UNIT| I

UNIT

BASICS
BASICS OF METEOROLOGY
OF METEOROLOGY
 Defining Meteorology
Defining Meteorology

“Meteoro” means
“Meteoro” means ‘above the earth’s
‘above the earth's surface’
surface’ (atmosphere)
(atmosphere)
“logy”
“logy” means
means ‘indicating
‘indicating science’.
science’. Branch
Branch of of science
science dealing
dealing
with
with that
that ofof atmosphere
atmosphere is is known
known as as meteorology.
meteorology.
 Lower atmosphere
LiLower atmosphere extending
extending up up to
to 20km
20km from
from earth’s
earth's
surface
surface is is where
where frequent
frequent physical
physical process
process takes
takes place.
place.
LiInIn other
 other words,
words, the physical state
the physical state of
of the
the atmosphere
atmosphere at at aa
given place
given place andand time
time is
Is referred
referred toto as
as “weather”.
“weather”.

LIThe
 study of
The study of weather
weather is
is called
called ‘meteorology’.
‘meteorology’. It
It is
is often
often
quoted
quoted as
as the
the “physics
“physics of
of atmosphere
 Weather
Weather and
and Climate
Climate
•* Weather:
Weather: Physical
Physical state
state of
of the
the atmosphere
atmosphere at
at a
a given
given
place and
place and given
given time.
time. E.g.
E.g. Cloudy
Cloudy day
day

•*Climate:
Climate: Long
Long term
term regime
regime of
of atmospheric
atmospheric variables
variables of
of a
a
given
given place
place or
or area.
area. Eg.
Eg. Cold
Cold season
season
 Agricultural meteorology
Agricultural meteorology
1.
1. A
A branch
branch of of applied
applied meteorology
meteorology which which investigates
investigates the the
physical
physical conditions
conditions of of the
the environment
environment of of growing
growing plants
plants
or
or animal
animal organisms
organisms
2.
2. An
An applied
applied science
science which
which dealsdeals with
with the
the relationship
relationship
between
between weather/climatic
weather/climatic conditions
conditions and and agricultural
agricultural
production.
production.
3.
3. A
A science
science concerned
concerned with with the
the application
application of of
meteorology to
meteorology to the
the measurement
measurement and and analysis
analysis of of the
the
physical environment
physical environment in in agricultural
agricultural systems.
systems. The The word
word
‘Agro meteorology’
‘Agro meteorology’ is is the
the abbreviated
abbreviated form form of of
agricultural
agricultural meteorology.
meteorology.
4. To
4. To study
study the
the interaction
interaction between
between meteorological
meteorological and and
hydrological
hydrological factors
factors on on the
the one
one hand
hand and
and agriculture
agriculture in in
the
the widest
widest sense,
sense, including
including horticulture,
horticulture, animal
animal
husbandry and
husbandry and forestry
forestry on on the
the other
other (WMO).
Meteorology Vs. Agricultural Meteorology
Meteorology Agricultural meteorology
Branch of atmospheric physics Branch of applied meteorology or a branch of
agriculture as it deals with agriculture
It is a weather science It is. a product of agriculture and meteorology
It is. a physical science It is a biophysical science
It aims at weather forecasting It aims at improving quantity and quality of crop
production through meteorological skills
Weather service 1s the concern Agro advisory service to the farmers 1s the concern
based on weather forecast

It is a linking science to the society | Itis a linking science to the farming community
 IMPORTANCE TO
IMPORTANCE TO CROP
CROP
PRODUCTION
PRODUCTION
1.. Helps
Helps inin planning
planning cropping
cropping patterns/systems.
patterns/systems.
BPWDN

2.. Selection
Selection ofof sowing
sowing dates
dates for
for optimum
optimum crop
crop yields.
yields.
3.. Cost
Cost effective
effective ploughing,
ploughing, harrowing,
harrowing, weeding
weeding etc. etc.
4.. Reducing
Reducing losses
losses of
of applied
applied chemicals
chemicals and
and fertilizers.
fertilizers.
5.. Judicious
Judicious irrigation
irrigation to
to crops.
crops.
OT

6.. Efficient
Efficient harvesting
harvesting ofof all
all crops.
crops.
OO

7.. Reducing
Reducing or or eliminating
eliminating outbreak
outbreak ofof pests
pests and
and diseases.
diseases.
CON

8.. Efficient
Efficient management
management of of soils
soils which
which are
are formed
formed out out of
of
weather
weather action.
action.
9. Managing
9. Managing weather
weather abnormalities
abnormalities like like cyclones,
cyclones, heavy
heavy
rainfall,
rainfall, floods,
floods, drought
drought etc.etc. This
This can
canbe be achieved
achieved by by
(a) Protection:
• (a) Protection: When
When rain
rain isis predicted-
predicted- avoid
avoid irrigation.
irrigation.
But,
But, when
when frost
frost is
is predicted-
predicted- applyapply irrigation.
irrigation.
(b) Avoidance:
• (b) Avoidance: Avoid
Avoid fertilizer
fertilizer andand chemical
chemical sprays
sprays when
when
rain
rain is
is predicted
predicted
(c) Mitigation:
• (c) Mitigation: Use
Use shelter
shelter belts
belts against
against cold
cold and
and heat.
heat.

10.
10. Effective
Effective environmental
environmental protection.
protection.

