Text Linguistics

353 ‫لسانيات النص – نجد‬

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 1. Introduction: Defining Text Linguistics (‫ )نحو النص‬and Text

Defining Text Linguistics

Text Linguistics is a branch of Linguistics that deals with texts as communication systems. It studies the way
the parts of spoken or written texts (e.g. a descriptive passage, a scene in a play, a conversation, a sign in the
street, etc.) are organized and related to one another in order to form a meaningful whole. Text Linguistics
did not really develop until the early 1970s, until linguistics itself began to be less concerned with the
sentence as the prime unit of analysis; or at least until it began to be felt that some special discipline should
take care of potential units larger than a sentence, or of intra-sentence relations. [1]

Defining Text
1. Etymologically, text comes from a metaphorical use of the Latin verb textere 'weave', suggesting a
sequence of sentences or utterances 'interwoven' structurally and semantically. [2]

2. A text as a count noun is commonly used in linguistics to refer to a sequential collection of

sentences or utterances which form a unity by reason of their linguistic COHESION and semantic
COHERENCE, e.g. a scientific article, a recipe, a poem, a public lecture, a novel, and a debate.
However, it is possible for a text to consist of only one sentence or utterance or even one word,
For example, a notice or road-sign (Exit; Stop; Danger), which is semantically complete in itself,
and pragmatically tied to a specific situation. [3]

3. A text may be considered from the point of view of its functions, e.g. a warning, instructing, carrying out
a transaction, etc. A full understanding of a text is often impossible without references to the context in
which it occurs. [4]

4. A text i s also defined as a communicative occurrence which meets Beaugrande & Dressler’s 7 standards of
textuality: COHESION [grammatically sound] and COHERENCE [semantically sound], INTENTIONALITY [having
a plan or purpose], ACCEPTABILITY [having some use for the receiver], SITUATIONALITY [relevance to the
context], INFORMATIVITY [degree of new information], and INTERTEXTUALITY [relations with other texts]. [5]

5. Text is not easily defined, or distinguished from discourse:

⚫ Some text linguists see the relations between text and discourse in terms of deep vs. surface structure, or
abstract vs. physical: Text as deep and abstract whereas discourse as surface and physical.
⚫ Some discourse analysts (e.g. Coulthard 1977) would reserve text for written language, and apply discourse
to spoken communication.
⚫ But very common now discourse is used in a very comprehensive way for all those aspects of the
SITUATION or CONTEXT of communication, not only the MESSAGE (written or spoken), but also the relations
between ADDRESSERS and ADDRESSEES. In this sense, discourse would subsume the text, as comparable to
the 'message'. [6]

6. From the same root as text, texture involves not only unifying features, but also:
(A) IDIOLECTAL features (types of words/devices used by different people, e.g., ummm-ok-uh) which
distinguish one text from another
(B) Rhetoric (devices to evoke/persuade the reader – analogy “He’s flaky as a sandstorm”, amplification
“Love, real love, is rare”, allusion “I can’t do it. I’m not superwoman”, parallelism, simile, etc.).
Texture can thus be distinguished from textuality in that whereas textuality is a characteristic property of all
texts, texture is a property of individual texts. [3]

Text (compiled definition):

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 2. What Does Text Linguistics Study?

1. The seven standards of textuality (‫)معايير نصية‬: The 7 conditions that any text must meet in order for it to be
considered a text.

2. The development of a typology of text types (esp. written text types). The most commonly known
classification is that typological variation can be reduced to 5 functional types: argumentative texts, narrative
texts, descriptive texts, expository texts and instructive texts. In some versions of this theory, the 5 types
tend to be viewed as textualisation strategies. It is possible to incorporate different parts from different text
types which fall under different functional headings in one single text (for instance, a novel may consist of
descriptive, narrative and argumentative episodes; a newspaper editorial is likely to contain narrative and
argumentative parts). [7] The study of textual sequencing, which is concerned with how sentences
functionally interrelate (i.e. are ordered) within particular text type schemata (plan/outline), is also
investigated under text typology (e.g. types of textual sequencing such as top-down – e.g., a sequence
consisting of a general claim > a specific application > listing arguments > giving examples). [3]

3. Text linguists have drawn attention to the various linguistic devices that can be used to ensure that a text
"hangs together" (i.e. the concept of textual cohesion). Such devices are called "cohesive devices or cohesive
ties" and they include the use of lexical repetition, the use of articles, personal pronouns to refer back to
entities mentioned earlier in a text and the use of linking words to establish a particular logical relationship
of, for example, contrast or addition between two or more sentences in a text. [7]
_________________________________________________________________________________________

3. Text Linguistics and the Field of Translation

In the late 1960s, translation scholars began to realize that the study of language based on sentences was not
sufficient, and that a complete study should be made of the whole text. In talking about the translation of
words and texts, Nida and Tabbar (1969) wrote, “The average person naively thinks that language is words,
the common tacit (i.e. understood) assumption results that translation involves replacing a word in language
A with a word in language B. And the more conscientious this sort of translation is, the more acute. In other
words, the traditional focus of attention in translation was on the word. It was recognized that that was not a
sufficiently large unit, and therefore the focus shifted to the sentence, as an act of communication, not just
trans-coding. But again, expert translators and linguists have been able to demonstrate that individual
sentences, in turn, are also not enough. The focus should be on the paragraph, and to some extent on the
total discourse” (p. 152). From this, we can conclude that the authors regard a discourse as something larger
than a paragraph, i.e., a text + context. [8] Examples:
(A) A simple sentence like "George passed" may have different interpretations in different contexts. If the
context is that of an examination, it means George did well on a test; in a card game it would indicate
that George declined his chance to bid; in sports it would mean the ball reached another player.
Without a context, how could we decide on a translation? [8]
(B) The translator into Arabic needs to be provided with supplementary information to decide whether
“aunt” is maternal or paternal in order to correctly translate it into ‫ خالة‬or ‫عمة‬.

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Apart from context, a full grasp of the meaning of a text cannot be achieved without reference to
co-text. The Text Analysis Method to translation pays as much attention to this point as it does to
context. Through the study of co-text, context can be recreated and a full reading of the text can be
obtained. This method utilizes a variety of adjacent disciplines for analyzing the SLT such as comparative
grammar, comparative ethnology (branch of anthropology – historical development), sociology (the
study of the development/organization of human society), stylistics (words used by a group of people),
literary criticism (study/evaluation/interpretation of literature), and semiotics (symbols). [9]
Example 1: The word “yellow” in English sometimes gives an additional layer of meaning as in “yellow-bellied”
meaning COWARD, in Japan it means COURAGE, and in Indian it means JOY. We would never know how to
translate yellow properly from/into these languages without sometimes resorting to co-texts.
Example 2:  usually always means “ok” or “yes” or “good”, but if the text is about scuba diving, for example, 
would mean “up”.

The primary concern of Text Linguistic Theories of Translating is the establishment of strategies which
facilitate the job of the translator by systematizing the methods and the procedures of translating. [8]

Text linguistics has become increasingly popular since the 1960s. Van Dijk was a pioneer in this field, and
his four-volume edition of the Handbook of Discourse Analysis is of
great value. Halliday's Cohesion in English and Introduction to
This paragraph is
Functional Grammar help us to better understand the English
extra info (not for
language on a textual level. It is worth noting that de Beaugrande exams)
and Dressler (1981) provided an overall and systematic study of
text, which is useful to translation studies. De Beaugrande actually
wrote a book called Factors in a Theory of Poetic Translating in
1978. At the same time, books on a linguistic approach to
translation were introduced, such as the works of Eugene Nida, Peter Newmarks, J.C. Catford, and
others. These books gave a great push to the application of text linguistic theories to translation studies.
[8] (Note: Atida.org has a wonderful e-library)

Other text linguistic translation theorists, such as Basil Hatim in his book Translation as Text, classify
different text types (Note: Hatim focused on argumentative texts), each of which has its own distinctive
features and, accordingly, its different methods of translating. For instance, students are trained to be
sensitive to language use, to background 'clue hunting', and writing in different styles and different text
types. Classifying text types has attracted a great deal of attention and zest and has been regarded as the
most relevant of all areas of text linguistics to translation studies. In terms of translation teaching,
Neubert (1968, 1980) for example, classified texts according to their translatability (e.g. how
easy/difficult it is to translate a text, for example, humor would be considered a very difficult text type)
and discussed the relevance of text types to the process of translating. [10]

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Textuality and Translation
The 7 standards answer a number of key questions which the translator will need to ask about a text:
(1) How do the surface grammatical dependences and lexis hold together? (cohesion)
(2) How do the conceptual dependences in the textual world hold together? (coherence)
(3) Why did the speaker /writer produce this? (intentionaIity)
(4) How will the reader take it? (acceptability)
(5) What (how much) does it tell us? (informativity)
(6) Is the translated text suitable for that context/situation? (situationality)
(7) What is the mutual relevance among separate texts? (intertextuality) [12]

If translation is a complex-problem solving activity, then textuality is the goal-state toward which the process
is working. Texts are meant to communicate information from the producer to the receiver who exists in a
certain contextual surrounding. To examine this idea, four components are relatively involved. This schema
explains the relation between the components of the communication process and the standards of textuality:
[14]

The effective translator must understand the elements that combine to create textuality if he/she is to
manipulate them in the interests of the target text [TT] reader. The effectiveness of the TT emerges from its
naturalness, in other words, from the feeling that it is not a translation of some other text which is original.
The naturalness of translated texts is a result of adopting the textual features that appeal to the expectations
of TT readers, since those readers have a set of textual expectations which control his or her reaction to the
text. Textuality is never an end in itself; it is the means toward a smooth translation product. [15]
Here are six language samples that appear to be alike in some ways and different in others: [4]

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 4. de Beaugrande and Dressler’s Seven Standards of Textuality &
Their Significance for Translators

[1] SLOW
CHILDREN
AT PLAY

[2] The King was in the counting house, counting all his money;
The Queen was in the parlour, eating bread and honey;
The Maid was in the garden, hanging out the clothes;
Along came a blackbird and pecked off her nose.

[3] Twenty-year-old Willie B is a diehard TV addict. He hates news and talk shows,
but he loves football and gets so excited over food commercials that he sometimes charges
at the set, waving a fist. Says a friend: “He’s like a little child.” Willie B. is a 450-lb gorilla at the
Atlanta Zoo. In December a TV dealer heard about Willie B.’s lonely life as the zoo’s only
gorilla and gave him a TV set.

[4] A great black and yellow V-2 rocket 46 feet long stood in a New Mexico desert. Empty it weighed five tons. For fuel it
carried eight tons of alcohol and liquid oxygen. Everything was ready. Scientists and generals withdrew to some distance and
crouched behind earth mounds. Two red flares rose as a signal to fire the rocket. With a great roar and burst of flame the
giant rocket rose slowly and then faster and faster. Behind it trailed sixty feet of yellow flame. Soon the flame looked like a
yellow star. In a few seconds it was too high to be seen, but radar tracked it as it sped upward to 3, 000 mph.

[5] heffalump: (gloatingly): Ho-ho!

piglet (carelessly): Tra-la-la, tra-la-la.
heffalump (surprised, and not quite so sure of himself): Ho-ho!
piglet (more carelessly still): Tiddle-um-tum, tiddle-um-tum.
heffalump (beginning to say ‘Ho-ho’ and turning it awkwardly into a cough)
piglet (surprised): Hallo! This is a trap I’ve made, and I’m waiting for the Heffalump to fall into it.
heffalump (greatly disappointed): Oh! (After a long silence): Are you sure?
piglet: Yes.
heffalump: Oh! (nervously): I—I thought it was a trap I’d made to catch piglets.
piglet (surprised): Oh. no!
heffalump: Oh! (apologetically): I—I must have got it wrong, then.
piglet: I’m afraid so. (politely): I’m sorry. (He goes on humming.)
heffalump: Well —Well—I— Well. I suppose I’d better be getting back?
piglet: (looking up carelessly): Must you? Well, if you see Christopher Robin anywhere, you might tell him I want him.
heffalump (eager to please): Certainly! Certainly! (He hurries off.)

