

empowering potential of being a cost centre manager, and the need for decentralized quality cost

centre were indication for nurse managers that led to a framework for a specific training

programme. The authors featured some implications for nursing management such as the

training of cost centre managers for their dual role in cost centres could enhance cost

effectiveness, quality care, and staff satisfaction.

CRITICAL ASSESSMENT: Jooste & Mothiba carried out actual research. As

mentioned, the methodologies used to perform this research were the qualitative, exploratory,

descriptive, and contextual designs. The interviews used to collect qualitative data were based
 PAwoke – KAM V Breadth 78

on a focus group and individual interviews, making this research replicable. The sample

population including nurses, managers, various hospital workers etc increased the population and

made this research to be generalizable. This piece of work was derived from the theoretical

assumptions of the practice-oriented theory of Dickoff et al. (1968) thereby having a strong

theoretical base. The authors used qualitative method for addressing issues with regard to

nursing care in clinical settings. Descriptive design aids the researcher to obtain complete and

accurate information about experiences of nursing unit. Exploratory design was used to gain

insight into and an understanding of, the phenomenon with dual role. The contextual design

aimed to achieve an understanding of events of the research phenomenon. The authors enhanced

the trustworthiness of the collected data by using investigator triangulation. This piece of work

contributed immensely to existing body of knowledge as the authors employed 32 lists of

references to conduct the review of literature.

VALUE: This piece of work contributed to scholarly discourse in quality cost

management. The quality cost center management training as described in this study provides

additional benefits such as increasing job satisfaction of cost centre management, enhancing the

development of cost centre management training skills, ensuring the provision of quality care,

increasing self-confidence in managing a cost centre, and improving standards of practice. This

study helps the nurses in acquiring appropriate trainings and skills to perform their duties. I will

apply this piece of work in the introduction section of the application component of this KAM. I

will apply this paper in the literature review section of my dissertation.

 PAwoke – KAM V Breadth 79

Reference 15: Total quality management (TQM) implementation contributors

Latif, Y. (2014). Important TQM implementation contributors in Pakistani petrochemical sector.

Pakistan Journal of Statistics & Operation Research, 10(3), 331-348.

SUMMARY: Latif (2014) conducted a research on the important total quality

management (TQM) implementation contributors in Pakistani Petrochemical sector. The authors

discussed quality practices in Pakistani Petrochemical sector to comprehend TQM practices and

their implementation in Pakistani. This study aids to understand leadership role, vision and plan

statement, employee participation and education & training as important constructs of TQM.

The authors showed how these constructs sped up TQM implementation in petrochemical sector

and the company moved towards quality approach. The authors used questionnaires and online

surveys which were sent through Google to executive, managerial staff, and workers (106

respondents). The surveys and questionnaires were analyzed using SPSS18. The findings

showed that TQM culture is less understood by employees and therefore, adopted and

implemented in Pakistan. The findings confirmed that Petrochemical companies failed to adopt

the TQM philosophy and processes, therefore reduced productivity and profits.

CRITICAL ASSESSMENT: Latif used the questionnaire and online survey method to

perform this study. The methodology is cheaper and allowed the research to reach wider

respondents. These methodologies made this piece of work to be generalizable since more than

25% of the population responded. The authors justified using a strong theoretical foundation to

construct this research as they adopted the theoretical framework of Juran, Deming, Gryna,

Crosby, Ishikawa, Feigenbaum in TQM. The authors confirmed reliability of the instrument

used for data collection by noting that the instrument has 137 citations in various research
 PAwoke – KAM V Breadth 80

articles and was first published in ―International Journal of Quality and Reliability

Management. Also each construct had a reliability coefficient of Cronbach’s alpha above 0.70

and was thus found reliable. This piece of work contributed immense to scholarly work on TQM

and contributed to existing body of knowledge as 92 lists of references were used to review the

literature.

VALUE: This research paper is very helpful for executives for TQM implementation in

petrochemical sector and oil and gas production companies. TQM Gurus like Juran, Deming,

Gryna, Crosby, Ishikawa, Feigenbaum etc. are the main reason of the new heights of the TQM

thinking. They have provided simple rules, by following which production mechanism can be

made better, the cost of production can be reduced, non-conformities can be avoided,

increasingly improved salient features can be developed, continuous improvement can be

achieved and financial benefits can be reached. This piece of work made directors and managers

of companies to know the effect of reduction of production costs and optimize production. I will

apply this piece of work to the TQM processes in the company I work. I will apply this paper in

the review of literature section of the application component of this KAM. I will also use this

paper in crafting the introduction section of my dissertation.

 PAwoke – KAM V Breadth 81

Reference 16: Piloting laboratory quality system management

Mbah, H., Ojo, E., Ameh, J., Musuluma, H., Negedu-Momoh, O. R., Jegede, F., & Torpey, K.

(2014). Piloting Laboratory Quality System Management in Six Health Facilities in

Nigeria. Plos ONE, 9(12), 1-14. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0116185

SUMMARY: Mbah et al. (2014) conducted a research on piloting laboratory quality

system management in six health facilities in Nigeria. It is a challenge in Nigeria like in most

African countries to achieve accreditation in laboratories. In 2010, Nigeria accepted the World

Health Organization Regional Office for Africa Stepwise Laboratory (Quality) Improvement

Process towards Accreditation (WHO/AFRO – SLIPTA). The authors reported on FHI360 effort

and progress in piloting WHO-AFRO recognition and accreditation preparedness in six health

facility laboratories in five different states of Nigeria. The authors conducted laboratory

assessments at baseline. They followed up and exited using the WHO/AFRO– SLIPTA

checklist. From the total percentage score obtained, the quality status of laboratories was

classified using a zero to five star rating, based on the WHO/AFRO quality improvement

stepwise approach. Major interventions include advocacy, capacity building, mentorship, and

quality improvement projects. The finding showed that some laboratories improved consistently.

The elements, facility, and safety were the major strength across board. The authors noted a

measurable and positive impact on the laboratories.

CRITICAL ASSESSMENT: Mbah et al. noted that clinical laboratories in Nigeria are

grossly inadequate with poor infrastructure and quality Management Structure (OMS) thereby

insinuating a well-defined problem statement. In actualizing this research, the authors used a
 PAwoke – KAM V Breadth 82

quantitative longitudinal audit. The authors piloted the implementation of the in-country

SLMTA program in six health facility laboratories supported by FHI360 across five states in

Nigeria. Five out of the six laboratories were standalone ART laboratories. The sixth, General

Hospital (GH) Lagos, operates as a fully integrated health system where ART related laboratory

services are embedded into the general laboratory outfit. Ethics concerns were cleared by the

FHI360 Office of International Research Ethics (OIRE), North Carolina, USA. The authors used

15 lists of references to conduct this study, thereby contributing to existing body of knowledge.

VALUE: This piece of work improved performance as determined by the audit results

through the SLMTA program. This work recommended further improvement and participation

in a formal international accreditation scheme. Rolling out SLMTA program was good reason of

bringing continuous and sustainable laboratory quality improvement. Capacity building,

improvement projects, follow up visit, sustained mentorship, advocacy, and commitment among

all stake holders are vital to maintain and improve on these results. This paper lends credence to

the introduction part of the application component of this KAM. I will apply this piece of work

in the literature review section of my dissertation.

 PAwoke – KAM V Breadth 83

Reference 17: Total quality management concepts

Milosan, I. (2014). Studies about the total quality management concept. Acta Technica

Corvininesis - Bulletin of Engineering, 7(3), 43-46.

SUMMARY: Milosan (2014) presented informative discussion on the concepts of total

quality management (TQM). TQM is an organizational strategy founded on the idea that

performance in achieving a quality education is achieved only through involvement with the

perseverance of the entire organization in improving processes permanently. The aim of TQM is

to improve the efficiency and effectiveness in satisfying the customers. The author noted the

several stages of quality concepts which adapt to every level of technology and market

requirements. The author argues that the statistical control of quality parts has replaced the

selection of finished class performance. This paper presented the main aspects of TQM concepts

and the representative models such as Oakland, SOHAL, three dimensional and, TQM area of

interests.

CRITICAL ASSESSMENT: Milosan did not carry out an actual research but a

discussion on the concepts of TQM. There were no research questions and no hypotheses. The

author contributed to existing body of knowledge. The revelation of Dr. Edwards Deming in this

study confirmed that this piece of work has a strong theoretical base. The concept of TQM was

proposed by Dr. Edwards in 1940 but its use commenced in 1985 by American principles of

working in Japanese industry. TQM usage focused on (a) the permanence of process

improvement to enable a visible, repeatable, and measurable processes (b) the analysis and

elimination of unwanted impacts of processes of production by considering how the users use
 PAwoke – KAM V Breadth 84

products to improve product and to expand beyond product management concerns. This

discussion however, immensely contributed to scholarly discourse on the concepts of TQM.

VALUE: This piece of work enables organizations to see TQM as a description of

culture, attitude, and organization of a company that struggles to offer clients with services and

products that meet their needs and expectations. This study shows that successful

implementation of TQM should focus on confidence, training, teamwork, leadership, recognition

and communication. SOHAL is a model that shows that quality improvement should

continuously emanate from an integrated approach to quality control action plans at diverse

operations during the cycle of business. This piece of work makes organizations to focus all

functions and levels of the organization on quality and continuous improvement. I will employ

this paper’s recommendation in my company to revitalize the management of total quality. I will

include this paper in the literature review section of my dissertation. This piece of work will

form an integral part of the introduction section of the application component of this KAM.
 PAwoke – KAM V Breadth 85

Reference 18: A multifaceted quality improvement intervention

Patel, B., Patel, A., Jan, S., Usherwood, T., Harris, M., Panaretto, K., & ... Peiris, D. (2014). A

multifaceted quality improvement intervention for CVD risk management in Australian

primary healthcare: a protocol for a process evaluation. Implementation Science, 9(1),

148-170. doi:10.1186/s13012-014-0187-8

SUMMARY: Patel et al. (2014) conducted an informative research on a multifaceted

quality improvement intervention for cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk management in

Australian primary healthcare. CVD is the leading cause of death and disability worldwide. The

authors developed a multifaceted quality improvement intervention for CVD risk management

which includes electronic decision support, patient risk communication tools, computerized audit

and feedback tools, and monthly peer-ranked performance feedback through a web portal. The

authors implemented a randomized cluster controlled trial in 60 primary healthcare services. In

all, risk factor recording was improved. However, the authors outlined their methods to conduct

a theory-based process evaluation of the intervention to optimize intervention impact. This paper

attempts to understand how, why, and for whom the intervention produced the observed

outcomes and to implement effective strategies for translation and dissemination. The authors

conducted four discrete but interrelated studies using a mixed methods design. The quantitative

aspect examined (1) the longer term effectiveness of the intervention post-trial, (2) patient and

health service level correlates with trial outcomes, and (3) the health economic impact of

implementing the intervention at scale. The qualitative studies (1) identified healthcare provider

perspectives on implementation barriers and enablers and (2) used video ethnography and patient
 PAwoke – KAM V Breadth 86

semi-structured interviews to understand how cardiovascular risk is communicated in the doctor

or patient interaction both with and without the use of intervention.

CRITICAL ASSESSMENT: Patel et al. conducted a research using a mixed method

approach in multifaceted quality improvement intervention for cardiovascular disease (CVD)

risk management in primary healthcare system. The authors used interviews and video

ethnography for the qualitative aspect and descriptive statistics to examine the quantitative

aspect, making the study replicable. The authors used 64 lists of references to conduct this

research and as a result, developed a rich literature review. This piece of work immensely

contributed to existing body of knowledge on TQM. This study carried out ethical

considerations and was approved by the University of Sydney Human Research Ethics

Committee by signing participation agreements between participating health services and the

coordinating research institute.

VALUE: This piece of work contributed to intellectual discourse on TQM. The strength

of this study’s process evaluation is its multi-component, multi-theory approach combining

diverse study designs to establish sense of how translation of knowledge strategy can be adopted

into practice. This piece of work is relevance to health systems with similar contexts, structures

of workforce, financing and electronic medical records’ adoption. The findings of this study

provided both micro – and macro-system viewpoints which is of attention to policy

implementers and makers. I will apply this piece of work in the literature review section of the

application component of this KAM. This piece of work will constitute a part of the introduction

component of my dissertation.
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Reference 19: Quality management evaluation

Wu1 Y., Huang Y., Zhang S., and Zhang Y., (2014). Quality management evaluation based on

self-control and co-supervision mechanism in PIP. Journal of Management in

Engineering, 30(2), 180-184. doi:10.1061/(ASCE)ME.1943-5479.0000193

SUMMARY: Wul et al., (2014) evaluated quality management based on self-control and

co-supervision mechanism in public investment project (PIP). The authors noted the important

role PIP plays in the national economy in China. The improvement of the project management

performance of PIP has made the government to search for a method to build a construction

management performance supervision system. This study provides the agent construction

system (ACS) connotation and analyzes the mechanism of supervision of construction agent

quality management under two-stage agent mode: (a) quality self-control and (b) government co-

supervision mechanism. The authors dwelled on two-dimensional framework of vertical agent

self-control and horizontal government co-supervision. This study introduced rough set theory

and questionnaire survey to establish a quality evaluation model. The regulatory authorities can

use the evaluation results, and make quality control plan to ensure the effective PIP supervision.

