Wallaga University

College of Engineering and Technology

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Summarized Note for Exit Exam

Engineering Materials I & II

1
 Part-1
Understand material science and engineering

❖ Babylonians first makers of ceramic building materials

❖ Imprinted clay tablets used to teach trades from parents to

offspring in 2200 B.C.

❖ Time periods named after dominantly-used material

▪ Materials closely connected to our culture.
▪ The development and advancement of societies are dependent on the
available materials and their use.
▪ Early civilizations designated by level of materials development.

3
Material:-
Any component or device that may be used to address a
current or future societal need.
Materials Science:-
• Search for basic knowledge about the internal structure,
properties, and processing of materials.
Materials Engineering:-
• The use of fundamental and applied knowledge of
materials so that the materials can be converted into the
products needed or desired by society.

4
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6
 Classification of engineering materials

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8
 Characteristics of Materials
❖Strength (Stiffness)

➢ Ability to resist effects of tension, compression, and torsion

forces

❖Ductility

➢ How well a material can be shaped without fracturing

❖Brittleness

➢ When a material will break while undergoing small

deformations
9
 Characteristics of Materials
❖Hardness

Ability to resist indentation and wear

❖Elasticity

Ability to return to original shape after deformation

❖Electrical Conductivity

Ability to conduct electrons/electricity

❖Thermal Conductivity

Ability to conduct heat

10
 Advanced Materials
Materials that are utilized in high-tech applications

High-Tech means

➢ Device or product that operates or functions using relatively

intricate and sophisticated principles.

include
✓ Semiconductors
✓ Biomaterials
✓ Materials of the future (i.e., smart materials and nano
engineered materials)

11
 Classifying Materials

Metals Ceramics Polymers Composites

12
 1 Metals
Earliest used were “native” metals
➢ Copper, Gold, Silver, and Meteoric Iron

Can be classified as Ferrous or Non-Ferrous

 Ferrous
➢ Contain 50%+ of iron
➢ Attract magnetic materials
 Non-Ferrous
➢ Contain less than 50% iron
➢ Do not attract magnetic materials
➢ Higher corrosion resistance
13
 Metals Mechanical Properties
✓ Strong
✓ Tough
✓ Malleable
✓ Ductile
✓ Most are
▪ Good Heat and Electric Conductors
▪ High Melting Point
❖ Bonding types: Metallic
➢ No particular sharing or donating occurs. Electron cloud is
formed (that is, free electrons)
➢ Strong bonds with no hybridization or directionality

14
 2 Ceramics

❖Derived from Greek word keramos Burned material

❖Early applications were building materials and

containers

❖Glass, although considered a ceramic, is a separate part

➢ Lacks crystalline organization

➢ No orderly atomic structure

❖ Bonding covalent – ionic

➢ Typically covalent. In some cases highly direction covalent bonding
15 ➢ Ionic in case of SiO2 glasses and slag
 Ceramics
Clay products
Refractory
 Used in high temperature applications
 Made up of clay
Abrasives
 Extremely hard, pure, ceramic
compounds or mixtures
❖ceramics may be transparent,
translucent, or opaque
❖some of the oxide ceramics (e.g.,
Fe3O4) exhibit magnetic behavior
16
 Properties
❖Wear resistant (hard)

❖Chemical stability: corrosion resistant

❖High temperature strength: strength retention at very high

temperatures
❖High melting points

❖Good insulators (dielectrics)

❖Good optical properties

17
 Application
 Window glass: Al2O3 – SiO2 – MgO – CaO
 Aerospace, energy and automotive industry
heat shield tiles
engine components
reactor vessel and furnace linings
 Consumer products:
pottery
dishes (fine china, plates, bowls)
glassware (cups, mugs, etc.)
eye glass lenses

18
3 Polymers

Formed by Greek words:

 Poly - Many
 Mer - Parts
Natural Materials
 Wood, leather, cotton, wool, silk, rubber
Polymers processed by plants and
animals
 Proteins, Enzymes, starches, and cellulose
Plastics

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 Plastics
 Polymers and Plastics are not the same Plastics are a
member of the polymer group

Synthetic Polymers

1.Thermoplastic
✓Can be reformed
✓Recyclables

2.Thermosetting
✓Once set, cannot be softened by heat
20
 Properties
 Are disordered (amorphous) strands of hydrocarbon
molecules.
 Bonding: Covalent-London Dispersion Forces

o Ductile: can be stretched up to 1000% of original length

o Lightweight: Low densities

o Medium strength: Depending on additives

o Chemical stability: inert to corrosive environments

o Low melting point

Good electrical insulators

21
 Use of polymers
Polymers are incorporated into nearly every aspect of
daily life
✓Entertainment
✓Sports
✓Clothes
✓Hobbies/Toys
✓Household products
✓Automotive
22
 4 Composite
Are Combination of two or more individual materials

Design goal: obtain a more desirable combination of properties

(principle of combined action)
e.g., low density and high strength

➢they do not dissolve or merge into each other, although

they act in concert.

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 Composites: Artificially produced multiphase materials.
Design materials with properties better than those of conventional

materials (metals, ceramics, or polymers).

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 Terminology

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 Composite:
❖ Multiphase material that is artificially made.
Phase types:
❖ Matrix - is continuous
❖ Dispersed - is discontinuous and surrounded by
matrix

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 Bonding: depends on type of composite (strong-covalent,
medium-solid solution, weak-tertiary phase layer)

Properties: Depends on composites

❖High melting points with improved high temperature strength:

ceramic-ceramic
❖High strength and ductile with improved wear resistance:

metal-ceramic
❖High strength and ductile: polymer-polymer

27
 Composites: Applications

• Wood: naturally occurring biological material

consists of very strong fibers imbedded in a soft
matrix
• Plywood: laminated wood for buildings
• Concrete: basements, bridges, sidewalks
• Fiberglass: boats
• Carbon fiber resins: bicycle frames

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 Part - 2
APPLY FICKS 1 ST AND 2 ND LAW

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 Concept of this chapter
Rate processes in Solids
Atomic diffusion in solids
Diffusion mechanisms
-Vacancy or Substitutional Diffusion Mechanism
-Interstitial Diffusion Mechanism
Steady-state Diffusion
-Fick’s first law of diffusion
Non-Steady-state Diffusion
-Fick’s second law of diffusion
30
 Imperfections in Crystals

▪ The properties of materials are profoundly influenced by the

presence of imperfections.

▪ It is important to have knowledge about the types of

imperfections that exist and the roles they play in affecting
the behavior of materials.

▪ Real crystals are never perfect: there are always defects!

▪ Controlling the defects is one of the main goal of

materials science and engineering!

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Crystal defects

32
 1 Point Defects

Vacancies
▪ Vacant atomic sites in a structure.
▪ Missing atom from an atomic site.
▪ Atoms around the vacancy displaced.
▪ Tensile stress field produced in the vicinity.

33
▪ Self-Interstitials:- "extra" atoms positioned between
atomic sites.

34
 • Substitutional impurity - impurity atom in lattice.
• Interstitial impurity - impurity atom not in regular
lattice site.

• In principle you can eliminate all of these except vacancies.

• Vacancies arise from thermodynamics (entropy) 35
• The necessity of the existence of vacancies is explained using
principles of thermodynamics; in essence, the presence of
vacancies increases the entropy (i.e., the randomness) of
the crystal.
• The equilibrium number of vacancies Nv for a given quantity
of material depends on and increases with temperature
according to :

• N - the total number of atomic sites,

• Qv - energy required for the formation of a vacancy,
• T - the absolute temperature in kelvins, and
• k - the gas or Boltzmann’s constant. 36
 ATOMIC VIBRATIONS

• Every atom in a solid material is vibrating very rapidly

about its lattice position within the crystal.
• In a sense, these vibrations may be thought of as
imperfections or defects.
• At any instant of time not all atoms vibrate at the same
frequency and amplitude, nor with the same energy.
• At a given temperature there will exist a distribution of
energies for the constituent atoms about an average energy.
• Over time the vibrational energy of any specific atom will
also vary in a random manner.
37
 Diffusion

▪ Many reactions and processes that are important in the

treatment of materials rely on the transfer of mass either
within a specific solid (ordinarily on a microscopic level) or
from a liquid, a gas, or another solid phase.
▪ This is necessarily accomplished by diffusion, the
phenomenon of material transport by atomic motion.