[6] GHOSTS
Those houses haunt in which we leave
Something undone. It is not those
Great words or silences of love
That spread their echoes through a place
And fill the locked-up unbreathed gloom.
Ghosts do not haunt with any face
That we have known; they only come
With arrogance to thrust at us
Our own omissions in a room.
The words we would not speak they use,
The deeds we dared not act they flaunt,
Our nervous silences they bruise;
It is our helplessness they choose
And our refusals that they haunt. ~Elizabeth Jennings
These are all instances of English texts being used in discourse. The different ways these texts can be used
indicates that they belong to different text types: [1] a road sign, [2] a nursery rhyme, [3] a news article,
[4] a science textbook, [5] a conversation between two participants taking turns, and [6] a poem. [13]
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It seems reasonable to require that a science of texts should be able to describe or explain both the shared
features and the distinctions among these texts or text types. [13]

A text will be defined as a communicative occurrence which meets seven standards of textuality. If any of
these standards is not considered to have been satisfied, the text will not be communicative. Hence,
non-communicative texts are treated as non-texts. [13]

(1) Cohesion (adj. Cohesive) ‫الحبك‬

⚫ De Beaugrande and Dressler’s Definition: Cohesion is concerned with the ways in which the components
of the surface text (i.e. the actual words we hear or see) are mutually connected within a sequence. [13]

⚫ Bell (1991) defines cohesion as: One of the seven standards of textuality – it makes use of formal surface
features (syntax and lexis) that interact with underlying semantic relations to create textual unity. In each
text, the cohesive devices are employed as linguistic means intra-sententially (within the same sentence) and
inter-sententially (between sentences) to achieve cohesion. [18]

⚫ Cohesion is achieved via (a) lexical links and (b) grammatical dependencies. As linguists have often pointed
out, surface sequences of English cannot be radically rearranged without causing disturbances. We would
not, for instance, get very far by converting Slow Children at Play into this order: Children Play Slow at. The
series is so disjointed that drivers could hardly tell what goes with what.

⚫ Ambiguity could result due to dividing up a text into various dependencies (e.g. Slow
Children at Play). Someone might understand it as a notice about ‘slow children’ who are ‘at
play’ so that unflattering conclusions could be drawn about the children’s intelligence or
physical fitness. But the more likely reaction would be to divide the text into ‘slow’
and ‘children at play’, and suppose that drivers should reduce speed to avoid
endangering the playing children. A science of texts should explain how ambiguities
like this one are possible on the surface, but also how people preclude or resolve
most ambiguities without difficulty. The surface is, as we see, not decisive by itself;
there must be interaction between cohesion and the other standards of textuality to
make communication efficient. [13]

⚫ Cohesion is "objective" since it is part of the text's surface level/structure (i.e. surface level = the words
that can be seen/heard). [13]

⚫ While textual cohesion in written texts rests upon syntactic surface structures, for spoken texts a number
of other cohesive systems are available: rhythm (quick/slow clusters of speech – e.g. clear in reading the
Qura’an ‫ ترتيل‬intonation (up/down), stress (prominent loudness on syllable in word), timbre (quality of sound:
harsh, dark, bright, etc.), and pausing. [9]

TEXT ANALYSIS:
Check the following texts. Are they cohesive?

Inter-sentential Cohesion: No / Intra-sentential Cohesion: Yes / Lexical ties (key word): No

Is this text cohesive? ______

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Lexical ties: Yes / Cohesive participants: No / Is this text cohesive? _______

References (e.g., pronouns, demonstratives, or comparatives): Yes / Meaning clear: No missing info
Is this text cohesive? ______

Everything is fine EXCEPT for the logical/conjunctive ties. Is this text cohesive? ______

Written English doesn’t accept unnecessary repetition as it weakens the text and affects its unity.
Is this text cohesive: ______

Practice - Comment on the cohesion of the following text (sign):

• Cohesive devices:
(1) Reference (e.g. pronouns, demonstratives, comparative –er, & superlative “the” and “-est”)
(2) Logical ties (subordinating and coordinating conjunctions - in order?):
(3) Lexical ties (main theme/idea):
• Repetition (? acceptable or unnecessary):
• Intra-/Inter- cohesion:

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⚫ Cohesion and Translation:

Cohesive devices contribute to texture and are motivated by the linguistic as well as the communicative
factors of both ST and TT languages, so that they need to be given considerable attention by the translator
when transferring from one language into another. [20]
Cohesion is arguably one of the most challenging issues in translation as each language has its own set of
cohesive devices and a unique manner in which these devices are used. Every language has its own patterns
to convey the interrelationship of persons and events; in no language may these patterns be ignored. In
other words, each language has what we might call general preferences for certain cohesive patterns over
others. A cohesive translation seems to suggest that textual devices should be chosen by the translator in
accordance with the target language textual norms and conventions. The translator has to take into account
the way languages create cohesion. It should be noted here that the failure to reproduce these textual
patterns, might result in an odd, ambiguous, or redundant translation, as it might lead to failure in
communication. Failure is evidence of the inability to cope with the differences between languages. [21]

Cohesion refers to the cohesive devices which are regarded as major linguistic features of any text that are
used to bind the units of the text together. Arabic has its own cohesive devices which are used as linguistic
resources to achieve cohesion in all Arabic text types. The various types of cohesive ties in Arabic [and
English] include reference ‫( اإلشاره‬e.g. ‫ (هي طالبة‬, substitution ‫ اإلستبدال‬, ellipsis ‫ الحذف‬, conjunction ‫( الربط‬e.g.
‫)فيجب‬, and lexical cohesion ‫( ترابط معجمي‬e.g. in the Qur’an, repetition of words or synonyms). [22]

Due to the fact that Arabic and English are two incompatible languages, there will be limits of translatability;
the lexical items used for cohesion in Arabic may not be equivalent to those in the English version. Hence, a
translator needs to constantly be aware of such discrepancies. Examples: [23]

(A) In the use of pronouns, Arabic tends to be more explicit than English, and one way of rendering an
ellipted item is by placing in its place a pronoun. In translating ‫ قلب الظالم‬to Heart of Darkness, the
sentence: “These moribund shapes were free as air and nearly as thin” >>> “as air” is ellipted at the
end of the sentence to avoid redundancy; however, in Arabic, this ellipted item should be made
explicit, but at the same time, the translator should avoid repetition. Thus, we have substitution for
“air” ‫كانت تلك األشباح المحتضره حرة كالهواء و نحيلة مثله‬
As a result, we have here an ellipted item substituted in Arabic by a pronoun ‫ ه‬in ‫مثله‬.

___________________________________________________________________________________

(B)

Prominent cohesive devices

Arabic: (1) Repetition and (2) Conjunctions ‫و‬
English: (1) Repetition > translated as is, and (2) commas are used instead of conjunctions [22]

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 Application: Do the texts below meet the 7 standards of textuality? Explain.
Context: Posted in our KSU library

‫ وتوجد في شارع االستقالل في العاصمة‬1800 ‫مكتبة الكونجرس هي المكتبة الوطنية للواليات المتحدة األمريكية وتأسست المكتبة في عام‬
‫ مليون كتاب وهي ثاني أكبر مكتبة في العالم بعد المكتبة‬110 ‫ ويوجد في المكتبة أكثر من‬.‫األمريكية واشنطن‬
.‫البريطانية من حيث مساحة الرفوف وعدد الكتب وتستقبل المكتبة نسختين من كل كتاب إنجليزي يتم نشره‬

Cohesion
* Cohesive devices:
(1) Reference (e.g. pronouns, demonstratives, comparative –er, & superlative “the” and “-est”)
(2) Logical ties (subordinating and coordinating conjunctions - in order?):
(3) Lexical ties (main theme/idea):
* Repetition (? acceptable or unnecessary):
* Intra-/Inter- cohesion:

Context: Store front in Riyadh

SAUDIS ONLY

Cohesion
* Cohesive devices:
(1) Reference (e.g. pronouns, demonstratives, comparative –er, & superlative “the” and “-est”)
(2) Logical ties (subordinating and coordinating conjunctions - in order?):
(3) Lexical ties (main theme/idea):
* Repetition (? acceptable or unnecessary):
* Intra-/Inter- cohesion:

Context: Website on parenting

As kids get a little older, their attention span grows, their interests expand, and parents are often looking for an
hour and half of uninterrupted time. You can experiment with movies from our Best First Movies List or search
for movies in your kid’s age range. After a little experimenting, you can usually get a pretty good idea of the
kind of things that your kids can handle – and what they can’t. Depending on your kid’s particular sensitivity,
the movies below can be great choices (or big no-nos!). In the end, parents know best, so use our suggestions as
a guide, and take it from there. —Sierra Filucci

Cohesion
* Cohesive devices:
(1) Reference (e.g. pronouns, demonstratives, comparative –er, & superlative “the” and “-est”)
(2) Logical ties (subordinating and coordinating conjunctions - in order?):
(3) Lexical ties (main theme/idea):
* Repetition (? acceptable or unnecessary):
* Intra-/Inter- cohesion:

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(2) Coherence (adj. Coherent) ‫الترابط الداللي‬
⚫Cohesion and coherence are text-centered notions. [13]
⚫ De Beaugrande and Dressler’s Definition: Coherence is concerned with the ways in which the
components of the textual world (i.e. the arrangement of CONCEPTS and RELATIONS which underlie the
surface structure) are mutually accessible and relevant. [13]
{1} Concepts:
A concept is a configuration of knowledge (cognitive content) which can be usually recovered or activated
with unity and consistency in the mind. Examples: A. Object concept (e.g. “scientists” and “earth”)
B. Action concept (e.g. “crouch” and “withdraw”) [13]
{2} Relations:
Relations are the links between concepts that appear together in a textual world.
Key

Agent: a
Affected entity: ae
Attribute of: at
Cause of: ca
Containment of: co
Enablement of: en
Equivalent to: eq
Location: lo
Modality of: md
Motion of: mo
[24] Opposed to: op
See p. 6 #4
Purpose of: pu
Types of relations include: Quantity of: qu
(for full text) Reason of: re
A. Agent (i.e. doer)
Specification of: sp
State of: st
B. Affected entity Substance of: su
Time of: ti

The highlighted relations

above are the ones
Children at play we’ve covered.

Object concept action concept Relation? “Children” are the agent of “play”

Relations are sometimes:

1. EXCPLICIT (Examples: Children at play OR Slow children need extra special help with school work)
2. IMPLICIT (Example: The sign >> Slow children at play People will supply as many relations as are needed to
make sense out of the text as it stands. In the road sign ‘slow’ makes better sense as the “quantity of motion”
which a text receiver should assume than as an “attribute” of the children themselves. [13]

Amal ate an apple in the kitchen.

C. Causality
Coherence can be illustrated particularly well by a group of relations subsumed under causality. These
relations concern the ways in which one situation or event affects the conditions for some other one.
1. Cause (i.e. immediate cause): Jack fell down and broke his crown
2. Enablement (makes effect easier to happen):
The Queen of Hearts, she made some tarts, all on a summer’s day
The Knave of Hearts, he stole those tarts, and took them quite away
3. Reason (rational / expected cause): Jack will get only a penny a day because he
can’t work any harder / [ ‫] من جد وجد‬
4. Purpose (i.e. plan): Old Mother Hubbard went to the cupboard to get her poor dog a bone. [13]
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D. Time
The relation of temporal proximity (e.g. before, after, proximate in time [i.e. at the same time]) can be
recovered/specified according to (a) our knowledge of the world and (b) the boundaries of events.

E. Location Where something happens (i.e. the vicinity/area). Example: In the vicinity of the castle

F. Attributes Qualities of someone/something. Example: gluttonous, greedy, and industrious [13]

⚫ Thus, coherence isn't just a feature of texts, rather the outcome of cognitive processes among text users;
as they are reading, they will make INFERENCES about such things as CAUSALITY, TIME/LOCATION proximity,
as well as ATTRIBUTES of the agents involved. Text only makes sense by the interaction of the text-presented
knowledge with people's stored knowledge of the world. [13]

⚫ Since text "sense" will vary to some degree from one person to another, any text analysis/translation
theory will be probalistic rather than deterministic, but there will always be a common semantic core so that
the notion of "sense of a text" is not excessively unstable. [13]

⚫ Examples of a non-coherent texts:

(Note: The text on the far right
is cohesive)

⚫ Coherence and Translation:

The coherence of a text is not a stable concept. There is the possibility that texts may change or lose their
meaning potential through translation via:
(A) “Text-focused shift”: The process of translation shifts occur as a result of particular choices made by a
specific translator that may indicate a lack of awareness on the translator's part of the SL text's
meaning potential.
(B) “Reader-focused shift”: A change in reader audiences through translation. [26]

For maintaining coherence in a translated text, the translator needs to be able to decipher the network of
semantic relations through the process of interpretation, the result of which is a set of choices that the
translator has to select the most relevant ones (and to rule out the less relevant ones) in accordance with the
context. [27]

Practice - Comment on the coherence of the following text (sign):

Type of coherence (implicit/explicit): ???

Word chain: (yes/no – around what word): ???

Coherent: (yes/no): ???

