TOPIC 3 Passing It On

Everywhere you look there are examples

of organisms that look more or less like
their parents. How are these characteris-
tics passed on from generation to genera-
tion? You have already learned that the
characteristics of organisms vary greatly
within a species. How does reproduction
allow for variation?
Not only do the physical traits of organ-
isms vary, but the ways in which organisms
reproduce show variation as well. The
plant shown in Figure 1.20 reproduces sex-
ually (see page 32) and uses the wind to
disperse its seeds. When a seed germinates
Figure 1.20 This plant the new plant will have characteristics of both its parents. Whether you
reproduces sexually and examine reproduction in bacteria, maple trees, or elephants, you will
produces wind-borne seeds.
notice characteristics that are passed on from parent to offspring. These
traits are said to be inherited or heritable. Such traits are passed on in
the genetic material, a subject you will learn more about in Topic 5.
Living organisms display a wide variety of methods or reproductive
strategies for passing on their genetic information to their offspring.

Asexual Reproduction
binary fission
Reproductive strategies may be classified into two
major types: asexual and sexual. Asexual reproduc-
tion occurs when only one parent supplies the infor-
spores mation to the offspring. The genetic material of
the offspring, and thus their inherited characteristics,
are identical to those of the parent. This type of
reproduction is common among bacteria and fungi.
vegetative growth
in plants
One advantage of asexual reproduction is that there
is no need for an organism to find a mate. Also,
reproduction can occur quite rapidly. As long as
budding
the environment does not change much, offspring
produced by asexual reproduction will be able to survive
Figure 1.21 Here are some of the diverse forms of and reproduce as their parents did.
asexual reproduction we will look at in this Topic.

Organisms pass on their traits in various ways. How would the use
of wind-borne seeds increase variation in the plant species shown
in Figure 1.20? Record your thoughts on this question in your
Science Log as you read through Topic 3.

26 MHR • Biological Diversity

Binary Fission
Many one-celled organisms such as the amoeba reproduce asexually using How many microscopic
a form of cell division called binary fission. The cell first duplicates its spores do you think
contents, including its nucleus and other organelles. After the amoeba might be produced by
divides, each new cell has one mushroom? In one
a copy of the genetic mate- species, each of the
rial, as well as half of the gills underneath the cap
of a single mushroom
cytoplasm. As a result, the
produces about 13 550
offspring are identical. spores on one side of
Figure 1.22 Binary fission in an one gill. Keep in mind
amoeba results in two “daughter” cells. that each cap of this
species of mushroom
Asexual Spores has about 150 gills.
Some fungi, such as mushrooms, can reproduce asexually by forming Calculate the approximate
single-celled, reproductive structures called spores. When asexual number of spores
spores are formed, only one parent organism supplies the genetic produced by the cap of
one mushroom. (Hint:
material. Many spores are produced to ensure that at least some of them
Remember that each gill
survive. Some fungi and algae, such as the green algae Chlamydomonas has two sides.)
and Ulva, produce zoospores, which move using tail-like flagella.
Interestingly, fungi can also reproduce sexually — a process we will
look at in more detail shortly.
spores
(cap) gill
pileus
Figure 1.23 The Earth
star fungus releases
millions of tiny spores.

Suppose you get on a bus to go to school. At 8:20 A.M., you yawn and a
single Streptococcus bacterium drifts into your open mouth and settles
in your throat. Under ideal conditions, a single bacterium can reproduce
by binary fission in 20 min. So, by the time the bus drops you off at
school at 8:40 A.M., there are two bacteria in your throat. When your
homeroom period starts at 9:00 A.M., there are four.
Figure 1.24 Chlamydomonas is a unicellular 1. Assume that the bacteria continue to reproduce asexually every 20
green alga (magnification: 500x). It can min and your body does not fight them off. How many bacteria will
reproduce asexually by forming zoospores. be in your throat by: (a) lunchtime (12:00 noon); (b) by the time you
Why do you think zoospores have flagella? get the bus in the afternoon (3:20 P.M.); (c) suppertime (6:00 P.M.);
(d) bedtime (10:00 P.M.)?
2. Make a graph showing the growth of the Streptococcus population
in your throat over the 14 h period. You may create your graph using
a computer.
Why are relatively few mushrooms
seen growing in our yards when the 3. Do you think bacteria can keep multiplying in this way indefinitely?
number of spores produced is so high? Explain.
Write a possible reason in your 4. At what time do you think your throat may feel sore? How many
Science Log. bacteria will be present in your throat?