11. Avoiding
11. Avoiding or
or minimizing
minimizing losses
losses due
due to
to forest
forest fires.
fires.
 Weather
Weather Elements
Elements
•¢ Solar
Solar radiation
radiation
•- temperature
temperature
•* Pressure
Pressure
•- Wind
Wind
• Humidity
Humidity
• Rainfall
Rainfall
• Evaporation
Evaporation etc.etc. are
are highly
highly variable.
variable.
•- These
These change
change constantly
constantly sometimes
sometimes from from hour
hour toto hour
hour
and
and atat other
other times
times from
from day
day toto day.
day.
•- The
The aspects
aspects involved
involved if if are
are for
for larger
larger areas
areas like
like aa zone,
zone,
aa state,
state, aa country
country is
is described
described by by normal.
normal.
•- The
The climatic
climatic normals
normals are
are generally
generally worked
worked out
out for
for a
a
period of
period of 30
30 years.
 Light
Light
• Light
Light is
is the
the visible
visible portion
portion of of the
the solar
solar spectrum
spectrum with with
wavelength range
wavelength range is is from
from 0.39 0.39 toto 0.76μ.
0.76u.
• Light
Light is
is one
one ofof the
the important
important climatic
climatic factors
factors forfor many
many vital
vital
functions of
functions of the
the plant.
plant. It
It is
is essential
essential for for the
the synthesis
synthesis of of the
the
most important
most important pigment
pigment i.e. i.e. Chlorophyll
Chlorophyll which which absorbs
absorbs the the
radiant
radiant energy
energy and and converts
converts it it into
into potential
potential energy
energy of of
carbohydrate. The
carbohydrate. The carbohydrate
carbohydrate thus thus formed
formed is is the
the
connecting link
connecting link between
between solar solar energy
energy and and living
living world.
world.
• In
In addition,
addition, it it regulates
regulates the the important
important physiological
physiological
functions.
functions. TheThe characteristics
characteristics of of light
light viz.
viz. intensity,
intensity, quality,
quality,
duration
duration andand direction
direction areare important
important for for crops.
crops.
 Energy balance
Energy balance or
or heat
heat balance
balance
•¢- The
The net net radiation
radiation is is the
the difference
difference between
between total total
incoming
incoming and and outgoing
outgoing radiations
radiations and and isis aa measure
measure of of
the energy
the energy available
available at at the
the ground
ground surface.
surface.
• ItIt is
is the
the energy
energy available
available at at the
the earth’s
earth's surface
surface to to drive
drive
the
the processes
processes of of evaporation,
evaporation, air air and
and soil
soil heat
heat fluxes
fluxes as as
well
well as as other
other smaller
smaller energy
energy consuming
consuming processes
processes such such
as
as photosynthesis
photosynthesis and and respiration.
respiration.
•- The
The net net radiation
radiation overover crop
crop isis as
as follows.
follows.
• RnRn=G+H+LE+PS+M
= G + H + LE + PS + M
Rn is
Rn is net
net radiation,
radiation, G G is
is surface
surface soilsoil heat
heat flux,
flux, HH is
is
sensible
sensible heat heat flux,
flux, LE
LE is
is latent
latent heat
heat flux,
flux, PSPS and
and M M are
are
energy fixed
energy fixed inin plants
plants byby photosynthesis
photosynthesis and and energy
energy
involved
involved in in respiration,
respiration, respectively
respectively ..
 Temperature
Temperature
•- It
Itisis defined
defined as as the
the measure
measure of of the
the average
average speed
speed ofof
atoms
atoms and and molecules.
molecules.
Heat
Heat
•- Aggregate
Aggregate internal
internal energy
energy of of motion
motion of of all
all molecules
molecules of of aa
body.
body.
•- Amount
Amount of of energy
energy transferred
transferred fromfrom one
one object
object to
to another
another
because
because of of the
the temperature
temperature between
between them.
them.
•* When
When two two objects
objects are
are brought
brought intointo thermal
thermal contact,
contact, heat
heat
will
will flow
flow between
between themthem until
until they
they come
come
into equilibrium
into equilibrium with
with each
each other.
other.
•- Heat
Heat transfer
transfer occurs
occurs byby conduction
conduction or or by
by thermal
thermal
radiation.
radiation.
 Heat
Heat Units
Units
• ItIt is
is aa measure
measure of of relative
relative warmth
warmth of of growing
growing season
season ofof aa
given
given length.
length.
• Indicated
Indicated as as Growing
Growing Degree
Degree DaysDays (GDD).
(GDD).
•- Growing
Growing degrees
degrees (GDs)(GDs) is is defined
defined asas the
the mean
mean daily
daily
temperature
temperature above above a a certain
certain threshold
threshold base base temperature
temperature
accumulated
accumulated on on aa daily
daily basis
basis over
over a a period
period of of time.
time.
•- AA heat
heat unit
unit is
is the
the departure
departure fromfrom the
the mean
mean daily
daily
temperature
temperature above above the the minimum
minimum threshold
threshold temperature.
temperature.
Heat Units
Heat Units == ((Maximum
((Maximum Temp. Temp. ++ Minimum
Minimum Temp.)/2)
Temp.)/2) – -
Threshold Temp
Threshold Temp
•- The
The minimum
minimum threshold
threshold temperature
temperature is is the
the temperature
temperature
below
below which
which no no growth
growth takes
takes place.
place.
• Usually
Usually ranges
ranges fromfrom 4.5
4.5 to
to 12.5
12.5 ºC
°C for
for different
different crops
crops (Most
(Most
commonly used
commonly used value