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 Application: Do the texts below meet the 7 standards of textuality? Explain.
Context: Posted in our KSU library

‫ وتوجد في شارع االستقالل في العاصمة‬1800 ‫مكتبة الكونجرس هي المكتبة الوطنية للواليات المتحدة األمريكية وتأسست المكتبة في عام‬
‫ مليون كتاب وهي ثاني أكبر مكتبة في العالم بعد المكتبة‬110 ‫ ويوجد في المكتبة أكثر من‬.‫األمريكية واشنطن‬
.‫البريطانية من حيث مساحة الرفوف وعدد الكتب وتستقبل المكتبة نسختين من كل كتاب إنجليزي يتم نشره‬

Coherence
Type of coherence (implicit/explicit): ???

Word chain: (yes/no – around what word): ???

Coherent: (yes/no): ???

Context: Store front in Riyadh

SAUDIS ONLY

Coherence
Type of coherence (implicit/explicit): ???

Word chain: (yes/no – around what word): ???

Coherent: (yes/no): ???

Context: Website on parenting

As kids get a little older, their attention span grows, their interests expand, and parents are often looking for an
hour and half of uninterrupted time. You can experiment with movies from our Best First Movies List or search
for movies in your kid’s age range. After a little experimenting, you can usually get a pretty good idea of the
kind of things that your kids can handle – and what they can’t. Depending on your kid’s particular sensitivity,
the movies below can be great choices (or big no-nos!). In the end, parents know best, so use our suggestions as
a guide, and take it from there. —Sierra Filucci

Coherence
Type of coherence (implicit/explicit): ???

Word chain: (yes/no – around what word): ???

Coherent: (yes/no): ???

13 | P a g e
(3) Intentionality ‫المقصدية‬

⚫ Where cohesion and coherence are text-centered notions, intentionality and acceptability are
user-centered ones. [13]

⚫ De Beaugrande & Dressler’s Definition: Intentionality is concerned with the text producer's attitude in
that the set of occurrences (speaking/writing) should constitute a cohesive and coherent text
contributing to the fulfillment of the producer’s intentions.

Examples: Distributing knowledge, reaching a planned goal, persuading, instructing, requesting, etc. [13]

⚫ The main goal, of course, is to achieve cohesion and coherence, without which most communicative
occurrences would break down, however in casual conversation, text users often exercise tolerance
towards structures that are not fully cohesive/coherent. Example: “Well where do which part of town do
you live?” did not disturb communication because it still served the superior goal of finding out
someone’s address. But if a person purposely tries to defy cohesion/coherence, it could slow down, or
even break down communication completely. [13]

⚫ Example of a text in which “intentionality” is not clear:

⚫ Intentionality and Translation:

Intentionality is related to the text producer (the author) and the text reproducer (the translator).
Written or spoken texts have their implied intentions. If the intentions of the producer are not explicitly
or implicitly definable, intentionality would not occur and subsequently textuality would be breached.

Example of a translated text in which intentionality was preserved:

Context: ‫موجه للمسلمين‬

Context: ‫موجه للكفار‬

(intention: emphasis)

Therefore, if intention isn’t clear in the source text, you must ask the ST author. Any author needs to
show intentions in the text, which closely relates to the acceptability of the text (i.e. its relevance to the
TT reader).

Translation as a sort of rewriting involves the translator's attempt to be as faithful as possible to the
intentions of the original text producer. [14]

14 | P a g e
 Application: Do the texts below meet the 7 standards of textuality? Explain.
Context: Posted in our KSU library

‫ وتوجد في شارع االستقالل في العاصمة‬1800 ‫مكتبة الكونجرس هي المكتبة الوطنية للواليات المتحدة األمريكية وتأسست المكتبة في عام‬
‫ مليون كتاب وهي ثاني أكبر مكتبة في العالم بعد المكتبة‬110 ‫ ويوجد في المكتبة أكثر من‬.‫األمريكية واشنطن‬
.‫البريطانية من حيث مساحة الرفوف وعدد الكتب وتستقبل المكتبة نسختين من كل كتاب إنجليزي يتم نشره‬

Intentionality
Clear intention? (yes/no)
What’s the intention?

Context: Posted in a fancy restaurant

‫ وتوجد في شارع االستقالل في العاصمة‬1800 ‫مكتبة الكونجرس هي المكتبة الوطنية للواليات المتحدة األمريكية وتأسست المكتبة في عام‬
‫ مليون كتاب وهي ثاني أكبر مكتبة في العالم بعد المكتبة‬110 ‫ ويوجد في المكتبة أكثر من‬.‫األمريكية واشنطن‬
.‫البريطانية من حيث مساحة الرفوف وعدد الكتب وتستقبل المكتبة نسختين من كل كتاب إنجليزي يتم نشره‬

Intentionality
Clear intention? (yes/no)
What’s the intention?

Context: Store front in Riyadh

SAUDIS ONLY

Intentionality
Clear intention? (yes/no)
What’s the intention?

Context: Website on parenting

As kids get a little older, their attention span grows, their interests expand, and parents are often looking for an
hour and half of uninterrupted time. You can experiment with movies from our Best First Movies List or search
for movies in your kid’s age range. After a little experimenting, you can usually get a pretty good idea of the
kind of things that your kids can handle – and what they can’t. Depending on your kid’s particular sensitivity,
the movies below can be great choices (or big no-nos!). In the end, parents know best, so use our suggestions as
a guide, and take it from there. —Sierra Filucci

Intentionality
Clear intention? (yes/no)
What’s the intention?

15 | P a g e
(4) Acceptability ‫المقبولية‬
⚫ De Beaugrande & Dressler’s Definition: Acceptability is concerned with the text receiver’s attitude
that the set of occurrences [i.e. reading/hearing] should constitute a cohesive and coherent text having
some use or relevance for the receiver. Examples: To acquire knowledge or provide cooperation in a
plan. [13]

⚫ The maintenance of cohesion/coherence by the text receiver is a goal of its own, such that material
would be supplied or disturbances tolerated as required via inferences. For example, poems often
require inferences, but not contracts. [13]

⚫ Acceptability is very much responsive/sensitive to several factors. These are the criteria usually used
to judge the acceptability of a text. [13]
(A) Text type. Example:
Legal texts must be formal, clear and detailed, unlike, e.g., a poem which may be rich in imagery and is vague.
Analysis: text type (e.g. contracts) do not tolerate imagery, thus, not acceptable

(B) Social or cultural setting. Example:

A verse from the Quran posted in a hospital would be acceptable in SA, but not in a hospital in the States.
Analysis: social context is not acceptable

(C) The desirability of goals. Example:

In this exchange (from The Posthumous Papers of the Pickwick Club by Charles Dickens’);
“What we require, sir, is a probe of this here.”
“Probate, my dear sir, probate,” said Pell.
“Well, sir, “replied Mr. Weller sharply, “probe and probe it is very much the same; if you don’t understand what I mean, sir, I daresay I
can find them as does.”
“No offence, I hope, Mr. Weller, “said Pell meekly.

Here, attention is diverted away from the investigation of the will (“of this” in the first line refers to a will)
and the pronunciation of “probe it” becomes under attack. [13]
Analysis: Desirability of goals is different, thus not accepted.

(D) Linguistic standard. Example:

English passive sentences are not easily accepted by professional translators to Arabic, but I might accept it
(as a non-professional translator OR because of lack of awareness)
Analysis: Linguistic standard is not acceptable

⚫ Acceptability and Translation:

Intentionality and acceptability are closely linked because if the producer intends the text to be acceptable,
s/he will make use of all the possible means to reach such a goal. Hence, for a translator to produce a
culturally acceptable text, s/he should be aware of the acceptability standards of the target community –
(Note: this is greatly in line with the Skopos translation theory). Acceptability (which naturalness is a big part
of) becomes a “measuring criterion of how successful translation is.” [14]
Example of an unnatural translation would surely lead to breaching acceptability:

16 | P a g e
 Application: Do the texts below meet the 7 standards of textuality? Explain.
Context: Posted in our KSU library

‫ وتوجد في شارع االستقالل في العاصمة‬1800 ‫مكتبة الكونجرس هي المكتبة الوطنية للواليات المتحدة األمريكية وتأسست المكتبة في عام‬
‫ مليون كتاب وهي ثاني أكبر مكتبة في العالم بعد المكتبة‬110 ‫ ويوجد في المكتبة أكثر من‬.‫األمريكية واشنطن‬
.‫البريطانية من حيث مساحة الرفوف وعدد الكتب وتستقبل المكتبة نسختين من كل كتاب إنجليزي يتم نشره‬
Acceptability:
Is the text type suitable? Is the context suitable?
Is the desired goal achieved? Is the linguistic standard acceptable?
Final analysis - Acceptable? Yes/No

Context: Posted in a fancy restaurant

‫ وتوجد في شارع االستقالل في العاصمة‬1800 ‫مكتبة الكونجرس هي المكتبة الوطنية للواليات المتحدة األمريكية وتأسست المكتبة في عام‬
‫ مليون كتاب وهي ثاني أكبر مكتبة في العالم بعد المكتبة‬110 ‫ ويوجد في المكتبة أكثر من‬.‫األمريكية واشنطن‬
.‫البريطانية من حيث مساحة الرفوف وعدد الكتب وتستقبل المكتبة نسختين من كل كتاب إنجليزي يتم نشره‬

Acceptability:
Is the text type suitable? Is the context suitable?
Is the desired goal achieved? Is the linguistic standard acceptable?
Final analysis - Acceptable? Yes/No

Context: Store front in Riyadh

SAUDIS ONLY

Acceptability:
Is the text type suitable? Is the context suitable?
Is the desired goal achieved? Is the linguistic standard acceptable?
Final analysis - Acceptable? Yes/No

Context: Website on parenting

As kids get a little older, their attention span grows, their interests expand, and parents are often looking for an
hour and half of uninterrupted time. You can experiment with movies from our Best First Movies List or search
for movies in your kid’s age range. After a little experimenting, you can usually get a pretty good idea of the
kind of things that your kids can handle – and what they can’t. Depending on your kid’s particular sensitivity,
the movies below can be great choices (or big no-nos!). In the end, parents know best, so use our suggestions as
a guide, and take it from there. —Sierra Filucci

Acceptability:
Is the text type suitable? Is the context suitable?
Is the desired goal achieved? Is the linguistic standard acceptable?
Final analysis - Acceptable? Yes/No

17 | P a g e
(5) Informativity ‫اإلخبارية‬
⚫ De Beaugrande & Dressler’s Definition: Informativity is concerned with the extent to which the
occurrences of the presented text are expected vs. unexpected or known vs. unknown for the receiver. [13]

⚫ High Informativity: Stretches of speech or writing that leave room for imagination/interpretation/inference
are considered “highly informative” since the presented text offers unknown/unexpected information.
Example: Call us before you dig.

This kind of mental processing of highly informative occurrences (written/spoken text) is more demanding
and interesting than more explicitly stated occurrences (i.e. people are left to infer that digging without
asking might lead to cutting off a ground cable and hence to losing the wiring needed in order to call; or even,
to sustaining bodily injury and being disabled). BUT caution must be taken otherwise the receiver’s mental
processing may become too overloaded to the point of endangering communication. [13]

⚫ Further examples:
(high mental processing=
High informativity)

⚫ Low Informativity: Stretches of speech or writing that leave little room for imagination (i.e. interpretation
or inference) are considered “somewhat informative” since the content and form are predictable/known.
This kind of mental processing of low informative occurrences (written/spoken text) can easily cause
boredom or even rejection of the text because of how “obvious” a piece of information is. [13]
Example:
Call us before you dig. There might be an underground cable. If you break the cable, you won’t have phone
service, and you may get a severe electric shock. Then you won’t be able to call us. [13]

⚫ Informativity and Translation:

From an informative point of view, a text is seen as the realization of choices made from among sets of
options. The less probable and predictable a choice is, the more informative and interesting it is. The aim of
applying informativity as an important standard of textuality lies in the text producer's desire to keep the
reader interested and attentive throughout the whole text. In fact, the translator is much more burdened
with preserving those conventions more carefully and more attentively to produce a TT similar in
construction to the original (i.e. preserving the same level of informativity in the TT). [30] So for example, since
many poems are ambiguous in nature, they’d have to be transferred in a similar way. Whereas a contract or
recipe are clear, so they would need to be translated clearly.

18 | P a g e
 Application: Do the texts below meet the 7 standards of textuality? Explain.
Context: Posted in our KSU library

‫ وتوجد في شارع االستقالل في العاصمة‬1800 ‫مكتبة الكونجرس هي المكتبة الوطنية للواليات المتحدة األمريكية وتأسست المكتبة في عام‬
‫ مليون كتاب وهي ثاني أكبر مكتبة في العالم بعد المكتبة‬110 ‫ ويوجد في المكتبة أكثر من‬.‫األمريكية واشنطن‬
.‫البريطانية من حيث مساحة الرفوف وعدد الكتب وتستقبل المكتبة نسختين من كل كتاب إنجليزي يتم نشره‬
Informativity:
High/Low?

