D.

Magda Abd-Elgawad

BIOTECHNOLOGY OF NATURAL
PRODUCTS
Lecture 2
STRUCTURE OF DNA
 Chromosomes and DNA
• The human body contains around 75
trillion cells, most of which have a
nucleus bounded by a nuclear
membrane and surrounded by
cytoplasm.
The Cell
• Within each nucleus there is a set of 46
chromosomes made up of chromatin.
This consists of an extremely long
strand of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
interwoven around structural proteins
known as histones.

DNA
 Chromosomes and DNA
• DNA is packaged in the
form of chromosomes in
the nucleus of a cell.
• Our genes are on our
chromosomes.
• Human genome contains
about 3 ×10 9 nucleotide
base pairs organized into
23 chromosomes.
 What is DNA?
• DNA is a molecule that carries
genetic information.
• This information is important for
cellular functions like cell division
and cell differentiation.
• Without DNA , cell will not be able
to carry out these vital functions.
• DNA is often called the blueprint of
life
• Almost all cells contain DNA inside
their nuclei except few viruses.
 DNA
• DNA, or deoxyribonucleic acid, is the
hereditary material in humans and almost all
other organisms. Nearly every cell in a
person’s body has the same DNA. Most DNA
is located in the cell nucleus (where it is called
nuclear DNA), but a small amount of DNA
can also be found in the mitochondria (where it
is called mitochondrial DNA or mtDNA)
 Functions of DNA
• Stores genetic information.
• DNA Replication: Formation of its exact
similar copy.
• Protein synthesis (Gene expression): It stores
the information that each cell needs to produce
proteins. These instructions make life possible.
Structure of DNA(deoxyribonucleic acid)
• Discovered by
Watson &
Crick in 1953

Francis Crick and James Watson with Maurice Wilkins received Nobel Prize
in 1962 for discovering the molecular structure of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA).
Widely regarded as one of the most important discoveries of the 20th century it
has led the way to the mapping and deciphering of all the genes in the human
chromosomes .
 II. The Watson-Crick Model of the
Structure of DNA

• DNA is double stranded -

Double-helix .
• It consists of two chains of
nucleotides in a ladder-like
structure which is twisted.
• In a double helix, the two strands
are always antiparallel .
• DNA is made up of small
subunits called nucleotides
 Structure of DNA
Nucleotide

Hydrogen
bonds

Sugar-phosphate
backbone
Key
Adenine (A)
Thymine (T)
Cytosine (C)
Guanine (G)
 Nucleotides – the building blocks
of DNA
• The nucleotides are made up
of:-
I. De-oxy-ribose (sugar)
II. Phosphate group
III. Nitrogen bases

Deoxyribose sugar 5 carbons

Phosphate (PO4) group at carbon no. 5
Hydroxyl (OH) group at carbon no. 3
 O Nucleotide
O -P O One de-oxy-ribose together with its
O phosphate and base make a nucleotide.
O

O -P O
O O

O -P O
O Nitrogenous
O base
Phosphate
C

C C
Deoxyribose
O
Five carbon 12
sugar
 One Strand of DNA
nucleotide

• One strand of DNA is

a polymer of
nucleotides.
• One strand of DNA
has many millions of
nucleotides.

13
 One Strand of DNA
• The backbone of the phosphate
molecule is alternating
phosphates and
deoxyribose sugar
• The teeth are nitrogenous deoxyribose

bases.

bases

14
•Phosphodiester
bond: Bond between
adjacent nucleotides.

•In DNA and RNA, the

phosphodiester bond is
the linkage between
the 3' carbon atom of
one sugar molecule
and the 5' carbon
atom of another; the
sugar molecules
being deoxyribose in
DNA and ribose in

15
 DNA
• DNA strands have a directionality,
and the different ends of a single
strand are called the "3' (three-
prime) end" and the "5' (five-
prime) end" with the direction of
the naming going 5 prime to the 3
prime region.