Passing It On • MHR 27
 Asexual Reproduction in Plants
You may remember that asexual, or vegetative, reproduction in plants can
occur without the formation of special cells such as spores. Unlike many
Research the African
violet and make a sketch
animals, plants continue to grow throughout their lives. The growing
in your Science Log of a tips of roots and stems contain areas of rapidly reproducing cells called
technique that could be meristem. At a certain point in the plant’s growth, meristematic cells
used to grow several specialize into the cells that make up the roots, stems, and leaves of the
African violets asexually plant. If any of these structures are later damaged, the meristem function
from a leaf.
is activated. Meristematic cells are then able to make repairs to damaged
roots, leaves, or the stem of the plant. Asexual reproduction can occur in
plants by activating the meristematic cells in different plant structures.
Look up the origin of the
You can make use of the meristem function by taking a cutting and
word “clone.” Write a planting it. Cuttings from a parent stem may be used to produce new
science fiction story that plants that are clones (exact copies) of the parents.
features a clone!

Find Out
Asexual Reproduction in Duckweed
Duckweed is a very small aquatic plant with 4. Over the next two weeks, count and record
leaf-like structures called fronds. Duckweed the number of separate plants in each con-
reproduces asexually by producing two or three tainer. Construct a table to show your results.
daughter fronds from each parent plant. As the
daughter fronds grow larger, they break away 5. At the end of two weeks, construct a line
from the parent frond. Under suitable conditions, graph showing the number of plants that
a new plant with a genetic program identical to were growing each day. Use two separate
that of the parent may form within 24 h. lines to compare the numbers of plants
growing in the two solutions.
Materials daughter
two small jars or fronds What Did You Find Out? Analyzing and Interpreting
culture dishes 1. Describe the difference between the parent
100 mL distilled water mother and offspring plants.
100 mL Knop’s solution fronds rootlet
8 duckweed plants 2. How do you think the genetic material in the
wax pencil offspring compares with that of the parent?

Procedure Performing and Recording 3. What was the purpose of setting up one
1. Examine a duckweed plant. Identify the container with distilled water?
fronds, rootlet, and daughter fronds.
4. Which container showed the greatest
Sketch the duckweed in your notebook.
number of new plants? Why? What does
2. Label two jars or culture dishes: A. Knop’s Knop’s solution contain?
solution and B. distilled water. Place
5. Why do you think that the other dish
50 mL of the appropriate solution into
displayed relatively less growth?
each container.

3. Place four duckweed plants into each

container and place them in a well-lit area.
For tips on drawing graphs, turn to Skill Focus 10.
Wash your hands when you are finished.

28 MHR • Biological Diversity

 S K I L L C H E C K

Initiating and Planning

Performing and Recording

1-D
Analyzing and Interpreting

Communication and Teamwork

The Cloning Controversy

Think About It their development is normal. This is important in
You may have heard of Dolly the sheep. Dolly is a order to know whether or not human cloning
clone, an identical copy of another sheep. She is the would be safe.
first artificially cloned mammal. Cloning has many
Procedure
applications in the fields of agriculture, medicine,
and forestry. However, the possibility of human State what is involved in the cloning issue. This
cloning has attracted the most attention. may be in the form of a question or a statement
describing the dilemma, but it should summarize
the issue briefly and clearly.

Gather information on cloning from newspa-

pers, magazines, Internet sites, or television or
radio broadcasts. How will you collect and
record this information?