Context: Posted in a fancy restaurant

‫ وتوجد في شارع االستقالل في العاصمة‬1800 ‫مكتبة الكونجرس هي المكتبة الوطنية للواليات المتحدة األمريكية وتأسست المكتبة في عام‬
‫ مليون كتاب وهي ثاني أكبر مكتبة في العالم بعد المكتبة‬110 ‫ ويوجد في المكتبة أكثر من‬.‫األمريكية واشنطن‬
.‫البريطانية من حيث مساحة الرفوف وعدد الكتب وتستقبل المكتبة نسختين من كل كتاب إنجليزي يتم نشره‬

Informativity:
High/Low?

Context: Store front in Riyadh

SAUDIS ONLY

Informativity:
High/Low?

Context: Website on parenting

As kids get a little older, their attention span grows, their interests expand, and parents are often looking for an
hour and half of uninterrupted time. You can experiment with movies from our Best First Movies List or search
for movies in your kid’s age range. After a little experimenting, you can usually get a pretty good idea of the
kind of things that your kids can handle – and what they can’t. Depending on your kid’s particular sensitivity,
the movies below can be great choices (or big no-nos!). In the end, parents know best, so use our suggestions as
a guide, and take it from there. —Sierra Filucci

Informativity:
High/Low?

Context: Webpage on English proverbs

A miss is as good as a mile

Informativity:
High/Low?

19 | P a g e
(6) Situationality ‫الموقفية‬
⚫ De Beaugrande & Dressler’s Definition: Situationality is concerned with the factors which make a text
relevant to a situation of occurrence (i.e. relevant to time & place). For example: Scientific texts share a
common situationality, while ideological texts have different situationalities across languages and cultures. [13]

⚫ The sense and use of text are decided

via the situation. Example: Clearly this sign is
directed at motorists, not pedestrians, since
pedestrians’ speeds would not endanger anyone. [13]

⚫ A longer version of the sign could be stated, but sometimes the situation forces receivers to have only
limited time and attention to devote to signs among the other occurrences of moving traffic. That
consideration forces the text producer toward a maximum of economy [Grice’s “manner” maxim]. It becomes
clear that situationality works so strongly that a minimal version is more appropriate than the clearer
(longer) one. [13]

⚫ The relationship between informativity and situationality: Since a text is considered as informative when it
transfers new information, or information that was unknown before, we can conclude that situationality
contributes to the informativity of the text. Examples: (1) A book written in 1950 has an informativity that
was high back then (e.g. a book about the importance of speedy/instant communication) but not nowadays.
(2) A book in the 1990’s, e.g. on floppy disks, would be considered of low informativity back then, but highly
informative in the far away future.

⚫ Relevance or situationality is considerably linked to acceptability. Judging the acceptability of a text is done
in terms of the validity of its reference not to the real world only, but rather in terms of its believability and
relevance to the participants' outlook regarding the situation.

⚫ The subject matter that the author is discussing together with all the contextual factors decides the
author's choice of the formality level and the medium he will use (Hatim & Mason, 1997, p. 20). [14]

⚫ Example of a text that’s not suitable for the situation

(Context: Parking lot)

⚫ Situationality and Translation:

Situationality in translation is an essential standard because the translator is reproducing a text in a
completely new context, that is, the TL culture. This creates many complexities for the translator who should
be able to cover everything about the target culture and the acceptable contextual setting. The translator is a
receiver and a sender at the same time. He has to absorb the SL text comprehensively in order to reorganize
it and accommodate it as to fit into the new cultural community. The relevance of the text to the new
situation is almost the only determiner (or at least one of the most important determiners) of the
translatability of any text. [14]
20 | P a g e
 Application: Do the texts below meet the 7 standards of textuality? Explain.
Context: Posted in our KSU library

‫ وتوجد في شارع االستقالل في العاصمة‬1800 ‫مكتبة الكونجرس هي المكتبة الوطنية للواليات المتحدة األمريكية وتأسست المكتبة في عام‬
‫ مليون كتاب وهي ثاني أكبر مكتبة في العالم بعد المكتبة‬110 ‫ ويوجد في المكتبة أكثر من‬.‫األمريكية واشنطن‬
.‫البريطانية من حيث مساحة الرفوف وعدد الكتب وتستقبل المكتبة نسختين من كل كتاب إنجليزي يتم نشره‬
Situationality:
Suitable – yes/no, and why?

Context: Posted in a fancy restaurant

‫ وتوجد في شارع االستقالل في العاصمة‬1800 ‫مكتبة الكونجرس هي المكتبة الوطنية للواليات المتحدة األمريكية وتأسست المكتبة في عام‬
‫ مليون كتاب وهي ثاني أكبر مكتبة في العالم بعد المكتبة‬110 ‫ ويوجد في المكتبة أكثر من‬.‫األمريكية واشنطن‬
.‫البريطانية من حيث مساحة الرفوف وعدد الكتب وتستقبل المكتبة نسختين من كل كتاب إنجليزي يتم نشره‬

Situationality:
Suitable – yes/no, and why?

Context: Store front in Riyadh

SAUDIS ONLY

Situationality:
Suitable – yes/no, and why?

Context: Website on parenting

As kids get a little older, their attention span grows, their interests expand, and parents are often looking for an
hour and half of uninterrupted time. You can experiment with movies from our Best First Movies List or search
for movies in your kid’s age range. After a little experimenting, you can usually get a pretty good idea of the
kind of things that your kids can handle – and what they can’t. Depending on your kid’s particular sensitivity,
the movies below can be great choices (or big no-nos!). In the end, parents know best, so use our suggestions as
a guide, and take it from there. —Sierra Filucci

Situationality:
Suitable – yes/no, and why?

Context: Webpage on English proverbs

A miss is as good as a mile

Situationality:
Suitable – yes/no, and why?

21 | P a g e
(7) Intertextuality ‫التناص‬
⚫ De Beaugrande & Dressler’s Definition: Intertextuality is concerned with the factors which make the use of
one text dependent upon knowledge of one or more previously encountered texts. [13] Example:

The text will only make sense and have relevance if prior to this, the text was seen.[13]

⚫ Intertextuality can be responsible for the evolution of TEXT TYPES (i.e. classes of texts with typical patterns
of characteristics). Within a particular type, reliance on intertextuality may be more or less prominent/clear.

⚫ In types like parodies (imitative work created to comment or make fun of an original work), critical reviews,
rebuttals, or reports, the text producer must consult the prior text continually, and text receivers will usually
need some familiarity with the latter.
Parodies

… but my performance is
Rebuttal
as per the standard
operating procedures!

As long as you’re up, get me a Grant’s

was altered to As long as you’re up, get me a Grant
by a professor working on a research project. [13]

An advertisement appeared in magazines some years ago showing an annoyed young man saying to someone
outside the picture: (1) As long as you’re up, get me a Grant’s.
A professor working on a research project cut the text out of a magazine, altered it slightly, and displayed it
on his office door as: (2) As long as you’re up, get me a Grant.
In the original setting (i.e. magazine), the text was a request to be given a beverage of a particular brand. In
the new setting (i.e. academic), the text seems to be pointless: research grants are awarded only after
extensive preparation and certainly can’t be gotten while casually walking across a room. The discrepancy is
resolvable via one’s knowledge of the originally presented text and its intention, while the unexpectedness of
the new version renders it informative (note: hence has “high informativity”) and interesting. [13]

Say
people!

⚫ Further examples:

22 | P a g e
⚫ Intertextuality and Translation:
The dilemma is whether the translator is capable of recognizing all intertextual references in the text as an
initial step before translating them (Example: In Darwish’s The Mural, the English translation doesn’t take into
account the cultural references, so the TT reader won’t understand it fully. Also, “intentionality” is lost.)

23 | P a g e
 Application: Do the texts below meet the 7 standards of textuality? Explain.
Context: Posted in our KSU library

‫ وتوجد في شارع االستقالل في العاصمة‬1800 ‫مكتبة الكونجرس هي المكتبة الوطنية للواليات المتحدة األمريكية وتأسست المكتبة في عام‬
‫ مليون كتاب وهي ثاني أكبر مكتبة في العالم بعد المكتبة‬110 ‫ ويوجد في المكتبة أكثر من‬.‫األمريكية واشنطن‬
.‫البريطانية من حيث مساحة الرفوف وعدد الكتب وتستقبل المكتبة نسختين من كل كتاب إنجليزي يتم نشره‬
Intertextuality:
High/Low?

Context: Posted in a fancy restaurant

‫ وتوجد في شارع االستقالل في العاصمة‬1800 ‫مكتبة الكونجرس هي المكتبة الوطنية للواليات المتحدة األمريكية وتأسست المكتبة في عام‬
‫ مليون كتاب وهي ثاني أكبر مكتبة في العالم بعد المكتبة‬110 ‫ ويوجد في المكتبة أكثر من‬.‫األمريكية واشنطن‬
.‫البريطانية من حيث مساحة الرفوف وعدد الكتب وتستقبل المكتبة نسختين من كل كتاب إنجليزي يتم نشره‬

Intertextuality:
High/Low?

Context: Store front in Riyadh

SAUDIS ONLY

Intertextuality:
High/Low?

Context: Website on parenting

As kids get a little older, their attention span grows, their interests expand, and parents are often looking for an
hour and half of uninterrupted time. You can experiment with movies from our Best First Movies List or search
for movies in your kid’s age range. After a little experimenting, you can usually get a pretty good idea of the
kind of things that your kids can handle – and what they can’t. Depending on your kid’s particular sensitivity,
the movies below can be great choices (or big no-nos!). In the end, parents know best, so use our suggestions as
a guide, and take it from there. —Sierra Filucci

Intertextuality:
High/Low?

Context: Webpage on English proverbs

A miss is as good as a mile

Intertextuality:
High/Low?

24 | P a g e
 Sample Project

Context: An online article in a resource site for liaison interpreting

Final Analysis: Is this text technically a “text” or a “non-text”? it's technically a text

Text:

Sight translation can be defined as the reading of a text by the interpreter from the source language into
the target language, simultaneously, in a manner in which the content of the document can be easily
understood by the audience. Although it is not always considered as a mode, it is nevertheless often
used and is not usually documented in available interpreting manuals. It is nowadays the most
commonly used form in environments such as courtrooms, in cases such as the reading of a witness’s
statement or a court ruling. Sight translation is often considered to be the step that comes before
simultaneous interpretation.

1. Cohesion
* Cohesive devices:
(1) Reference (e.g. pronouns, demonstratives, comparative –er, & superlative “the”)
Pronoun example: “it”
Demonstrative example: “that”
Superlative “the” example: “the most”
(2) Logical ties (subordinating and coordinating conjunctions + are they in logical order?):
Examples: “Although”, “nevertheless”, “often”, “usually”
Yes, they are in logical order.
(3) Lexical ties (main theme/idea): Sight Translation
* Repetition (Yes/no + Acceptable/unnecessary): No repetition
* Intra-/Inter- cohesion: The text has inter-sentential and intra-sentential cohesion
*Cohesive (yes/no): Yes, cohesive

2. Coherence
* Type of coherence (implicit/explicit):
Explicit coherence because there’s no ambiguity in meaning
* Word chain(s): (yes/no – around what word? Highlight the word chain in the text):
Yes, there are several successful word chains, and one of them is around “sight
translation”
* Coherent: (yes/no): Yes, the text is coherent

3. Intentionality
* Clear intention? (yes/no) Yes, it’s
clear
* What’s the intention? Providing the reader with the definition of sight translation +
giving some information about it.