CRITICAL ASSESSMENT: Wul et al. used rough set theory of Wu and Niu 2007 to

confirm a strong theoretical framework on the article. The authors used the research

methodology of questionnaire survey to conduct this research and established a quality

evaluation model. The model develops an information decision table. In this model, a heuristic

attribute reduction algorithm is applied to reduce the index and helps to get the supervision

points. Due to the agent’s project management capability and quality management process, the

system takes out the level division of the key elements which affect the project quality. There
 PAwoke – KAM V Breadth 88

were no use of descriptive statistics but data collection was via archived data. There were not

research questions and hence, no hypotheses. This piece of work contributed to existing body of

knowledge since nine lists of references were adopted for the review of literature.

VALUE: This piece of work enhanced supervision of the significant landmark points in

PIP building process. This work grasped the development direction of project quality. The

regulatory authorities are able to use the evaluation results, and make quality control plan to

ensure effective PIP supervision. This study assists the government quality supervision work.

However, I will use this piece of work as part of the introduction section of the application

component of this KAM. This paper will form part of the literature review of my dissertation.
 PAwoke – KAM V Breadth 89

Reference 20: High-involvement innovation practices to improve productivity

Ramstad, E. (2014). Can high-involvement innovation practices improve productivity and the

quality of working-life simultaneously? Management and employee views on

comparison. Nordic Journal of Working Life Studies, 4(4), 25-45.

SUMMARY: Ramstad (2014) conducted a research to examine the association of high-

involvement innovation practices (HIIPs) and simultaneous improvement of productivity and the

quality of working life (QWL). HIIPs imply work, managerial, and organizational practices that

are meant for providing support for continuous improvement and broad participation. The

methodology for data collection is based on the evaluation surveys done by Finnish Workplace

Development Programme TYKES (2004 – 2010). TYKES imply a government programme for

simultaneous improvements in productivity and the QWL in workplaces through changes in

work managerial, and organizational practices. The author obtained information through two

different surveys (a) a survey on HIIPs within a work organization and (b) a self-assessment

survey of project outcomes (SA). The outcome of the survey comprises 253 responses from 163

different workplaces. The author found out that publicly funded workplace development

projects are made up of apposite means to support productivity and the QWL concurrently. The

result showed that HIIPs including decentralized decision making, competence development,

internal cooperation, and external cooperation are vital in gaining quality results in both

productivity and the QWL from point of views of employees and management.

CRITICAL ASSESSMENT: Ramstad used survey questionnaire methodology to

conduct this research. The 253 responses obtained from 163 workplaces made this study to be

generalizable. This study has a research question: what factors related to the development
 PAwoke – KAM V Breadth 90

process are connected to the simultaneous improvement of productivity and the QWL? The

author hypothesized that (a) decentralized decision making; (b) supervisor support, (c)

competence development, (d) internal, and (e) external cooperation are positively associated with

a simultaneous improvement of productivity and the QWL. The research question and

associated hypothesis made this study a complete quantitative research design. The author tested

the reliability of the measuring instrument with the Cronbach’s test (alpha = 0.767) and

confirmed it reliable. This piece of work was anchored on a strong theoretical framework of

Adler, 1996, Ramstad, 2009 and Totterdill et al., 2009. Their literature review confirmed that

this work contributed to scholarly discourse and existing body of knowledge since 64 lists of

references were reviewed.

VALUE: This piece of work provided indications for future development. It provides

support work, managerial, and workplace practices to promote productivity and the well-being at

workplace. The program used in this piece of work evaluated and developed the evaluation

system of the development projects in workplaces. I will apply this paper in my organization for

full project developments and smooth execution. This work provided an outstanding finding

which enable comparisons between situation before and after workplace implementation of

development project. It enhances decentralized decision making. Decentralized decision

making increases the autonomy and power of employees to make decisions that are important to

the performance and to the quality of employees’ working lives. This paper also shows that

adoption of HIIPs enhanced positive outcomes for employees and organization. This piece of

work will form an integral part of the literature review section of the application component of

this KAM. I will use this paper as part of the introduction section of my dissertation.
 PAwoke – KAM V Breadth 91

Reference 21: Quantifying quality management system performance

Smith, R. A., Bester, A., & Moll, M. (2014). Quantifying quality management system

performance in order to improve business performance. South African Journal of

Industrial Engineering, 25(2), 75-95.

SUMMARY: Smith et al. (2014) conducted a research on quantifying quality

management system performance in order to improve business performance. This study

examines the present methods of measuring quality management system (QMS) performance.

The authors introduced a methodology to quantify OMS performance and present a point of

reference for improved business performance. The metadata introduced into current QMS

internal audit showed that overtime, various levels of value-adding data, ranging from high-level,

strategic, direction-oriented insight to process effectiveness and implementation-level guidance

can be extracted. The authors confirmed that a lot of top-performing businesses that

accomplished superior success levels and sustainability have also implemented a sound and well-

maintained Quality Management System (QMS). The research question in this study seeks to

find out how OMS performance measurement capability can be improved to aid management in

recognizing business risk arising from OMS deficiencies. The authors reviewed the literature to

recognize which quality management methods are presently used to measure and improve

business performance. This piece of work demonstrates how deconstructing and evaluating

QMS performance measurements are able to provide the essential insight for decision-making of

the management.

CRITICAL ASSESSMENT: Smith et al. investigated quantified quality management

system performance in order to improve business performance. The research methodology the
 PAwoke – KAM V Breadth 92

authors used was the applied research based on the need to answer practical questions around the

methods that may be employed to measure QMS performance. The literature review in this

study presents a strong theoretical foundation and reasoning for why this study chose the

exacting QMS performance and quantification methodology. This study approach is inductive as

a result of the emerged theory from data collection and analysis. This piece of work is reliable

and valid since it employed secondary and primary data Archival research for the initial data

population collected from QMS programme internal audits. This piece of work contributed to

existing body of knowledge in quality management system.

VALUE: This piece of work showed that QMS performance can be measured using

quantitative analysis that deconstructs the elements of the QMS. This study is a tool for

measuring quality in industries and companies. It helps to improve the compliance of every

employee in an organization. However, this work noted that a positive impact on business can

be feasible if organizational management has a quantitative reference for improving their total

QMS implementation of improved compliance. This piece of work is useful in the crafting of

the literature review section of the application component of this KAM. I will apply this paper in

the introduction section of my dissertation.

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Reference 22: Analysis of technological process of cutting logs using Ishikawa diagram

Stefanovic, S., Kiss, I., Stanojevic, D., & Janjic, N. (2014). Analysis of technological process of

cutting logs using Ishikawa diagram. Acta Technica Corvininesis - Bulletin Of

Engineering, 7(4), 93-98.

SUMMARY: Stefanovic et al. (2014) conducted analysis of technological process of

cutting logs using Ishikawa diagram. Ishikawa diagram or cause-and-effect diagrams are causal

diagrams created by Kaoru Ishikawa that show the causes of a specific event. The uses of

Ishikawa diagram are for design of products and quality defect prevention to recognize potential

factors causing an overall effect. The authors noted that quality management system standards

of ISO 9000:2000 series depend on eight quality management principles. The authors stipulated

that number 6 of these principles, known as continual improvement of the overall performance of

organization should be a permanent organization’s objective. Application of this principle

entails being able to have the knowledge of methods and tools (the cause-and-effect diagram) for

solving problems and for continual improvement. This paper revealed that in order to ensure the

place of Ishikawa diagram at the market, an organization should produce such products and

services that meet customers’ demands, expectations, and wishes. The services and products

should meet the expectations of workers, owners, suppliers, and community. Organizations can

lose its place at the market due to lack of continual improvement and increased customer’s

requirements for high quality.

CRITICAL ASSESSMENT: Stefanovic et al. used theoretical framework of Kaoru

Ishikawa (1986) to perform this analysis, making this study have a strong theoretical base. The

authors did not conduct actual research as there were no research questions and no hypotheses.
 PAwoke – KAM V Breadth 94

The authors carried out intellectual discussion on the importance of Ishikawa diagram in

analyzing technological process of cutting logs. The authors used 11 lists of references to carry

out this study thereby contributing to existing literature. The authors defined cause-effect

diagram as the outcome of a general analysis of the impact (cause) that cause an exacting

outcome observed phenomena (work processes). This discussion is educative and contributes to

scholarly discourse in total quality management.

VALUE: This piece of work displayed a full support of the Association of Japanese

scientists and engineers. The proposal of Ishikawa in this paper implemented quality statistics in

three basic levels (a) for all employees, (b) for all leadership at all levels of superior quality

managers and (c) for professional statisticians. Ishikawa cycle improved quality in

organizations. This paper makes management of organizations to know the importance of tools

and methods for management of quality. This piece of work argued that struggle for continuous

quality improvement should meet the expectations and wishes of customers via variability

reduction in all processes to increase in the quality of products and services. This piece of work

will form an integral part of the literature review section of the application component of this

KAM. I will use this paper to form part of the introduction section of my dissertation.
 PAwoke – KAM V Breadth 95

AMDS 8524: Current Research in Engineering Quality Control

Literature Review Essay

Introduction

Total quality management (TQM) entails an integrated approach to enduring achievement

that views continuous improvement in the entire facets of an organization as a process and not as

a temporary goal. TQM targets to thoroughly change the organization through growing changes

in the practices, attitudes, structures, and systems (Al-Khalili, et al., 2013; Balagué, et al., 2014;

Cirina, et al., 2013). It surpasses the approach of product quality which involves all individual in

the organization, and includes all function of the TQM such as communications, administration,

distribution, marketing, training, manufacturing, and planning. In the early 1980s, the US Naval

Air Systems Command invented TQM. TQM has been defined as (a) obligation and direct

participation of highest-level executives in setting quality goals and policies, allocation of

resources, and monitoring of results, (b) recognition that transforming an organization means

essential changes in basic beliefs and practices and that this transformation is everyone's job, (c)

building quality into products and practices right from the beginning; (d) understanding of the

changing needs of the internal and external customers, and stakeholders, and satisfying them in a

cost effective manner; (e) instituting leadership in place of simple supervision so that every

individual performs in the best possible manner to improve quality and productivity, thereby

continually reducing total cost; (f) eliminating barriers between people and departments so that

they work as teams to achieve common objectives; and (g) instituting flexible programs for

training and education, and providing meaningful measures of performance that guide the self-

improvement efforts of everybody involved (Crosby, 1982).

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Control of quality should be practiced in every organization to optimize productivity and

improve performance. Quality control ensures that companies or organizations carry out quality

review of the entire factors involved in production with the application of International Standard

organizations (ISO). ISO 9000 is a standard to defined control of quality as a quality

management part that is concerned with conforming to quality requirements. The quality control

emphasizes three aspects: (a) elements such as job management, controls, well managed and

defined processes, performances and integrity standards, and records’ identification (b)

competences such as qualifications, skills, experiences, and knowledge, (c) soft elements such as

team spirit, personnel, organizational culture, integrity, motivation, quality relationships and

confidence (Gupta, et al., 2014).

Organizations should apply controls via the inspection of products. Controls should be

done by visual examination of products with the use of stereo microscope to ascertain fine details

prior to selling the products to the external market. During the inspection, descriptions and lists

of product defects that are unacceptable should be provided to inspectors. The control of quality

is achieved through product testing to unveil defects and carry out report to management who

decides whether to deny or allow the product release. Management uses quality assurance for

production improvement and stabilization to evade issues that can cause defects. Issues in

quality control can make governments not to renew contracts awarded by government agencies.

Quality field has passed through significant changes based on changes in its approaches,

scope of application, paradigms, and definitions. There is emerging issues and trends that are

focusing on engineering of quality. Expectation of customers have changed and motivated the

changes in design technology and manufacturing engineering. Design technology and

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manufacturing is becoming more imperative in assuring expectations of individual customer.

The engineering aspect of quality needs attention. This depth component will illustrate a brief

review on contemporary progresses in tools of quality such as deployment of quality function,

experimental design, and statistical process control. In quality engineering research, quality

tools are being developed, incorporated, broadened, and computerized. Quality engineering has

immensely contributed in optimization of multiple-response, quality systems intelligence, and

practical guidelines for diverse tools’ implementation.

In this depth component, there will be a critical analysis and synthesis of current

literature in engineering quality management and focus on TQM that is entrenched in the ideas

of Deming, Ishikawa, and Juran in total quality management. There will be a discussion on

methods and tools currently used and suggested by contemporary researchers for TQM in

process and product engineering. There will be comparisons of these methods and tools used by

scholarly practitioners for quality control and total quality management in product engineering.