Present possible alternatives. Consider

alternatives such as permitting the cloning of
Could cloning be used to produce armies of some species but not humans.
super-soldiers or to make copies of great scientists
Identify different perspectives on the issue.
or professional athletes? Will parents in the future
Who would want to speak on this issue?
be able to choose children from a catalogue? Laws
Think of as many people or groups
are being put in place in Canada and other countries
as possible.
that will restrict the cloning of human beings.
Bioethics is the study of moral issues in the fields Identify potential benefits and concerns for
of medical treatment and research. Although there each alternative. Which alternative is likely to
are many ways of analyzing bioethical issues, there be most acceptable by the community?
are certain steps that are common to all discussions.
In this investigation, you will consider the bioethics
of cloning human beings. What are the advantages
Analyze
and disadvantages of human cloning? Should there
be any controls on the experimentation? Might 1. Choose one of the following ways to analyze
there be health risks for human clones that scientists this bioethical issue.
are not aware of? Who should be allowed to perform • Write out your analysis of the issue in the
human cloning and under what conditions? form of a magazine or journal article.
• Create a poem, play, or story that pre-
How Can Science Help? sents your analysis of the issue.
Scientists must first understand cell structures and • Make a poster that shows your position
processes in order to identify ways to clone organ- on the issue and your reasoning.
isms. To test their hypotheses about cloning, they
must conduct many investigations. They must then
make long-term observations of cloned mammals
in order to monitor their health and check that
For tips on societal decision making, turn to Skill Focus 8.

Passing It On • MHR 29
 Budding
Some animals, such as sea sponges and hydra, reproduce asexually by
budding. A cell, usually near the base of one of these organisms, pro-
duces a new group of cells called a bud. When the bud has completely
The Mexican whiptail developed, it detaches itself and becomes independent. Yeast cells also
lizard reproduces reproduce by budding. The bud, which contains its own nucleus, even-
asexually. The females
tually becomes a single, indepedent cell.
lay eggs, which develop
into baby whiptails.
The strange thing
about these lizards
is that the eggs are
never fertilized by
male whiptails. In other
words, the offspring
have only one parent!
These offspring end
up with the same Figure 1.25 Sponge buds may remain Figure 1.26 Hydras are very small organisms
attached to the parent, which results in a that live in water. Based on what you have
genetic information as
colony. What advantage does the bud have learned about budding, describe what is
the mother lizard.
by being attached to its parent? happening in this picture.

Sexual Reproduction
In general, sexual reproduction occurs when two parents supply
genetic material to the offspring. Since both parents supply the genetic
material, the offspring will not be exactly like either one. Instead, the
offspring will display a combination of characteristics from both parents.
While new combinations of characteristics occur in organisms that
reproduce sexually, new combinations do not occur with asexual repro-
duction. Can you think of some reasons why involving two parents in
reproduction might be a useful adaptation?

Figure 1.27 Different The Best of

organisms use various
forms of sexual
zygospores Both Worlds
reproduction. In fact, many Many organisms are capable
organisms are capable of
of both asexual and sexual
both sexual and asexual
reproduction! Some of the reproduction. As you learned
bacterial
forms of sexual conjugation earlier, in order to reproduce
reproduction we will asexually, some moulds, such
examine are shown here.
as Rhizopus, produce spores.
sexual reproduction Spores may be black, blue,
in plants yellow, red, or some other
When each sporangium,
characteristic colour. Rhizopus
or spore case, splits open,
it releases spores that float
can also reproduce sexually by
about on air currents. sexual reproduction
forming zygospores. As
Airborne spores have been in animals shown on page 31, unlike
found in the atmosphere asexual spores, zygospores
at altitudes of more than contain genetic material from
160 km. two different sources.

30 MHR • Biological Diversity

 S K I L L C H E C K

Initiating and Planning

Performing and Recording

1-E
Analyzing and Interpreting

Communication and Teamwork

Making a Mould
Sporangia ASEXUAL
You know that mould will grow on bread, but does Spores
REPRODUCTION
any kind of bread provide the right food source? Is
there a difference between homemade bread and
store-bought bread? What other conditions must mating
type
be present for bread mould to grow? Hypha
Hypha
mating type
Question SEXUAL
REPRODUCTION
Are certain conditions required for the growth CONJUGATION
of bread mould?
Zygospore

Hypothesis
With your group, agree on a hypothesis about Long strands of cells called hyphae grow out of the Rhizopus
why bread becomes mouldy in certain situations. spores. Where the tips of two hyphae touch, a zygospore, which
contains genetic material from both hyphae, is formed.

Safety Precaution Apparatus Materials

culture dishes disposable gloves
microscope or dissecting scope different types of bread
camera (optional) sealing tape
• Mould is a biological hazard. tweezers water
• Never inhale mould spores. blank paper
pencils
• Wash your hands after removing
your gloves.