38
a) A copper – nickel diffusion
couple before a high heat
temperature treatment.

b) Schematic representations of Cu
(colored circles) and Ni ( gray
circles) atom locations within
the diffusion couple.

c) Concentrations of copper and

nickel as a function of position
across the couple.

39
a) A copper – nickel diffusion
couple after a high temperature
heat treatment.
b) Schematic representations of Cu
(colored circles) and Ni ( gray
circles) atom locations within the
diffusion couple.
c) Concentrations of copper and
nickel as a function of position
across the couple.

40
 Atomic Diffusion in Solids
Diffusion is a process by which a matter is transport
through another matter.
Examples:
• Movement of smoke particles in air : Very fast.
• Movement of dye in water : Relatively slow.
• Solid state reactions : Very restricted due to
movement of bonding.
41
 DIFFUSION MECHANISMS
Diffusion is just the stepwise migration of atoms from lattice
site to lattice site.

In fact, the atoms in solid materials are in constant motion,

rapidly changing positions.

For an atom to make such a move, two conditions must be met:

(1) there must be an empty adjacent site,

(2) the atom must have sufficient energy to break bonds with its
neighbor atoms and then cause some lattice distortion during the
displacement.

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 Vacancy Diffusion
• One mechanism involves the interchange of an atom from a
normal lattice position to an adjacent vacant lattice site or
vacancy.

43
 Diffusion mechanisms

Quantifying Diffusion

44
 STEADY-STATE DIFFUSION
• Diffusion is a time-dependent process—that is, in a
macroscopic sense, the quantity of an element that is
transported within another is a function of time.

Where:- M, material mass, J, net flow of atoms, A is area

across which diffusion is occurring and t is the elapsed
diffusion time.

J are kilograms or atoms per meter

squared per second (kg/m2. s or atoms/m2. s). 45
Concentration
gradient
When concentration C is
plotted versus position (or
distance) within the solid x,
the resulting curve is
termed the concentration
profile; the slope at a
particular point on this
curve is the concentration
concentration gradient dC/dx
gradient:

46
 Fick’s first law—(one direction)
The mathematics of steady-state diffusion in a single (x) direction is
relatively simple, in that the flux is proportional to the
concentration gradient through the expression

D is called the diffusion coefficient, which is

expressed in square meters per second. The negative
sign in this expression indicates that the direction of
diffusion is down the concentration gradient, from a high
to a low concentration.J = Flux or net flow of atoms.
D = Diffusion coefficient.
FICKS 1st law dx/dc= Concentration Gradient

47
 NON-STEADY-STATE DIFFUSION
 Diffusion flux and the concentration gradient at
some particular point in a solid vary with time known
as Fick’s second law, is used

48
 Diffusivity depends upon
Type of diffusion: Whether the diffusion is interstitial or
substitutional.

Temperature: As the temperature increases diffusivity increases.

Type of crystal structure: BCC crystal has lower APF than

FCC and hence has higher diffusivity.

Type of crystal imperfection: More open structures (grain

boundaries) increases diffusion.

49
 Application of diffusion in engineering materials?

◆ Sliding and rotating parts needs to have hard surfaces.

Their surface is then hardened by carburizing.

Carbon diffuses into iron surface and fills interstitial

space to make it harder.

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 Process using diffusion
Carbon atoms diffuse into the host Fe atoms at the surface.
E.g., of interstitial diffusion is a case hardened gear.
Result: The presence of C atoms makes iron (steel) harder

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 Crystal
52

 Crystal :(3D) long-range order in the structure,

meaning that the atomic arrangement is repeated

over and over again in all directions.

 Lattice?

A 3D translationally periodic arrangement of

points in space
 53

 Crystal ➢ Lattice
 A 3D A 3D translationally
translationally periodic
periodic arrangement of
arrangement points
of atoms.
 54

 Lattice: the underlying periodicity of the crystal,

 Basis: atom or group of atoms associated with each

lattice points

 Lattice: how to repeat

 Motif: what to repeat

 55

 Crystal = Lattice + Motif

Lattice Crystal

+ Motif =

 56

 Unit cell

+ =
 57

 A cell is a finite representation of the infinite lattice

 A unit cell is a spatial arrangement of atoms which is tiled

in three-dimensional space to describe the crystal.

 the smallest groups of atoms form a repetitive pattern.

 Primitive unit cell: geometrical shape which, when

repeated indefinitely in 3-dimensions, will fill all space and

is equivalent of one lattice point
 unit cell that contains one lattice point only at the corners.
 58

 Crystal
 Classification of Lattices
59

 What is the basis for classification of lattices?

 7 crystal systems and 14 Bravais lattices
 Lattices are classified on the basis of their symmetry
 What is symmetry?
 If an object is brought into self-coincidence after some
operation it said to possess symmetry with respect to that
operation.
60
 Crystal structure
• Crystalline material: The state of a solid material characterized by a periodic
and repeating three-dimensional array of atoms, ions, or molecules.

• Non-crystalline material: - The solid state where in there is no long-range

atomic order. Sometimes the terms called amorphous, such as polymer glassy

• Lattice: The regular geometrical arrangement of points in crystal space.

• Unit cell: The basic structural unit of a crystal structure.
• Polycrystalline: Refers to crystalline materials that are composed of more than
one crystal or grain.

• Single crystal: A crystalline solid for which the periodic and repeated atomic
pattern extends throughout its entirety without interruption.
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Atomic arrangement and disordering

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PACKING FRACTIONS
66
 Part -3

❖Main issues on this topic

 Plastic deformation and its cause

 Mechanical properties and testing

 Failure and its mechanism

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 Plastic Deformation
o Plastic deformation is permanent, and are measures of a
material’s resistance to this deformation.

o plastic deformation corresponds to the breaking of

bonds with original atom neighbors and then
reforming bonds with new neighbors.

o After removal of the stress, the large number of

atoms that have relocated, do not return to
68
original position.
69
 Stress-Strain Diagram
ultimate
tensile
strength
 UTS 3 necking

Strain
yield Fracture
strength Hardening
y 5
2
Elastic region
Plastic slope =Young’s (elastic) modulus
Region yield strength
Plastic region
ultimate tensile strength
Elastic strain hardening
σ = Eε Region fracture
4
σ 1
E=
ε E=
σy
Strain (  ) (DL/Lo) 70
ε 2 − ε1
 Elastic Deformation
1. Initial 2. Small load 3. Unload

bonds
stretch

return to
initial

F

Elastic means reversible.

71
 Plastic Deformation (Metals)
1. Initial 2. Small load 3. Unload

linear linear
elastic elastic
Plastic means permanent. 
plastic 72
 Imperfection in solid

Linear Defects (Dislocations)

– Are one-dimensional defects around which atoms are misaligned
1 Edge dislocation:-
– extra half-plane of atoms inserted in a crystal structure
– b perpendicular (⊥) to dislocation line
2 Screw dislocation: -
– spiral planar ramp resulting from shear deformation
– b parallel () to dislocation line

Burger’s vector, b: measure of lattice distortion

73
 Continued

Front View Top View

74
 3 Mixed dislocation

Mixed dislocations have both edge and screw components, with a

transition region between them. The Burgers vector, however,
remains the same for all portions of the mixed dislocation
The burgers vector is either parallel nor perpendicular to the dislocation plan
or line
Slip - The process by which a dislocation moves
and deforms a material.
75
 Dislocation Motion

Dislocation motion & plastic deformation

• In metals - plastic deformation occurs by slip – an edge
dislocation (extra half-plane of atoms) slides over adjacent
plane half-planes of atoms.

• If dislocations can't move, plastic deformation doesn't occur! 76

 Surface Defects

Grain Boundaries
The grain boundaries is a narrow zone where the atoms
are not properly spaced.

Volume or Bulk Defects

Voids are regions where there are a large number of atoms missing from
the lattice.
Voids can occur for a number of reasons. When voids occur due to air
bubbles becoming trapped when a material solidifies, it is commonly
called porosity.
When a void occurs due to the shrinkage of a material as it solidifies, it
is called cavitation.
77
2 Mechanical properties of metals

o Types of mechanical properties

o Mechanical test of metals
o Hardens test
o Impact test
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85
 Hardness
Hardness is resistance to permanently (plastically)
indenting the surface of a product.
• Large hardness means:
✓ resistance to plastic deformation or cracking in
compression and better wear properties.
□Indenter materials like diamond, calcite, talc, appetite gypsum
etc…

86
Important hardens test
✓Brinells
✓Viekers
✓Knoop etc….
1 Brinell hardness test

87
2. viekers hardens test
✓Small than brienell test
✓The load is b/n 1-1000g
Suitable for small, thin selected region.
3.Knoop hardens test
The same to viekers test

88
IMPACT TEST

89
90
 3 Failure/fracture
Issue to be addressed

 Fundamentals of fracture
 Types of fracture
 Fatigue
 Creep

91
What is failure?

▪ Simple failure is the separation of a body into two or more

pieces in response to an imposed stress that is static (i.e.,
constant or slowly changing with time) and at
temperatures that are low relative to the melting
temperature of the material.