Total quality management concepts

Total quality management (TQM) illustrates an approach of management to long term

achievement through the satisfaction of the customer. Every member of an organization is

expected to participate in the improvement services, processes, products, and the working culture

of the organization. Many firms follow TQM to improve their productivity and conformance of

operations. It is a belief that by realizing TQM, the effectiveness, efficiency, and organizational

productivity can be improved (Latif, 2014). The management of quality means activities

executed on planning conformance. Organization should take more market share pie where she
 PAwoke – KAM V Breadth 98

has financial constrain in the implementation of effective TQM. Quality services and products

can aid the organizations to achieve more market share. TQM is not dependent on well set

guided principles but is an alleviated philosophy. Human beings are expected to be a leading

component of successful implementation of TQM.

The participation of employees in TQM implementation is important. TQM achievement

is attained through support, interaction, shared assistance, and positive reception on realization

from organizations (Latif, 2014). There is a disparity in organizational TQM performance. The

organizations that dedicate themselves to customer friendly behavior, consistent growth, and

improvement in morale of employees perform better than those organizations that don’t take

interest.

To Deming (1982), leaders are characterized with seven characteristics such as drive,

honesty and integrity, personality, motivation, confident, analytical and cognitive thinking

ability, charismatic personality, and business know how. A leader should have vivid vision and

plan. A leader is needed in the implementation of TQM since he or she can develop vision. The

vision developed by a leader influences his employees and the organization. Employee

involvement contributes to effective behavioral change in organization. The involvement of the

employee enhances perspectives of quality. For instance, any organization that needs to prosper

itself and furnish with TQM should be able to provide her employees with training and

education. Latif (2014) emphasized more on leadership with comparison to plan statement and

vision, employee involvement, and training and education. He probed into a study to confirm the

workability of same analogy in the Petrochemical Sector of Pakistan.

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The principal reasons of the original heights of TQM thinking is the TQM gurus such as

Deming, Ishikawa, Juran, Feigenbaum etc. The gurus gave simple rules of making the

production mechanism better; they ensured reduction in cost of production. The quality gurus

ensured that the cost of production can be evaded and achievement of continuous improvement.

TQM has been achieved by such organizations as Toyota, Dabba-Wala, Honda etc.

The growth and survival of an organization depends on the emergence of quality.

Quality is seen as a competitive priority strategy for the development of an organization. In this

global competition, companies need to apply the methodologies of quality such as the form of

quality management strategy, quality control, and quality assurance (Latif, 2014). However, the

organization is expected to implement total quality management concept to accomplish the

strategy of manufacturing and corporate strategy.

The philosophy of TQM contents and principles enhances commitment to quality.

Applying principles of TQM philosophy increases the competitive position of a firm. Principles

of TQM support the business practices of reduction in cost, production enhancement, and quality

improvement of the outputs (Latif, 2014). TQM aids to fulfill and support the idea of excellence

in manufacturing. The preponderance of flourishing manufacturing companies has to clinch

TQM to become conscious of its priceless contribution. Therefore, the significance of TQM as

an effectual support for actualizing status of manufacturing excellence cannot be denied (Latif,

2014).

Generally, TQM can be realized in firms but senior management has to pay special

attention to take initiative for TQM realization. For instance, in Petrochemical Sector of
 PAwoke – KAM V Breadth 100

Pakistan, TQM started from senior management (Latif, 2014). This sector is full of problems

such as instability in prices, risk factor, lack of funds, costly improvements, job instability, huge

cost for cost innovation, less product innovation, changing demands, substitute’s effects, and

technological improvement (Latif, 2014). TQM implementation is not easy task as it needs

tough commitment, training, education, taking of initiative, and participation of employees

concerning leadership via senior executives. The operational performance of the Petrochemical

sector in Pakistan can be improved by continuous improvement because there are no equal

benefits in one huge investment. There is need for the company to follow TQM for effective

competitiveness. TQM culture in the Sector is in its stage of emergence and could take time for

better adoption. TQM is a process and companies require having a continuous improvement in

their product manufacturing and engineering for better competition in the market.

Quality management in projects

Project activities should have a process of quality management to ensure that the

activities needed to design, plan, and execute a project is efficient and effective in alliance with

the intent of the objective and its performance. Project quality management ensures that the

project meets or exceeds expectation and needs of stakeholders. Good leadership is important

among project team and stakeholders to comprehend the meaning of quality to them. Poor

evaluations of project could occur when the project dwells only in meeting the written

requirements for the principle outputs and neglecting other stakeholder expectations and needs

for the project. In project management, companies should view quality as containing equal level

with scope, schedule, and budget (Cirina, Carina & Constanta, 2013). If the donor of a project is

not satisfied with project quality of the deliverables, the project team will be responsible in
 PAwoke – KAM V Breadth 101

adjusting the scope, schedule, and budget to satisfy the expectation and needs of the project

donor. It is not enough to deliver scope on time and on budget, but mandatory to achieve the

satisfaction of the stakeholders and comprehend their implied needs.

Cirina et al (2013) defined quality as the degree of compliance of the results and

processes. They considered a project as an assembly of coordinated activities and performed to

achieve a target. Project is a process and has fixed time and determined time. Project quality

management occurs from the project initiation, project processes, project results, project

management, at the end of project (p. 43). To achieve quality management in a project, the

project should embrace the processes such as quality planning, quality assurance, quality control,

and quality improvement. Cirina et al (2013) noted that;

a. Quality Planning is a vital function of quality management, which seeks to set up policy,

quality objectives, and strategies to realize them.

b. Quality Assurance in project is a vital issue for efficient management of the project since

the goals are the same as project management of quality management. Quality assurance

in project activities is acceptance and testing processes, checking to confirm quality

activities requirements for communication and programming and so on.

c. Quality Control in project monitors specific project results during the project. This

concept eliminates the causes of poor performance. Project quality control should be

done in all the phases of the project such as initiation, planning, and execution. To

achieve quality control in projects, statistical quality control is adopted where the project

team uses samples, charts, trend analysis etc to achieve results.

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d. Improving the quality of projects entails superimposed process of quality control. It is

stable objective of project management’s and team’s implementation. Project analysis

and measurement ensures that the project manager draws precise conclusions of the

errors, mistakes, and irregularities that affect the objectives of project. The managers

should determine the actions to adopt for appropriate targets of the project under the

planned budget and time developed in the process of planning. Quality improvement is

expected to incessantly be in all project management phases.

Cirina et al (2013) highlighted the objective of a project in three categories namely: (a)

performance, (b) cost, and (c) availability of time. They emphasized that the quality project

strategic objective symbolizes a goal that is intended to accomplish as per quality. The

objectives of quality are targets that are moving. The quality settlement project objective is vital

and provides manager’s vision transformation into practice. They noted that the project

management can develop strategic objective of quality by making the lower objectives to be

allocated to the project team members.

Quality and safety management systems

Organizations should ensure that their services and products are of quality to maintain

loyalty of customers. They are expected to deliver quality products and services in a sustainable

and reliable manner to sustain and enhance the market value of the organization. The

management of quality should be an incessant process which entails maintenance,

implementation, and improvement (Gerolamo et al., 2014). Businesses benefit from a

management of quality that draws them into line with international standards. Management
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systems training and certification target to apply lean techniques in the organization to improve

operations and optimize services and products flow via all the value streams. Management of

quality and safety systems in the organization continuously improve quality and performance.

Gerolamo et al (2014) discussed a proposal for joint action among small firms in an

industrial cluster in Brazil for the certification of quality and safety management systems. He

proposed system of management model, process of implementation, and periodic auditing. The

proposal helped to decrease the difficulties small businesses are facing in developing and

maintaining management systems. It fosters a quaity and safety management culture.

Implementation of safety management system improves stakeholder’s satisfaction. It

decreases inefficiencies and improves market demands. Results from a survey conducted in

2011 by the International Organization for Standardization stipulates that there were over one

million ISO 9001 globally (Gerolamo et al., 2014). ISO 9001 has a positive impact in quality

management system implementation. Companies should adopt management systems for an

effective loom to integrate diverse certification schemes to a single system of management.

Management system’s implementation is valid for both small and big companies. Though small

companies may have some difficulties in carrying out management systems via poor

organizational ability for quality management quality, lack of resources, and other conditions

(Gerolamo et al., 2014). Implementation of ISO 9001 has some benefits, influencing factors,

and lost opportunities. It needs collaboration and knowledge sharing for management systems to

be developed in small companines.

Safety management system is a methodical way of identifying hazards and controlling

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risk. Safety management system (SMS) entails a professional approach to safety. SMS reveals

an explicit, systematic, and wide-ranging process safety risk management (Gerolamo et al.,

2014). There is a provision of goal setting, planning, and measurement of organizational safety

performance. Safety management system has three imperatives for a business such as ethical,

financial, and legal (Gerolamo et al., 2014). Employees are obliged to ensure that daily work

and the work place are safe. In this management system, there are legislative necessities

distincted in every jurisdiction on its achievement.

Implementation of effective safety management reduces risk in the workplace. Effective

safety management system reduces organization’s financial exposure by decreasing indirect and

direct costs emanating from incidents and accidents. Organizations set up safety management

system to manage risks. This system helps organizations in identifying risks in workplace and

developing suitable controls. Safety management system yields effective communications in all

organizational levels. It corrects and identifies non-conformities through processes. Continual

process improvement results from effective safety management system.

Quantifying quality management system performance

Organizations benefit from implementing an effective quality management system

(QMS). The keystone of quality organization is the notion of the supplier and customer

performing work together for a reciprocated benefit. For effective implementation of QMS, the

relationship between suppliers and customers need to go beyond the suppliers and customers and

must extend in and out of the organization (Smith, Bester, & Moll, 2014). Organizations should

have confidence in delivering the required service and product and constantly attaining
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customers’ expectations and needs. The internal and external requirements of the organization

will include technology, materials, human, and information at an optimum costs (Smith, Bester,

& Moll, 2014). Organization can provide objective evidence to be able to meet these

requirements such as to support activities of the system.

A quality management system ensures that organizations accomplish the objectives and

goals specified in organization’s strategy and policy. QMS provides constancy and contentment

as per the materials, methods, and equipment and intermingle with all the organization’s

activities, starting with customer identification and requirements and terminating in every

boundary of transaction with customer satisfaction (Smith, Bester, & Moll, 2014). OMS stops

good organizational practices from slipping. It facilitates the binding of organizational gains and

the total quality journey.

The system of performance control and measurement of a business are based on

information procedures and routines used by managers to sustain or modify the patterns of

businesses in organizations. Performance measurement of organizations ensures the goals of

businesses are set recurrently. This measurement alerts organizational managers on the status or

progress of the goals they set. Benchmarks are set when measuring performance to be able to

measure performance with respect to the benchmark.

Organizations accomplish their goals and objectives by using performance measures to

control, evaluate, and improve the processes of production. The different methods of quality

management and philosophies include balanced scorecards, business excellence models, and

QMS Standards (Smith, Bester, & Moll, 2014). Organizations employ these methods to
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measure performance. The selection of any method of quality management is dependent upon

the situation of the market, strategies of the product, and environmental competitiveness where

the organizations exposed their businesses (Smith, Bester, & Moll, 2014). The strategies of

quality management are ISO 9000 series certification and excellence models self-assessment.

The quality management strategies can aid organizations to attain a higher excellence levels and

overall business improvement. The current quality management systems measurement quantifies

the performance of QMS to showcase a point of reference for the improvement of QMS and

business performances.

Analysis of the quality management in the technical processes

The system standards of the ISO 9000 for the management of quality depend on the

quality management principles. The primary objective of every organization should be to

maintain a continual improvement in the organization’s performance at all time. The application

of the principles of quality management is based on the know-how of the tools and methods

devised in problem solving and continual improvement. The cause and effect diagram is one of

the tools for quality management. This tool documents the probable causes of a given event

(Stefanovic et al., 2014). The originator of “the Cause and Effect Diagram” is Dr. Kaoru

Ishikawa. This quality management tool is also known as Fishbone Diagram due to its

appearance. Organizations produce services and products that meets customers’ expectations to

ensure that their place in the market. Organizations are expected to attain customers’ demand

and the demand of interested parties such as community, suppliers, owners, and workers

(Stefanovic et al., 2014). There is the tendency for the organization to lose its market place if

they fail to ensure continual improvements. A strong competition and increase in the
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requirement of the customer for higher capacity can make organizations to lose its market place.

Total quality management entails a continuous improvement by organizations. Continual

improvement cannot be achieved if the organization does not know the implementation of the

tools and methodology. The management’s task is to identify the value of tools and methods for

quality management. Ishikawa is a well-known Japanese scientist in the total quality field. The

field of quality typically is a representative of a successful annexation of all experiences in the

United States of America (Stefanovic et al., 2014). Ishikawa was a pioneer in the

implementation of new techniques that cerebrated Japan in the world. Ishikawa introduced

quality aspects on practical circuit actions in Japan and the world at large.

American Society for Quality in 1993 launched an annual award for the human aspect of

Ishikawa in the execution and introduction of activities associated with quality. According to

Stefanovic et al. (2014), the basic elements of practicing and learning Kaoru Ishikawa are

highlighted as follows;

a. Quality begins and ends with learning

b. The first step is to find consumer demands

c. The ideal state of quality control occurs when inspection is no longer needed.

d. You must remove the causes of the problem, not the symptoms.

e. Quality control is the responsibility of all workers and all divisions.

f. Must not confuse means and ends.

g. Quality should be a priority and should seek to realize profits in the long term.

h. Marketing is input and output for quality

i. Top management must not show anger when facts subordinate amounts.
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j. 95% of the problems in the organization can be solved using a simple tool for analyzing

and troubleshooting.

k. The data do not indicate that the dispersion (i.e. variability) were incorrect data.

