Soil Mechanics I One-Dimensional Flow of Water through soils

Chapter Three

One-Dimensional Flow of Water through Soils

Table of Content
Page No
3. Introduction..................................................................................................................... 41
3.1 Definitions of key Terms.................................................................................................. 41
3.2 Groundwater................................................................................................................... 41
3.3 Head............................................................................................................................... 42
3.4 Darcy’s Law..................................................................................................................... 43
3.5 Empirical Relationships for k...........................................................................................45
3.6 Flow Parallel to Soil Layers............................................................................................. 47
3.7 Flow Normal to Soil Layers............................................................................................. 47
3.8 Determination of the Coefficient of Permeability.............................................................49
3.8.1 Constant-Head Test..................................................................................................... 49
3.8.2 Falling-Head Test........................................................................................................ 50
3.8.3 Pumping Test to Determine the Coefficient of Permeability.........................................52

3. Introduction

In chapter 2, we have discussed particle sizes and index properties and used these to
classify soils. You know that water changes the soil states in fine-grained soils; the greater the
water content in the soil the weaker it is (IL increases). Soils are porous materials much like

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Soil Mechanics I One-Dimensional Flow of Water through soils

sponges. Water can flow between the interconnected voids. Particle sizes and structural
arrangement of the particles influence the rate of flow. In table 2.7, you should have noticed that
one of the important soil properties is permeability. In this chapter, we will discuss soil
permeability by considering one-dimensional flow of water through soils. When you complete
this chapter you should be able to:
 Determine the rate of flow of water through soils.

3.1 Definitions of key Terms

Groundwater is water under gravity in excess of that required to fill the soil pores.
Head (H) is the mechanical energy per unit weight.
Coefficient of permeability (k) is a proportionality constant to determine the flow velocity of
water through soils.

3.2 Groundwater

We will be discussing gravitational flow of water under a steady state condition. You may
ask: “What is a steady state condition?” Gravitational flow can only occur if there is a gradient.
Flow takes place downhill. The steady state flow occurs if neither the flow nor the pore water
pressures change with time. Pore water pressure is the water pressure within the voids.
If you dig a hole into a soil mass that has all the voids filled with water (fully saturated),
you will observe water in the hole up to a certain level. This water level is called groundwater
level or groundwater table and exists under a hydrostatic condition. A hydrostatic condition
occurs when the flow is zero. The top of the groundwater level is under atmospheric pressure.
We will denote the groundwater table by the symbol ▼.

3.3 Head

Darcy’s law governs the flow of water through soils. But before we delve into Darcy’s law,
we will discuss an important principle in fluid mechanics – Bernoulli’s principle – which is
essential in understanding flow through soils.
If you cap one end of a tube, fill the tube with water, and then rest it on your table (Fig.
3.1), the height of water with reference to your table is called the pressure head (hP).

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Figure 3.1: Illustration of elevation and pressure heads.

Head refers to the mechanical energy per unit weight. If you raise the tube above the table, the
mechanical energy or total head increases. You now have two components of total head – the
pressure head (hp) and the elevation head (hz). If water were to flow through the tube with a
velocity , under steady state condition, then we have an additional head due to the velocity
given as . The total head (sometimes called piezometric head), H, according to
Bernoulli’s principle is:

(3.1)

The elevation or potential head is referenced to an arbitrary datum and the total head will
change depending on the choice of the datum position. Therefore, it is essential that you identify
your datum position in solutions to flow problems. Pressures are defined relative to atmospheric
pressure. The velocity of flow through soils is generally small (< 1 cm/s) and we usually neglect
the velocity head. The total head in soils is then

(3.2)

Where u = whp is the pore water pressure.

Consider a cylinder containing a soil mass with water flowing through it at a constant rate
as depicted in Fig. 3.2. If we connect two tubes, A and B, called piezometers, at a distance l
apart, the water will rise to different heights in each of the tubes. The height of water in tube B
near the exit is lower than A. Why? As the water flows through the soil, energy is dissipated
through friction with the soil particles, resulting in a loss of head. The head loss between A and
B, assuming decrease in head is positive and our datum is arbitrarily selected at the top of the
cylinder, is ΔH = .