Procedure to conduct your research. You should include

With your group, design a procedure that will the use of a low-magnification microscope or
allow you to test your hypothesis. Based on your dissection scope to examine the bread for
hypothesis, predict what you expect to observe. results. Be sure to include steps for proper dis-
posal of materials at the end of the experiment.
In your design proposal be sure to include
When you have received approval from your
your hypothesis, prediction, the materials
teacher, conduct your experiment.
you will need, how you will record your
observations, and the steps you will follow Wash your hands after this investigation.

Analyze 3. How well does mould grow in different

1. Describe your results. Use charts, diagrams, situations? Under what conditions did you
or photographs. Write brief descriptions to observe the most mould growth?
accompany your illustrations.
Extend Your Skills
Conclude and Apply 4. With your group, design
2. Did your results support your hypothesis? an experiment to answer
Why or why not? Did other groups get additional questions you For tips on designing
have about the growth your own experiment,
similar results using their procedures?
of mould. turn to Skill Focus 6.

Passing It On • MHR 31
 Bacterial Conjugation
Some harmful bacteria Bacteria are able to transfer genetic material directly from one cell to
are able to resist medicines
another in a process called bacterial conjugation. As with conjugation
such as antibiotics.
Antibiotic resistance is a
in fungi, bacterial conjugation is a primitive form of sexual reproduction
heritable trait. One bacterial since two parent cells are involved. The benefit is that new combinations
cell can quickly pass this of inherited characteristics may be
trait on to another through produced as a result.
conjugation. As a result, It is interesting to note that bacterial
the spread of antibiotic
conjugation results in genetic recombi-
resistance in bacteria is
nation but not reproduction, because
very hard to control.
there is no increase in the number
of cells. Following conjugation, new
cells will be produced by binary fission.
At this time, the newly recombined
genetic material (and characteristics)
Figure 1.28 In bacterial conjugation a
is passed on to the new cells. connection forms between two cells. The
There are about 35 000
species of spore-bearing one-way transfer of genetic material
plants, 700 species of from one cell to another can then occur.
gymnosperms, and
Sexual Reproduction in Plants
200 000 species of Plants have developed diverse adaptations and structures for reproduction.
angiosperms living on Ferns and mosses reproduce by forming spores. Angiosperms and
Earth today. Why do you gymnosperms reproduce sexually by forming seeds. As you may recall
think angiosperms are so
from your earlier work, angiosperms are flowering plants. Over half of
successful? Record your
thoughts on this question
all known plant species are angiosperms. Some have large and showy
in your Science Log as flowers like dahlias, chrysanthemums, or dandelions. Others, such as
you read through the rest the flowers of grasses, are hard to see. Why do you think there are so
of Topic 3. many different kinds of flowers?
You may remember that gymnosperms do not produce flowers.
Instead, they produce seeds inside of cones, which is why the largest
group are called conifers. You are probably familiar with conifers such
Like angiosperms such as
as spruce, fir, and pine.
maples, ginkgo trees shed
their distinctively shaped
leaves in autumn. However, Figure 1.29 Some
ginkgoes are actually angiosperms, such as
gymnosperms, and the these sunflowers, have
last of an ancient group large blossoms.
whose other members
are now extinct.

32 MHR • Biological Diversity

 A Blueberry C Embryo
flower development
sepal leaf
ovary seed coat

pistil filament stem

style stamen root
anther
stigma
cotyledon
petals

B Pollen tube D Fruit

formation development
ovules develop
egg into seeds
ovule
ovary blueberry fruit
style
ovary wall
pollen grain stigma becomes juicy