25 | P a g e
4. Acceptability:
* Is the text type suitable for the topic?Yes. It's expository (informative)
* Is the context suitable? Yes, anyone would accept it in a website on interpreting
* Is the desired goal achieved? Yes, it’s something that would suit a person looking for such
information in the context mentioned above
* Is the linguistic standard acceptable? The language is natural and grammatically correct.
* In general, is it acceptable? Yes, it would be most likely be acceptable to anyone

5. Informativity:
High/Low? Low. The text is clear and detailed.

6. Situationality:
Suitable – yes/no, and why? Yes,
it’s suitable because it's relevant to the context: time (i.e.
current) and place (i.e. website on interpreting)

7. Intertextuality:
High/Low? Low. No need for a prior text to understand this one.

26 | P a g e
 Application (1): Does the Arabic text below meet the 7 standards of textuality? Explain.
Context: Twitter

1. Cohesion:

2. Coherence:

3. Intentionality:

4. Acceptability:

5. Informativity:

6. Situationality:

7. Intertextuality:

27 | P a g e
 Application (2): Does the Arabic text below meet the 7 standards of textuality? Explain.
Context: Ad in the street, in Riyadh
"‫"تطمن و حط في بطنك‬

1. Cohesion:

2. Coherence:

3. Intentionality:

4. Acceptability:

5. Informativity:

6. Situationality:

7. Intertextuality:

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 1. Text Types and Genres

Genres: reflect differences in external format and situations of use, and are defined on the basis of
systematic non-linguistic criteria. [33] Examples of genres:

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5A1aM-zzJls

Text types: May be defined on the basis of linguistic criteria. Text types are "a conceptual framework which
enables us to classify texts in terms of communicative intentions serving an overall rhetorical purpose". [33]

Despite the importance of text typology for the process of analyzing texts, as acknowledged by many
analysts, it has been claimed that there are no typical pure types. Any real text normally displays features of
more than one type, and it is more likely to find that there is a combination of several text types within each
text. This is because writers resort to all kinds of texts so as to deliver their points, via a particular text type,
effectively. In an argumentative text, for instance, as we have seen in opinion articles, one would find a
mixture of the descriptive, narrative, and argumentative functions. This 'fuzziness' which is a natural feature
of texts, is a well-regulated/ruled phenomenon. To account for this 'hybrid nature' of texts, one should be
able to identify the dominant (1) purpose/intention and (2) linguistic features in the text. [34]

While genres form an open-ended set, text types constitute a closed set with only a limited number of
categories (which may vary a bit among linguists). [35]

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One common categorization of text types is “functional”:
1. Narrative 2. Descriptive 3. Instructive 4. Argumentative 5. Expository [35]

Text Typology

1. Narrative Texts:
Narrative texts are about events taking place. They tell you a story. When you write a narrative, a story, you
have to give readers the setting first (people involved, time/space, problem/plot), so that they have a
framework of reference. Then you have to develop the problem and finally solve it. [35]

Communicative purpose: To entertain the reader, tell a story, or provide an aesthetic literary experience [35]

Genres that fit the narrative text: Examples: News, comics, history, story, novels, jokes, folktales,
contemporary fiction, mysteries, realistic fiction, historical fiction.

Structure: Beginning  Problem  Resolution  Ending

Dominant linguistic markers/features:

• Action verbs (e.g., crawl, pour, draw, etc.)
• Written in the 1st person (I, we) or the 3rd person (he, she, they)
• Usually past tense
• Temporal conjunctions (e.g., then, next, finally, etc.)
• Specific nouns (e.g. “oak” as opposed to “tree”)
• Active nouns: Make nouns do something (e.g. “A large cabinet seemed to fill the room.”)
• Adjectives (e.g. warm, red, beautiful, etc.)
• Adverbs (e.g., often, quickly, etc.)
• Sensory words (e.g., sweet, smooth, loud, chewy, spicy, shiny, etc.)
• Imagery (e.g., “It was an arresting face”, “Her eyes were dark as the night”, etc.”) [35]

Example of a narrative text: The one day I spent in Morocco was an experience of a lifetime. When I finally
reached Morocco and got off the bus, there were four little girls standing shoeless in the hot sun. After I
swallowed my tears, I could not even try to picture this in America as it is not something you often see in the
U.S. Meanwhile my tourist guide instructed me not to give them money as it encouraged the children to beg;
however, I was wearing four silver bracelets. As I walked over to the girls, their eyes watched my every move.
Then I kneeled down to their level while I gave each girl a bracelet. They stood there gleaming at me, for they
were pleased. I felt completely in disbelief that this tiny gesture could mean so much. Though this experience
was upsetting, and a huge culture shock, it will stay with me forever.

Text analysis:
Text Type Communicative Purpose In Which Common Genre? Linguistic Features

30 | P a g e
2. Descriptive Texts:
Descriptive texts are about information on objects themselves (e.g., people, things, landscapes). They can
describe, for example, how a machine works, the features of a face, the feelings that an object produces, etc.
A description can be more technical-objective or more impressionistic-subjective. [35]
Communicative purpose: To describe a particular person, place or thing in detail [35]
Genres that fit the descriptive text: e.g., Travel guides, some reports, parts in postcards/diaries/novels
Structure: (1) Thematically - around a certain theme, (2) Spatially/Physically – top to bottom? Left to right?
General to particular?, or (3) Chronologically/ Temporal order [35]
Dominant linguistic markers/features:
• Simple present tense or simple past tense
• Stative verbs (no movement, e.g., see, own, hate, cost, prefer, ache, remember, etc.)
• Technical terms (terms used in a specific field, e.g., SL, TT, simultaneous, etc. are used in Translation)
• Imagery (e.g. She is solid as a rock.)
• Adjectives + Adverbs [35]
Example of a descriptive text: Molly crept out the door onto the front porch. Early morning. A fresh new day.
Their old farmhouse sat comfortably on an acre of grass and gardens, surrounded by trees. Distant traffic
sounds filtered through trees: muted background music. Molly sat on the steps and took a deep contented
breath. Dawn's ragged swirls of mist lingered among the maple and fir trees. Two robins pecked in the grass
looking for worms. Mom's bed of daffodils glowed yellow in the morning light. Molly hugged herself, while a
nippy breeze poked through her thin cotton nightie. And then she saw them. They stepped out of the mist-
laden gloom between the trees, one dainty step after the other, across the grass in front of her. There were
three of them: a deer and her two young fawns. Molly held her breath. Awesome!
Text analysis:
Text Type Communicative Purpose In Which Common Genre? Linguistic Features

3. Instructive Texts: Instructive texts tell us how to do things, with/out option(s) (e.g. recipes vs. contracts) [35]
Communicative purpose: To help readers how to do or make something completely [35]
Genres that fit the instructive text: Examples: Recipes, instructions, traffic signs, any how-to text or manual,
how to play a game or sport instructions or guidelines, scientific procedures (for an experiment)
Structure: The structure is very clearly ordered: First step 1, then step 2... It begins at the beginning of the
process described, moves on along with such process and ends also when the process finishes. This means no
conclusions or opinion-like endings are included. [35]
Dominant linguistic markers/features:
• Simple present tense
• Imperative verbs (like commands or prohibitions: “Add”, “Stir”, “Don’t pour”, etc.)
• Modals (can, would, may, etc.)
• Temporal conjunctions (e.g., first, after that, next, etc.)
• Technical terms (terms used in a specific field, e.g., SL, TT, simultaneous, etc. are used in Translation)
• Adverbs + Adverbials to show exact times (e.g., for 5 minutes, 2 hours, etc.) [35]
Example of an instructive text: “Preparation of tandoori chicken: First, mix all spices with yoghurt and butter
to make marinating sauce, next, prick the chicken and apply the sauce. Cover chicken and marinate overnight
inside a refrigerator (for at least 4 hrs.). After that, grill the chicken regularly (for better results, apply melted
butter to the chicken just before you grill). Now you need to cook the chicken until brownish (or the way you
prefer). Finally, serve sliced onion rings and lemon wedges with the tandoori chicken. Lemon juice can be
sprinkled on the cooked chicken to add zesty flavor.” [3]

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Text analysis:
Text Type Communicative Purpose In Which Common Genre? Linguistic Features

4. Argumentative Texts:
Argumentative texts are about ideas. They show the process of supporting or weakening another statement.
"Defending a position" means explaining the ideas and giving reasons for them. [35]

Communicative purpose: Defense, convince, analysis or refutation of something (“for/pros” and

“against/cons”) [35]

Genres that fit the argumentative text: Examples: Articles, speeches, essays, debates, assessment,
advertisements, and propagandas

Structure: Examples:
• Introduction: “The purpose of my”...
• Explanation of the case under consideration: “There are two different
approaches to this issue...”
“Historically, the debate”...
• Proofs supporting the argument: “As a matter of fact”
“It cannot be forgotten...” “Furthermore...” “What is more”…
• Refutation: “Even though...” “It is obvious that” “Nobody would
believe that”...
• Conclusion: “On the whole...” “As a result...”
• Pros and cons discussion: pro-con-pro-con or con-pro-con-pro.
• Eclectic approach: some of the views on the subject.
• Opposition's arguments first; author's arguments “Traditionally it has been believed…”
“It seems to be a fact...”
• Other side questioned: no direct refutation, mainly posing questions. [35]

Dominant linguistic markers/features:

• Simple present tense
• Thinking verbs (e.g., assume, imagine, estimate, guess, etc.)
• General nouns (e.g., school, student, animal, etc.)
• Abstract nouns (e.g., motherhood, friendship, kindness, love, etc.)
• Modality (e.g., must, could, wouldn’t, ought to, have to, etc.)
• Adverbs
• Conjunctions and transitions [35]

Example: For many years, children growing up in a single parent family have been viewed as different. Being
raised by only one parent may seem impossible to many yet over the decades it has become more prevalent.
In today’s society many children have grown up to become emotionally stable and successful whether they
had one or two parents to show them the rocky path that life bestows upon all human beings. The problem
lies in the difference of children raised by single parents versus children raised by both a mother and a father.
Does a child need both parents? Does a young boy need a father figure around? What people must
understand is that properly raising a child does not rely on the structure of a family but should be more
focused on the process or values that are taught to these children as they learn to mature.
Text analysis:
Text Type Communicative Purpose In Which Common Genre? Linguistic Features

32 | P a g e
5. Expository Texts:

The main purpose of expository text is to inform. Authors who write expository texts research the topic to
gain information. The information is organized in a logical and interesting manner using various expository
text structures/patterns; for example, problem and solution, cause and effect, compare or contrast, etc. [35]

Communicative purpose: To inform us of natural or socio-cultural phenomena. [35]

Genres that fit the expository text: Textbooks, articles, encyclopedias, dictionaries, informative brochures

Structure: Presentation – Development -Summary/Conclusion [35]

SOME linguistic markers/features:

• Simple present tense
• Action verbs and stative verbs
• Passive voice and active voice
• Noun phrases (e.g., “much money” “the man standing there”)
• Adverbs and adjectives
• General and abstract nouns
• Temporal conjunctions (e.g., first, after that, next, etc.)
• Cause-Effect conjunctions (e.g., hence, because, so that, due to, accordingly, etc.)
• Technical terms (terms used in a specific field: SL, TT, simultaneous, etc. are used in Translation) [35]

Example of an expository text: “Memory is critical to humans and all other living organisms. Practically all of
our daily activities—talking, understanding, reading, and socializing—depend on our having learned and
stored information about our environments. Memory allows us to retrieve events from the distant past or
from moments ago. It enables us to learn new skills and to form habits. Without the ability to access past
experiences or information, we would be unable to comprehend language, recognize our friends and family
members, find our way home, or even tie a shoe. Life would be a series of disconnected experiences, each
one new and unfamiliar. Without any sort of memory, humans would quickly perish.
In psychology, memory processes by which people and other organisms encode, store, and retrieve
information. Encoding refers to the initial perception and registration of information. Storage is the retention
of encoded information over time. Retrieval refers to the processes involved in using stored information.
Whenever people successfully recall a prior experience, they must have encoded, stored, and retrieved
information about the experience. Conversely, memory failure—for example, forgetting an important fact—
reflects a breakdown in one of these stages of memory.” [40]

Text analysis:
Text Type Communicative Purpose In Which Common Genre? Linguistic Features

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 6. Text Types and Translation Methods

In order to carry out the task of information mediators, translators need unambiguous means of identifying
intention and, equally important, means of expressing it. The most visible means of expressing intention is
through the choice of conventional text types. Neubert (1985) offers an interesting definition of text types in
relation to translation by calling them "socially effective, efficient, and appropriate molds into which the
linguistic material available in the system of a language is recast". Text types have evolved as patterns of
messages for specific expected communicative situations between the writer and reader. When we write a
message we first think of the text type that is suitable and expected for the occasion and the content, and
formulate our text accordingly. [35]

Examples:

• Manuals, recipes, and grammars have a directive/instructive intention and are for repeated reading
and for reference.