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Soil Mechanics I One-Dimensional Flow of Water through soils

Figure 3.2: Head loss due to flow of water through soil.

3.4 Darcy’s Law

Darcy (1856) proposed that average flow velocity through soils is proportional to the
gradient of the total head. The flow in any direction, j, is

(3.3)

where v is the average flow velocity, k is a coefficient of proportionality called the coefficient of
permeability or hydraulic conductivity, and dH is the change in total head over a distance dx.
The unit of measurement for k is length/time, that is, cm/s. With reference to Fig. 3.2, Darcy’s
law becomes

(3.4)

where is the hydraulic gradient. Darcy’s law is valid for all soils if the flow is laminar

(Reynolds number < 1).

The average velocity, v, calculated from Eq. (3.4) is for the cross-sectional area normal to
the direction of flow. Flow through soils, however, happens only through the interconnected
voids. The velocity through the void spaces is called the seepage velocity (vs) and is obtained
by dividing the average velocity by the porosity of the soil:

(3.5)

The volume rate of flow, qv, or, simply, flow rate is the product of the average velocity and the
cross-sectional area:

(3.6)

The unit of measurement for qv is m3/s or cm3/s. The conservation of flow (law of continuity)
stipulates that the volume rate of inflow (qv)in into a soil element must equal the volume rate of
outflow, (qv)out, or, simply, inflow must equal outflow: (qv)in = (qv)out.

The coefficient of permeability depends on the soil type, the particle size distribution, the
structural arrangement of the grains or void ratio, and the wholeness (homogeneity, layering,
fissuring, etc) of the soil mass. Typical value ranges of kz for various soil types are shown in
Table 2.7.

Table 3.1: Coefficient of permeability for common soil types

Soil type kz (cm/s)

Clean gravel > 1.0

Clean sands, clean sand and gravel mixtures 1.0 to 10-3
Fine sands, silts, mixtures comprising sands, silts, and clays 10-3 to 10-7

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Homogeneous clays < 10-7

Homogeneous clays are practically impervious. Two popular uses of “impervious” clays are
in dam construction to curtail the flow of water through the dam and as barriers in landfills to
prevent migration of effluent to the surrounding area. Clean sands and gravels are pervious and
can be used as drainage materials or soil filters.

3.5 Empirical Relationships for k

For a homogeneous soil, the coefficient of permeability depends predominantly on its void
ratio. You should recall that the void ratio is dependent on the soil fabric and structural
arrangement of the soil grains. A number of empirical relationships have been proposed linking
k to void ratio and grain size for coarse-grained soils. Hazen (1930) proposed one of the early
relationships as:

(2.31)

where C is a constant varying between 0.4 and 1.2 if the unit of measurement of D10 (effective
diameter) is mm. Typically, C = 1.0. Other relationships were proposed for coarse and fine-
grained soils by Samarasinghe et al. (1982), Kenny et al. (1984), and others. One has to be
extremely cautious in using empirical relationships for k because it is very sensitive to changes
in void ratio and the wholeness of your soil mass.

EXAMPLE 3.1

A soil sample 10 cm in diameter is placed in a tube 1 m long. A constant supply of water is

allowed to flow into one end of the soil at A and the outflow at B is collected by a beaker (Fig.
E3.1). The average amount of water collected is 1 cm 3 for every 10 seconds. The tube is
inclined as shown in Fig. 3.1. Determine the (a) hydraulic gradient, (b) flow rate, (c) average
velocity, (d) seepage velocity, if e = 0.6, and (e) coefficient of permeability.

Figure E3.1

Strategy: For flow problems, you must define a datum position. So your first task is to define the
datum position and then find the difference in total head between A and B. Use the head
difference to calculate the hydraulic gradient and use Eqs. (3.4 to 3.6) to solve the problem.