• The strands of the helix are anti-

parallel with one being 5 prime to
3 then the opposite strand 3 prime
to 5.
 Two kinds of Bases in DNA
There are two kinds of Nitrogen-
containing bases - Purines and N
N C
Pyrimidines:-
• Pyrimidines are single ring bases. O C C

They have only a six-membered N C

nitrogen containing ring. Pyrimidine

N
• Purines are double ring bases. It N C

consist of a six-membered and a C C

N
five-membered nitrogen- N C
N C
containing ring, fused together.
Purine
17
 Nitrogenous bases

DNA has four different bases:

• CytosineC
• Thymine T
• Adenine A
PURINES
• Guanine G

18
Thymine and Cytosine are pyrimidines

• Thymine and cytosine each have one ring

of carbon and nitrogen atoms.

N
O
N N C
C

O C C
O C C
C
N C
N C
thymine cytosine
19
Adenine and Guanine are purines

• Adenine and guanine each have two rings of

carbon and nitrogen atoms.

N O

N C N C

C C N C C
N N
N C N C
Guanine C
Adenine C
N N
20
 Base Pairing Rule (Chargaff’s rule)
• When Erwin Chargaff analyzed the composition
of DNA from many organisms, he found that
concentration of thymine was always equal to the
concentration of adenine and the concentration
of cytosine was always equal to the concentration
of Guanine.
• Amount of adenine = amount of thymine
• Amount of cytosine = amount of guanine

21
The nitrogen bases always pair up in a specific
pattern Complementary base pairing.
•Adenine(A) pairs up with Thymine(T)
•Guanine(G) pairs up with Cytosine(C)
Example
AGC T A CG C A one side
TCG AT GC G T other side
24
 Properties of Base Pairing
• The specificity of base pairing ( A-T and G- C) means that the
sequence on one strand dictates the sequence of bases on the
opposite strand.
• The two strands are therefore said to be Complementary.
• This has important consequences for in vivo DNA replication
where each strand acts as a template for the generation of the
opposite strand.
• This fundamental property is also widely exploited for the in
vitro replication of DNA and allows the sequence of
complementary strands to be deduced from the sequence of
opposite strand.
 Two Stranded DNA
• Remember, DNA
has two strands that
fit together
something like a
zipper.
• The teeth are the
nitrogenous bases
but why do they
stick together?

26
 Hydrogen Bonds

N
• The bases attract each other

C
because of hydrogen bonds.

N
• Hydrogen bonds are weak but
there are millions and millions

C
of them in a single molecule

C
O

N
of DNA.

N
• The bonds between cytosine

C
N
and guanine are shown here C N
with dotted lines.
C C O

C N
27
All organisms have the same type of nucleotides.
The nucleotide arrangement provides for all the
different types

Ex- A mouse and a rosebush have the same

nucleotides. However, they are different because
their nucleotides are in different orders.

*The sequence of nucleotides forms the genetic

information(code) of an organism.
 RNA
• RNA is a polymer of RNA
nucleotides.
• RNA Nucleotides are of
four types:
1.Uracil
2. Adenine
3.Cytosine
4.Guanine
Note:- Uracil (U) replaces
thymine (T) of DNA
RNA
 Nucleotide vs Nucleoside
Nucleotide = Sugar + Base + Phosphate Nucleoside = Sugar + Base
 Differences between DNA and RNA

•DNA is a double helix, whereas RNA is a single strand.

•DNA is stable, while RNA is not.
•Uracil (U) replaces thymine (T) of DNA.
•Ribose sugar in RNA and De- oxy Ribose in DNA
 Types of RNA

• Messenger (mRNA) - Takes genetic message

from DNA in nucleus to ribosomes in cytoplasm
• Ribosomal (rRNA) - Makes up ribosomes which
read the message in mRNA
• Transfer (tRNA) - Transfers appropriate amino
acid to ribosome when “instructed.
 RNA function
• Transfer of genetic
information.
• Genomes: Many viruses
have RNA genomes.
Single stranded = e.g. Retro
viruses (HIV).

CENTRAL DOGMA
THANKYOU