Ishikawa proposed the execution of quality statistics with the full support of Japanese scientists

and engineers in three levels;

a. for all employees

b. for the leadership at all levels of superior quality managers

c. for professional statisticians

The quality philosopher promoted data gathering and analysis with simple visual tools, statistical

techniques and teamwork as the foundation for the introduction of total quality. Edward Deming

utilized the well-known cycle of Shewhartov known as PDCA – Plan, Do, Check, Act, and

acclimatized it to his trajectory of thinking (Stefanovic et al., 2014). Kaoru Ishikawa developed

six steps of quality improvement which includes:

a. determine (define and detect) targets,

b. find methods to achieve goals,

c. get involved maximum in education and training,

d. achieve the goal (model products or services, processes, systems),

e. check and correct the results of the implementation of all existing improvements,

f. finally realized envisaged goal (improvement, new product or service, process, system)

This quality management tool is a fiction except there is a full sustenance for all indicator levels

that the management has to establish the full obligation to total quality. Ishikawa is an amended

version of Edward Deming. Ishikawa’s importance and role in quality development in Japan is
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essential and vital. Ishikawa is the top supporter of new technologies and techniques since he

accomplished practical success in control circles of quality, statistics, and total quality of many

organizations. He paid special attention to man, his environment, and the production processes

of democratization (Stefanovic et al., 2014).

The Application Areas of Cause – Effect Diagram

The cause – effect diagram is the product of an overall impact (cause) analysis that

develop a particular result of observed phenomena (work processes). This method of quality

management has protracted applications in quality assurance processes of organizational

functions. It aids organizations to boost their product qualities and processes (Stefanovic et al.,

2014). The cause-effect-diagram has a range of applications in quality assurance processes such

as follows:

a. Identification of the actual causes of a particular condition (outcome) results from the

operation of the company or service organizations.

b. Identification and analysis of cause – effect relationship in the flow of materials, energy

and information, which provide the basis for effective troubleshooting if as a result is

observing the situation – the outcome of the work beyond the limits of tolerances of set

objective function (Stefanovic et al., 2014 p.94).

Stefanovic et al. (2014) described the cause and effect diagram as a method for detailed

analysis of the relationship between a state system in observation (effects) and the influential

variables that cause the occurrence of a given condition (cause). The cause and effect can be

described in relation to the improvement of the process and product quality of service

companies and organizations. In the service organizations and companies, effect can be
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expressed as a certain outcome of the work of observed system view at a given time and

under given circumstances; as impact outcomes related to the effect of temperature and

disorder in the process. Causes is expressed as a set of environmental conditions and

processes of the system that results in a particular state of the outcome of the work from the

standpoint of achieving the projected state – effects that are the size of circulation resulting

character (Stefanovic et al., 2014). The main connections of the cause-effect diagram can be

illustrated in figure 8 below.

Figure 8: Connections of the cause-effect diagram (source from Stefanovic et al., 2014)

The diagram above shows a set of causes on the left hand side and the effect at the right

hand side and is regulated by the principles of selection, sorting, and logical connection. To

Stefanovic et al., 2014, selection means the separation of true causes of a particular outcome of

the work process i.e. one effect. Sorting principle entails the grouping of selected causes by

character, importance, and effection mode. The principle of logical connection is the

connection of the observed effects and causes of the isolated.

The procedure for using the cause and effect is to totally define the problem. Causes and

effects diagram is applied mostly for the case that resulted in the definition of a specific

problem such as poor products, assemblies, quality, failure conditions occurrence, capital
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rotation low coefficient, and production cycle long duration, (p.95). The effect which is the

problem is defined based on the objective data. Organizations carry out brainstorming analysis

with the help of cause effect diagram. The diagram in figure 9 below represents the graphic

presentation of a given consequence where the usual symbol depicts a rectangular object in the

right part of the drawing in figure 9 leaving the left side area of the diagram of the future

introduction of the cause.

Figure 9: Define the problem

The identification method of the cause can lead to the problems in figure 9 above and is

made up of according to Stefanovic et al. (2014);

a. Forming the problem of all possible causes of the problem to be analyzed. The

overview can be a result of the consequence, professional teams or groups. However,

the brainstorming result is recommended at this stage. If the importance of the overview

of the causes is given complete, it goes off in advance of a cause which in subsequent

analysis results in the basic cause –and-effect relationship.

Figure 10: The basic form of cause – effect relationships (source from Stefanovic et al. 2014)

b. Classification by type of the cause, effection mode, and related features:

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The use of simple forms of classification is effective such as coding sample. Coding sample

includes causes groups associated with the participants in the work, causes groups related to

materials, groups of causes related to the means of work.

The next step is the selection of the basic structure. There is the formation of new group

depending on the nature of the problem under investigation. If previously categories such as

marketing, money, and management were added to a structure and then transmitted to 7M

structure type. At this stage, the analysis entails the choosing of a definite structure of cause –

effect diagram. 7M is a good basis for developing the basic structure of the cause – effect

diagram. The adopted structure i.e. the number and nature of group of causes are not final as a

result of a further modification permit development. The basic structure is provided by pulling

the actual effection lines. See figure 11

Figure 11: basic structure of cause – effect diagram (source from Stefanovic et al., 2014)

Step 4 depicts the cause – effect diagram development. In a chosen structure diagram,

the principal groups of causes’ lines are added to the previously located causes in the group.
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Each of the samples is pulled to the connection line in the cause’s basic group as illustrated in

figure 12.

Figure 12: Cause – effect diagram’s phase development (source from Stefanovic et al., 2014)

Adjustments can be made on the diagram of the basic structure should there be incidence

of the cause concentration of one basic group of the cause diagram (Stefanovic et al., 2014). In

the cause – effect diagram, it is necessary to allocate or eliminate cases of unnecessary

connections. The elaborate cause – effect diagram is therefore expected to reverence the

principles of (a) balanced structure and (b) the minimum of the cause – effect relationship.

Step 5 shows the process of spreading (branching) of the cause and effect. The cause can

be connected in multiple stages and spreading method is carried out without limitation

(Stefanovic et al., 2014) as long as the identified examination causes are not exhausted.

Step 6 shows the general analysis of the cause and effect diagram. There are three
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approaches to analyze the cause – effect;

(a) Identification of the most likely cause – problem which is analyzed and their designation

in the diagram. Possible cause should seek on the line: the biggest level causes – the

highest level causes – lower levels causes.

(b) The given process, in addition to targeting the root causes of problem, allows, in certain

cases, finding the critical line cause which is certainly one of the most important results

of this method.

(c) Diagram cause – effect that is considered separately is not enough to solve the problem as

it only refers to its underlying causes, and the relationships of cause – effect. As a result,

it is vital for data collection to be done to checkmate the most vital (most probable) cause

and troubleshooting any other suitable method such as the ABC or Pareto diagram

(Stefanovic et al., 2014).

Stefanovic et al. (2014) showcased an example of cause – effect diagram in the technological

process of cutting logs using six practical steps:

Step 1: Effects identification

The authors identified and clearly defined the output or effect that was analyzed. They

formulated the effects as a special quality characteristics, planned objectives, problem resulting

in the work, etc. Using the definition, the author, within the team determined the definition of

effects to ensure that it is clearly and unambiguously understood. Depending on the issue under

discussion, Stefanovic et al. (2014) noted that the effect can be positive (objective) or negative (a

problem). Positive effects centers on the desired output and can produce a sanguine atmosphere
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that inspires the team members’ participation. Regarding the negative effects, team efforts are

turned to search and justify the occurrence of the problem and determination of guilt. In this

analysis, the authors focused on the causes of problem and a positive output. The team decided

the approach that is best to achieve better result. With the cause – effect diagram, the authors

showed the causes that are related to getting poor quality boards when cutting logs in figure 13

below.

Figure 13: The basic structure of cause – effect (source from Stefanovic et al., 2014)

Step two: Drawing effects

Stefanovic et al. (2014) used a board to place to enable each member to see. They drew

the basic structure and created an effects rectangle. They drew a horizontal arrow to the right

end known as the basic structure. From the arrow, they wrote a brief description of effects such

as poor quality of the boards as shown in figure 14. A rectangle is drawn around a description of

the consequences.
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Figure 14: Drawing effects (source from Stefanovic et al. (2014)

Step three: Identification of the causes

The authors identified the main causes that contribute to the effects that were being

analyzed. They determined the main causes, or categories which will be referred to other

probable causes. Labels can be used for the category that makes sense to create a diagram.

Categories used include;

(a) 3M and O – methods, materials, machines and staff

(b) 3P and O – politics, processes, facility and staff

(c) Environment – potentially significant fifth category

Next was to select the left of the effect rectangle, above and below the basic structure. They

drew the rectangle around each category’s label and connected them with the slanted lines of the

basic structure.

Step four: Identification of other factors

They identified other specific factors that can be cause – effects from each of the main

groups as follows:

Identified as many causes or factors and attached them as a subgroup of the main group to

confirm possible causes for the poor quality of the boards as shown in figure 15.
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Figure 15: Identification of major categories (source from Stefanovic et al., 2014)

Step five: Identification of the causes

Stefanovic et al. (2014) identified the deeper causes and continued to organize the cause

– effect under suitable causes or categories. Figure 16 shows the look of the cause – effect

diagram when identification of all the causes is completed. However, many causes can

contribute to effect level as shown.

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Figure 16: Identification of causes (source from Stefanovic et al., 2014)

Step six: Analysis of the diagram

The analysis of the cause effect diagram aids in the identification of causes that permit

additional investigation. The cause – effect diagram ascertains possible causes. The first focus

can also be to use the Pareto diagram to find out the causes. When performing the analysis of the

cause – effect diagram, Stefanovic et al. (2014) considered balance in their diagram by

performing checks of the comparable detail levels for most categories as follows:

(a) A thin block position in one area may indicate that further research is needed

(b) Main category that has only a few specific causes may indicate the need for further

identification of causes.

(c) If several major groups have just a subset of them, it may be combined under one

category.

(d) The authors needed to seek the causes that are repeated several times as this can represent

the root of the effects or problems.

(e) They need to seek what can be measured in each cause so that they can quantify the

effects of changes that can be made.

(f) They identified and rounded up the cause in which action can be taken.

The following indicates the analysis of the cause – effect diagram:

(a) The detail level is almost balanced.

(b) No cause is repeated.

(c) Invalid moving speed may be the cause of which it is possible to establish a

measurement.
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(d) The wrong speed moves the cause in which action can be taken as figure 17 is rounded

up and marked for further investigation.

Figure 17: Analysis of diagram (Stefanovic et al., 2014)

Organizations struggle for continuous quality improvement. Organizations work to meet

customers’ expectations and wishes via variability reduction in all processes, and improvement

of capabilities of processes (Stefanovic et al., 2014). Continuous improvement of processes

leads to increase in products and services’ quality. Continuous improvement principles can be

performed if business processes’ leaders have passable base of information to the decisions in

business to be facts-based.

Organizations use cause – effect diagram as tool for the identification and organization of

possible causes of poor quality of products or services. The cause- effect diagrammatic structure

aids members of a team to possess a systematic way of thinking. The diagram helps to sort,

identify, and display probable causes of specific problem or features of quality (Stefanovic et al.,
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2014). Graphically, the cause – effect diagram showcases the relationship between a given

output and all the factors that affect the output.

Total quality Management Tools

Total quality management (TQM) tools aid the organization to ascertain, investigate, and

assess quantitative and qualitative data that is significant to their businesses. TQM tools can

identify procedures, statistics, cause and effects, ideas and other problems pertinent to their

organizations. These tools can be analyzed and used to raise the standardization of total quality

procedures, efficiency, effectiveness, and procedures for work and the environment as per ISO

9000 (Gupta et al., 2014, Patel et al., 2014, Smith et al., 2014, Stefanovic et al., 2014). Quality

American, Incorporated stipulated that the number of TQM tools is near 100. The tools come in

diverse forms namely diagrams, checklists, brainstorming, graphs, charts, focus groups, etc.

(Gupta et al., 2014). Other TQM tools include standards and manuals as these tools issue

direction and best practice guidelines to organizational staff. TQM tools demonstrate and help in

the adaptation of complex information which includes as follows:

(a) Assessment of customer needs

(b) Competition analysis

(c) Target audience identification

(d) Brainstorming

(e) Market analysis

(f) Duties of the staff and work flow analysis

(g) Changes in productivity

(h) Statement of purpose

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(i) Various statistics

(j) Analysis of logistic

(k) Model creation

(l) Financial analysis

(m)Business culture

Various Tools

The most common total quality management tools in use today are highlighted below. Each of

the tools is used to identify detailed information in a precise manner. Quality tools can be used

with other tools to comprehend the full range of problems being illustrated (Gupta et al., 2014).