value isis 6.0ºC)
6.0°C)
 HEAT
HEAT INJURIES
INJURIES
•- There
There areare two
two general
general typestypes ofof heat
heat injury
injury
a.. Injury
Injury from
from direct
direct heat
heat causes
causes the the cells
cells ofof the
the plant
plant to
to
collapse
collapse and and thethe plant
plant toto topple
topple over
over and
and die.
die.
b.. Indirect
Indirect injury
injury causes
causes disturbances
disturbances in in the
the plant's
plant's meta-
meta- bolic
bolic
processes, such
processes, such as as the
the denaturation
denaturation of of proteins.
proteins.
•- ‘Thermal
“Thermal deathdeath point’
point’ – — the
the temperature
temperature at at which
which thethe plant
plant
cell gets
cell gets killed
killed when
when the the temperature
temperature ranges ranges fromfrom 50-60°C.
50-60°C.
•- This
This varies
varies with
with plant
plant species.
species. TheThe aquatic
aquatic and and shade
shade loving
loving
plants are
plants are killed
killed at
at comparatively
comparatively lower lower temperature
temperature (40°C).(40°C).
 Role
Role of
of temperature
temperature in
In crop
crop
production
production
1.
1. Influence
Influence on on distribution
distribution of of crop
crop plants
plants andand vegetation.
vegetation.
2.
2. Surface
Surface air air temperature
temperature influences
influences all all stages
stages of
of crop
crop
during
during its
its growth
growth development
development and and reproductive
reproductive phase.
phase.
3.
3. Air
Air temperature
temperature affects affects leaf
leaf production,
production, expansion
expansion and and
flowering.
flowering.
4.
4. The
The diffusion
diffusion ratesrates ofof gases
gases andand liquid
liquid changes
changes with
with
temperature.
temperature.
5. Solubility
5. Solubility of of different
different substances
substances is is dependent
dependent on on
temperature.
temperature.
6. Biochemical
6. Biochemical reactions
reactions in in crops
crops (double
(double or or more
more with
with
each
each 10°C rise)
10°C rise) are
are influenced
influenced by by air
air temperature.
temperature.
7.
7. Equilibrium
Equilibrium of of various
various systems
systems and and compounds
compounds is is a
a
function
function of of temperature.
temperature.
8. Temperature
8. Temperature affects affects thethe stability
stability ofof enzymatic
enzymatic systems
systems
in
in the
the plants.
plants.
9.
9. Most
Most of of the
the higher
higher plants
plants grow
grow between
between 0°C 0°C – — 60°C
60°C
however, maximum
however, maximum dry dry matter
matter is is produced
produced between
between 20 20 and
and
30°C
30°C
10.
10. At
At high
high temperature
temperature and and highhigh humidity,
humidity, most
most of of the
the crop
crop
plants are
plants are affected
affected by by pests
pests andand diseases.
diseases.
11.
11. High
High night
night temperature
temperature increases
increases respiration
respiration andand
metabolism.
metabolism.
12.
12. A
A short
short duration
duration crop
crop becomes
becomes medium medium duration
duration or or long
long
duration
duration crop
crop depending
depending upon upon its its environmental
environmental
temperature under
temperature under which
which it it is
is grown.
grown.
13.
13. Most
Most of of the
the crops
crops have
have upper
upper and and lower
lower limits
limits of
of
temperature
temperature below below or or above
above which,
which, theythey may
may notnot come
come up up
and
and anan optimum
optimum temperature
temperature when when the the crop
crop growth
growth is is
maximum.
maximum. These These areare known
known as as cardinal
cardinal temperatures
temperatures and and
 Soil
Soil temperature
temperature
The
The sown
sown seeds,
seeds, plant
plant roots
roots and
and micro
micro organisms
organisms live live inin the
the
soil.
soil.
Effects of
Effects of soil
soil temperature
temperature on on plant
plant growth
growth
•-Soil temperature affects
Soil temperature affects thethe germination
germination and and growth
growth of of crops
crops
•-Soil
Soil temperature
temperature has has a a profound
profound influence
influence on on root
root and
and shoot
shoot
growth,
growth, and and nutrient
nutrient uptake
uptake by by crops.
crops.
•‘Low
Low soil
soil temperature
temperature reduces
reduces water
water intake
intake ofof water
water by by roots.
roots.
•‘Extreme
Extreme soil soil temperatures
temperatures injures
injures plant
plant and
and its
its growth
growth is is
effected.
effected.
•‘Nutrient transformation and
Nutrient transformation and nutrient
nutrient availability
availability areare controlled
controlled
by
by soil
soil temperature
temperature and and soil
soil moisture.
•- Soil
Soil temperature
temperature variesvaries with
with time
time and
and depth,
depth, andand isis
determined
determined by by the
the radiation
radiation reaching
reaching the
the soil
soil surface,
surface,
the quality
the quality of
of the
the surface
surface thermal
thermal conductivity
conductivity and and heat
heat
capacity of
capacity of the
the soil.
soil.
•- At
Ataconstant moisture content,
a constant moisture content, aa decrease
decrease in in
temperature
temperature results
results in in a
a decrease
decrease inin water
water and
and nutrient
nutrient
uptake.
uptake.
•- At
At low
low temperatures,
temperatures, transport
transport from
from the
the root
root toto the
the shoot
shoot
and
and vice
vice versa
versa is is reduced.
reduced.
 Factors controlling
Factors controlling soil
soil temperature
temperature