▪ The applied stress may be tensile, compressive, shear, or

torsional.

▪ For engineering materials, two fracture modes are possible:

ductile and brittle.

92
93
 1. F r a c t u r e – Fundamentals of Fracture

▪ Classification is based on the ability of a material to

experience plastic deformation.
1 Ductile materials typically exhibit substantial plastic
deformation with high energy absorption before
fracture
▪ Ductility may be quantified in terms of percent
elongation and percent reduction.
▪ The mode of fracture is highly dependent on the
mechanism of crack propagation.
▪ Ductile fracture is characterized by extensive plastic
deformation in the vicinity of an advancing crack.
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 Ductile Fracture

Ductile fracture
✓ Found in soft metals, like pure gold and lead at room
temperature.
✓ Found in metals, polymers, and inorganic glasses at
elevated temperatures.
✓ These highly ductile materials neck down to a point
fracture, showing virtually 100% reduction in area.

95
 Ductile Fracture

• The most common type of tensile

fracture profile for ductile metals –
moderately ductile fracture after some
necking.

• Brittle fracture without any plastic

deformation.

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(a) Necking
(b) Formation of micro voids
(c) Coalescence of micro voids to form a crack
(d) Crack propagation by shear deformation
(e) Fracture 97
 Brittle Fracture

2. Brittle fracture takes place without any appreciable deformation,

and by rapid crack propagation.

✓ Fracture surfaces; is absent of plastic deformation.

✓ Like ceramic and glasses, are brittle materials

Brittle vs. Ductile Fracture

Ductile materials - extensive plastic deformation and energy absorption
(“toughness”) before fracture

Brittle materials - little plastic deformation and low

energy absorption before fracture

98
 PRINCIPLES OF FRACTURE MECHANICS

Where
𝝈𝒐 magnitude of the nominal applied tensile stress, 𝝈m maximum stress
𝜌t radius of curvature of the crack tip , and a represents the length of a
surface crack, or half of the length of an internal crack.
99
FRACTURE MECHANICS

• The ratio is denoted as the stress

concentration factor Kt:

• Which is simply a measure of the degree to which

an external stress is amplified at the tip of a crack.
100
 2.Fatigue

• That is a types of failure that occurs in structures

subjected to dynamic and fluctuating stresses (e.g., bridges,
aircraft, and machine components).

101
 Fatigue CRACK I AND P
▪ The process of fatigue failure is characterized by three distinct steps:

(1) Crack initiation –

(2) Crack propagation –

(3) Final failure –

3.creep

102
 3.creep

• It is the time-dependent and permanent deformation of materials

when subjected to a constant load or stress.
• It is observed in all materials types; for metals it becomes important
only for temperatures greater than about 0.4Tm (Tm = absolute melting
temperature)

103
 Part -4
Phase diagrams and phase
transformation

104
A phase may be defined as a homogeneous portion of a system that
has uniform physical and chemical characteristics.
Components:
The elements or compounds which are mixed initially (e.g., Al and
Cu)
Phases: The physically and chemically distinct material regions
that result (e.g., a and b ).

Aluminum- Copper
Alloy

105
 PHASE EQUILIBRIA
• A system is at equilibrium if its free energy is at a minimum under
some specified combination of temperature, pressure, and
composition.
DG=0
• In brief, free energy is a function of the internal energy of a system,
and also the randomness or disorder of the atoms or molecules (or
entropy)
DG= DH-T DS
• In a macroscopic sense, the characteristics of the system do not
change with time but persist indefinitely; that is, the system is
stable.
• A change in temperature, pressure, and/or composition for a
system in equilibrium will result in an increase in the free energy
and in a possible spontaneous change to another state whereby the
free energy is lowered.
 The time required to reach
equilibrium?
• Free energy considerations and diagrams provide information about the
equilibrium characteristics of a particular system, which is important; but
they do not indicate the time period necessary for the attainment of a
new equilibrium state.
• It is often the case, especially in solid systems, that a state of equilibrium
is never completely achieved because the rate of approach to equilibrium
is extremely slow; such a system is said to be in a non-equilibrium or
metastable state.
• A metastable state or microstructure may persist indefinitely, experiencing
only extremely slight and almost imperceptible changes as time
progresses.
• Often, metastable structures are of more practical significance than
equilibrium ones.
• For example, some steel and aluminum alloys rely for their strength on the
development of metastable microstructures during carefully designed
heat treatments.

The speed or rate at which phase equilibrium are established

and the factors that affect the rate must be considered!
 EQUILIBRIUM PHASE DIAGRAMS
• A phase diagram displays, the changes that occur
between phases when the temperature is
altered.
• This may involve the transition from one phase to
another, or the appearance or disappearance of a
phase.
• Phase diagrams are helpful in predicting phase
transformations and the resulting
microstructures, which may have equilibrium or
nonequilibrium character.
 Cont.…d

• Equilibrium phase diagrams represent the relationships

between temperature, pressure and the compositions
and the quantities of phases at equilibrium.
• External pressure is a parameter that influences the
phase structure. However, in practicality, pressure
remains virtually constant in most applications.
• In most phase diagrams, temperature and composition
are the variable parameters, for binary alloys. A binary
alloy is one that contains two components.
 Composition of an alloy located in a
two-phase region
• For an alloy having composition and temperature located
in a two-phase region, the situation is more complicated.
• In all two-phase regions one may imagine a series of
horizontal lines, one at every temperature; each of these
is known as a tie line, or sometimes as an isotherm.
• These tie lines extend across the two-phase region and
terminate at the phase boundary lines on either side.
• To compute the equilibrium concentrations of the two
phases, the following procedure is used:

1. A tie line is constructed across the two-phase

region at the temperature of the alloy.
2. The intersections of the tie line and the phase
boundaries on either side are noted.
3. Perpendiculars are dropped from these
intersections to the horizontal composition axis,
from which the composition of each of the
respective phases is read.
 Determination of Phase Amounts
• The relative amounts (as fraction or as percentage) of the
phases present at equilibrium may also be computed
with the aid of phase diagrams.
• Again, the single- and two-phase situations must be
treated separately.
• The solution is obvious in the single-phase region: Since
only one phase is present, the alloy is composed entirely
of that phase; that is, the phase fraction is 1.0 or,
alternatively, the percentage is 100%.
• If the composition and temperature position is located
within a two-phase region, things are more complex. The
tie line must be utilized in conjunction with a Lever Rule
 lever rule
• The lever rule (or the inverse lever rule) is applied as follows:
1. The tie line is constructed across the two-phase region at the
temperature of the alloy.
2. The overall alloy composition is located on the tie line.
3. The fraction of one phase is computed by taking the length of tie
line from the overall alloy composition to the phase boundary for
the other phase, and dividing by the total tie line length.
4. The fraction of the other phase is determined in the same manner.
5. If phase percentages are desired, each phase fraction is multiplied
by 100. When the composition axis is scaled in weight percent, the
phase fractions computed using the lever rule are mass fractions—
the mass (or weight) of a specific phase divided by the total alloy
mass (or weight).
The mass of each phase is computed from the product of each
phase fraction and the total alloy mass.
• At 1250 C both a and liquid
phases are present for a 35
wt% Ni–65 wt% Cu alloy. The
problem is to compute the
fraction of each of the a and
liquid phases.
• The tie line has been
constructed that was used for
the determination of a and L
phase compositions.
• Let the overall alloy
composition be located along
the tie line and denoted as C0,
and mass fractions be
represented by WL and Wa for
the respective phases.
115
116
From the lever rule, WL may be computed according to

or, by subtracting compositions

Composition need be specified in terms of only one of the constituents

for a binary alloy; for the computation above, weight percent nickel
will be used (i.e., C0 =35 wt% Ni, Ca= 42.5 wt% Ni, and CL= 31.5 wt%
Ni), and

Similarly, for the phase,

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120
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122
123
124
 Eutectic point
• A particular composition in an alloy system for which
the solidus and liquidus are at the same temperature
• The eutectic temperature = melting point of the
eutectic composition
The eutectic temperature is always the lowest melting
point for an alloy system
• The word eutectic is derived from the Greek word
eutektos, meaning easily melted
125
126
127
128
 MICROSTRUCTURE
• Many times, the physical properties and, in particular, the mechanical behavior of
a material depend on the microstructure.