Modestly using one tool may impede your comprehension of the provided data or you may be

closed off to farther probabilities. Quality tools include but are not limited to the following.

(a) Pie charts and bar graphs

(b) Histograms

(c) Run chart

(d) Pareto charts and analysis

(e) Force Field

(f) Brainstorming etc.

Pie Charts and Bar Graphs

This tool is used to identify and compare units of data that are related to one problem of

the whole problem. Such issues may include budgets, vault space available, funds extent etc.

Histograms
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Histograms are used to examine and illustrate different elements of data for decision

making concerning their effectiveness, for instance when comparing a survey, questionnaire, or

statistical results.

Run Chart

Run chat quality tool is used to follow a process for over a specific period of time. Such

time includes accrual rates to track low and high points in its run and eventually identify trends,

shifts, and patterns.

Pareto Charts and Analysis

This tool is used to rate problems or issues as per their importance and frequency. Issues

are rated by ranking specific problems in priority or causes in a manner that facilitates solving of

problem. Pareto charts identify groupings of qualitative data such as most frequent complaint,

most commonly purchased preservation aids etc. to measure which one has priority. This tool

can be scheduled over selected periods of time to track changes. Pareto can also be formed in

retrospect, as before and after analysis of a change of process.

Force Field Analysis

This tool is for the identification of the driving and restraining forces that occur in a

selected process to understand why a particular process functions as it does. For instance,

identification of the driving and restraining forces of catering principally to genealogists. To

find out restraining forces that need to be eradicated, or driving forces that need to be improved

to function at a higher level of efficiency.

Focus Groups
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The focus group is used by marketing organizations to carry out test on products on the

general public. It is made up of diverse people from the general public who utilize and discuss

products, and provide feedback to assist in determining whether the products need improvement

of it should be introduced in to the market.

Brainstorming and Affinity Diagrams

Teams in organizations use brainstorming diagrams for creative thinking to identify

diverse aspects that surround an issue or a problem. An affinity diagram is a quality tool which

is created by the use of anything from enabling software to post-it notes organized on a wall. It

is a tool for organizing brainstorming ideas.

Tree Diagram

Tree diagram is quality tool used to identify diverse tasks involved in and the full scope

of a project. It identifies hierarchies of personnel, priorities, or business structure. Tree diagram

is useful in identification of inputs and outputs of a project, process or procedure.

Flowcharts and Modeling Diagrams

These diagrams help in the definition and analysis of each step in a process by examining

it in a clear and understandable manner. This diagram identifies areas where workflow may be

blocked or diverted and where workflow is fluid. These tools identify where steps need to be

added or removed to improve efficiency and create standardized workflow.

Scatter Diagram

This diagram show and validate guesses. It is used to discover cause and effect

relationships, as well as bonds and correlations, between two variables. It charts the positive and

negative direction of relationships.

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Relations Diagram

This is a quality tool for understanding the relationships between various factors, issues,

and events so as to comprehend their importance in the overall view of the organization.

Plan-Do-Check-Act (PDCA)

PDCA management style is where each project or procedure is planned in accordance

with the needs and outcome. The needs and outcome is tested, examined for efficiency and

effectiveness and then acted upon if anything in the process needs to be amended. PDCA is a

cyclical style to be iterated until the process is perfected.

Process Maps

The process maps help to understand how to improve a process. It helps to determine

who does what at each stage of the process. The simple drawing of a process map is enough to

solve many quality problems since the map makes it so clear where defects can be introduced.

Poke-A-Poke

This is a concept that is used in Japanese management. This concept of Japanese

management philosophy is to make a process foolproof. The idea is to design the process in such

a way that it is self-checking or incorporates process steps that cause immediate detection and

possible correction of any defect. For instance, use of color-coding and special keying of parts to

ensure that they are assembled the correct way.

Statistical Tools

Deming majorly contributed to the quality movement with the introduction of statistically

grounded approaches to the analysis of defects. This tool can be used to make incorrect

decisions regarding the cause of a problem. The use of the tool can equally lead to the opposite
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effect of that being required. Statistical process control charts is an example of this statistical

tools.

Root Cause Analysis

This tool is normally referred to as five whys. This tool was popularized by the Japanese.

A series of questions (whys) until one uncovers the root cause of a defective product is contained

in this TQM tool. The aim is to find out why a defective product was produced, contrasted with

the usual approach of just fixing the defective product or replacing it.

Fishbone Diagram

This TQM tool is referred to as Ishikawa Diagram. It is also known as cause-effect diagram. It

is used in a session of brainstorming to investigate factors that may affect a given situation or

outcome. The causes are frequently grouped into categories such as people, material, method, or

process, and equipment. The outcome takes the shape of a fishbone and hence the reason for the

name.

Loss Functions

Tolerance limits are created for a product in many manufacturing situations. Products

that fall outside of the limits are defective and those that are inside the limits are deemed well.

Several difficulties arise with this approach. In the first instance, there is always the temptation

to reclassify products that are just outside the limits into the acceptable category, specifically if

there is a great push for quantity. Secondly, the accumulative effect of several parts which are

all on the extreme limits of acceptability can cause defective performance. The loss function

TQM tool can be used to recognize that there is a cost associated with any deviation from the

ideal value.
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Prioritization Matrices

This tool is a decision making tool that aid to prioritize tasks, issues, or possible actions

on the basis of agreed upon criteria. This tool cannot make decisions but can help to ensure that

all factors are evaluated and that logical decisions are reached.

Activity Network Diagram

This TQM tools include a wide range of project management tools for planning the most

appropriate schedule for a complex project. Examples of project management tools include

Gantt charts and PERT charts. These tools are able to project completion time and associated

effects. The tools can provide a method for judging compliance with a plan. These classes of

tools are found in many computer programs for work automations.

All the TQM tools mentioned above can be easily created and examined by using various

types of computer software. They can simply be created by mapping them out on paper. These

tools are easily integrated into team meetings, organizational newsletters, marketing reports, and

for diverse other analysis needs. Correct integration and use of these tools will eventually aid in

processing data such as identifying collecting policies, enhancing work flow such as mapping

acquisition procedures, ensuring client satisfaction by surveying their needs and analyzing them

accordingly, and creating an overall high level of quality in organizational areas.

Conclusion

Quality is vital in every aspect of organizations such as engineering, manufacturing,

production, or designing industries. Total quality management enables organizations to have

lasting achievement in their quality productivity. The aim of TQM is to establish a continual

improvement in organizational process or products as revealed by great thinkers of quality. It

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brings organizational changes by the growth of changes in such areas as systems, structures,

attitudes, and practices. Organizational total quality management outshines the product quality

approach with the involvement of everyone in the organization. Every organization is expected

to have TQM to embrace all functions in administration, marketing, manufacturing, and

planning.

Engineering organizations should practice engineering quality management and use

quality tools to solve quality problems. Quality tools help organizations to achieve a continuous

improvement in their processes. Organizations should practice quality assurance and control to

optimize productivity and improve organizational performance. The control of quality of

products ensures that review of quality revolves the entire factors including the application of

International Standard Organization (ISO).

International Standard Organization (ISO) as a quality body should maintain a quality

standard for all products and services in organizations. They should ensure quality control

remains a quality management of products with conformity to requirements of quality. Control

of quality should be emphasized in such areas as organizational culture, management of jobs, and

well managed and defined processes.

TQM is practiced in organizations via the inspection of materials or products. Inspection

of materials should be performed by physically examining products with gadgets to ensure total

quality before sending the product to an external market for sales. Testing of products is vital as

it reveals defects to the entire management for decision making to either continue improving the

product quality or to discontinue it. Quality assurance should aid the management of
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organizations to improve productivity and product stabilization to reduce causes of defects.

The focus on engineering quality has raised customers’ expectations. Customers have

changed their expectations and this change necessitated changes in technological design and

manufacturing engineering. Contemporary researchers have revealed that engineering quality

management needs attention. These researchers have conducted diverse studies in areas such as

total quality management concepts, quality management in projects, quality and safety

management systems, quantifying quality in management system performance; analysis of the

quality management in the construction firm, and total management quality tools and application.

It was found out that design technology and manufacturing engineering have assured customers’

expectations. Recent research showed illustrations on the contemporary processes in quality

tools to quality function deployment, design of experiments, and control of statistical processes.

Current researchers have developed, broadened, computerized, and incorporated engineering

quality tools. They have contributed to the optimization of multiple-response, quality systems

intelligence, and quality market intelligence.

This depth component revealed the use of quality tools to solve engineering issues and

make decisions in the organization. There was a critical analysis and synthesis of the literature

in engineering quality management which focused on TQM and the added values of quality tools

such as Ishikawa (fishbone) analysis to solve construction problems. TQM is entrenched in the

ideas of great quality philosophers like Deming, Ishikawa, and Juran. This depth component

reflected the scholarly works of recent researchers on engineering quality management and

application of total management tools in solving quality issues in construction, fabrication,

manufacturing, production, and engineering. The importance of total quality management in the
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organization included cost reduction when applied consistently overtime. TQM can reduce costs

throughout an organization, especially in the areas of scrap, rework, field service, and warranty

cost reduction. Other benefits can include customer satisfaction, defect reduction, and possible

moral. Going forward, the application component of this KAM will propose a presentation on

the effect of quality safety measures on organizational performance. I will use TQM as a

theoretical framework to study quality of safety behaviors of employees and workplace and their

effects on organizational performance.

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Application Component

AMDS 8534: Professional Practice Research, Principles of Engineering Management Quality

“Presentation of Qualitative Research Plan on the Empirical study to examine the Impact of

Failures of Quality Safety Measures in Organizational Performance”

Introduction

The application component of this KAM will be an implementation of the professional

practice research to reflect the activities of the various theorists in the breadth component and the

recent scholarly works by diverse authors in the depth components. In this application

component, I will present a qualitative research plan and analysis of the impact of safety

measures on organizational performance. I will highlight the importance of organizational safety

performance and how they impact employee’s performance and safety behavior. The keywords

utilized to achieved or implement this application component include but are not limited to

organizational performance, business sustainability, organizational safety, profitability,

competiveness, safety measures, safety culture, cost-benefit-analysis, failure in safety measure,

goal-setting theory.

Safety implies the state of being safe. Organizations refer to safety as the control of

known hazards to accomplish an adequate risk level. Safety is used to protect someone from

non-desirable outcomes or from harm. Total quality management in organizations will ensure

mitigations in safety issues or fake products. Safety cannot be used for any commercial reasons

and that is the reason organizations should emphasize safety in all ramifications. Safety is

limited to some insurance standard to the quality function of an organization. To ensure that an

organization is able to do what is required of them, it is important to adopt quality safety

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behavior for performance achievement. Safety is relative, implying that all risks cannot be

eliminated completely but can be reduced as low as reasonably practicable. Elimination of risk

is very expensive and extremely difficult. Management of total quality eliminates risk level.

System reliability and safety is a discipline in engineering. Incessant changes in

environmental regulation, public safety, and technology concerns make the complex safety-

critical systems analysis more challenging. A collective misconception, for instance among

electrical engineers concerning power systems structure, is that safety issues can be

enthusiastically construed. Safety matters have been revealed stage by stage, over more than a

century in this case via the work of many practitioners and cannot be construed by an individual

for decades. The custom and standards in the field of engineering is a critical part of safety

engineering. Safety systems can be seen as a group of correlated disciplines such as availability,

maintainability, reliability, quality, and safety (Gerolamo, et al., 2014). Availability can be

referred to as a function of reliability and maintainability. Safety issues tend to regulate the

worth of any work. Insufficiencies in organizational safety can result in a cost and loss of total

quality (Gerolamo, et al., 2014). Therefore, organizations should develop good management to

minimize total cost of quality.

Organizations should have a means to verify their safety performance and authenticate

the effectiveness of the risk controls of safety. Safety measures imply precautions and activities

engaged in to improve quality safety. Failure to have safety measures in the organizational

activities can adversely affect the organizational performances. Safety measures in organizations

can include but not limited to the following;

(a) Government regulations to ensure suppliers comprehend what standards their product
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should meet.

(b) Root cause analysis to ensure organizations recognize causes of a system failure and

correct anomalies.

(c) Process safety management which is an analytical tool used to prevent releases of highly

hazardous chemicals.

(d) Geological surveys to show whether water or land sources are polluted.

(e) Instructional videos to explain how to use a product.

(f) Examination of activities by specialists to avert stress to a minimum and improve

productivity.

(g) Standard procedures and protocols to perform activities in a known way

(h) Stress analysis to confirm the breaking point of products

(i) Visual examination of flaws like loose connections in pipelines, peeling or cracks to

avoid failure of safety.

The failure to implement safety measures in organizations will have a negative trend in the

productivity of the organization. Shortfalls in production can be a visible outcome when there is

no adequate or quality safety measures in place. Organizational performance in terms of

competiveness, quality, safety behaviors, or profitability can decline due to lack of safety

measures.

Organizational performance is the tangible output of an organization measured against

organizational objectives. Richard et al. (2009) noted that organizational performance implies

three exact areas of fixed outcomes such as (a) financial performance (profits, return on

investments, return on assets etc.), (b) product market performance (sales, market share etc.); and
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(c) shareholder return (economic value added, total shareholder return etc.). Organizations can

manage organizational performance with the use of balanced scorecard methodology.