EXAMPLE 3.2

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A drainage pipe (Fig. E3.2) became completely blocked during a storm by a plug of sand, 1.5 m
long, followed by another plug of a mixture of clays, silts, and sands, 0.5 m long. When the
storm was over, the water level above ground was 1 m. The coefficient of permeability of the
sand is 2 times that of the mixture of clays, silts, and sands.
(a) Plot the variation of pressure, elevation, and total head over the length of the pipe.
(b) Calculate the pore water pressure at (1) the center of the sand plug and (2) the center of
the mixture of clays, silts, and sands.
(c) Find the average hydraulic gradients in the sand and in the mixture of clays, silts and
sands.

Figure E3.2a: Illustration of blocked drainage pipe.

Strategy: You need to select a datum. From the information given, you can calculate the total
head at A and B. The difference in head is the head loss over both plugs but you do not know
how much head is lost in the sand and in the mixture of clays, silts, and sands. The continuity
equation provides the key to finding the head loss over each plug.

3.6 Flow Parallel to Soil Layers

When the flow is parallel to the soil layer (Fig. 3.2), the hydraulic gradient is the same at all
points. The flow through the soil mass as a whole is equal to the sum of the flow through each
of the layers. There is a similarity here with the flow of electricity through resistors in parallel. If
we consider a unit width (in the y direction) of flow and use Eq. (3.6), we obtain,
(3.6)
where H0 is the total thickness of the soil mass, kx(eq) is the equivalent permeability in the
horizontal (x) direction, z1 to zn are the thickness of the first to the nth layers, and kx1 to kxn are the
horizontal permeabilities of first to the nth layer. Solving Eq. (3.6) for kx(eq),
we get,

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(3.7)

Fig. 3.2: Flow through stratified layers.

3.7 Flow Normal to Soil Layers

For flow normal to the soil layers, the head loss in the soil mass is the sum of the head
losses in each layer:
(3.8)

where ΔH is the total head loss, and Δh1 to Δhn are the head losses in each of the n layers. The
velocity in each layer is the same. The analogy to electricity is flow of current through resistors
in series. From Darcy’s law, we obtain

(3.9)

where kz(eq) is the equivalent permeability in the vertical (z) direction and kz1 to kzn are the vertical
permeabilities of the first to the nth layer. Solving Eqs. (3.8 and 3.9) leads to

(3.10)

Values of kz(eq) are generally less than kx(eq) – sometimes as much as 10 times less.

EXAMPLE 3.3

A canal is cut into a soil with a stratigraphy shown in Fig. E3.3. Assuming flow takes place
laterally and vertically through the sides of the canal and vertically below the canal, determines
the equivalent permeability in the horizontal and vertical directions. Calculate the ratio of the
equivalent horizontal permeability to the equivalent vertical permeability for flow through the
sides of the canal.

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Fig. E3.3

Strategy: Use Eqs. (3.7 and 3.10) to find the equivalent horizontal and vertical permeabilities
over the depth of the canal (3 m) and then use Eq. (3.10) to find the equivalent vertical
permeability below the canal. To make the calculations easier, convert all exponential quantities
to a single exponent.

3.8 Determination of the Coefficient of Permeability

3.8.1 Constant-Head Test

Fig. 3.3: A constant-head apparatus.

The constant-head test is used to determine the coefficient of permeability of coarse-grained

soils. A typical constant-head apparatus is shown in Fig. 3.3. Water is allowed to flow through a
cylindrical sample of soil under a constant head (h). The outflow (Q) is collected in a graduated
cylinder at a convenient duration (t). With reference to Fig. 3.2,

The flow rate through the soil is qv = Q/t, where Q is the total quantity of water collected in the

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measuring cylinder over time t.

From Eq. (3.10),

(3.11)

where kz is the coefficient of permeability in the vertical direction.

The viscosity of the fluid, which is a function of temperature, influences the value of k. The
experimental value (kT0C) is corrected to a baseline temperature of 200C using

(3.12)

where μ is the viscosity of water, T is the temperature in 0C at which the measurement was
made, and RT = μT℃/μ20℃ is the temperature correction factor that can be calculated from,
(3.13)

3.8.2 Falling-Head Test

The falling-head test is used for fine-grained soils because the flow of water through these
soils is too slow to get reasonable measurements from the constant-head test. A compacted soil
sample or a sample extracted from the field is placed in a metal or acrylic cylinder (Fig. 3.4).