• Microstructure is subject to direct microscopic observation, using optical or

electron microscopes.

• In metal alloys, microstructure is characterized by the number of phases present,

their proportions, and the manner in which they are distributed or arranged.

• The microstructure of an alloy depends on such variables as the alloying elements

present, their concentrations, and the heat treatment of the alloy (i.e., the
temperature, the heating time at temperature, and the rate of cooling to room
temperature).
 Microstructure of different phases of steel

Microstructure is subject to direct microscopic observation, using optical or

electron microscopes.
 Three Phase Reactions
• Peritectic, at 1490 deg with low wt% C alloys (almost no engineering
importance).
• Eutectic, at 1130 deg with 4.3wt% C, alloys called cast irons.
• Eutectoid, at 723 deg with eutectoid composition of 0.8wt% C, two-
phase mixture (ferrite & cementite). They are steels.
How to read the Fe-C phase diagram
Eutectic
eutectoid
Pearlite and
Cementine

Austenite

Ferrite
Pearlite and
Carbide
Pearlite

Steel Cast iron

 Various Features of Fe-C diagram
Phases present
L
a ferrite
 BCC structure BCC structure
Paramagnetic Ferromagnetic
pearlite Fairly ductile

g austenite Fe3C cementite

FCC structure Orthorhombic
Reactions Non-magnetic Hard
ductile brittle
Peritectic L +  = g
Max. solubility of C in ferrite=0.022%
Eutectic L = g + Fe3C
Max. solubility of C in austenite=2.11%
Eutectoid g = a + Fe3C
 Principal phases of steel and their
Characteristics

Crystal
Phase Characteristics
structure
Ferrite BCC Soft, ductile, magnetic

Soft, moderate
Austenite FCC strength, non-
magnetic

Compound of Iron
Cementite Hard &brittle
& Carbon Fe3C
Part -5 Production of Iron and Steel
Introduction to Steel
Production
Commercial Forms
Applications
Microstructure
Strengthening Mechanisms
Corrosion
Metal Processing
Crushing and Calcining, or Separation
Extraction
◼ Smelting
 Ore is melted and separated in solution
◼ Electrolytic processing
 electric furnace or process is used to separate
metal
◼ Leaching (liquid processing)
 metal is recovered from leachate
Ferrous Metals
principle element is iron, cast iron,
steel, wrought iron.
Metals come from ore, "minerals" ore
consists of metal and gangue (valueless
extra)
Mining
◼ open pit
◼ underground
Refining the Metal
Refining the Metal
◼ oxidizing impurities
◼ distillation
◼ chemical agents
◼ electrolysis
Iron Production
Blast Furnace
◼ Reduces iron ore
to metal
◼ Separates metal
from impurities
Molten Iron
Slag
Processing of Virgin Steel
1) first step in reducing iron ore,
2) separates impurities
3) absorbs carbon (leaves 2.5 - 4.5 %
carbon)

End product is cast in bars, "pigs".

Ferrous Metals

Pig Iron
◼ Iron ore is combined with coke, and
limestone (fluxing agent). Blasts of
hot air are forced through the
material to ignite the coke and melt
the iron ore. The impurities in the
iron are absorbed by the limestone
and forms blast furnace slag.
Forms of Ferrous Alloys
Cast Iron
◼ cast iron is pig iron is any other shape.
Remelted and cast into desired shape.
Malleable Cast Iron
◼ annealed (heating then slow cooling to
encourage refined grains and soften
mechanical properties, removes internal
stresses, removes gases) cast iron that has
been made more ductile and formable.
Forms of Ferrous Alloys
Wrought Iron
◼ a form of iron that contains slag, and
virtually no carbon. making it workable
when it is hot but hardens very rapidly
when cooled rapidly.
Ingot Iron
◼ low carbon steel or iron cast from a molten
state.
Forms of Ferrous Alloys
Steel
◼ Iron - Carbon alloy which is cast from a
molten mass in a form which is malleable.
Carbon steel is steel with less than 1.5%
carbon. Alloy steel is steel which has
properties controlled by elements other
than carbon.
◼ Steel has the best structural properties of
these materials
Carbon Steels
Carbon steels have between .008 and 1.7
percent C (most are between 0.1 and 0.8%)
Carbon may be substitutional or interstitial
depending upon the amount present
Alloys with greater than 1.7 percent carbon
become very brittle and hard, i.e. cast iron
properties.
2) Classification of Metals
 Forms of ferrous metals and alloys

➢ Cast Fe – when pig Fe is in any shape.

– Fe 96%, C 4%

➢ Malleable cast Fe – ductile and formable

➢ Wrought Fe – slag

➢ Ingot Fe – low carbon Fe

➢ Steel – Fe-c alloy

 Types of steels

➢ Carbon steel

➢ Alloy steel

➢ Stainless steel
– Fe 80.6%, Cr 18%, C 0.4%, Ni 1%
❖Non ferrous metals and alloys are higher
cost than ferrous metals.
 Raw Materials for Production

• Iron Ore

• Limestone ----------→

• Coke
 Iron Production

• Blast Furnace
– Reduces iron ore to
metal
– Separates metal
from impurities

• Slag

• Molten Iron
 Refinement of Steel from Ore

Coke
Iron Ore Limestone

BLAST FURNACE
heat generation
gas C+O2 →CO2
refractory
vessel reduction of iron ore to metal
layers of coke CO2 + C → 2CO
and iron ore 3CO + Fe2O3 →2Fe+3CO2
air purification
slag
Molten iron CaCO3 → CaO+CO2
CaO + SiO2 + Al2O3 → slag

152
 Metals have a Crystalline Structure

• Packed spheres of the same size and shape:

– Body Centered Cubic
e.g. Chromium

– Face Centered Cubic

e.g. Gold

– Hexagonal Close Packed

e.g. Zinc
Figure the arrangement of atoms in: (a) face-centered cubic structure, (b) closed-packed
hexagonal structure and (c) body-centered cubic structure.
1. Melting Point 2. Electrical Conductivity
 Metal Fabrication Methods

FORMING CASTING JOINING

• Forging (Hammering; Stamping) • Rolling (Hot or Cold Rolling)
(wrenches, crankshafts) (I-beams, rails, sheet & plate)
force
die roll
Ad
A o blank A d often at Ao
elev. T
roll
Adapted from
force
• Drawing • Extrusion Fig. 11.8,
Callister 7e.
(rods, wire, tubing) (rods, tubing)
Ao
die Ad container
tensile die holder
Ao force
force ram billet extrusion Ad
die
container die
die must be well lubricated & clean ductile metals, e.g. Cu, Al (hot)
• Cu Alloys
Nonferrous Alloys
• Al Alloys
Brass: Zn is subst. impurity -lower r: 2.7g/cm3
(costume jewelry, coins, -Cu, Mg, Si, Mn, Zn additions
corrosion resistant) -solid sol. or precip.
Bronze : Sn, Al, Si, Ni are strengthened (struct.
subst. impurity aircraft parts
(bushings, landing & packaging)
gear) • Mg Alloys
NonFerrous
Cu-Be: -very low r: 1.7g/cm3
precip. hardened Alloys -ignites easily
for strength -aircraft, missiles
• Ti Alloys
• Refractory metals
-lower r: 4.5g/cm3
-high melting T
vs 7.9 for steel • Noble metals -Nb, Mo, W, Ta
-reactive at high T -Ag, Au, Pt
-space applic. -oxid./corr. resistant

157
 PART -6

Heat-Treatment
 Heat treatment is a method used to alter the
physical, and sometimes chemical properties
of a material. The most common application is
metallurgical
 It involves the use of heating or chilling,
normally to extreme temperatures, to achieve
a desired result such as hardening or
softening of a material
It applies only to processes where the heating
and cooling are done for the specific purpose
of altering properties intentionally
Generally, heat treatment uses phase
transformation during heating and cooling to
change a microstructure in a solid state.
 Types of Heat-Treatment (Steel)