Performance in this instance can be tracked and measured in multiple dimensions such as

financial performance, customer service, social responsibility, etc. (Richard et al., 2009). Oil and

gas companies have lost thousands of barrels due to lack of adherence to safety measures such as

procedures or protocols by operators. Not following procedures to de-energize, isolate, and

purge pressurized systems can cause production loss, and result to shortfalls. Shortfalls in

production affect the financial performance. This study will reveal the effect of failures in

quality safety measures on organizational performance.

Discussion

Quantitative Research Pan

The research problems stipulate that despite the huge investment in safety measures,

there is a high failure rate of the safety measures in the organization (Haefeli, Haslam & Roger,

2005). The international oil companies (IOCs) are implementing cost optimization and

downsizing policies in different aspects of their businesses (Donovan, 2009). The increase in

investment on more safety measures persist (Haefeli, Haslam & Roger, 2005). Failure of safety

measure has cost implications for the organizational businesses (Haefeli, Haslam & Roger,

2005). Every organizational performance in terms of productivity and profitability is a function

of capital cost and labor cost (Forbes, 2002; Felipe, & Kumar, 2011). The addition of more

variables such as safety measures affects the performance of the organization (Haefeli, Haslam &

Roger, 2005). This study is focusing on the cost implication of failures in safety measures and

their effect on organizational performance. Based on this failure rate, this paper will confirm the
 PAwoke – KAM V Breadth 134

sustainability of IOCs by evaluating the safety culture of a focus group. This study will use the

archived materials on safety incidents to confirm the safety culture and the associated cost

implications. It will assist organizations to monitor, control, and manage projects. This

qualitative study will form part of the decision-making tools for organizations. This study will

help to carry out budgeting, risk analysis, staff training, oil and gas operations, and profit

monitoring (Behn, 2003; Haefeli, Haslam & Roger, 2005).

Organizations put in place the safety measures to contribute to their business

sustainability. Safety measures entail the evaluation of different types of works and services in a

safe manner to prevent accident or incident (Griffin & Neal, 2000; Vidal, 2015). The areas of

health, safety, and environment should be monitored at all times in every organization to

promote uptime in production, profitability, and performance (Behn, 2003). Lack of monitoring

of these aspects of organization’s business has brought a huge threat to profitability in the

organization, thereby reducing their business competitiveness and reputation (Felipe & Kumar

2011). Behn (2003) noted that the measurement of performance is not an end in itself. The

quest to measure performance in the area of safety has made managers of organizations achieve

their managerial purposes. The organizational management strategy in terms of safety

performance is to utilize performance measures to effect control, evaluation, motivation,

promotion, celebration, improvement, and budgeting in the production area (Behn, 2003).

Griffin & Neal (2000) studied organizational climate and work performance. They used

organizational climate and work performance to build a framework to measure safety at the

workplace. With quasi-experimental design, Kim & Hammer (1976) investigated evaluation and

non-evaluation effects of safety measure without considering the cost implication of failure in
 PAwoke – KAM V Breadth 135

safety measures. The performance measures’ objectives in this paper include absenteeism,

safety, and cost performance (Donovan, 2009). Frangopol & Liu (2007) emphasized on the strict

adherence to safety measures when carrying out management and maintenance of civil works.

They based their research on optimization of safety without considering the evaluation of cost

implications of any deviation from safety. Individuals and organizations should not compromise

safety for any commercial reasons to avoid loss of containment, explosion, death of personnel,

and asset damage in any project (Frangopol & Liu, 2007; Schein, 1996). Violating standards in

company operations will affect the life-cycle cost of projects. The management of safety is

important to organizational learning.

Employees working for any organization should understand the organizational culture to

ensure that they do not hinder the safety learning of the organization. Pate-Cornell (1990)

defined risk management strategies that engineering in organizations should focus to avert the

tendency of failure in safety measures in the offshore platforms. They noted that safety measures

adherence lead engineering teams to promote productivity in the offshore environment.

Organizational errors may occur and can lead to failure in the safety systems (Pate-Cornell,

1990). Mearns et al. (2001) carried out research on human and factors of the organization

regarding the offshore safety in the United Kingdom (UK). Their research was to evaluate the

attitude of workers towards safety in the offshore environment. They investigated the feelings of

safety at the workplace. They also investigated safety measures satisfaction and emphasized on

failures in measures without identifying the cost implications for decision-making purposes.

Unsafe act and unsafe behavior can lead to failure in safety measure (Mearns et al., 2001). Oil

industries in the North-Sea have acknowledged the need to strengthen the management process
 PAwoke – KAM V Breadth 136

of their organization (Liyanage, 2003). The management process incorporates the safety

measures in the safety management system of maintenance and operations. Monitoring is

important in the safety system to avoid changing the business conditions of the organization.

Liyanage (2003) emphasized on value instead of cost implication of safety measures. This paper

focuses on the cost implication of safety measures in the organizational performance such as

competitiveness, profit, and productivity.

The importance of this study cannot be over-emphasized. The performance of the

organizations depends on the capital costs and the labor costs (Felipe, & Kumar, 2011; Forbes,

2002; Haefeli, Haslam & Roger, 2005). Safety measures include, environmental awareness, risk

awareness and prevention, environmental impact assessment, and work procedures. Safety

measure also includes compliance and ethics, drill exercise, safety trainings, work permit system

and toolbox talks (Awoke, 2015). These safety measures are the independent variable. Adding

safety measure costs to capital costs plus labor costs will affect the performance of the

organization positively and negatively (Forbes, 2002; Felipe, & Kumar, 2011). This paper will

investigate how the addition of safety measure will impact cost. This paper will help

organizations to evaluate the safety measures and remove anything that is not viable in this era of

cost optimization. There will be evaluations of safety measure failures in an organization to find

out what could go wrong and how the organizations can mitigate the failures. In doing this, I

will use archived data in a work location to investigate the cost implication of these failures.

This paper will help managers in organizations as project management tools, decision-making

tools, project control and monitoring tool. It will assist managers in effective communication,

budgeting, cost-benefit-analysis, oil production strategy, and prevention or mitigation of

 PAwoke – KAM V Breadth 137

shortfalls in oil production. This study will be significant in the appraisal of safety engineers and

production operators in the work location.

Empirical Research Problem

The international oil companies (IOCs) are having downsizing and cost optimization

exercise in many aspects of their businesses (Haefeli, Haslam & Roger, 2005). Despite that,

there is a problem of increase in the constant investment in safety measures with huge cost

implications (Haefeli, Haslam & Roger, 2005; Vidal, 2015). Incident occurrences persist within

the past five years (Haefeli, Haslam & Roger, 2005; Total E&P, 2014; Vidal, 2015). The

performance of every organization is a function of capital cost and labor cost (Felipe, & Kumar,

2011; Forbes, 2002; Gupta, 2011; Haefeli, Haslam & Roger, 2005). The addition of safety

measures (costs) could impact organizational performance thereby affecting the sustainability

and profitability of the oil and gas business in a long term (Total E&P, 2014; Vidal, 2015).

Purpose of the Study

The purpose of this qualitative study is to determine how the increase in safety measures

affects the organizational performance in terms of cost optimizations and business sustainability

(Awoke, 2015). Marshall and Rossman (2011) stipulated that individual researchers select the

research strategy that suits the research question under study. I will use the mini-ethnography to

find out the safety culture of the workers (the participants) (Patton, 2014). I seek to find out how

safety measures: culture, safety awareness, supply chain risk awareness, and environment

awareness can affect organizational performance. I will find out how safety training, ethical

compliance, insurance cover and disaster training, and management of safety drills guarantee the

business sustainability (Total E&P, 2014). The ethnographic investigator deals with the patterns
 PAwoke – KAM V Breadth 138

of cultural behavior of the individuals in the study.

The intent of using the ethnographic approach is to know the cultural background of the

participants (Patton, 2014). Creswell (2013) noted that an ethnographic investigator centers his

investigation on the whole cultural group such as community college teachers, social work

groups etc. In ethnography, the researcher indulges in the explanation and interpretation of the

typical behavioral patterns, values, beliefs, and culture (Creswell, 2013, p. 28). The researcher

immerses self in the daily lives of the participants. He interviews and observes their lives on a

daily basis to gather enough data for analysis. It is worthy of note that the ethnographic

investigator carries out interaction among the participants (Creswell, 2014; Patton, 2014). The

ethnographic researcher studies the meaning of people’s language and behavioral patterns.

In this study, I combine the mini-ethnography with the case study approach by using

secondary data from the archived materials for the past five years in a work location. The intent

of including the case study is to determine the cost implication of failure in safety measures. The

case study blends with the approach to enable me gather much data (Yin, 2014; Stake, 1995). I

will link all the data with triangulation approach (Creswell, 2014). I will have a better

understanding and answers to the research problem (Creswell, 2013, 2014). Both approaches

will ensure an emergent of themes (Gibbs & Taylors, 2005).

Empirical Research Questions

Because of the problem of high failure rate in safety measures, huge investments costs

are involved. This study seeks to find out the safety culture of workers and the cost implications

of safety measures in the oil production operations. The study will also confirm the

sustainability of the organization’s businesses. As a result, the study provides the following
 PAwoke – KAM V Breadth 139

empirical research questions;

1. How the increases of safety measures affect organizational productivity?

2. How the inclusion of safety measures affect the sustainability of the organizations in terms

of cost performance in this era of cost optimization?

3. How failures in safety measure affect organizational productivity?

4. How production operators understand the effects of safety measure on production

operations?

Theoretical or Conceptual Framework

The theoretical framework of a research is a theory that the researcher selects to direct

him or her to the research under study (Imenda, 2014). This framework guides the researcher on

the description of a research problem. It refers to a set of theory. The conceptual framework

refers to an integrated way of looking at a problem under study (Imenda, 2014). The researcher

utilizes the conceptual design to synthesize the existing views in the existing literature about the

situation (Imenda, 2014). The conceptual framework, therefore, becomes a result that aids

interrelated concepts to describe and predict an event and give a wider understanding of the

research problem under study. In theoretical framework, the researcher uses existing theory to

confirm or study the research problem. Most importantly, in using the theoretical framework,

the researcher carries out his research deductively i.e. from the theory to the finding (Imenda,

2014). For the conceptual framework, the researcher performs the research inductively meaning

that the researcher generates theory from the data (Imenda, 2014).

The approach to this qualitative study is an inductive process approach using the

ethnography and case study. I drew this study from the works of Haefeli, Haslam & Roger
 PAwoke – KAM V Breadth 140

(2005). They conceptualized and centralized their discussion on the economics of health, safety,

and well-being at workplace framework of Carter (1992) and Dorman (2000). This conceptual

framework assumes that workplace injuries’ costs to employers and damage events of accidents

have huge cost estimates. The huge costs of accidents and incidents emanate from the failure of

safety barriers. The cost shows a business case for improving the performance of safety and

health of workers in the organization (Haefeli, Haslam & Roger, 2005). They assume that the

economic discussion and arguments arising from the costs of safety measures can be effective.

They assume costs can develop and ensure the interest of managers in the safety of workplace

(Haefeli, Haslam & Roger, 2005). There are several costs incurred in the workplace that the

organization is not cognizance of, and these costs due to the failure of safety and health

contribute to the overall performance. Dorman (2000) as cited in Haefeli, Haslam & Roger

(2005) strategized on the assumption that economic incentives from the safety measures are for

the organizations. Organizational managers pursue the management of quality health and safety

measures because they benefit from their oil and gas business. Haefeli, Haslam & Roger’s

conceptual framework (economics of health, safety, and well-being at work framework) is

appropriate as it encapsulate the costs of the failure of safety measures in organizations. It also

considers how the organization is in terms business sustainability when organizations keep on

increasing in safety measures costs and decreasing in labor cost.

Nature of the Study

Research Design

This study is a qualitative research on the effect of safety measures on the organizational

performance. This paper will investigate the safety culture of a focus group to establish their
 PAwoke – KAM V Breadth 141

safety cultural background. This paper will investigate the cost implication of failure of safety

measure on the organization performance. I will select the ethnography in investigating the

safety cultural background of the focus group (Creswell, 2013). I will further develop a business

case and blend and adapt the mini-ethnographic approach to a case study (Creswell, 2014). The

case study will help me to gain access to the secondary data known as archived material to

understand and answer the research questions effectively (Patton, 2014). The data collection for

the qualitative research will be by interview, observation, and the use of archived data.