•- Soil
Soil moisture
moisture
•- Soil
Soil colour
colour
•- Slope
Slope ofof the
the land
land
•- Vegetative
Vegetative cover
cover
•- General soiltilth.
General soil tilth.
Aeration can
Aeration can bebe used
used to
to control
control soil
soil temperature,
temperature, regulate
regulate
soil
soil moisture,
moisture, improve
improve drainage,
drainage, stimulate
stimulate microbial
microbial
activity and
activity and improve
improve overall
overall soil
soil tilth
tilth
 Humidity
Humidity
•- The
The amount
amount of of water
water vapour
vapour that
that is
is present
present in
in
atmosphere
atmosphere is is known
known as as atmospheric
atmospheric moisture
moisture or
or
humidity.
humidity.
Specific humidity
Specific humidity
•- Weight
Weight ofof water
water vapour
vapour perper unit
unit weight
weight ofof moist
moist air.
air. It
It is
is
expressed
expressed as as grams
grams ofof water
water vapour
vapour per
per kilogram
kilogram ofof air
air
(g/kg).
 Relative Humidity
Relative Humidity
• The
The ratio
ratio between
between the the amount
amount of of water
water vapour
vapour present
present in
in aa
given volume
given volume of of air
air and
and the
the amount
amount of of water
water vapour
vapour
required
required for for saturation
saturation underunder fixed
fixed temperature
temperature and and
pressure.
pressure.
• There
There are are nono units
units and
and this
this is
is expressed
expressed as as percentage.
percentage.
• In
In other
other terms
terms it it is
is the
the ratio
ratio of
of the
the air’s
airs water
water vapour
vapour content
content
to
to its
its maximum
maximum water water vapour
vapour capacity
capacity at at aa given
given
temperature
temperature expressed
expressed in in percentage.
percentage.
• The
The relative
relative humidity
humidity gives
gives only
only the
the degree
degree of of saturation
saturation ofof
air.
air.
• The
The relative
relative humidity
humidity of of saturated
saturated airair is
is 100
100 per
per cent.
cent.
 Precipitation
Precipitation
• Precipitation
Precipitation includes
includes all all water
water which
which falls
falls from
from
atmosphere such
atmosphere such as as rainfall,
rainfall, snow,
snow, hail,
hail, fog
fog andand dew.
dew.
• Rainfall
Rainfall oneone of
of the
the most
most important
important factorfactor influences
influences the the
vegetation
vegetation of of aa place.
place.
• Total
Total precipitation
precipitation in in amount
amount and and distribution
distribution greatly
greatly
affects the
affects the choice
choice of of aa cultivated
cultivated species
species in in aa place.
place.
• In
In heavy
heavy and and evenly
evenly distributed
distributed rainfall
rainfall areas,
areas, crops
crops likelike
rice
rice in
in plains
plains and
and tea,
tea, coffee
coffee and and rubber
rubber in in Western
Western GhatsGhats
are grown.
are grown.
• Low
Low andand uneven
uneven distribution
distribution of of rainfall
rainfall isis common
common in in
dryland
dryland farming
farming where
where drought
drought resistance
resistance crops crops like
like pearl
pear!
millet,
millet, sorghum
sorghum and and minor
minor millets
millets areare grown.
grown.
• In
In desert
desert areas
areas grasses
grasses and and shrubs
shrubs are are common
common where where hot hot
desert climate
desert climate exists
•* Though
Though thethe rainfall
rainfall has
has major
major influence
influence on
on yield
yield of
of crops,
crops,
yields are
yields are not
not always
always directly
directly proportional
proportional toto the
the amount
amount
of
of precipitation
precipitation asas excess
excess above
above optimum
optimum reduces
reduces the the
yields.
yields.
•- Distribution
Distribution of of rainfall
rainfall is
is more
more important
important than
than total
total
rainfall
rainfall to
to have
have longer
longer growing
growing period
period especially
especially in in
drylands.
drylands.
 Wind velocity
Wind velocity
• The
The basic
basic function
function of of wind
wind is is to
to carry
carry moisture
moisture and and heat.
heat.
• The
The moving
moving wind wind not
not onlyonly supplies
supplies moisture
moisture and and heat,
heat, also
also
supplies
supplies fresh
fresh CO2
CO2 for for the
the photosynthesis.
photosynthesis.
• Wind
Wind movement
movement for for 4 4 –— 66 km/hour
km/hour is is suitable
suitable for
for more
more
crops.
crops.
• When
When wind
wind speed
speed is is enormous
enormous then then there
there isis mechanical
mechanical
damage of
damage of the
the crops
crops (i.e.)
(i.e.) it
it removes
removes leaves
leaves and
and twigs
twigs and
and
damages
damages crops crops like
like banana,
banana, sugarcane.
sugarcane.
• Wind
Wind dispersal
dispersal of of pollen
pollen and and seeds
seeds isis natural
natural and
and
necessary for
necessary for certain
certain crops.
crops.
• Causes
Causes soilsoil erosion.
erosion.
• Helps
Helps inin cleaning
cleaning produce
produce to to farmers.
farmers.
• Increases
Increases evaporation.
evaporation.
• Spread
Spread of of pest
pest and
and diseases
SOIL PLANT
SOIL PLANT ATMOSPHERIC
ATMOSPHERIC CONTINUUM
CONTINUUM
-A vital resource for Agriculture