 Annealing
 Tempering, and Quenching
 Precipitation hardening
 Case hardening
Annealing
A heat treatment process in which a metal is exposed to an
elevated temperature for an extended time period and
then slowly cooled.
Purpose:
1.Relieve stresses of cold working
2.Increase softness, ductility and toughness
3.Produce specific microstructure
Annealing
Three Stages of Annealing
1. Heating to a desired temperature
2. Holding or soaking at that temperature
3. Cooling usually to room temperature
Note: Time in above procedures is important
- During heating and cooling temp gradients exit b/w inside and
outside portions of part. If rate of temp change is tool high,
temp gradients will induce internal stress in part and hence
cracking

2
g
1 g 3
T
T α+Fe3C
α+Fe3C

Time
Time
Types of Annealing
1. Stress-Relief Annealing (or Stress-relieving)
2. Normalizing
3. Full Annealing
4. Spheroidizing Annealing (or Spheroidizing )
5. Isothermal Annealing
Iron-C Phase Diagram

B
Temp Ranges in Fe-C Phase Diagram
-
A1. Lower
critical Temp
A3. Upper g
critical Temp for
Hypo- eutectoid T g + Fe3C
steels
Acm. Upper
critical Temp for
a +g
Hyper- eutectoid Eutectoid
steels

α+Fe3C
Temp Ranges for Annealing Processes
 1. Stress-Relief Annealing
 Itis an annealing process
below the transformation
temperature A1, with
subsequent slow cooling,
the aim of which is to
reduce the internal residual
stresses in a workpiece
without intentionally
changing its structure and
mechanical properties
1. Stress-Relief Annealing
 For plain carbon and low-alloy steels the
temperature to which the specimen is heated
is usually between 450 and 650˚C, whereas for
hot-working tool steels and high-speed steels it
is between 600 and 750˚C
 This treatment will not cause any phase
changes, but recovery & recrystallization may
take place.
 Machining allowance sufficient to
compensate for any warping/distrotion
resulting from stress relieving should be
provided
Causes of Residual Stresses
1.Mechanical factors (e.g., cold-working during
metal forming/machining)
2.Thermal factors (e.g., thermal stresses caused
by temperature gradients within the work-piece
during heating or cooling)
3.Metallurgical factors (e.g., phase
transformation upon cooling wherein parent and
product phases have different densities

- In the heat treatment of metals, quenching or

rapid cooling is the cause of the greatest residual
stresses
Stress Relief Annealing –
Temperature & Time Vs Stresses

 Higher temperatures and

longer times of annealing
bring residual stresses to
lower levels
 All kinds of times (heating
time, soaking time,
cooling time)
 Stress Relief Annealing –
Cooling Rate Vs Stresses
 The residual stress level after stress-relief annealing will be
maintained only if the cool down from the annealing
temperature is controlled and slow enough that no new
internal stresses arise.
 New stresses that may be induced during cooling depend
on:

(1)Cooling rate
(2)Cross-sectional size of the
work- piece, and
(3)Composition of
the steel
 2. Normalizing
 A heat treatment process consisting of
austenitizing at temperatures of 50–80˚C
above upper critical temperature (A1 ,
Acm) followed by slow cooling (usually in
air)
 The aim of which is to obtain a fine-
grained, uniformly distributed, ferrite–
pearlite structure
 Normalizing is applied mainly to
unalloyed and low-alloy hypo-eutectoid
steels
 For hypereutectoid steels the
austenitizing temperature is 50–80˚C
above the ACm transformation
temperature
Normalizing – Heating and
Cooling Purpose of soaking:
1. To allow metal to
attain uniform temp
2. All the austenite
A3
transform into
pearlite, especially
A1
for hyper-eutectoid
compositions
 Normalizing – Austenitizing
Temperature Range
1. Depend on
composition
2. Increase in C %
reduces temp for
hypo-eutectoid steels
3. Increase in C %
increases temp for
hypo-eutectoid steels
Effect of Normalizing on Grain Size
 Normalizing refines (reduces) the grains of a steel
that have become coarse (long and irregular) as
a result of heavy deformations as in forging or in
rolling
 The fine grains have higher toughness than
coarse grains,

Steel
with
0.5% C
 Normalizing after Rolling
 After hot rolling, the
structure of steel is
usually oriented in the
rolling direction
 To remove the oriented
structure and obtain the
uniform mechanical
properties in all
directions, a normalizing
annealing has to be
performed
Normalizing after Forging
•  After forging at high temperatures,
especially with work-pieces that vary
widely in cross sectional size, because
of the different rates of cooling from
the forging temperature, a
heterogeneous structure is obtained
that can be made uniform by
normalizing
•  Normalizing is also done to improve
• machinability of low-c steels
Normalizing – Holding Time
 Holdingtime at austenitizing temperature
may be calculated using the empirical
formula:
t = 60 + D
where t is the holding time (min) and D is the
maximum diameter of the workpiece
(mm).
3. Full Annealing
- For compositions less than eutectoid, the metal is heated above
A3 line to form austenite
- For compositions larger than eutectoid, the metal is heated
above A1 line to form austenite and Fe3C
- Cooled slowly in a furnace instead in air as in Normalizing.
Furnace is switched off, both metal and furnace cool at the same
rate
Usually applied for low
-Microstructure outcome: Coarse and medium C steel
Pearlite. In Normalizing,
structure?
-Structure is relatively softer than
that in Normalizing
-Full annealing is normally used
when material needs to be
deformed further.
4. Spheroidizing Annealing
 It is also called as Soft Annealing
 Any process of heating and cooling steel that produces a
rounded or globular form of carbide (Fe3C)
 It is an annealing process at temperatures close below
or close above the A1 temperature, with subsequent slow
cooling
 Used for Medium & High C-Steels

- Spheroidite can form g + Fe3C

at lower temperatures but the
time needed drastically
increases, as this is a diffusion- a + Fe3C
controlled process.
 POLYMER
Part -7
Introduction
• Naturally occurring polymers—those derived from
plants and animals
Example: wood, rubber, cotton, wool, leather, silk,
proteins, enzymes, starches, and cellulose

• Synthetic polymers: the field of materials has been

virtually revolutionized by the advent of synthetic
polymers. They can be produced inexpensively, and their
properties may be managed to the degree that many are
superior to their natural counterparts
Example: plastics, rubbers, and fiber materials are.
 Polymer Molecules
• The molecules in polymers are
macromolecules.
• For most polymers, the molecules are in the
form of long and flexible chains, the backbone
of which is a string of carbon atoms; many
times each carbon atom bonds to two
adjacent carbons atoms on either side in two
dimensions.
• Each of the two remaining valence electrons
for every carbon atom may be involved in
side-bonding with atoms or radicals that are
positioned adjacent to the chain.
• These long molecules are composed of
structural entities called mer (monomer)
units, which are successively repeated along
the chain.
• A monomer refers to a stable molecule from
which a polymer is synthesized.
 The Chemistry of Polymer Molecules

• Consider the formation of polyethylene (Polymer) from the

hydrocarbon ethylene (C2H4) (monomor) which is a gas at ambient
temperature and pressure
• Chain initiation: If the ethylene gas is subjected catalytically to
appropriate conditions of temperature and pressure an active mer is
formed by the reaction between

• Chain Elongation: The polymer chain then forms by the sequential

addition of polyethylene monomer units to this active initiator-mer
center. The active site, or unpaired electron (denoted by •)
istransferred to each successive end monomer as it is linked to the
chain.
• A Chain termination: The final result, after the addition of many
ethylene monomer units, is the polyethylene molecule. Chain
termination takes place when the free radical end of he extending
polymer binds with another free radical unit.

Class Activity
What are the monomers of the following Polymers:
Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE)

Polyvinyl chloride (PVC),

Polypropylene (PP).
• When all the repeating units along a chain are of the same type, the
resulting polymer is called a homopolymer.
• Chains composed of two or more different mer units are termed as
copolymers
• The monomers that have an active two bonding sites (•CH2-CH2•)
and that react covalently with other monomers are called
bifunctional; that is, it may bond with two other units in forming
the two-dimensional chainlike molecular structure.

• Monomers, such as phenol-formaldehyde are trifunctional; they

have three active bonds, from which a three-dimensional molecular
network structure.
 Molecular weight
• Extremely large molecular weights1 are to be found
in polymers with very long chains.
• During the polymerization process in which these
large macromolecules are synthesized from smaller
molecules, not all polymer chains will grow to the
same length; this results in a distribution of chain
lengths or molecular weights.
• Ordinarily, an average molecular weight is specified,
which may be determined by the measurement of
various physical properties such as viscosity and
osmotic pressure.
Hypothetical polymer molecule size distribution on the basis
of:
(a) Number and
(b) Weight fractions of molecules
 Molecular Shape
• Single chain bonds are capable of rotation and bending in three
dimensions.