Fig. 3.4: A constant-head apparatus.

Porous stones are positioned at the top and bottom faces of the sample to prevent its
disintegration and to allow water to percolate through it. Water flows through the sample from a
standpipe attached to the top of the cylinder. The head of water (h) changes with time as flow
occurs through the soil. At different times, the head of water is recorded. Let dh be the drop in
head over a time period dt. The velocity or rate of head loss in the tube is

and the inflow of water to the soil is

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where a is the cross-sectional area of the tube. We now appeal to Darcy’s law to get the
outflow:

where A is the cross-sectional area, L is the length of the soil sample, and h is the head of water
at any time t. The continuity condition requires that (qv)in = (qv)out. Therefore,

By separating the variables (h and t) and integrating between that appropriate limit, the last
equation becomes,

(3.14)

EXAMPLE 3.4

A sample of sand, 5 cm in diameter and 15 cm long, was prepared at a porosity of 60% in a

constant-head apparatus. The total head was kept constant at 30 cm and the amount of water
collected in 5 seconds was 40 cm 3. The test temperature was 200C. Calculate the coefficient of
permeability and the seepage velocity.
Strategy: From the data given, you can readily apply Darcy’s law to find k.

EXAMPLE 3.5

The data from a falling-head test on a silty clay are

Cross-sectional area of soil = 80 cm2 Duration of test = 15 minutes
Length of soil = 10 cm Diameter of tube = 6 mm
Initial head = 90 cm Temperature = 220C
Final head = 84 cm
Determine k.
Strategy: Since this is a falling-head test, you should use Eq. 3.14. Make sure you are using
consistent units.

3.8.3 Pumping Test to Determine the Coefficient of Permeability

One common method of determining the coefficient of permeability in the field is by

pumping water at a constant flow rate from a well and measuring the decrease in ground water
level at observation wells (Fig. 3.5).

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Fig. 3.5: Layout of a pump test to determine k.

The equation, called the simple well formula, is derived using the following assumptions.

1. The pumping well penetrates through the water-bearing stratum and is perforated only at
the section that is below the groundwater level.
2. The soil mass is homogeneous, isotropic, and of infinite size.
3. Darcy’s law is valid.
4. Flow is radial towards the well.
5. The hydraulic gradient at any point in the water-bearing stratum is constant and is equal to
the slope of groundwater surface (Dupuit’s assumptions).
Let dz be the drop in total head over a distance dr. Then according to Dupuit’s assumption the
hydraulic gradient is

The area of flow at a radial distance r from the center of the pumping well is

where z is the thickness of an elemental volume of the pervious soil layer. From Darcy’s law, the
flow is:

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We need to rearrange the above equation and integrate it between the limits r1 and r2, and h1
and h2:

Completing the integration leads to:

(3.15)

With measurements of r1, r2, h1, h2, and qv (flow rate of the pump), k can calculated using Eq.
(3.15). This test is only practical for coarse-grained soils.
Pumping tests lower the groundwater, which then causes stress changes in the soil. Since
the groundwater is not lowered uniformly as shown in Fig. 3.5, the stress changes in the soil will
not be even. Consequently, pumping tests near existing structures can cause them to settle
unevenly. You should consider the possibilities of differential settlement on existing structures
when you plan a pumping test. Also, it is sometimes necessary to temporarily lower the
groundwater level for construction. The process of lowering the groundwater is called
dewatering.

EXAMPLE 3.6

A pumping test has been carried out in a soil bed of thickness 15 m and the following
measurements were recorded. Rate of pumping was 10.6×10-3 m3/s; draw downs in observation
wells located at 15 m and 30 m from the center of the pumping well were 1.6 m and 1.4 m,
respectively, from the initial groundwater level. The initial groundwater level was located at 1.9
m below the initial ground level. Determine k.
Strategy: You are given all measurements to directly apply Eq. (3.15) to find k. You should draw
a sketch of the pump test to identify the values to be used in Eq. (3.15).

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