Plant growth depends on the use of two important natural

resources, soil and water. Soil provides the mechanical and
nutrient support necessary for plant growth and Water is the
major input for the growth and development of all types of
plants.
Soil provides food and fertilizers to the crops where as water
mobilize the organism of plant growth and helps in introducing
food and fertilizers to crops.
Soil provides the room for water to be used by plants through
the roots present in the same medium.
• Soil
Soil plant
plant water
water relationships
relationships relate
relate to
to the
the properties
properties of of
soil
soil and
and plant
plant that
that affect
affect the
the movement,
movement, retention
retention and
and
use of
use of water.
water.
• Soil
Soil serves
serves as as the
the storage
storage reservoir
reservoir for
for water.
water.
• Plants
Plants extract
extract daily
daily water
water requirements
requirements for for proper
proper
growth
growth andand development.
development.
• As
As plants
plants continue
continue to to use
use water,
water, the
the available
available supply
supply
decline and
decline and diminishes
diminishes unless
unless more
more water
water isis added
added byby
rainfall or
rainfall or irrigation.
irrigation.
 SPAC
SPAC
•- The
The soil-plant-atmosphere
soil-plant-atmosphere continuum
continuum (SPAC)(SPAC) is is the
the
pathway
pathway for for water
water moving
moving from
from soil
soil through
through plants
plants toto
the
the atmosphere.
atmosphere.
•* Continuum
Continuum in in the
the description
description highlights
highlights thethe continuous
continuous
nature of
nature of water
water connection
connection through
through the the pathway.
pathway.
•- The
The low
low water
water potential
potential of
of the
the atmosphere,
atmosphere, and and relatively
relatively
higher (i.e.
higher (i.e. less
less negative)
negative) water
water potential
potential inside
inside leaves,
leaves,
leads
leads toto aa diffusion
diffusion gradient
gradient across
across thethe stomatal
stomatal pores
pores
of leaves,
of leaves, drawing
drawing water
water out
out of
of the
the leaves
leaves asas vapour.
•- As
As water
water vapour
vapour transpires
transpires outout of
of the
the leaf,
leaf, further
further water
water
molecules
molecules evaporate
evaporate off off the
the surface
surface of of mesophyll
mesophyll cells
cells to
to
replace
replace thethe lost
lost molecules
molecules sincesince water
water leaves
leaves is
is maintained
maintained
at saturation
at saturation vapour
vapour pressure.
pressure.
•- Water
Water lost
lost at
at the
the surface
surface of of cells
cells is
is replaced
replaced by by water
water from
from
the
the xylem
xylem which
which due due to
to the
the cohesion-tension
cohesion-tension properties
properties ofof
water in
water in the
the xylem
xylem ofof plants
plants pulls
pulls additional
additional water
water
molecules
molecules through
through the the xylem
xylem from
from thethe roots
roots toward
toward the
the leaf
leaf
Soil
Soil – — Plant
Plant – - Atmosphere
Atmosphere continuum
continuum

Plants create
Plants create “unbroken”
“unbroken” column
column of
of water
water driven
driven by
by plant
plant
transpiration
transpiration
 SPAC
SPAC
The Soil—Plant—Atmosphere System

Temperature Light Humidity

“te, Transpiration
and
a | energy balance

Leaf structure

Leaf
lt
resistance
Ecological response;
Root and stem plant activity or behavior
structure
a Root and stem
transport

Soil physical |
properties ————> Root absorption

Soil
a.
water Soil temperature
availability
Figure 18-3 Diagram showing the interactions of the physical and biotic
factors that are the most important in determining the ecological
response of plants to water.
 The
The Process
Process

•‘The
The movement
movement of of water
water from
from the
the soil,
soil, into
into the
the roots,
roots, through
through
the
the xylem
xylem and
and from
from the
the leaf
leaf into
into the
the atmosphere,
atmosphere, occurs
occurs
because of
because of aa series
series of
of water
water potential
potential gradients.
gradients.

•‘The system that

The system that involves
involves the
the soil,
soil, the
the plant’s
plant's roots,
roots, the
the xylem,
xylem,
the
the leaf
leaf and
and the
the atmosphere,
atmosphere, is is called
called the
the soil-plant-
soil-plant-
atmosphere continuum
atmosphere continuum (SPAC),
(SPAC), which
which isis aa pathway
pathway forfor the
the
movement
movement of of water
water from
from the
the soil
soil into
into the
the atmosphere.
atmosphere.

•‘Water flows from

Water flows from soil
soil to
to roots
roots through
through xylem,
xylem, mesophyll
mesophyll and
and
wall
wall cells,
cells, and
and it
it evaporates
evaporates through
through stomata,
stomata, into
into the
the
atmosphere.
atmosphere.
•- The
The value
value ofof the
the water
water potential
potential is is higher
higher (less
(less negative)
negative) in in
the
the soil
soil and
and decreases
decreases along
along thethe transpiration
transpiration pathway.
pathway.
•- The
The water
water potential
potential values
values inin the
the different
different elements
elements of of the
the
system
system (saturated
(saturated and and unsaturated
unsaturated soil, soil, plant’s
plant’s roots,
roots, plant’s
plant’s
xylem,
xylem, plant’s
plant’s leaves,
leaves, atmosphere)
atmosphere) are are determining
determining a a series
series
of
of water
water potential
potential gradients
gradients that
that are
are the
the driving
driving forces
forces forfor
water movement.
water movement.