• Chain bending and twisting are possible when

there is a rotation of the chain atoms into
• other positions.
• Thus, a single chain molecule composed of
many chain atoms might assume a shape
having a multitude of bends, twists, and kinks.

The end-to-end distance of the polymer chain

r ; is much smaller than the total chain length.
• Polymers consist of large numbers of molecular chains, each of
which may bend, coil, and kink. This leads to extensive intertwining
and entanglement of neighboring chain molecules.
• These random coils and molecular entanglements are responsible
for a number of important characteristics of polymers, to include the
large elastic extensions displayed by the rubber materials.
• Some of the mechanical and thermal characteristics of polymers are
a function of the ability of chain segments to experience rotation in
response to applied stresses or thermal vibrations.
• Rotational flexibility is dependent on mer structure and
chemistry. For example, the region of a chain segment that has a
double bond is rotationally rigid. Also, introduction of a bulky or
large side group of atoms restricts rotational movement.
For example, polystyrene molecules, which have a phenyl side
group are more resistant to rotational motion than are polyethylene
chains.
B. Branched Polymers
• Polymers may be synthesized in which side-branch chains are
connected to the main ones.
• The branches, considered to be part of the main-chain
molecule, result from side reactions that occur during the synthesis
of the polymer.
• The chain packing efficiency is reduced with the formation of side
branches, which results in a lowering of the polymer density.
• Those polymers that form linear structures may also be branched.
C. Crosslinked Polymers
• Adjacent linear chains are joined one to another at various
positions by covalent bonds.
• The process of crosslinking is achieved either during synthesis or by
a nonreversible chemical reaction that is usually carried out at an
elevated temperature.
• Often, this crosslinking is accomplished by additive atoms or
molecules that are covalently bonded to the chains.
• Many of the rubber elastic materials are crosslinked; in rubbers, this
is called vulcanization.
D. Network Polymers
• Trifunctional mer units, having three active covalent bonds, form
three-dimensional networks and are termed network polymers.
• Actually, a polymer that is highly crosslinked may be classified as
a network polymer.
• These materials have distinctive mechanical and thermal properties;
the epoxies and phenol-formaldehyde belong to this group.

Note
• It should be pointed out that polymers are not usually of only one
distinctive structural type.
For example, a predominantly linear polymer might have some
limited branching and crosslinking.
 Thermoplastic and Thermosetting Polymers

Thermoplasts
• Thermoplasts (thermoplastic polymer) soften when heated (and
eventually liquefy) and harden when cooled—processes that are
totally reversible and may be repeated.
• On a molecular level, as the temperature is raised, secondary
bonding forces are diminished (by increased molecular motion) so
that the relative movement of adjacent chains is facilitated when a
stress is applied.
• Irreversible degradation results when the temperature of a molten
thermoplastic polymer is raised to the point at which molecular
vibrations become violent enough to break the primary covalent
bonds.
• Thermoplasts are relatively soft.
• Most linear polymers and those having some branched structures
with flexible chains are thermoplastic. These materials are normally
fabricated by the simultaneous application of heat and pressure.
Thermosetting Polymers
• Thermosetting Polymers become permanently hard when heat is
applied and do not soften upon subsequent heating.
• During the initial heat treatment, covalent cross links are formed
between adjacent molecular chains; these bonds anchor the chains
together to resist the vibrational and rotational chain motions at high
temperatures.
• Cross linking is usually extensive, in that 10 to 50% of the chain mer
units are cross linked.
• Only heating to excessive temperatures will cause severance of
these crosslink bonds and polymer degradation.
• Thermoset polymers are generally harder and stronger than
thermoplastics, and have better dimensional stability.
• Most of the cross linked and network polymers, which include
vulcanized rubbers, epoxies, and phenolic and some polyester
resins, are thermosetting.
Copolymers
• Copolymer is composed of two mer
units.
• Depending on the polymerization
process and the relative fractions of
these mer types, different
sequencing arrangements along the
polymer chains are possible.
(a) a random copolymer.
(b) alternating copolymer,
(c) Block
(d) Graft Copolymers
Processing of polymers
Blow Molding—e.g. milk bottle
Plastic

Extruded Parison- Mold Closed and Bottle Finished Bottle

Mold Open Blown Removed from Mold
Four-roll calender
Wad of plastic

To conditioning
equipment
A Plastics Extruder—e.g. tubing

Feed hopper

Cores for
Heaters cooling water

Drive shaft

Die

Screw
 Fiber Drawing

Heater (Optional)
Stretching Zone

Drive roll

Snubbing 2
Control
rolls pin

(2 > 1)

1 Drawn yarn to
Skewed idler roll bobbin

Undrawn
pretwisted yarn
 Polymer
Chips/Beads

Melt Spinner Melting

Zone Heating Grid

Pool
Metered Pump
Extrusion
(controlled Filter and
flow) Spinneret
Air Diffuser

Extruded Fiber Cools

and Solidifies Here

Moisture
Conditioning
Steam
Chamber

Lubrication
by oil disk Feed
and trough rolls

Packaging

Yarn Bobbin
driver

Bobbin drive
 Dry Spinning

Filtered
polymer
Feed solution
Dry Spinning of Fibers Metered
extrusion Pump

from a Solution Filter and

spinneret

Solidification
by solv ent Heated
evaporation chamber

Feed roll
and guide

Air
Lubric ation inlet

Yarn driv ing

Balloon guide

Packaging

Ring and traveler

Bobbin transverse

Spindle
Wet Spinning (e.g. Kevlar)
Cotton
INJECTION MOULDING

CORPORATE TRAINING AND

PLANNING
 Lecturer two
Ceramic materials:

206
 ceramic
Derived from Greek word – keramos Which is
Burned material
Early applications were building materials and
containers
Glass, although considered a ceramic, is a separate
part
– Lacks crystalline organization
• No orderly atomic structure

• Traditionally ceramic are clay porcelain cement etc..

• Advanced ceramic are consist of highly purified aluminum
oxide(Al2O3), silicon carbide (SiC) and silicon nitiride (Si3N4
207
 Ceramic
Ceramics are compounds between metallic and nonmetallic
elements; they are most frequently oxides, nitrides, and
carbides. For example, some of the common ceramic
materials include aluminum oxide (or alumina, Al2O3),
silicon dioxide (or silica, SiO2), silicon carbide (SiC),
silicon nitride (Si3N4), and, in addition, what some refer to
as the traditional ceramics those composed of clay
minerals (i.e., porcelain), as well as cement, and glass.
208
 Cont…
Up until the past 60 or so years, the most
important materials in this class were termed the
“traditional ceramics,” those for which the
primary raw material is clay; products considered
to be traditional ceramics are china, porcelain,
bricks, tiles, and, in addition, glasses and high-
temperature ceramics.

209
➢ Always composed of more than one element
(e.g., Al2O3, NaCl, SiC, SiO2)

➢ Bonds are partially or totally ionic, and can have

combination of ionic and covalent bonding

➢ Generally hard and brittle

➢ Generally electrical and thermal insulators

➢ Can be optically opaque, semi-transparent, or

Transparent

210
Periodic table with ceramics compounds indicated by a
combination of one or more metallic elements (in light
color) with one or more nonmetallic elements (in dark
color).
211
 Atomic Bonding in Ceramics
bonding
Can be ionic and/or covalent in character.

% ionic character increases with difference in

electro negativity of atoms.

Degree of ionic character may be large or small.

212
 Crystal structure of ceramic
Crystal structure is defined by -Magnitude of the
electrical charge on each ion.
Oxide structures

– oxygen anions larger than metal cation

– close packed oxygen in a lattice (usually FCC)

– cation fit into interstitial sites among oxygen ions

213
➢ Stable ceramic crystal structures: anions
surrounding a cation are all in contact with that
cation.

➢ For a specific coordination number there is a

critical or minimum cation and anion radius ratio
rC/rA for which this contact can be maintained.

214
Examples of crystal structures in ceramics
Rock Salt Structure Cesium Chloride Structure

NaCl, MgO, LiF, FeO have this crystal structure

215
 Defects in Ceramics
Vacancies vacancies exist in ceramics for both cations and
anions

Interstitial interstitials exist for cations

✓ interstitials are not normally observed for anions because
anions are large relative to the interstitial sites.