The rationale for selecting the mini-ethnography is because it inquires about the cultural

and safety behavioral pattern of the participants. In ethnographic research, the foundational

question asked is what the culture of a particular group of people is (Patton, 2002). Theory

emanated from the beginning of the research and used for more explanation of the research

question and the problem under study (Creswell, 2013). The researcher in ethnographic research

provides a principal assumption that any set of people living together or interacting for a period

will develop a culture (Patton, 2002). The focus group is managers, safety officers, production

operators, and third-party contractors. These groups are working together and have developed

safety cultures. In staying together, the people share some values, norms, behavioral patterns

and same standards of doing things (Patton 2002). The ethnographers have their primary

research method in anthropological tradition as participant observation. The Inquirer immerses

self in the culture under study in an intensive field work (Patton, 2002). Creswell (2014) noted

that the use of theory in ethnography is in such a way that the researcher utilizes cultural themes

or cultural aspects to carry out the research project (p. 64). For instance, the ethnographic

researcher uses the cultural theme to study people’s language, social controls, and social change.
 PAwoke – KAM V Breadth 142

This cultural theme shows readymade hypotheses series to be tested from existing pieces of

literature (Creswell, 2014, p. 64). Ethnographic researchers do not refer to these series of

assumptions from cultural themes as theories. They use it as anthropologists to show more

descriptions or explanations about the behavioral pattern of culture sharing and people’s attitude

(Creswell, 2013, 2014; Patton, 2002).

I will blend and adapt the case study to the ethnography to be able to gather much

information from the archived data and business cases in the archive (Creswell, 2014). The case

study will help in exploring people’s costs awareness and knowledge regarding the accidents and

incidents in the workplace. The case study will help the researcher investigate how the

organization measures the costs related to failures in safety measure. It will find out participants’

experiences and attitudes towards the cost measurements. The case study will also help the

researcher with the tools for measuring accidents and incidents’ cost due to the real-time failure

of safety measures. The case study research has the intent to perform survey and find out the

problem via a case or cases inside a boundary (Creswell 2013; Eisenhardt & Graebner, 2007).

The case study research dwells on a problem. The researcher explored this issue or problem via

a defined boundary about the case under study (Eisenhardt & Graebner, 2007). However, the

investigator carries out a broad and thorough study of the issue within a period. Yin (2014)

argued that the researcher needs to choose the theoretical perspective from the starting of the

study. This theoretical perspective influences the research questions, findings, and the research

analysis (Eisenhardt & Graebner, 2007; Stake, 1995). The blend and adaptation of both the

mini-ethnography and the case- study were to gather enough data (Patton, 2014). I will link the

multiple data together by triangulation (Patton, 2014). The diverse data will help me to have
 PAwoke – KAM V Breadth 143

better understanding of the problem under study.

In this study, I will not use other strategies to qualitative research. I will not use the

phenomenology in conducting the study because the introductory question the researcher asks is

what is meaning, structure, and fundamental nature of the lived experience for the group

participants? (Patton, 2002, p. 104). The phenomenological researcher asks about the nature of

the phenomenon under study (Giorgi, 2009; Patton, 2002). In the narratology, the introductory

question that originates from a narratology is; what does this story disclose about the narrator

and the world of narrator? How can the investigator deduce the story to show proper

understanding and to highlight the culture and life that produced it? (Creswell, 2013; Patton,

2002). The narrative researcher utilizes texts from the field as units of analysis. The fieldwork's

writings include interviews, life experiences, conversations, journals, stories, etc. They help the

investigator to comprehend the ways individuals produce meaning in their respective lives.

I will not use the grounded theory to conduct this research because the researcher asks the

question; what emergent theory occurs from a systematic comparative analysis? What theory is

grounded in the field work to enable the researcher explain how the theory has been and what he

observed? (Patton, 2002, p. 124). Theory in a qualitative research guides the researcher to the

answering of the research questions by identifying the best approach that suits the problem under

study (Creswell, 2013; Strauss & Corbin, 1998). In grounded theory approach to scientific

inquiry, the researcher centers on the process of developing a theory instead of evaluating several

ideas of contents of theories (Patton, 2002; Strauss & Corbin, 1998). In the theoretical

orientation, the grounded theory researcher shows how the procedures link deduction and

induction via the method of continuous comparison. By so doing, the researcher makes a
 PAwoke – KAM V Breadth 144

comparison on the sites for the research. He also does theoretical sampling. The researcher

carries out tests on the concepts that emerged through further fieldworks (Patton, 2002).

Development of worldview in the grounded theory approach occurs in the research by using the

researcher’s method that is near the real world.

Research Methodology

In this qualitative approach, the researcher highlights his roles in the research, the

designs, the picture of data types, detailed protocols to collect and record data (Creswell, 2013,

p.183). The qualitative approach of this study is to utilize the mini-ethnography to carry out the

research. The study is in a small focus group about their safety culture. I will use archived data

to examine the cost implication of failure in security measure.

The participants of this study will include directors who are the responsible for safety and

environment on site (RSES), safety professionals, safety officers, representatives of the

production operators, and offshore installation managers (OIM). I will use ethnography to

conduct the research and later adapt the approach with the case study approach for a full

understanding of the research problem. Firstly, I will study the culture and administer an initial

face-to-face interview with a focus group. I will interview a few professionals of safety and

directors to have an initial insight of the issues under study (Creswell, 2014). Secondly, I will

use the case study of the organizational survey comprising of in-depth interviews with the

representatives of workers, safety officers, and directors to gain more insight into the problems

under study. Thirdly, I will use the archived material to study real-time accidents or incidents

costs from the case study subsample to find out the real-time costs’ measurements in terms of the

failure of safety measure.

 PAwoke – KAM V Breadth 145

The site of the research will be the plant where real-time oil and gas production is going

on. The site is a natural setting. The daily activities of hydrocarbon are ongoing and the

participants are also working in the environment. It would have been better to have a multiple

site but due to timing and accessibility issue, I will maintain a single site. Multiple sites may

affect the replicability of the research (Creswell, 2013). The multiple sites will involve a lot of

participants, and data collection and analysis will pose a problem.

Unit of Analysis

The research design should embrace the units of analysis that the researcher is studying

(Creswell, 2013). In research design, prior to selecting the sample and sampling strategy is

subject to the actual units of analysis. Units of analysis in research design include students,

people, individual or clients (Creswell, 2013). The principal focus of gathering of data in any

study is the unit of analysis. The researcher wants to establish what happens to people in a

particular setting. The researcher needs to understand how the environment affects the people or

individual as the unit of analysis.

Researcher’s Role in Data Collection Procedure

In qualitative research, the role of the researcher is that the researcher is the main

instrument for data collection (Creswell, 2013’ 2014; Patton, 2013). The researcher is the

principle instrument for collecting qualitative data. The researcher acts as an instrument by

defining the assumptions, personal values, and the biases that may be inherent in the outset of the

qualitative research study (Creswell, 2014). According to Creswell (2014) the researcher’s

contribution to the setting of the research is positive and useful. I am an engineer working in the

same field or plant with the participants. My involvement in the research will have a positive
 PAwoke – KAM V Breadth 146

effect and contributions in the data collection process. My perception of the safety culture and

safety measures in the plant realigns my personal experience. From 2001 September to 2004, I

was a senior production operator in the oilfield. I was moved to the position of chief production

operate where I evaluated the safety production equipment. From 2007 to 2010, I became the

production team lead. At this time, the management had given me the responsibility of safety in

the plant. The organization put safety measures in place for all operators to work safely. I also

have insights in the accident/incident archived materials to help in the real-time safety measure

in terms of cost of failure. I participated in the designing of most of the safety measures and

safety systems that safeguard the operation of the plant. I worked with the offshore installation

manager and safety officers for five years. I believe that my comprehension of the plant and my

role will increase my awareness. It will enhance my know-how, knowledge and understanding.

The challenges I experienced in the plant will aid my working with the participants in that plant.

In this study, I extend my knowledge of the plant and the safety systems and the role of the team

leader. I will pay particular attention to the role of the safety officers because they provided the

safety measures in the plant. They made decisions about the appropriateness of the safety

measures. They have an insight of the real-time costs of the failure of the safety measures as per

the incidents and accidents recorded in the archive.

Since I have previous experiences in working with the participants in the study, I

consequently bring biases to the qualitative study (Creswell, 2014). I will ensure objectivity in

the study since the biases will impact the data I will collect during the interview and how I will

make interpretations of my experiences. I know that there is lot of expectation due to my

involvement in the research. The participants may want me to participate actively in the
 PAwoke – KAM V Breadth 147

interview and observation. I will immerse myself in the culture of the participants to get their

meaning about the problem under study.

Sampling

Sampling embraces periodic strategies in the qualitative study (Creswell, 2013). There is

a comparison between ongoing and continues observation versus fixed interval sampling. In the

fixed interval sampling, the researcher considers the unit of time as the observation units

(Creswell, 2013, p. 229). The merit of the fixed interval sampling is that the workers in the field

are prone to less tiredness thereby having the opportunity to collect more data than the

continuous observation (Creswell, 2013). In purposeful sampling, there is the actual difference

between the qualitative and quantitative inquiry. The difference is only in the diverse logics that

guides the approaches of the sampling (Creswell, 2013, 2014). The qualitative research uses

small samples. The qualitative inquirer selects these little samples purposefully (Creswell, 2009;

2013). Quantitative sampling is on large samples chosen in a random fashion (Creswell, 2013).

The following paragraphs summarize the different sampling strategies.

The extreme case sampling strategy focuses on the selection of cases that are rich in

information. This sampling strategy is normally unusual such as notable failures or stupendous

successes (Creswell, 2013; Patton, 2002). The ethnographer makes use of extreme case

sampling strategy in carrying out field experiments. The ethnographer’s interest is in the

everyday experiences of people to understand the people in a setting. The intensity sampling

strategy embraces the use of cases that are rich in information and shows the phenomenon under

study intensely and not as extreme as the case sampling. The heuristic researcher utilizes

intensity sampling to carry out their qualitative sampling. The heuristic research focuses
 PAwoke – KAM V Breadth 148

explicitly on the intense experience of the investigator such as loneliness experiences.

The heterogeneity sampling strategy describes and captures fundamental themes that

intersect some variations (Creswell, 2013; Patton, 2002). There is a problem with a great deal of

heterogeneity in small samples due to the differences in individual cases (Patton, 2002). The

homogenous sampling strategy is to enable an in-depth description of a subgroup (Patton, 2002).

For instance, a project that incorporates diverse informants can require comprehensive

information concerning an exacting subgroup. The typical case sampling strategy embraces the

description of culture to the people that are not conversant with the setting under study (Patton,

2002). This approach aids in the provision of the qualitative sketch of different distinctive cases.

The critical case sampling allows for logic generalization (Patton, 2002). This strategy

applies maximum information to different cases because if one case is true then it leads to the

generalization that it is true for other instances. An example of a critical case is Physics. The

snowball strategy entails the location of informants that are rich in information or significant

cases. This procedure commences with such questions as who knows plenty information

concerning a phenomenon. Who should I direct my questions? The researcher builds more

information as he asks these questions to different people. The criterion sampling strategy

commonly uses efforts of quality assurance (Patton, 2002). The aim of this approach is to

present all cases and study the cases that intersect some predefined important criterion such as in

critical incidents. This method functions in a situation the informants voluntarily give

information about their contact (Patton, 2002).

The theoretical sampling plan is a refined version of the criterion sampling. In this

strategy, the qualitative inquirer makes a sampling of incidents. The approach makes life slices
 PAwoke – KAM V Breadth 149

or people as a result of the depiction of vital constructs of theories (Patton, 2002). Ground

theorists use theoretical sampling to find out the range of dimensions with varying concepts

(Patton, 2002). The confirming cases strategy confirms findings. They detail the findings by

including credibility and richness. The disconfirming case plan is an interpretation sources

(Patton, 2002). Disconfirming establishes margin around findings. The stratified sample design

is a sample inside samples. This approach combines other types of purposeful sampling. The

sample size in this kind of approach in terms of size is tiny. It is difficult to generalize or

statistically represent it. Next, the emergent sampling strategy involves the decisions that the

inquirer makes on the spot concerning the sample (Patton, 2002). With this sampling method, the

inquirer has the chance of having the actual collection of data (Patton, 2002). This strategy takes

care of unforeseen opportunities at the end of the fieldwork.

The purposeful random sampling strategy enhances results’ credibility no matter how

small the sample size may be (Patton, 2002). This approach minimizes suspicion concerning the

selection of certain case. This approach does not allow generalizations statistically.

Additionally, the convenience sampling strategy enables the inquirer to do what is convenient

and quick. The inquirer commonly uses this method. The purposeful, strategic sampling results

to relevant information concerning cases that are critical (Patton, 2002). The Convenience

strategic sampling is considered neither strategic nor purposeful (Patton, 2002).

In my qualitative research, I will adopt the mini-ethnography approach to qualitative inquiry. I

will study the safety culture of an organization and how failure in security measures affects the

performance of the organization (Awoke, 2015). The ethnographer utilizes the extreme case

sampling strategy to carry out the collection of data that are rich in information (Creswell, 2013;
 PAwoke – KAM V Breadth 150

Patton, 2002). I will engage an organization in their everyday rich experience concerning safety

measures. I will consider using the archived data to bring out the cost implication of failure in

the security measures of an organization.