• A medical report, police report, or book review (a report on a book) present facts, thus, considered as
expository texts. [35]

The text-based or textual approach to translation regards a text as a communicative act which takes places in
a situationally and culturally significant context. In this sense, translation is more than a mere inter-linguistic
transcoding activity. The text to be translated, or, as is often referred to by translation scholars and
translators, the source text (ST), is viewed as a coherent chunk of lexical items and is analyzed globally at the
supra-sentential level by looking at its overall meaning, textual features, and communicative function(s). The
translation unit is no longer the word or sentence, as is the case with the linguistic approach, but rather the
text as a whole. The translator's task is to produce a translation or target text (TT) which is textually and
communicatively equivalent to the ST. This is accomplished by encoding the ST information into equivalent
target culture textual patterns. [41]

In deciding which textual variables or properties to prioritize, the translator always has to ask: What is the
purpose of the ST, and what is the purpose of the TT? These questions imply two others: What kind of text is
the ST, and what kind of text should the TT be? [42] No doubt, paying due attention to the nature and purpose
of the TT guarantees a degree of TL bias which helps to prevent the excessive SL bias, or literalness, that so
often defeats the stated or implied purpose of the TT. [42]

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Consider the following ST which is taken from a ‘personal opinion’ column by ‫ مصطفى أمين‬from ‫ الشرق األوسط‬,
September 21st, 1982 and the two TTs which follow: [42]

TT (a)
It is possible for any political party to succeed if it defends the issue of freedom and human rights, if it
embraces every unjustly treated person, if it opposes corruption, if it sets the highest standards in upright
behavior, if it changes words into deeds and promises into facts. Every party which stands by the people will
find that the people stand by it, surrounding it when daggers are aimed at its back and guns and swords at its
front. [42]

TT (b)
For any political party to succeed, it must be prepared to stand up for freedom of expression and human
rights, to protect the weak, to oppose corruption, to set itself the highest standards, and to act according to
these standards. Any party which supports and defends the people will find that, when in danger, it is
supported and defended by the people. [42]

Some of the ways in which TT (a) reads strangely have to do with features of meaning that correlate with
formal differences between English and Arabic. Others, however, simply reflect the fact that the formal
features of English in certain kinds of writing tend to be different from the formal features of Arabic, notably
in respect of parallelism, repetition, and metaphor. There is nothing in the linguistic structure of English
which requires that the use of parallelism and metaphor in 'personal opinion’ columns in English be different
from their use in Arabic. It is simply conventional that writing of this kind in English does not make as dense
use of these features as is normal in Arabic. In other kinds of writing - particularly in poetry - it would be
much more normal for English to make wider use of them. [42]

In translating a 'personal opinion' text of this kind, the translator has to bear in mind that the conventions of
English for this kind of writing are rather different from those for Arabic. Assuming that the intention is to
produce an idiomatic TT, the translator must attempt at least to modify the TT in the direction of more typical
English-language forms, as in TT (b). Of course, it may not always be possible to achieve a TT which reads
entirely like an original English text. For example, an attempt to produce an entirely natural-sounding English
text might result in unacceptable loss of message content. [42]

35 | P a g e
 Application

(1) The school fair is right around the corner, and tickets have just gone on sale. Even though you may be
busy, you will still want to reserve just one day out of an entire year to relax and have fun with us. Even if you
don’t have much money, you don’t have to worry. The school fair is a community event, and therefore prices
are kept low. Perhaps, you are still not convinced. Maybe you feel you are too old for fairs, or you just don’t
like them. Well, that’s what my grandfather thought, but he came to last year’s school fair and had this to say
about it: “I had the best time of my life!” While it’s true you may be able to think of a reason not to come, I’m
also sure you can think of several reasons why you must come. We look forward to seeing you at the school
fair!
Text Type Communicative Purpose In Which Common Genre? Linguistic Features

(2) Learning how to ride a bike for the first time was a nerve racking independent moment. I was about five
years old when my sister informed me that I was too old to still be riding a bike with training wheels. That
was the time I decided not to depend on them anymore. Even though I had some doubt, my sister and I went
outside and started to take the little wheels off my bike. After my bike went through the transformation, I
was now ready for the big moment. With butterflies in my stomach, I slowly got on the bike, and with my
shaky hands, I gripped the handles tightly. Meanwhile my sister was holding on to me to help keep my
balance. I was so afraid the she would let go, yet I was determined to ride this bike on my own. Next with a
little push from her, I started to peddle. The faster my bike went the faster my heart raced. Finally I looked
back nervously and noticed that my sister let go of my bike a long time ago. I was so excited that I
accomplished freedom on my bike that I forgot to peddle. The next step I remember, I was lying on the
ground, yet I did not care because of the adrenaline rush. I will never forget the exhilarating moment and
growing up stage of riding a bike without training wheels.
Text Type Communicative Purpose In Which Common Genre? Linguistic Features

(3) The geography of the Aran Islands is very simple, yet it may need a word to itself. There are three islands:
Aranmor, the north island, about nine miles long; Irishman, the middle island, […] nearly round in form; and
the south island, Inshore − in Irish, east island, − like the middle island but slightly smaller. They lie about
thirty miles from Galway, up the center of the bay, but they are not far from the cliffs of County Clare, on the
south, or the corner of Connemara on the north.
Text Type Communicative Purpose In Which Common Genre? Linguistic Features

(4) Here is the perfect system for cleaning your room. First, move all of the items that do not have a proper
place to the center of the room. Get rid of at least five things that you have not used within the last year.
Take out all of the trash, and place all of the dirty dishes in the kitchen sink. Now find a location for each of
the items you had placed in the center of the room. For any remaining items, see if you can squeeze them in
under your bed or stuff them into the back of your closet. See, that was easy!
Text Type Communicative Purpose In Which Common Genre? Linguistic Features

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 SAMPLE EXAM QUESTION: Analyze the textual typology of the following text

The old car slowly moves down the streets like the carriage of a steam
engine train, and when it goes up the hill, it cries Ka boom, kachunk! The car
is old and weathered with rust covering the entire body like cancer
consuming its victim. Wheels and tires wobble like a baby taking its first
steps. Hub caps are gone along with all the mirrors and extras on the car.
Black smoke flows out the rotten tail pipes like the smoke out of and old
smoking pipe. The local junk yard had seen better cars than this. The interior
was a dusty brown with holes covering almost every square inch of the seat
covers. The ceiling was hanging down and the rust had eaten through the
roof like a Billy goat through a tin can. This old car is my old car and it is as
faithful as a good old dog by always starting and getting me to where I need
to go.

Text Type Communicative Purpose In Which Common Genre

Linguistic Features: Mention 6 dominant feature types (2 types can be repeated) and give examples

Type: ______________________ Type: ______________________ Type: ________________________

Example:___________________ Example:___________________ Example:_____________________

Type: ______________________ Type: ______________________ Type: ______________________

Example:___________________ Example:___________________ Example:___________________

37 | P a g e
 SAMPLE EXAM QUESTION: Analyze the textual typology of the following text
Alice was beginning to get very tired of sitting by her sister on the bank, and of having
nothing to do: once or twice she had peeped into the book her sister was reading, but
it had no pictures or conversations in it, 'and what is the use of a book,' thought Alice
'without pictures or conversations?'
So she was considering in her own mind (as well as she could, for the hot day made
her feel very sleepy and stupid), whether the pleasure of making a daisy-chain would
be worth the trouble of getting up and picking the daisies, when suddenly a White
Rabbit with pink eyes ran close by her.
There was nothing so very remarkable in that; nor did Alice think it so very much
out of the way to hear the Rabbit say to itself, 'Oh dear! Oh dear! I shall be late!' (when
she thought it over afterwards, it occurred to her that she ought to have wondered at
this, but at the time it all seemed quite natural); but when the Rabbit actually took a
watch out of its waistcoat-pocket, and looked at it, and then hurried on, Alice started
to her feet, for it flashed across her mind that she had never before seen a rabbit with
either a waistcoat-pocket, or a watch to take out of it, and burning with curiosity, she
ran across the field after it, and fortunately was just in time to see it pop down a large
rabbit-hole under the hedge.
Text Type Communicative Purpose In Which Common Genre

Linguistic Features: Mention 6 dominant feature types (2 types can be repeated) and give examples

Type: ______________________ Type: ______________________ Type: ________________________

Example:___________________ Example:___________________ Example:_____________________

Type: ______________________ Type: ______________________ Type: ______________________

Example:___________________ Example:___________________ Example:___________________

38 | P a g e
 7. Text Analysis – Halliday & Hasan’s System of Cohesive Devices & Their Translations

One of the standards of textuality is cohesion and it is concerned with the ways in which the components of
the surface structure (i.e. the actual words we hear or see) are connected within a sequence. In Cohesion in
English, Michael Halliday and Ruqaiya Hasan identify five general categories of cohesive devices [CDs] that
create cohesion in texts: reference ‫اإلشارة‬, ellipsis ‫ الحذف‬, substitution ‫ اإلستبدال‬, lexical ties ‫السبك المعجمي‬, and
conjunction ‫ الربط‬. These are by no means the only cohesive devices a language may use. There are other
devices which contribute to the cohesion of a text such as parallelism (repeating a structure but filling it with
new elements, like: “Some cause happiness wherever they go; others whenever they go.”) and transitions
(e.g. also, moreover, first, such as, etc.) [44]

The translator should bear in mind that while every language has at its disposal a set of devices for
manipulating textual cohesion, different languages have preference for certain types of devices and may
neglect others. [45]

An example that represents the difference between languages in the use of cohesive devices comes from
part of a document explaining arbitration (i.e. negotiation) procedures at the International Centre for
Arbitration in Cairo: [46]

It is clear that both versions represent striking differences in the choice of cohesive devices:
• The Arabic text makes considerable use of pronoun reference, contrary to the English text where
there is no instance of such type.
• The Arabic version includes the use of ‫ الذي‬to establish linkage, as in ‫تسلم الطلب الذي قدمه لها أحد الطرفين‬
which does not appear in English.
• In addition, all Arabic verbs agree with their subjects in gender and number, which means that the
link between the two is clear even if they are separated by a number of clauses or sentences with
their own subjects and verbs, i.e. there is no ambiguity in reference. Unlike Arabic, English has very
few verbs that are said to agree with their subjects in gender and number.
• Though the Arabic version contains different lexical repetition terms such as ‫ )الطرفان( الطرفين‬which
occur six times, ‫ تعين‬four times, ‫ سلطة تعيين‬three times, Arabic text also uses referential linkage to
disambiguate references and events.
• Baker mentioned that English generally uses whatever means to reduce ambiguity when referring to
participants. Whenever ambiguity arises in establishing reference, lexical repetition is most
preferable. [46]

39 | P a g e
By taking into account, or identifying, the CDs employed in the SLT we may reduce the risk of mistranslation.
The failure to recognize the relationship between certain lexical items may lead to erroneous interpretation.
The translator usually relies on the CDs as guidelines to the interpretation of a text. He moves forwards or
backwards in the text to regroup components around informational clusters. Many words and phrases point
toward other words and phrases and none of these can be interpreted in isolation. [23]

Translators also find CDs challenging elements for achieving balance between accuracy and naturalness. In
the translation process, they always have to deal with the decision of adding, omitting, or modifying CDs in
order to produce a translated text that is equivalent to the source text but at the same time acceptable and
natural in the target language. Even professional translators, Siepmann (2005) points out, may occasionally
commit errors in misusing CDs. [34]

In order to produce acceptable, natural, and communicatively effective texts, text-producers are required to
use discourse markers (like cohesive devices, punctuation marks, transitions, etc.) in a certain way that is
expected and accepted by their text-receivers. Misusing these items renders the texts unnatural, affects their
acceptability, and increases the chances of communication breakdowns. Different language systems employ
CDs differently whether with regards to the type of markers preferred, their frequency, or distribution.
Accordingly, what is expected and accepted in one language may not be in another language. For example,
the highly frequent use of‫ و‬, which is a marker of continuity in Arabic, is not only acceptable but rather
required for a written Arabic text to sound natural. However, when translating into English, this additive CD is
often omitted since an English translation would sound awkward. [34]

The high frequency of discourse markers in Modern Written Arabic texts has been confirmed by many studies
in the Arabic linguistics field, such as al-Batal (1990), Hatim (1997), Khalil (2000) and Ryding (2005). In Arabic,
Ryding (2005) states, "most sentences within a text actually start with a connective word that links each
sentence with the previous one." "Even paragraphs," she adds, "are introduced with connectives that
connect them to the text as a whole" (407). [34]

Therefore, while the appropriate use of CDs pose a challenge for L2 learners and translators in general, the
high frequency of these items in Modern Written Arabic texts creates a more complicated situation for
students of Arabic as a foreign language as well as for translators working with Arabic texts. The efficient
translator has to pay attention to the cohesive devices and their appropriate transfer into a target text in
order to have an appropriate ‘texture’, as failure to reproduce these links in a translation can significantly
alter text reception and meaning. [34]

(1) Reference
Reference is an identity relationship that exists between two
linguistic elements in a textual environment. It is a device which
allows the reader to trace entities and events in the text.
There are three main types of reference involving pronouns,
demonstratives and comparatives. These cohesive items cannot
be interpreted semantically on their own right; rather they make
reference to something else within the text. Reference, therefore,
constitutes a pillar that contributes to texture of the text and
makes it well-connected. [21]

Reference is of three types:

1. Anaphoric
2. Cataphoric
3. Exophoric
40 | P a g e
When the interpretation of a reference lies within the boundaries of text, it is called endophoric relation. This
relation forms cohesive ties within the text to avoid repetition. There are two kinds of endophoric relations:
anaphora and cataphora. Exophora refers to something/someone outside the text. [47] Examples:
• Anaphoric: The two girls are playing outside. They should come back soon.
Julie saw the tulips she wanted as they were the deep purple she loved.
• Cataphoric: Here he comes, our award winning host! It’s Don Smith!
John asked him to sing and so Bill sang.
• Exophoric: I love to watch horror movies.
We wanted to go to the movies.