Water potential
Water potential
Refers to
Refers to the
the ability
ability of
of water to move
water to move inin soil
soil
More water
More water in in soil
soil == More
More water
water potential
potential
At saturation
At saturation, , potential
potential isis near
near 00(zero)
(zero)
As soil
As soil dries
dries, , values become more
values become more negative
negative
Water
Water is
is held
held more
more tightly
tightly by
by soil
soil
 Soil water
Soil water potential
potential

The
The SWP
SWP potential
potential is is defined
defined as
as the
the potential
potential energy
energy ofof water
water
in soil
in soil
The total
The total SWP
SWP (ψt)
(wt) is
is determined
determined by by aa variety
variety of
of forces
forces acting
acting
on the
on the soil
soil water,
water, including
including gravitational
gravitational (ψg),
(wg), matric
matric (capillary
(capillary
and adsorptive,
and adsorptive, ψm), ym), osmotic
osmotic (ψo)
(wo) and
and hydrostatic
hydrostatic (ψh).
(wh).

ψt
wt =
= ψg
wg +
+ ψm
pm +
+ ψo
wo++ wh
ψh

>The
 gravitational potential
The gravitational potential is is determined
determined by by the
the elevation
elevation ofof
the
the soil
soil water
water with
with respect
respect to to the
the chosen
chosen reference
reference elevation,
elevation,
which is
which is usually
usually the
the soil
soil surface.
surface.
>The
 matric potential
The matric potential is is determined
determined by by the
the forces
forces exerted
exerted byby
the soil
the soil matrix
matrix (soil
(soil particles)
particles) on on water,
water, which
which are
are capillary
capillary and
and
adsorptive forces.
adsorptive
> The
The osmotic
osmotic potential
potential is is given
given byby the
the presence
presence of of solutes
solutes inin
the
the soil
soil solution,
solution, which which decrease
decrease the the potential
potential energy
energy of of
water.
water.
> The
The hydrostatic
hydrostatic potential
potential (also
(also called
called pressure
pressure potential)
potential) isis
determined
determined by by a a pressure
pressure exerted
exerted by by overlaying
overlaying water
water over
over a a
point of
point of interest
interest in in the
the soil.
soil.
•- Usually
Usually thethe SWPSWP is is expressed
expressed as as aa negative
negative number
number
because
because it it represents
represents the the energy
energy required
required toto transfer
transfer the
the soil
soil
water
water to to the
the reference
reference statestate described
described above.
above.
•- The
The term
term “suction”
“suction” and and “tension”
“tension” are are definitions
definitions developed
developed
to
to avoid
avoid using
using the the negative
negative signsign and
and toto represent
represent the the SWP
SWP
as
as positive
positive numbers.
numbers.
•- However,
However, in in this
this review,
review, thethe negative
negative sign
sign will
will be
be retained
retained
and
and the
the property
property will will be
be called
called water
water potential.
 TYPES OF
TYPES OF SOIL
SOIL WATER
WATER
1. Hygroscopic
1. Hygroscopic water water -- water
water heldheld tightly
tightly toto the
the surface
surface
of soil
of soil particles
particles by by adsorption
adsorption forces.forces.
2. Capillary
2. Capillary water
water -- water
water heldheld by by the
the forces
forces of of surface
surface
tension
tension andand continuous
continuous films films around
around soilsoil particles
particles and and
in the
in the capillary
capillary spaces.
spaces. It It is
is held
held between
between 1/3 1/3 toto 31 31
atm.
atm. However
However between
between 15-3115-31 atm,atm, the
the movement
movement of of
water
water isis very
very slow
slow and
and beyond
beyond 15 15 atm,
atm, itit is
is not
not
available
available to to plants.
plants.
3. Gravitational
3. Gravitational waterwater -- water
water thatthat moves
moves freely
freely in in
response to
response to gravity
gravity and
and drains
drains out out of
of the
the soil.
soil. This
This
water is
water is held
held inin the
the soil
soil at
at tension
tension of of one
one third
third ofof atmatm
(1/3 atm).
(1/3 atm).
Out of
Out of the
the three
three forms,
forms, only
only capillary
capillary and and toto some
some
extent gravitational
extent gravitational waterwater is is available
available to to plants.
plants.
Hygroscopic water
Hygroscopic water isis not
not available
available to to plants.
 Terminologies
Terminologies
•‘Saturation
Saturation capacity:
capacity: when when all all the
the soil
soil pores
pores are
are filled
filled with
with
water, the
water, the soil
soil isis said
said toto be
be under
under saturation
saturation capacity
capacity or or
maximum
maximum water water holding
holding capacity.
capacity. The The tension
tension of of water
water at at
this
this point
point isis almost
almost zero.
zero.
•‘Field capacity: This
Field capacity: This situation
situation exists
exists 2-3
2-3 days
days after
after the
the soil
soil
is
is wetted
wetted by by rainfall
rainfall oror irrigation.
irrigation. The
The soil
soil moisture
moisture tension
tension
is
is around
around 1/3 1/3 atm.
atm.
•‘Permanent
Permanent WiltingWilting Point
Point (PWP):
(PWP): ItIt isis the
the moisture
moisture content
content
at
at which
which plants
plants can can not
not obtain
obtain enough
enough moisture
moisture to to meet
meet
transpiration
transpiration requirement
requirement and and remain
remain wilted.
wilted. The
The soil
soil
moisture
moisture tension
tension at at PWP
PWP is is 15
15 atm.
atm.
•‘Available
Available water:
water: SoilSoil moisture
moisture between
between FC FC and
and PWPPWP is is
referred
referred as as available
available water.
+ Permanent Wilting Point
Is that water content at which plant can no longer extract
sufficient water for its growth and wilts up.