Cation
Interstitial
Cation
Vacancy

Anion
Vacancy 216
 Point Defects in Ceramics
➢ Point defects in ionic crystals are charged.
➢ The Coulombic forces are very large and any charge imbalance has
a strong tendency to balance itself. To maintain charge neutrality
several point defects can be created.
1 Frenkel Defect
➢ a cation vacancy-cation interstitial pair.
2 Shottky Defect
➢ a paired set of cation and anion vacancies.

Shottky
Defect:

Frenkel
Defect

217
 General Properties of ceramics

➢Low ductility
– Very brittle
– High elastic modulus
➢ Low toughness
– Low fracture toughness
– Indicates the ability of a crack or flaw to
produce a catastrophic failure
➢ Low density
– Porosity affects properties
➢ High strength at elevated temperatures
218
 Mechanical Properties of Ceramics
STRESS-STRAIN BEHAVIOR of selected materials

219
 Hardness
Some typical hardness values for ceramic
materials are provided below.

➢ The high hardness of technical ceramics results in

favourable wear resistance.
➢ Ceramics are thus good for tribological applications.
220
Toughness

221
 Electrical properties of ceramic
➢ Most of ceramic materials are dielectric.
(materials, having very low electric conductivity,
but supporting electrostatic field).
➢ Dielectric ceramics are used for manufacturing
capacitors, insulators and resistors

222
 1.Classification –Ceramics
➢ Ceramics are classified in many ways. It is due
to divergence in composition, properties and
applications.

➢ Based on their composition, ceramics are:

Oxides
Carbides
CERAMIC Nonoxides
S
nitrides
Composite
Sulfides

Fluorides etc.
223
Oxide Ceramics:
➢ Oxidation resistant

➢ chemically inert

➢ electrically insulating

➢ generally low thermal conductivity

➢ slightly complex manufacturing

➢ low cost for alumina

➢ more complex manufacturing

higher cost for zirconia.

zirconia
224
 Non-Oxide Ceramics:

➢ Low oxidation resistance

➢ extreme hardness

➢ chemically inert

➢ high thermal conductivityy

➢ electrically conducting

➢ difficult energy dependent manufacturing and high cost.

E.g. :Silicon carbide cermic foam filter (CFS)

225
 Ceramic-Based Composites:

➢ Tough

➢ low and high oxidation

resistance (type related)

➢ variable thermal and electrical conductivity
➢ complex manufacturing processes

➢ high cost. e.g. Ceramic Matrix Composite (CMC) rotor

226
 2.Classification –Ceramics
Based on their engineering applications ceramics
are classified in to two groups as: traditional and
advanced ceramics.

➢ Traditional ceramics–most made up of clay, silica

and feldspar

➢ Advanced ceramics–these consist of highly

purified aluminum oxide(Al2O3), silicon carbide
(SiC) and silicon nitiride (Si3N4)
227
228
 Traditional Ceramics
✓ The older and more generally known types (porcelain, brick,
earthenware, etc.)
✓ Based primarily on natural raw materials of clay and
silicates
✓ Applications;
▪ building materials (brick, clay pipe, glass)
▪ household goods (pottery, cooking ware)
▪ manufacturing ( abbrasives, electrical devices, fibers

229
 1) Clay Ceramics
➢ Made from natural clays and mixtures of clays and
added crystalline ceramics.
➢ These include
✓ White wares
✓ Structural Clay Products
Whitewares
• Crockery
• Floor and wall tiles
• Sanitary-ware
• Electrical porcelain
• Decorative ceramics
e.g. Whiteware: Bathrooms
230
 2) Refractory
➢Firebricks for furnaces and ovens.

➢Have high Silicon or Aluminium oxide content

231
 3)Abrasives
➢Natural (garnet, diamond, etc.)
➢Synthetic abrasives (silicon carbide,
diamond, fused alumina, etc.) are used
✓for grinding
✓for cutting Si wafers
✓polishing Two Kyocera ceramic knives (Y:ZrO )
2

✓for oil drilling lapping, or

✓pressure blasting of materials.

232
 5) Cements
• Used to produce concrete roads, bridges, buildings,
dams.

233
 Advanced Ceramics
➢ Advanced ceramics are also referred to as
“special,” “technical,” or “engineering” ceramics.
➢ They exhibit superior mechanical properties,
corrosion/oxidation resistance, or electrical, optical,
and/or magnetic properties.
➢ have been developed over the past half century.
➢ Include artificial raw materials, exhibit specialized
properties, require more sophisticated processing.

234
Engine Components

Rotor (Alumina Gears (Alumina)

Turbocharger

235
 Silicon Carbide
➢ Body armour and other components chosen for
their ballistic properties.

236
 Ceramics in the field Biomaterials

Ceramic
framework

237
 Processing of ceramics

Sintering or
densification or
firing
Forming

powder compact or ceramic

“green”

238
 1)Ceramic powder processing
➢Ceramic powder processing route: synthesis of
powder , followed by fabrication of green product
which is then consolidated to obtain the final
product.

Synthesis of powder involves:

➢ crushing,
➢ grinding
➢ Separating impurities
➢ blending different powders

239
 :
Shaping Processes
Green component can be manufactured in different
ways:
➢ tape casting
➢ slip casting
➢ extrusion
➢ injection molding and
➢ cold-/hot-compaction.

Green component is then fired/sintered to get final

product.

240
 Slip casting

A suspension of ceramic powders in water , slip, is poured

into a porous plaster mold .
Water from the mix is absorbed into the plaster to form a
firm layer of clay at the mold surface 241
 Finishing Operations for Ceramics
Parts made of ceramics sometimes require finishing,
with one or more of the following purposes:
1. Increase dimensional accuracy
2. Improve surface finish
3. Make minor changes in part geometry
Finishing usually involves abrasive processes
– Diamond abrasives must be used to cut the
hardened ceramic materials

242
 Ceramic Phase diagram
It need not be assumed that phase diagrams exist only for
metal–metal systems; in fact, phase diagrams that are very
useful in the design and processing of ceramic systems
have been experimentally determined for quite a number of
these materials.

For binary or two-component phase diagrams, it is

frequently the case that the two components are compounds
that share a common element, often oxygen.
243
244
245
 composite
➢Combination of two or more individual materials
➢ Design goal: obtain a more desirable
combination of properties (principle of combined
action)
– e.g., low density and high strength
➢they do not dissolve or merge into each other, although
they act in concert.
Composites: Artificially produced multiphase materials.
✓ Design materials with properties better
than those of conventional materials (metals, ceramics, or polymers).

246
Composites: are combinations of two materials in
which one of the materials, called the
reinforcing phase, is in the form of fibers,
sheets, or particles, and is embedded in the other
materials called the matrix phase. The
reinforcing material and the matrix material can
be metal, ceramic, or polymer.

247
248
 Terminology/Classification
Composite:
❖ Multiphase material that is artificially made.
Phase types:
❖ Matrix - is continuous
❖ Dispersed - is discontinuous and
surrounded by matrix

249
 Terminology/Classification
• Matrix phase:
• Purposes are to: transfer stress to dispersed
phase protect dispersed phase from environment
• Types: MMC, CMC, PMC M =metallic matrix
C=composite
metal matrix composite, ceramic matrix compo.. P =polymer
• Dispersed phase:
• -- Purpose:
• MMC: increase y, TS, creep resist.
• CMC: increase fracture toughness.
• PMC: increase E, y, TS, creep resist.
• -- Types: particle, fiber, structural

250
Classification of Composites

251
 Particle-Reinforced
Particle-reinforced Fiber-reinforced Structural
• Examples:
- Spheroidite matrix: particles:
steel ferrite (a) cementite
(ductile) (Fe C )
3
(brittle)
60 mm
- WC/Co matrix: particles:
cemented cobalt WC
(ductile, (brittle,
carbide :
tough) hard)
600 mm
- Automobile matrix: particles:
tire rubber rubber carbon
(compliant) black
(stiff)
0.75 mm
252
253
 Composite Survey: Structural

Particle-reinforced Fiber-reinforced Structural

• Sandwich panels
-- low density, honeycomb core
-- benefit: light weight, large bending stiffness

face sheet
adhesive layer
honeycomb

Adapted from Fig. 16.18,

Callister 7e. (Fig. 16.18 is
from Engineered Materials
Handbook, Vol. 1, Composites, ASM International, Materials Park, OH, 1987.)