Types of Reference:
A. Pronouns:
Examples:
There was an old woman who lived in a shoe. She had so many children, she didn’t know what to do.
John’s house is beautiful. His wife must be delighted with it.
That new toy is the cat’s. I didn’t know that it was its.

In Arabic, pronouns are either detached or attached. Examples:

I am a student = ‫أنا طالبة‬ I caught up with him = ‫لحقت به‬

English Pronouns:
Subject Pronouns Object Pronouns Possessive Pronouns Reflexive Pronouns
I me mine myself
you you yours yourself
he him his himself
she her hers herself
it it (its) itself
we us ours ourselves
you you yours yourselves
they them theirs themselves

Pronoun reference can be anaphoric, cataphoric, or expohoric. Type of reference: ______________________

I met him at the station because the man didn’t know the way. [4] = Arabic _____________________________

There are many striking differences between English and Arabic in their use of pronouns:
• It is not frequent in Arabic to use detached pronouns like ‫ أنا‬unless it’s for emphasizing the person.
• Arabic, for example, does not have the category of 'possessive pronouns' (mine, his, yours, etc.).
Instead, possession is indicated in Arabic either by a possessive determiner, e.g. ‫( كتابي‬my book) or by
a pronoun which is part of a prepositional phrase, e.g. ‫( له‬for him).
• Moreover, while only the third person singular (he, she) shows gender distinctions in English, all the
second and the third singular and plural pronouns exhibit this distinction in Arabic, e.g. ‫ هن‬- ‫هم‬.
• In addition, as for number, Arabic pronouns distinguish 'dual' from singular and plural, e.g. ‫( ذهبا‬they,
(two) went) vs ‫( ذهب‬he went) and ‫( ذهبوا‬they (more than two) went).
• Finally, Arabic has no equivalent for the third person 'non-human' pronoun 'it'. Instead, ‫( هو‬he) and ‫هي‬
(she) are used to refer to masculine and feminine human and non-human entities respectively.
Example: ‫ = هذه القرون هي سالحه‬These horns are its weapon. [48]

41 | P a g e
As a translator, one must always stay aware of the different types of reference (anaphora, cataphora, and
exophora) that are employed in the SL text. SL authors sometimes use different types of reference to engage
readers and induce certain effects or reactions from them, and these types of stylistic choices must be
preserved in the translated text. [46]
For example, cataphoric constructions are used in argumentative texts to signal a particular function in the
text. According to Hatim (1997), cataphora is an anticipatory mechanism which may be used within the
boundaries of a single sentence or may look ahead to an entire event beyond the single sentence. The
motivation in using cataphora seems to be one of generating uncertainty and thus arousing the interest of
the text receiver. Moreover, cataphora could be a means of highlighting a particular detail. This is to say that
when a cataphoric expression occurs in a text as in storytelling, for example, the function of this is to impel
the reader to read on, as in this text that discusses the history of different people: [48]
Because theirs is interwoven with the history of
Islam, and therefore sharpened five times a day by
prayer, Arabs have a keen sense of the past.

Here, the reference item ‘theirs’ is used as a cataphoric reference before the co-referring expression ‘Arabs’
in the same complex clause. Following Hatim, this use is motivated by the text producer to achieve a
rhetorical purpose (i.e. emphasis). [48]
_________________________________________________________________________________________

B. Demonstratives:
Example: If you are buying a car, you should know about this. Magic Motor’s ‘Special Sale’ is February 14. [3]
Demonstratives can be anaphoric, cataphoric, or exophoric.
What type of demonstrative reference is used above? _______________________
Near Far
Singular This  ‫هذا‬/‫هذه‬ That  ‫ذلك‬/‫تلك‬
Dual ‫هاذان‬/‫هاتان‬ ---
Plural These  ‫هؤالء‬ Those  ‫أولئك‬
Arabic uses demonstrative pronouns in the same way as English uses them.
The only grammatical difference is that they are inflected for gender and number. [42]
Example:
This layer is extremely sensitive = ‫ هذه الطبقة على درجة كبيرة من الحساسية‬Type of reference: __________________
This is so smooth. ‫ هذا ملمسه ناعم جدا‬Reference word: ________________Type of reference: _______________
_________________________________________________________________________________________

C. Comparatives:
There are 2 main types:
(1) General: to express sameness or difference in objects (e.g., “same”, “different”, etc.)
(2) Particular: to express more/less of a particular quality/quantity (e.g., “bigger”, “worse”, etc.) [44]
Comparative form + than The + superlative
Examples (Anaphoric, Cataphoric, or Exophoric)?
I demand the best. Reference word: ________________Type of reference: ___________________
Amal is more realistic than you. Reference word: _______________Type of reference: ___________________
Those pencils are different than yours. Reference word: _______________Type of reference: _____________
Kareem is cleverer than Ali = ‫ كريم أذكى من علي‬Reference word: _________Type of reference is: ____________

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 Reference Analysis – Anaphoric, Cataphoric, or Exaphoric?
Anaphoric,
Text Reference Word Refers to… Cataphoric, or
Exaphoric?

43 | P a g e
Mrs. Birling: I think we’ve just about come to the end of this depressing business.

Gerald: I don’t think so. Excuse me.

[He goes out. They watch him go in silence. We hear the front door slam].

Sheila [to Inspector]: You know, you never showed him that photograph of her.

Inspector: No. It wasn’t necessary. And I thought it better not to.

Mrs. Birling: You have a photograph of this girl?

Inspector: Yes. I think you’d better look at it.

Mrs. Birling: I don’t see any particular reason why I should.

Inspector: Probably not. But you’d better look at it.

Mrs. Birling: Very well. [He takes out the photograph and she looks hard at it.]

Inspector [taking back the photograph]: You recognize her?

Mrs. Birling: No. Why should I?

Inspector: Of course one can change a lot, but I can’t believe she could have changed so much.

Mrs. Birling: I don’t understand you, Inspector.

Inspector: You mean you don’t choose to do, Mrs. Birling.

Mrs. Birling [angrily]: I meant what I said.

Inspector: You’re not telling me the truth.

Mrs. Birling: I beg your pardon!

Birling [angrily, to Inspector]: Look here, I’m not going to have this, Inspector. You’ll apologize at once.

Inspector: Apologize for what – doing my duty?

Birling: No, for being more offensive than necessary about it. I’m a public man.

Inspector [massively]: Public men, Mr. Birling, have responsibilities as well as privileges.

Birling: Possibly. But you weren’t asked to come here to talk to me about my responsibilities.

Sheila: Let’s hope not. Though I’m beginning to wonder the same.

Mrs. Birling: Does that mean anything, Sheila?

Sheila: It means that we have no excuse now for putting on airs and that if we’re smart, we won’t try.

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 7. Text Analysis – Halliday & Hasan’s System of Cohesive Devices & Their Importance in Translation
(Substitution, Ellipsis, Conjunctions, and Lexical Ties)
(2) Substitution

Substitution is the replacement of one word or phrase with another word or phrase. It is used to avoid
repetition of a particular item. [3]
Examples: My axe is too blunt. I must get a sharper one.
Amal already knows the deadline. I think everybody does.

There are three types of substitution: [44]

1. Nominal Substitution: There are three nominal substitutes: one, ones, same
Examples: A: I’ll have two poached eggs on toast, please. B: I’ll have the same.
I’ve heard some strange stories in my time. But this one was perhaps the strangest one of all.
A: Do you want the blankets? B: Yes, I’ll take the blue one.
Situation: Teacher takes out a purple pen. The student says “I have the same!”

[50]

*** Note: Don’t forget that “one” has other meanings; it’s not always a “substitute”

2. Verbal Substitution: The verbal substitute is do

A: Did you sing? B: Yes, I did.
I don’t know the meaning of half those language words and what’s more, I don’t believe you do either.
Note: The word “do” other than as a substitute >> For example: He is doing… / They did a dance

3. Clausal substitution: There are 2 clausal substitutes: so and not

Examples:
A: Is there going to be an earth quake? B: It says so / A: Is this mango ripe? B: It seems so.
Student: There’s Amal over there! I thought she’d be absent today. / A: Apparently not.

English vs. Arabic Substitution:

(1) The English nominal substitute ‘one’ has the Arabic ‫واحد‬
Example: This sandwich is not fresh. Get me another one. =.‫[ أعطني واحدا آخر‬46]
Thus, the Arabic word ‫( واحد‬one) has performed a function similar to that performed by its English
counterpart. [46]

(2) The variant substitute ‘ones’ is completely absent from Arabic; i.e., in Arabic, we don’t have ‫وحدات‬.
Instead, the whole nominal group has to be repeated or we need to use another word.
Example: These examples are wrong. Give some new ones. = )‫أعطي بعض األمثلة الجديدة (أو األخرى‬

(3) Often Arabs will use repetition in place of substitution. Examples that clarify the difference between
Arabic as a “repetition -oriented” language as opposed to English which is a “change-oriented” language:
Arabic: _____________________________________________________________

English: It is no longer an easy matter to reach him, but be sure that you will do so. [48]

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 (3) Ellipsis

Ellipsis entails the omission or deletion of some items of the surface text, which are recoverable and
understandable in terms of relation with the text itself or the situational context. [3]
We find Ellipsis both in spoken and written texts; especially in face-to-face conversation, to avoid repetition.
[43]

Examples:
• A: What’re you doing tonight? B: [E] Home.
• Joan brought some carnations, and Cathrine [E] some sweet peas.
• If a housewife on seeing the milkman approach calls out “Two please!”

Ads are full of ellipsis. Why?_________________________________

There are 3 types of ellipsis: [44]

(1) Nominal: They are small; take two.
(2) Verbal: A: Were you typing? B: No, I wasn’t.
(3) Clausal: I don’t know how to work this computer. I’ll have to learn how.

In conclusion, substitution and ellipsis apparently occur in quite restricted contexts in Arabic, and repeating
the word(s) is more likely. [48]
Practice – Substitution & Ellipsis
Text Substitution Word Type:
Replaces…
Ellipsis: After which word? Nominal / Verbal / Clausal
A: She’s cheating!
B: No!
A: Have another chocolate.
B: No, thanks. That was my third.
A: Are you going to the movies?
B: I think so.
Smith was the first person to leave; I was the
second.
A: She always studies at night.
B: I do, too.
There are some new accessories in the bag.
These ones have lost their shine.
I know why I took such a low grade in the exam.
No one needs to tell me why.
Here are 13 cards. Take any, then give me any
three.
(4) Conjunction

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Conjunction is the fourth type of the cohesive ties in Halliday and Hasan's modal. It is a formal marker which
explicitly draws attention to the type of relationship which exists between one sentence or clause and
another. It helps readers relate the ongoing discourse and its preceding part. [3]
The most commonly used connective particles in Arabic are: [51]
1. [‫ ]و‬and 2. [‫ ]ف‬and / then 3. [‫ ]ثم‬then 4. [‫ ]أم‬or, [‫ ]أو‬or 5. [‫ ]لكن‬and [‫ ]لكن‬but

English Coordinating and Subordinating Conjunctions:

Coordinating conjunctions and, but, so, for, nor, or, yet

Common subordinating conjunctions after if, even if when, whenever although, though in order that whose where, wherever
as since whether because that, so that which, whichever before unless while even though until who how what

⚫ A major distinction between English and Arabic in this concern is that English makes use of a variety of
conjunctions. It is the logical relationship between a pair of sentences that dictates which connective to be
employed. In contrast, Arabic uses a relatively small number of connectives, mainly, *‫ *و ف لكن‬The great
frequency of these does not prevent other conjunctions from occurring, although sporadically. [14]

⚫ In fact, ‫ و‬is the most frequent of all conjunctions in Arabic. Almost all linguists who approached Arabic
have been struck by its great frequency. Williams noticed that ‫ و‬is often used to signal clause or sentence
boundaries. For example, in the following example of Taha Hussein's text, ‫ و‬recurs five times: [52]

_________________________________________________________________________________________

(5) Lexical Ties

There are 4 main types of lexical ties: [3]

Superordinate (or hypernym): Henry has bought a new jaguar. He practically lives in the car.