Figure 1.30 A The stigma, style, and ovary make up the pistil, the female part of the flower. The
anthers, which are supported by the filaments, produce and store pollen grains containing sperm
nuclei. Each stamen is composed of an anther and a filament. B When a pollen grain lands on the
stigma, a pollen tube is formed. A sperm nucleus then travels down the tube to fertilize one egg.
C Prior to fertilization, other cells in the ovule have been developing into a cotyledon, a structure
that nourishes the embryo. Blueberry plants are dicotyledons, which means two cotyledons In self-pollination, both
surround the embryo in each seed. D In angiosperms, a fruit, such as a pod, nut, or the sperm and egg cells come
fleshy fruit of a berry, surrounds the developing seeds. The fruit usually develops from the wall from the same plant.
of the ovary. However, wind, water,
insects, birds, and other
In sexual reproduction in plants and animals, fertilization occurs when animals often carry pollen
an egg and sperm cell, the female and male gametes, join to form a new over from one plant to
another. In this case,
cell. The first cell of the growing organism, which contains genetic
cross-pollination occurs.
information from both parents, is called a zygote. In cross-pollination,
You may recall that flowers are the reproductive organs of gametes from two differ-
angiosperms. The female reproductive organ is called the pistil and ent parent plants are
the male reproductive organ is the stamen. Figure 1.30 shows the involved. Gardeners who
egg contained in the ovule at the base of the pistil. Pollen grains, each of grow orchids and other
which contains a sperm nucleus, are produced on the plant’s stamens. expensive show-flowers,
often keep the flowers in
Try to locate some of these reproductive structures on a real flower.
enclosed greenhouses.
Pollination occurs after pollen reaches the pistil of a flower. As you Why? Why do you think
can see in Figure 1.30, the pollen grain grows an extension called a cross-pollination would
pollen tube. The pollen tube grows into the pistil until it reaches the be a useful adaptation
ovule. Once the pollen tube has reached the ovule, the sperm nucleus for plants in the wild?
travels down the tube to fertilize the egg. The zygote then undergoes Why would self-pollination
be an advantage in some
many cell divisions to form a multicellular embryo containing a minia-
cases? In your Science
ture leaf, root, and stem. The embryo is supplied with food by one or Log, list the advantages
two cotyledons, and together these structures make up the developing of cross-pollination
seed. When growing conditions are good in terms of warmth, mois- and self-pollination.
ture, and oxygen in the soil, the seed will germinate.

Passing It On • MHR 33
 Plants Reproduce Sexually and Asexually
Many plants have adaptations for both sexual and asexual reproduction.
As you have seen, some plants reproduce asexually from meristem cells.
The Western wood lily
grows wild in Alberta
For instance, the bulbs of some flowers are really modified leaves that
and Saskatchewan. store food for the plant. A new plant may emerge when the bulb is
Unfortunately, over- planted in the soil. Why do you think angiosperms, which can repro-
picking has made the duce sexually, have adaptations for reproducing asexually?
flower rare in some
areas. Picking the flowers
damages the leaves that Figure 1.31A The potatoes we eat are actually part of an
nourish the bulb. What underground stem called a tuber. The eyes of the new
advantage does the potato are the buds of a new plant. These plants
Western wood lily reproduce asexually by growing new shoots from
have by being able to underground stems.
reproduce asexually
from bulbs? Does
reproduction from bulbs
add to variation in this
species? How is variation
increased in this wild
flower? Write you answers
in your Science Log.
Figure 1.31B The spider plant reproduces asexually from
special stems, called runners, shown here hanging from the
main plant. Strawberries reproduce by forming runners that lie
on the ground. Lilacs spread by producing suckers, which are
outgrowths of the root or the lower part of the stem.

Figure 1.31C Asparagus is a flowering plant

and part of the lily family. Asparagus plants
die back to the ground in the winter. In the
At one time, large spore- spring, new plants regrow from their roots.
Since it is very easy to grow plants such as
bearing plants were the
asparagus from the roots, growers may sell
most numerous of all plant
only the roots instead of the whole plant.
species. In your Science Can you think of some advantages and
Log, write a hypothesis to disadvantages of developing and selling
suggest the type of climate plants this way?
Earth must have had to
support such populations
of spore-bearing plants.
Infer how climate change
can affect plant survival. Figure 1.31D The life cycle of mosses is referred to as the
Hint: mosses and ferns alternation of generations. This is because during one
require moisture to part of the cycle, asexual spores are produced; in a later
part of the cycle, egg and sperm cells are produced.
complete the sexual stage
The spores, which are produced in large numbers, are
of reproduction.
able to withstand unfavourable temperatures and dry
conditions. They are also very light and can be carried
great distances to locations with better growing
conditions. On damp ground, a spore can develop into
new moss. Sperm cells produced by the moss then swim
to egg cells to complete the sexual stage of the life cycle.