It is evident that the water which is available to the plants

is the difference of FC water and PWP water, this is called
Available water/moisture.

WATER CONTENT WATER CONTENT AVAILABLE

( AT FIELD CAPACITY AT PERMANENT
¢ WILTING POINT ) ( WATER CONTENT
= = —_— — —_—
—<—

_— — — ——

bo drain
 Pattern
Pattern of
of Water
Water Removal
Removal
Plants
Plants will
will use
use water
water near
near the
the surface
surface first
first
As
As surface
surface dries,
dries, plant
plant roots
roots grow
grow deeper.
deeper.

Measuring Soil
Measuring Soil Water
Water
Four methods:
Four methods:
-- gravimetric
gravimetric measurements
measurements
-- potentiometers
potentiometers
-- resistance
resistance blocks
blocks
-- neutron
neutron probes
probes (mainly
(mainly research)
research)
 Gravimetric
Gravimetric method
method
Measures soil
Measures soil water
water content
content by by weight
weight
Water content
Water content == moist
moist wtwt –— dry
dry wt
wt dry wt
dry wt
Example:
Example: soil
soil sample
sample at at field
field capacity
capacity 162
162 grams
grams
dry sample
dry sample 135
135 grams
grams
water
water content
content = = 162g
162g-– 135g
135g = = .20
.20
135g
135g
 Volume
Volume Basis
Basis

Volumetric
Volumetric water
water content
content = =
gravimetric water
gravimetric water content
content xx soil
soil bulk
bulk density
density
water density
water density
From
From previous
previous gravimetric
gravimetric example
example ..
If bulk
If bulk density
density ofof soil
soil is
is 1.4
1.4 grams
grams per
per cubic
cubic cm,
cm, and
and we
we know
know
density of
density of water
water isis 1.0
1.0 g/cc
g/cc
Volumetric
Volumetric water
water content
content = =

20 xx 1.4g/cc
.20 1.4g/cc == .28
.28
1.0
1.0 g/cc
g/cc
 Soil
Soil Depth
Depth Basis
Basis
Measures “inches
Measures “inches ofof water”
water” per
per foot
foot of
of soil
soil
-- Uses
Uses volumetric
volumetric water
water content
content
-- Simple
Simple calculation
calculation... ...
Inches water
Inches water per
per foot
foot ==
1212 inches
inches xx volumetric
volumetric water
water content
content
Continue
Continue from from previous
previous example
example... ...
Inches
Inches water
water per
per foot
foot soil
soil ==
12
12 inches
inches xx .28
.28 = = 3.36
3.36
Or simply
Or simply stated
stated
Each foot
Each foot of
of soil
soil depth
depth contains
contains 3.36
3.36 inches
inches of
of water
water
assuming
assuming constant
constant soilsoil conditions
 Practical Measuring
Practical Measuring Devices
Devices
Gravimetric method
Gravimetric method not not very
very practical
practical management
management
More
More useful
useful andand practical
practical are ...
are...
-- 1. 1. Potentiometers
Potentiometers (tensiometers):
(tensiometers):
 L] Measure
Measure soil soil moisture
moisture potential
potential atat given
given levels
levels
 L) Water
Water exiting
exiting tube
tube creates
creates vacuum
vacuum
 L] Measured
Measured by by gauge/instrument
gauge/instrument
 LJ Function
Function bestbest atat higher
higher potentials
potentials
2. Resistance
2. Resistance BlocksBlocks (gypsum
(gypsum blocks):
blocks):
 LJ Measure
Measure resistance
resistance of of electrical
electrical flowflow between
between two two
electrodes
electrodes embedded
embedded in in block
block buried
buried in
in soil
soil
 LI moist
moist soil
soil with
with ions
ions of
of salts
salts in
in solution
solution carry
carry electrical
electrical flow
flow
 WATER RETENTION
WATER RETENTION
“* Medium-textured
Medium-textured soils
soils have
have the
the highest
highest available
available water-
water-
holding
holding capacity
capacity e.g.
e.g. Silt
Silt Loam
Loam
“* Organic
Organic matter
matter influences
influences water-holding
water-holding capacity-
capacity-
Increases
Increases amount
amount of of available
available water
water
Water requirement
Water requirement of of crop
crop
•- Water
Water balance
balance method:
method: This This method
method indicates
indicates the
the
inflow and
inflow and outflowof
outflowof water
water over
over larger
larger areas
areas over
over long
long
period.
period.
•- WR=ET+
WR=ET+ Surface
Surface ruoff+
ruoff+ subsurface
subsurface drainage+
drainage+ change
change
in
in soil
soil water
water content
content
Evapotranspiration (ET) and Consumptive Use (CU)
ET denotes the water transpired by crop plants and the water evaporated
from the soil or water surface in the crop field and the intercepted
precipitation by crop in any specified period.
Expressed in depth of water 1.e. mm or cm
CU of water by crop refers to the ET together with water used for metabolic
activities by the crop plants.
ET = CU because water used by plants in metabolic activity is generally 1%
of ET value.
Potential Evapotranspiration (PET)
* Jt denotes the highest rate of ET by a short and actively growing crop with
abundant foliage completely shading the ground surface and abundant soil water
under a given climate.

Actual Crop Evapotranspiration (AET)

* Refers to the rate of ET by a particular crop in a given period under prevailing soil
water and atmospheric conditions.
* Itinvolves crop factor called, crop coefficient (k).