Sample Size

In this qualitative research plan, I will use a small sample size of between 6 to 12

participants to collect data for the empirical study of the effect of safety measures on

organizational performance. The qualitative research methodology is full of ambiguities (Patton,

2002). In the qualitative inquiry, the sample size has no rule in their determination. The

definition of sample size by a qualitative inquirer depends on what the inquirer needs to know

(Patton, 2002). The sample size depends on the research purpose. It depends on what credibility

the phenomenon has. Besides, sample size depends on what time and available resources can do

for the Inquirer (Patton, 2002). Qualitative sample size can be small and valuable. The

information from the small sample is abundant. The qualitative sample can also be large

especially if the inquirer wants to explore a phenomenon and comprehend the variation. The

researcher understands a small sample problem by placing the samples in a probability sample’s

context (Patton, 2002). The sample size of qualitative inquiry is lower than when it uses a

representative sample. However, qualitative inquirers should present minimum samples based

on the study’s purpose.

Data Collection Procedures

I will collect data from interviews, safety observations and the archived data for two

weeks. The data collection will involve a straight two weeks interview of the OIM, safety

officers, production operators, and representative of third party contractors. The interview will
 PAwoke – KAM V Breadth 151

be for two weeks, and I will spend 40 minutes with the small group every day to study their

safety cultures. I will carry out one-hour observation of daily technical meetings and one-hour

observation of field safety meetings. I will schedule follow-up interviews after the two weeks

for the next one week. I will record all the interviews and observations. I will also obtain the

archived materials to get the real time accident and incident records as per cost implication of

failure in safety measures.

Next, I will assist the informants during the data collection period by using a field log

book. The field log will help me to write a detailed plan of my time and the actual time I spend

in the field and transcription development. The field notes will enable me know the time it takes

to do the analysis of the data I collected. I will use the field notebook to record my observations.

I will also use the field notebook to keep some diary to reflect and compare with my thinking

about all the perceptions and experiences throughout the process of the research.

Data Analysis and Interpretation Plan

According to Marshall & Rossman (1989), the researcher should carry out the collection

of data and the analysis of data at the same time in the qualitative inquiry. As an ethnographic

researcher, I will code my data with hand-coding prior to using the Nvivo software to code the

data with use of categories. There should an initial classification of the data I collected in

person, things, events and properties as the case (Patton, 2014). I will code the interview texts of

transcripts into chunks of words and phrases using hand coding and then the NVivo software

(Gibbs & Taylor, 2005). Initially, the codes may be too broad but I will create sub-categories or

child codes as I needed those (Gibbs & Taylor, 2005). According to Creswell (2013) the

researcher in the data analysis should reduce the coding list as he needs by using the open coding
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principle. I will develop the list of coding and pull the categories together to form a broader

idea. The reason for coding is to achieve an insight or understanding of the problem under study.

I need to know how the participants perceive the questions under study. I equally want to

investigate any relationships involved in the study (Creswell, 2014). Then I will carry out the

constant comparison of the codes with an open mind (Gibbs & Taylors, 2005). I will start

noticing significant patterns in the interview data. Constant comparison entails the comparing of

the codes with the interview text or transcript that the researcher selected.

Next, I will do closed coding to be able to reduce the various codes to smaller categories

or sub-codes (Gibbs & Taylor, 2005). Subsequently, I will narrow down the sub-codes to the

final overarching codes (Patton, 2014). In the final categories or themes, Creswell (2013)

advises that researchers should reflect on the purpose of the research. I will try to be exhaustive

but also sensitive to the content of the data (Creswell, 2013, 2014; Patton, 2014). There are four

ranges of themes namely, ordinary themes, unexpected themes, hard-to-classify themes, and

major or subthemes (Patton, 2014, Creswell, 2013). In the analysis of the interview, I will

examine the ideas that make up the major theme and the sub-theme. There should be an

interaction between the themes that show the evidence of relationships between the overarching

themes. I will repeat this process to confirm any new ideas and do a constant comparison.

Limitations of the Study

This study has some limitations. The researcher is the instrument for the data collection

and as such should be ready to adapt to the culture of the participants to get the participants

meaning. Another limitation of the study is that the access to the archival data is subject to

approval by the management of the organization. There is the possibility that the organization
 PAwoke – KAM V Breadth 153

has the right to protect their data or company information. This study may not be exhaustive

rather is subject to future studies.

The study has some strengths and weakness. I will use qualitative approach because it

provides details of the people's personality characteristics, culture, and behavioral patterns. The

researcher employs qualitative approach in the study because the researcher could communicate

a feedback at the emergence of data in the study. The qualitative method in this study is by

direct observation of participants’ behaviors, interviews, use of archived and published

documents. These enable the researcher to achieve the data collection from the multiple places

to achieve its significance (Creswell, 2013). Also, it is possible to conduct a qualitative research

with six to twelve participants since it does not need automation of data collection. Additionally,

the numerical power of the qualitative research is small or less compared to the statistical

strength of the quantitative study. The qualitative researcher can utilize six to twelve participants

to conduct his research. I will use six to twelve participants to conduct the research.

Ethical Concerns

Marshall and Rossman (1989) noted that qualitative researcher should address the ethical

considerations when conducting the research. In this study, in the ethical consideration in this

study, I am obliged to respect the needs, rights, desires and values of the participants (Creswell,

2013, 2014). Most of the time, the ethnographic research is conspicuous. The observation of the

participant invades the participants’ life (Spradley, 1980). However, I will employ the following

safeguards in other to bestow protection to the rights of the participants in the study; (1) I will

articulate the objective of the research in a verbal form, and I will also write it to make it vivid

for the participants to comprehend, (2) there will be a written permission from the participants.
 PAwoke – KAM V Breadth 154

(3) I will inform the participant about all the devices and activities of the research, (4) I will

make available all the reports, transcriptions, and interpretations to the participants, (5) I will

protect the interests and rights of the participants when I am writing the reports of the interview.

Significance of the Study

This study is to investigate the effect of safety measures in organizational performance.

The performance of every organization depends on the capital cost and labor cost. The inclusion

of the safety measures will affect the profitability of the organization. The use of archived data

to investigate the real-time cost of failure in the safety measure will help the directors and

managers to make decisions in their safety culture. This study will assist scholars to be proactive

in the safety commitments of every aspect of life. This study also will be a tool to carry out the

risk assessment exercises in the workplace. It will make organizations monitor their costs in case

of any failure in safety measures.

Conclusion

Engineering management quality discussion in this KAM were based on the quality

experts such as Armand Feigenbaum, Edward Deming, Joseph Juran, Philip Crosby, and Kaoru

Ishikawa in terms of their underlying principles about quality control, their total quality

management evolution, and impact on the field of management.

Feigenbaum viewed total quality as an effective system for the integration of quality

development, quality maintenance, and quality improvement efforts of diverse groups in an

organization for the production and service at the most economic levels to allow full satisfaction

of customers. To Deming, the product quality must always be defined by the customer.

Definition of quality can change based on the customers’ needs. Deming specified that
 PAwoke – KAM V Breadth 155

managers need to comprehend the significance of statistical thinking, research for customers,

theory of statistics, and the application of statistical method to processes to meet or exceed the

needs of the customer.

The quality expert used the approach of leadership and systems to quality management.

The perception of Deming’s approach to quality were (1) profound knowledge system, (2) cycle

of plan-to-check-act, (3) improvement of the process by prevention, (4) quality improvement

from chain reaction, (5) variation of common and special causes, (6) the 14 points, and (7)

dreadful and deadly diseases. To Juran, quality means suitability for use. Juran noted that

features of products are designed to conform to the needs of the customer. He also included the

delivery promptness as a service feature that conforms to customer’s need. Dr. Ishikawa noted

that the practicing of quality control is to develop, produce, design and service a quality product

that is economical, useful, and always satisfactory to customer. Every employee in the

organization must be involved in the control of quality. All organizations are expected to

promote the control of quality. The total quality control should be made the foundation of

quality of business processes. Organizations should focus on complete level efforts on cost,

price, and profit controls. It is recommended that the total quality control should be a persistent

process. By so doing, improvement of quality standards would lead to the realization of quality

control of products and services.

Crosby viewed quality as the compliance to requirements. Organizations are expected to

function as a result of substantial targets of quality and not based on experiences for the

definition of quality. To Crosby, management should regulate quality by the incessant tracing of

the costs of failures. Cost of failure is the cost of non-conformity of price. In quality
 PAwoke – KAM V Breadth 156

management, satisfaction of customer is paramount. Organizations and the employees should

participate in the processes, products, services and working culture improvements. Firms

followed TQM to improve their productivity and conformance of operations. When TQM is

accomplished, the organizational effectiveness, efficiency, and productivity improve.

Engineering quality management encompassed engineering activities which are executed

on conformance of planning. The implementation of effective TQM should be by taking more

share of the market by organizations. Quality products and services facilitate the achieving of

more shares of the market. Everyone is seen to be a leading component of successful realization

of TQM. It was seen that the realization of TQM was via support, interaction, shared assistance,

and positive reception of the organizations. Organizations should dedicate themselves to the

friendly behavior of customers in order to realize consistent growth in terms of quality. Next,

Organizational safety improves performance of the organization and their employees.

Quality safety should be practiced in every organization to improve productivity,

especially in construction companies. Hazards are inherent in all operations related to oil and

gas. It is expected to have quality safety behaviors at all times to improve the performance of the

organization. Organizational performance is a function of labor cost plus capital cost and if

quality safety cost is added, the performance in terms of profitability, productivity, and

competitiveness are improved. Deviation from quality safety practices will impact on cost and

cost of quality will affect organizational performance.

Organizations viewed safety as the control of known hazards to accomplish an adequate

risk level. Safety in organizations protects personnel and asset from non-desirable outcomes or

from harm. Total quality management in organizations will ensure mitigations in safety issues or
 PAwoke – KAM V Breadth 157

fake products. Safety cannot be used for any commercial reasons and that is the reason

organizations should emphasize safety in all ramifications. Safety is limited to some insurance

standard to the quality function of an organization. To ensure that an organization is able to do

what is required of them, it is important to adopt quality safety behavior for performance

achievement. Safety is relative, implying that all risks cannot be eliminated completely but can

be reduced as low as reasonably practicable. Elimination of risk is very expensive and extremely

difficult. Management of total quality eliminates risk level. Recent researches did diverse works

in the use of quality tools to achieve performance.

Contemporary researchers have used total quality management tools to investigate,

ascertain, and assess significant quantitative and qualitative data to their diverse businesses.

Quality tools identified procedures, statistics, cause and effects, ideas, and other problems

relevant to organizations. Organizations used these quality tools to analyze and raise

standardization of total quality procedures, effectiveness, efficiency, and work procedures in the

work environment. Quality tools were mentioned as diagrams, checklists, brainstorming, graphs,

focus groups etc. Organizations should develop best practices that guide them in the use of

quality tools and implementation of TQM for proper quality improvement of their products and

services.

This KAM was useful in applying the theory of TQM as organizational quality tools for

troubleshooting, decision making, and investigation by many mangers in organizations. If the

quality safety measures in organizations are thwarted, the managers are expected to use the

quality tools to proffer solution by improving the quality of safety training of the employees and

making them competitive to improve the organizational performance.

 PAwoke – KAM V Breadth 158

The total quality of materials such as the closed loop system equipment as obtained from

the original equipment manufacturers was mentioned in this KAM. Quality of materials is vital

to the operability of industrial plant for the safe working of the equipment. Quality should be

maintained to avoid incidences that could hamper the efficient productivity of the plant.

Material procurement hinges on quality at reduced cost. Cost of quality should be improved in

engineering companies to be able to provide different instrumentation, electrical, and mechanical

equipment for the smooth running of the closed loop system that prevents human intervention in

the control and production of the reservoir fluid. Organizations should procure engineering

materials with best price, best delivery lead time, and best quality.

This application component implemented the practical and professional aspect of this

KAM by presenting and analyzing the qualitative research plan on the empirical study of the

impact of the failure of safety measures on organizational performance. In this presentation, it

was highlighted that safety cannot be compromised with any commercial reasons.

Organizational performance should be a function of capital variable, labor variable, and quality

safety measure to improve profit, productivity, services, and competitiveness. Any deviation

from safety measure implementation prior to job execution would prone the organization to bad

reputation and bad safety behavior. Organizations should improve on the quality of safety

measure in place. A negative organizational change impacts the safety behavior of her

workforce and the entire organizational safety behaviors. Organizational change could impact

performance if the employees of these organizations embrace total quality management such as

the adherence to total quality control, engineering quality tools’ use, quality assurance and

quality control. These would in long term improve all the services, products, performances and
 PAwoke – KAM V Breadth 159

sustainability of organizations.

However, on the basis of the literature review in the breadth, depth, and application

components, I can conclude that the quality safety measures in organizations impact the

organizational performance. If procedures are followed strictly, incidents would be reduced as

low as reasonably practicable. Violation of safety standards would impact the productivity of a

firm. Failure in safety measures can lead to explosion, damage of asset, and accidents. TQM

has made organizations have strong leaderships, training, and education of work force to

improve organizational quality. TQM in organizations has a significant impact on the

performance of that organization based on the application of the TQM theories of quality experts

in the breadth and the scholarly works of contemporary researchers on the depth component.

Organizations can enhance the quality of employee performance by applying a complete quality

and human resource tool to measure competence, behavioral pattern, productivity, and overall

performance.
 PAwoke – KAM V Breadth 160

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