34 MHR • Biological Diversity

Sexual Reproduction in Animals
Animals have many different reproductive strategies. In all cases for
sexual reproduction to be successful in animals (or plants), certain
requirements must be met. Both male and female gametes must arrive While mating, a female
frog may try to dislodge
in the same place at the same time for fertilization to occur. The zygote
the male who embraces
requires specific conditions in order to develop. It needs enough nutri- her. Only males that
ents and moisture, and in some cases, warmth and protection. can remain attached
Gametes are delicate and dry out quickly. Their life spans are short, long enough will fertilize
so the release of eggs and sperm must be carefully timed. A liquid envi- the eggs. How might
ronment is important because it prevents drying and gives the sperm a this behaviour affect
fluid to swim through to reach the egg. In animals such as sponges, the characteristics of
the offspring?
most worms, and many fish and amphibians, fertilization occurs outside
the female. However, in insects, reptiles, birds, mammals, and some
fish and amphibians, fertilization occurs within the body of the female.
Why might internal fertilization be a useful adaptation for life on land?

Figure 1.32 When frogs mate, the male and female release gametes
into the water at the same time. With external fertilization, the risk to
the sperm is extreme. Water must be present in order to keep the
eggs and sperm alive. Fish or other animals may eat the gametes or
water currents may sweep the sperm and eggs away from each
other. Extreme temperatures, pollutants, or lack of oxygen may
destroy the gametes. Since the majority of gametes are wasted, large
numbers must be produced so that at least some will survive. Those
that do may form zygotes, which will develop in the water.

Mammals carry out

internal fertilization,
which is one of the
reasons for their high rate
of successful fertilizations,
or reproductive success.
With internal fertilization, egg cells are protected inside the body of the
When sponges
female parent where conditions are warm and moist. Sperm deposited by
reproduce sexually,
the male in the female’s body moves almost directly toward the egg, so they use internal
risks to the survival of the gametes are greatly reduced. fertilization. Because
If a mature egg cell is present, fertilization may occur. As with flower- sponges cannot travel
ing plants, the egg and sperm join to form a zygote. In the for mating, sperm
early stages of development, after the zygote grows must be released
and divides many times, it is called an embryo. externally into the
water. Once the sperm
In most mammals the embryo develops close
find their way to
to or within the female’s body. another sponge, they
are captured by
special cells, taken
Figure 1.33 Internal fertilization removes the dangers of
harsh climates and possible predators. The moist into the sponge’s
environment also helps the flagellated sperm to swim to the body, and transferred
location of the egg within the female reproductive tract. As to the eggs internally.
shown here, many sperm will reach the egg. However,
only one sperm will fertilize the egg to form the zygote.

Passing It On • MHR 35
 Figure 1.34 The female
opossum gives birth to
offspring that are smaller than
a honeybee. To complete their
development, they must
remain in the mother’s pouch
The duck-billed platypus for another three months.
and the echidna are the
only mammals that lay
eggs. However, like other
Figure 1.35 The reproductive
mammals, the young are
cycle of mammals and birds
fed their mother’s milk and requires a great deal of one or
protected until they can both parents’ energy.
look after themselves.

Many gastropods such

as snails and slugs are
hermaphrodites: each
individual has both male and female reproductive
organs. This is called simultaneous hermaphro-
ditism. Others, however, are sequential
hermaphrodites. They are male when younger
and female when older and large enough to
produce and carry eggs.

TOPIC 3 Review
1. Explain the difference between budding and binary fission.
There is great diversity
in the strategies different 2. Apply Name one type of organism that reproduces both sexually and
organisms use to asexually. Explain how this can occur.
reproduce. Do you think
that reproductive success 3. In what way is conjugation a primitive form of sexual reproduction?
contributes to variation
within a species? How is 4. Describe the exact location of the egg cell and sperm nucleus of a
biological diversity related flowering plant.
to reproductive success?
6. Thinking Critically Salmon lay eggs, while whales give birth to live
Answer these questions in
your Science Log.
young. Which animal do you think probably produces more young at one
time: the salmon or the whale? Explain your choice.

5. Thinking Critically Fireweed flowers are shaped so that they cannot

pollinate themselves. Near the end of the growing season, however, a
change occurs in any flower that has not been pollinated. The stamens
curve around so that the anthers touch the stigma within the same flower.

(a) Explain the reproductive advantage of preventing self-pollination

in fireweed.
(b) Explain the reproductive advantage of permitting self-pollination
in fireweed.

36 MHR • Biological Diversity