Reference crop evapotranspiration (ET,)

* The evapotranspiration rate from a reference surface, not short of water, is called
the reference crop evapotranspiration or reference evapotranspiration.

Factors Affecting ET:

1) Climatic factors
2) Growing season
3) Crop characteristics
4) Soil Charactenstics
5) Cultural Practices
 Water evaporation
Water evaporation in
in the
the leaf
leaf
affects the
affects the xylem
xylem
•- The
The tensions
tensions needed
needed to to pull
pull water
water
through the
through the xylem
xylem areare the
the result
result of
of
evaporation of
evaporation of water
water from
from leaves.
leaves.
•- Transpiration
Transpiration pull
pull , which
which causes
causes
water to
water to move
move upup the
the xylem
xylem
 Water evaporation
Water evaporation in
in the
the leaf
leaf
affects the
affects the xylem
xylem
•- So,
So, negative
negative pressure
pressure exists
exists in in leaves-
leaves- cause
cause surface
surface
tension
tension onon the
the water
water
•- AsAs more
more water
water is
is lost
lost to
to the
the atmosphere
atmosphere – — the
the remaining
remaining
water is
water is drawn
drawn into
into the
the cell
cell wall
wall
•- AsAs more
more water
water is
is removed
removed from from the
the wall
wall the
the pressure
pressure of
of
the
the water becomes more
water becomes more –ve —ve
This
This induces
induces aa motive
motive force
force toto pull
pull water
water up
up the
the xylem
 water movement
Water movement from
trom leaf
leat to
to
atmosphere
atmosphere
After
After water
water has has evaporated
evaporated
from
from thethe cell
cell surface
surface of of thethe
intercellular air
intercellular space diffusion
air space diffusion -
takes over.
takes over. ubstmatl Palsode
. cavity parenchyma Xylem
•So:
So: the
the path
path of of water
water cutie —aaeas psec (pe pip loses 909% sibounday
–
~ Xylem
Xylem liar td {o_o Ik Je Gh ie 809 layer

–
— Cell
Cell wall
wall of of mesophyll
mesophyll rms AMY ue f
cells
cells ¥ |
Mesophyll OND Cy ve
–_— Evaporated
F
vaporated d into :
into air.
air cl YJaor Cia
spaces of
spaces of leaf
leaf a 5 Bore (0
. . Kn vapor ye Uy Ox
— Diffusion
– Diffusion occursoccurs – — water
water ioe Oo v., \y
vapor
vapor thenthen leaves
leaves via via epherMisN — Niheer Liane wo
stomatal
stomatal pore pore Seif BU CTCoe ere NGO
p Boundary ayer” Leaf stomatal (0)
–
— Goes
Goes downdowna a | resistance Guard cell

concentration
concentration gradient gradient. . nea
vapor
Loa we
vapor
High Coo \ somata pore
 Water Vapor
Water Vapor diffuses
diffuses quickly
quickly in
in air
air
• Diffusion
Diffusion of
of water
water out
out of
of the
the leaf
leaf isis very
very fast
fast
• Transpiration
Transpiration from
from the
the leaf
leaf depends
depends on on two
two factors:
factors:
–
— Difference
Difference in in water
water vapor
vapor concentration
concentration between between leaf leaf air
air
spaces
spaces andand the
the atmosphere
atmosphere
–
— The
The diffusional
diffusional resistance
resistance of of the
the pathway
pathway from from leaf
leaf toto
atmosphere
atmosphere
The diffusional
• The diffusional resistance
resistance of of the
the pathway
pathway from leaf to
from leaf to
atmosphere
atmosphere
• The
The resistance
resistance associated
associated with with diffusion
diffusion through
through thethe
stomatal
stomatal pore.
pore.
— Leaf
– Leaf stomatal
stomatal resistance
resistance (rs)(rs)
• Resistance
Resistance duedue toto a
a layer
layer of
of unstirred
unstirred air air next
next toto the
the leaf
leaf
surface
surface
–
- Boundary
Boundary layer
layer resistance
resistance
 Boundary layer
Boundary layer resistance
resistance
• Thickness
Thickness of of the
the layer
layer is
is
determined by
determined by wind
wind speed.
speed.
• Still
Still air
air–— layer
ayer maymay bebe so
so thick
thick

| ok
that
that water
water isis effectively
effectively stopped
stopped Roel

air
in

from leaving
from leaving the
the leaf
leaf

• Windy
Windy conditions
conditions –— moving
moving airair
reduces
reduces the
the thickness
thickness of
of the
the im

boundary layer at the leaf surface

cil
o _| */ ‘ “Pi. . «air
• The
The size
size and
and shape
shape ofof leaves
leaves
5 ol bs ag *s 8 ee — —
=
i = 7
et 1 Fliisy rifen ki

influence air
influence air flow
flow –— but
but the
the
or = Gi ¥
Wr OUMGArY Lave
retista ee

stomata
stomata itself
itself play
play the
the most
most
ri . E

al
critical
critical role
role leaf
leaf transpiration
|
transpiration
it. :
: al Eri = i] iifral
•- The
The boundary
boundary layer
layer around
around a a leaf
leaf is
is thick
thick in
in still
still air,
air, and
and
constitutes aa major
constitutes major resistance
resistance toto the
the flux
flux of
of HH.O from
2O from
the leaf.
the leaf. A
A slight
slight increase
increase in
in wind
wind speed
speed will
will reduce
reduce the
the
boundary
boundary layer,
layer, and
and increase
increase transpiration.
transpiration.