Repetition: Ali won the race. It was one of the most challenging races of his life.

Synonym: There is a boy climbing that tree. The lad is going to fall if he doesn’t take care.
I was looking forward to the climb. The ascent was perfectly easy.

General noun: I was looking forward to the climb. The thing was perfectly easy.

47 | P a g e
It has been observed that there is an abundance of forms of ‫( توكيد‬assertion). This characteristic is carried out
by the repetition of pronouns and lexical items to get across their meanings or significance - within a
paragraph and across them.

Many scholars have considered assertion an obstacle to good English writing by Arab learners.
............ ‫ العلماء هم الذين‬-  Scientists they are the ones who ………

Here are two examples from the Saudi daily newspaper Asharq Al-Awsat (in Arabic): [51]

Paragraph 1: The Saudi King indicated…

Paragraph 2: And the Saudi King confirmed...
Paragraph 3: The Saudi King arrived at...
Paragraph 4: This and the Saudi King indicated…
Paragraph 5: Then the King called for...

The Saudi King addressed the core of the truth when he had drawn the attention to the danger of blind
fanaticism. Blind fanaticism caused the war between the two parts of Pakistan and brought about dividing it
into two sectors. And blind fanaticism caused the killing of tens of thousands of the Muslim brothers in the
war which had been waged between Iran and Iraq for 34 months. And blind fanaticism is, in fact, the evil/that
complicates every simple misunderstanding until it becomes an unresolved problem.

Clearly, Arabic tends to favor "lexical repetition'. The author holds that in Arabic "the same theme is repeated
in "successive clauses” more frequently than English does, even when it is grammatically possible to omit it.
Thus, while English favors ellipsis, Arabic opts for (i.e. favors) redundancy. It is a fact that redundancy often
attracts praise, not blame in the Arabic literate community. [21]

Moreover, repetition responds to constraints of text/genre-type, and any attempt to replace the second
mentioning of a word by a synonym or a pronoun, for example, would compromise the overall effect of the
text (e.g., in argumentative texts, contracts, etc.). Such repetition must be faithfully transferred from one
language to the other. Text function might be weakened in translation if lexical ties were lost. [21]

If this statement were in Arabic "The corridors were dusty and I saw dust on the window ledges”, an English
translator would most probably translate it as: “The corridors were dusty and so were the window ledges.”
The reality is that the reoccurrence in Arabic 'dusty...dust' creates a given function in the text which the
translator did not succeed in transferring when the lexical tie (repetition) was ignored. This translation is in
fact not equivalent because the reoccurrence of the term 'dust' is evidence of possible features of speaker
meaning: obsession with cleanliness. [21]

8. Source Text & Translated Text Analysis Using Text Linguistics Strategies

48 | P a g e
 ‫ واحدة من القواعد األساسية لحفظ التوت من العفن هو تركها غير‬.‫قد يبدو وكأن فكرة غسل التوت قبل االستعداد لتناولها فكرة غريبة‬
‫ يمكنك تمديد فترة صالحيتها لعدة أيام (في‬،‫ ولكن عن طريق غسل التوت في محلول من الخل والماء‬،‫مغسولة حتى لحظة قبل التناول‬
‫ ثم إنقعي حبات التوت لبضع‬،‫ أكواب ماء‬3 ،‫ كوب خل‬1 - ‫ إصنعي حمام خل مخفف‬،‫ في وعاء كبير‬.)!‫بعض األحيان حتى لعدة أسابيع‬
.‫ هذا سيقضي على أي عفن وبكتيريا مزعجة و سيجعلهم أكثر صحية‬.‫دقائق و تأكدي من أن جميع الحبات منقوعة جيدا‬

It might seem like a strange idea to wash your berries before you’re ready to eat them.
One of the cardinal rules of keeping berries mold-free is to leave them unwashed until
the moment before consumption, but by washing them in a solution of vinegar and
water, you can extend their shelf-life by days (sometimes even weeks!). In a large bowl,
make a diluted vinegar bath—1 cup vinegar, 3 cups water—then soak your berries for a
few minutes; make sure the same is done for all. This will eliminate any pesky mold and
bacteria, and make them healthier.

1. Comment on De Beaugrande & Dressler’s 7 standards of textuality in relation to the English text. Clarify if
necessary. Context: Article at Yahoo.com on health

Cohesion

Coherence

Intentionality

Acceptability

Informativity

Situationality

Intertextuality

2. Text typology analysis of the English text:

Text Type Communicative Purpose (only 1) In which common genre? (only 1)

Linguistic Features
(Mention 2 different Type: ____________________________ Type: __________________________
types and give
examples) Example:_________________________ Example:_______________________
3. Compare and Contrast Hasan and Halliday’s 5 cohesive devices. Use only 1 example from both texts to clarify
the differences and/or similarities in usage (IF APPLICABLE).

49 | P a g e
 Anaphoric,
Cataphoric,
or
Cohesive
English Arabic Exophoric?
Devices
(In English
only)

Reference word:______________ Reference word:______________  Anaphoric

1A. References
(Pronoun) Refers to:___________________ Refers to:____________________  Cataphoric
 Exophoric

Reference word:______________ Reference word:______________  Anaphoric

1B. References
 Cataphoric
(Demonstrative) Refers to:___________________ Refers to:____________________  Exophoric

Reference word:______________ Reference word:______________  Anaphoric

1C. References
 Cataphoric
(Comparative) Refers to:___________________ Refers to:____________________  Exophoric

Substitute word: ____________________________________

2. Substitution
(English text Kind of substitution: _________________________________
only)
What does it replace? ________________________________

Line #  after the word:__________________________

3. Ellipsis
(English text Kind of ellipsis: __________________________________
only)
What does it replace? ________________________________

Compare 1 conjunction in both texts:

4. Conjunction

Compare 1 repetitive lexical tie in both texts:

5A. Lexical ties
(Repetition)

Compare 1 synonymous lexical tie in both texts:

5B. Lexical ties
(Synonym)

Text analysis. Read the following texts, and then follow the instructions below for each section

50 | P a g e
 "Johnny, can you answer that question?" asks
the teacher. Johnny looks up in surprise and
embarrassment. He hadn't even known she had
asked.

This scenario is typical for children with hearing

impairment — however slight— because they
generally remain silent about their inability to
understand the teacher. Like Johnny, other
ones might not even be aware that they have
missed a question or other directions. Or they
simply pretend they understand. Unfortunately,
until the teacher or a family member begins to
take notice of the real problem, students like
Johnny may be perceived as apathetic or
incapable of understanding the material.

Once the child has been identified as having a

hearing impairment, immediate steps must be
taken to optimize speech understanding, help
the student become more confident about
participating, and enhance the overall learning
process in the classroom.

1. Comment on De Beaugrande & Dressler’s 7 standards of textuality in relation to the English text. Clarify if
necessary. Context: American brochure in a school

Cohesion

Coherence

Intentionality

Acceptability

Informativity

Situationality

Intertextuality
2. Text typology analysis of the English text:

51 | P a g e
 Text Type Communicative Purpose (only 1) In which common genre? (only 1)

Linguistic Features
(Mention 2 different Type: ____________________________ Type: __________________________
types and give
examples) Example:_________________________ Example:_______________________

3. Compare and Contrast Hasan and Halliday’s 5 cohesive devices. Use only 1 example from both texts to clarify
the differences and/or similarities in usage (IF APPLICABLE)
Anaphoric,
Cataphoric,
Cohesive or
English Arabic
Devices Exophoric?
(In English
only)

1A. References Reference word:______________ Reference word:______________  Anaphoric

(Pronoun)  Cataphoric
Refers to:___________________ Refers to:____________________
 Exophoric

1B. References Reference word:______________ Reference word:______________  Anaphoric

(Demonstrative)  Cataphoric
Refers to:___________________ Refers to:____________________  Exophoric

1C. References Reference word:______________ Reference word:______________  Anaphoric

(Comparative)  Cataphoric
Refers to:___________________ Refers to:____________________  Exophoric

Substitute word: ____________________________________

2. Substitution
(English text
Kind of substitution: _________________________________
only)
What does it replace? ________________________________

3. Ellipsis
Line #  after the word:__________________________
(English text
Kind of ellipsis: __________________________________
only)
What does it replace? ________________________________
Compare 1 conjunction in both texts:
4. Conjunction

Compare 1 repetitive lexical tie in both texts:

5A. Lexical ties
(Repetition)

Compare 1 synonymous lexical tie in both texts:

5B. Lexical ties
(Synonym)

References

52 | P a g e
[1] “Text Linguistics” Wikipedia
[2] “Textual Discourse Analysis” Daimon Club English Archive
[3] Text Linguistics: An Introduction (Compiled by Sarah AlOtaibi)
[4] Research in Language (2011) https://www.academia.edu
[5] Key Term in Discourse Analysis, Baker & Ellece (2011) (Google Books)
[6] “EL4252 Interactional Discourse” (‘14/’15)
[7] Fundamental in Linguistics: An Introduction, Kisno (2012) (Google Books)
[8] “Linguistic Contributions to the Development of Translation Studies in China”, Luo (1999)
[9] A Translation Book, Newman (1988) (E-Book) https://www.academia.edu
[10] “Theories of Translation and Their Applications”, Shaheen (1991)
[11] Translation Studies, Bassnett (2005) (E-Book)
[12] “The Assessment of the Translation of Chang Hen Ge on the Basis of Textuality” Zheng & Cheng (2012)
[13] “Introduction to Text Linguistic”, de Beaugrande & Dressler (1987)
[14] “Textuality in Near-Synonyms Translations of the Holy Quran into English”, Al-Sowaidi (2011)
[15] “Translation Theories, Strategies & Basic Theoretical Issues”, As-Safi
[16] Textual Translation from the Perspective of Logic, Yue (2008)
[17] “Cohesive Devices and Translation: An Analysis”, Silveira
[18] Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice, Bell (1991) (Google Books)
[19] “Textuality in Written and Oral Texts” (2009)
[20] Translation: An Advanced Resource Book, Hatim & Munday (2004)
[21] “Implicit vs. Explicit Textualization of Conjunctive Cohesion with Reference to Translation”, Yahya (2005)
[22] Arabic Stylistics: A Coursebook, Abdul-Raof (2000) (Google Books)
[23] An Analytical Study of the Process of Translation, Aissi (1987)
[24] “Intertextuality” http://beaugrande.com/Intro1981Nine.htm
[26] Interlingual and Intercultural Communication (1986) (Google Books)
[27] http://www.iasj.net/iasj?func=fulltext&aId=58961
[28] Translation as Text, Neubert & Shreve (1992)
[29] “Informativity” http://www.beaugrande.com/TDPCHAPTERFOUR.htm
[30] “Standards of Textuality: Informativity, Revelance, and Intertextuality” (2014)
[31] “Cultural Implications for Translation”, James (2002)
[32] TranslationEA blog (sample text) http://translationea.blogspot.com/2012/04/blog-post.html
[33] “Text Typology: Register, Genre and Text Type”, Trosborg
[34] The Function of Discourse Markers in Arabic Newspaper Opinion Articles, Kohlani (2010)
[35] Text Typology and Translation, Trosborg (1997)
[36] https://www.translate.com (sample text)
[37] http://lifeh4cks.com/tag/writing/ (sample text)
[38] http://wikitravel.org/en/Italy (sample text)
[39] https://www.translate.com (sample text)
[40] http://www.affectiveteaching.com/?cat=5&paged=2 (sample text)
[41] Text-Based Approaches to Translation, Giannossa (2012) (Google Books)
[42] Thinking Arabic Translation: A Course in Translation Method: Arabic to English (2002) (Google Books)
[43] “Text Types” http://www.cittastudi.org/flex/files/D.e001c3b4730f30538fdc/Text_Types.pdf (sample text)
[44] Cohesion in English, Halliday and Hasan (2014) (Google Books)
[45] Contrastive Linguistics (Google Books)
[46] In Other Words: A Coursebook on Translation, Baker (2001) (Google Books)
[47] “Reference As a Cohesive Device”, Ahmed (2008)
[48] English-Arabic/Arabic-English Translation: A Practical Guide, Hatim (1997) (Google Books)
[49] Translation Quality Assessment: A Situational/Textual Modal, Benhaddou (1991)
[50] “Cohesive Device Analysis in Humor”, Liu (2010)
[51] “Cohesion in Arabic & English” https://www.academia.edu/6518060/Cohesion_in_Arabic_and_English
[52] “Repetition in Literary Arabic”, Jawad (2009)

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