254
Fiber Alignment

aligned aligned random

continuous discontinuous

255
 Advanced Composites

What is advanced composite?

Advanced Composites: Advanced composite
materials are refereed to those composite materials
developed and used in the aerospace industries. They
usually consist of high performance fibers as
reinforcing phases and polymers or metals as
matrices.

256
257
 Advanced Composite Materials
An advanced composite material comprises at least
two chemically different materials (heterogeneity): a
reinforcement, and a matrix that binds the
reinforcement and is separated from it by a sharp
interface.

258
 Phases of Composites
Matrix Phase: Polymers, Metals, Ceramics

Also, continuous phase, surrounds other phase (e.g.

metal, ceramic, or polymer)

Reinforcement Phase: Fibers, Particles, or Flakes

Also, dispersed phase, discontinuous phase (e.g.
metal, ceramic, or polymer)

259
 Advantages of Composite Materials
over Metals for Aerospace
✓ Light weight
✓ Resistance to corrosion
✓ High resistance to fatigue damage
✓ Reduced machining
✓ Tapered sections and compound contours easily
accomplished
✓ Can orientate fibers in direction of strength/stiffness
needed
✓ Possible reduced number of assemblies and reduced
fastener count when co-cure or co- consolidation is
used
260
 Disadvantages (or limitations):
➢ Material costs

➢ Fabrication/ manufacturing difficulties

➢ Repair can be difficult

➢ Wider range of variability (statistical spread)

➢ Operating temperature can be an issue for polymeric

matrix (i.e. 500 F). Less an issue for metal matrix (2,700 F).

➢ Properties non-isotropic makes design difficult!

✓ Example – video test in line w/ fibers 10X stronger vs fibers
oriented at an angle.
261
 Part-9
Corrosion and its degradation

262
263
➢ Destruction of a metal by chemical or electrochemical reaction
with its environment.
➢ Physical or mechanical wearing away of a metal is not called
corrosion but is called erosion
➢ If corrosion and erosion take place together the destruction of
the metal takes place very much faster
➢ Corrosion is an unintentional attack on a material by reaction
with a surrounding medium
➢ The corrosion problem should be very seriously considered in
all those cases where the structure or the equipment is meant
to last many years say 20 years…
Corrosion is the deterioration of materials by chemical interaction
with their environment. The term corrosion is sometimes also
applied to the degradation of plastics, concrete and wood, but
generally refers to metals.
➢ The chemical combined state of the metal is known as “ore”

➢ The ore has low energy in its thermodynamical state.

➢ The extracted metal has high energy ,thermodynamically

unstable .

➢ Metal converts itself into stable state by reacting with the

environment and undergoes corrosion.

➢ The corroded metal is thermodynamically stable.

➢ The valuable metallic properties like conductivity,malleability,
ductility etc are lost due to corrosion.

➢ Life span of the metallic parts of the machineries is reduced.

➢ The process of corrosion is very harmful and is responsible for

the enormous wastage of metal in the form of its compound.

➢ The failure of the machinery takes place due to lose of useful

properties of metals.

➢ The approximate estimate of loss of metal due to corrosion is

2 to 2.5 billion dollars per annum all over the world.
Different types of electrochemical corrosions are

➢ Galvanic corrosion

➢ Pitting corrosion

➢ Intergrannular corrosion

➢ Water line corrosion

 This corrosion occurs when different metals are in contact and
exposed to corrosive atmosphere.

 The metal which has higher electrode potential value will form
anode and undergoes corrosion. Example: Zn-Cu galvanic
cell zinc behaves as anode and corrosion occurs, copper
behaves as cathode and protected.
➢ When corrosion starts on a metal surface
at certain spots they become less open to
oxygen with the result that corrosion
proceeds faster at those very spots making
deeper and deeper cavities.
➢ Pitting corrosion can be explained on the
basis of differential aeration.
➢ The pit created becomes deeper, its
bottom becomes less open to oxygen
which makes it more anodic.
➢ The part which has higher oxygen
concentration is cathodic.
➢ The concentration of oxygen dissolved in
water is greater at the surface than deeper
down. This causes formation of a
concentration cell.

➢ Anode is the lower portion .

➢ Cathode is at the water level.

➢ Due to the poor conductivity of water the

ions just below the water level are
available for reaction, the metal corrodes
just below the water level.
Theories of corrosion
➢ In atmospheric corrosion the metals tend to revert to the states in
which they occur in nature.

➢ Several theories of corrosion have been proposed from time to

time..

➢ The three theories are

i) ACID THEORY
ii) CHEMICAL CORROSION (DRY CORROSION)
iii) ELECTROCHEMICAL CORROSION (WET
CORROSION)
Acid theory of corrosion considers acid to be the main cause.

Rusting takes place faster in acid solutions than in neutral or basic

solutions.

Oxygen and water are necessary for rusting of iron.

This is not true for all the metals like Zn etc..

Rate of corrosion in absence of Carbon di oxide is also seen.

➢ The direct chemical reaction of environment/atmospheric
gases or inorganic liquids with metal surfaces .
➢ There are three types of chemical corrosion
i) Oxidation corrosion
ii) Corrosion by other gases
iii) Liquid metal corrosion
(1.) Oxidation Corrosion: This is carried out by the direct action
of oxygen low or high temperatures on metals in absence of
moisture.
Alkali metals and Alkaline earth metals are rapidly oxidized at low
temperatures. At high temperature all metals are oxidized (except
Ag, Au, Pt).

M → M2+ + 2e- (Oxidation)

O2 + 2e - → 2O2- (Reduction)
M + O2 → M2+ + 2O2- (Metal oxide)
Mechanism:-
1. When temp increases the metal undergoes oxidation and losses e-

2M → 2M+n + 2ne-
Metal Ion
2. Electron are gained by the oxygen molecules forms oxide ions

nO2 + 4ne- → 2n O2-

Oxide Ion
3. Scale of metal oxide formed 2M + nO2 → 2M + 2n O2
Metal Oxide
2.) Corrosion due to other gases: This type of corrosion is due
to gases like SO2, CO2, Cl2, H2S, F2 etc. In this corrosion, the
extent of corrosive effect depends mainly on the chemical affinity
between the metal and the gas involved. The degree of attack
depends on the formation of protective or non protective films on
the metal surface which is explained on the basis of Pilling
Bedworth rule.

(i) If the volume of the corrosion film formed is more than the
underlying metal, it is strongly adherent, non-porous does not
allow the penetration of corrosive gases.
Ag + Cl2 → 2AgCl (protective film)
(ii) If the volume of the corrosion film formed is less than the
underlying metal, it forms pores/cracks and allow the penetration
of corrosive gases leading to corrosion of the underlying metal.
Ex. In petroleum industry, H2S gas at high temperature reacts with
steel forming a FeS scale. Fe (steel) + H2S FeS (porous)

3.) Liquid metal corrosion: This corrosion is due to chemical

action of flowing liquid metal at high temperatures on solid metal
or alloy. The corrosion reaction involves either dissolution of a
solid metal by a liquid metal or internal penetration of the liquid
metal into the solid metal.
Eg. Coolant (sodium metal) leads to corrosion of cadmium in
nuclear reactors.
➢ The electrochemical corrosion occurs when
i) a conducting liquid is in contact with a metal.

ii) when two dissimilar metals or alloys are immersed

partially in the solution.

➢ Corrosion occurs due to the presence of anodic and

cathodic areas.

➢ At anode oxidation reactions takes place

➢ At cathode reduction reactions takes place
➢ Occurs when aqueous solution or liquid electrolytes are
present

➢ Wet corrosion takes place in environments where the relative

humidity exceeds 60 %.

➢ Wet corrosion is most efficient in waters containing salts,

such as NaCl (e.g. marine conditions), due to the high
conductivity of the solution.
Mechanism Of Electrochemical Corrosion
Anodic Reaction:
Dissolution of metal takes place.
As result metal ions are formed with the liberation of free
electrons.
M ↔ M+n + e-
Metal Ion
 Cathodic Reaction
(i) Hydrogen Evolution :- Occurs usually in acidic medium
2H+ + 2e- ↔ H2 (g)

(ii) Oxygen Absorption :- occurs when solution is aerated

sufficiently.
O2+ 4H+ + 4e- ↔ 2H2O (In acidic medium)
O2+ 4H+ + 4e- ↔ 4OH- (In basic medium)