CHAPTER 15

WAVES

The disturbances which move without the actual physical transfer or flow of matter as a
whole, are called waves. In a wave, information and energy, in the form of signals, propagate from one
point to another but material object moves during the propagation.
no

Types of waves
1. Mechanical waves - These waves are governed by Newton's laws and can exist only within
a material medium, such as air, water and rock. Eg. Sound waves, water waves,
etc.
2. Electromagnetic waves - They travel through vacuum at the same speed of
light. Eq.
Visible, UV, IR, radiowaves, etc.
3. Matter waves - They are associated with moving electrons, protons, neutrons and other
fundamental particles.

Transverse and longitudinal waves

Mechanical waves can be transverse or longitudinal.

Difference between transverse and longitudinal

waves

Transverse waves
1. Transverse waves are those in which particles of
the medium oscillate in a direction
perpendicular to the wave motion.
2. Propagate in the form of crest and
trough.
->
dcrest-
Longitudinal waves
Longitudinal waves are those in which particles of
the medium oscillate in a direction parallel to the
wave motion.

Propagate in the form of compressions and rarefactions.

 →
compression
s

trough
Disturbance
is rare factions
3. Can propagate only in medium with shear
modulus of elasticity. Eg. Solid and
surface of liquids.
Can propagate in medium with bulk modulus of elasticity and so can propagate through
solids, liquids and gases.

Definitions
Amplitude: The amplitude of a wave is the magnitude of the maximum displacement of the
elements from their equilibrium positions as the wave passes through them.
Phase: The phase of the wave is the argument (kx - wt +q) of the oscillatory term sin(kx - ot +) in
the above equation. It describes the state of the motion as the wave sweeps through a string
element at a particular position x. It changes linearly with time t. The constant o is called the initial
phase angle.
Wavelength 2: Wavelength of the wave is the minimum distance between two consecutive
troughs or crests or two consecutive points in the same phase of wave motion. Propagation constant
or angular wave number is defined by the equation
K=2.
Period of oscillation T of a wave is defined as the time any string element takes to move through
one complete oscillation.
W =

QTT/
T.
Angular frequency w is defined by the equation The frequency v of
a wave is defined as the reciprocal of time period.

It is defined as the number of oscillations per unit time made

by a through it.
strin
g
A

+
T

element as the wave passes

Expression for the speed of transverse wave on a stretched string based on dimensional
analysis

The speed of transverse wave on a stretched string depends on the tension(T) in the
string and the linear mass density (u) of the string. [μ = m/l]

[ Use dimensional method and derive the formula for v]

v = √T/μ

Expression for the speed of longitudinal speed of

sound
The longitudinal speed of sound depends on Bulk modulus(B) and density (p) of the
medium. [Use dimensional method and derive the formula for v]

v = √B/p

Newtons's formula for the velocity of longitudinal waves in a gas and applying
Laplace's
correction

In a longitudinal wave the propagation involves compressions and rarefactions. Its velocity is
given
by
v = √B/p

where B is the bulk modulus given by B=-AP/(AV/V)

and p is the density of the medium.
The speed of longitudinal wave is solids is given by

v = √Y/p
 3
2

According to Newton the compressions and rarefaction in fluid takes place at constant temperature.
For an ideal gas PV = RT

For an isothermal change

PAV+V AP = 0

PAV=V AP

PAP/(AV/V) ·
From (2) and (4) B=P
(4

*. Using, the speed of longitudinal wave in an ideal gas is given by

v = √P/p
This is known as Newton's formula.
5)

i
s

A
The velocity of sound is found to be 280m/s, which 15% small as compared to experimental
value 331m/s.
Laplace's
correction

According to Laplace, the pressure variation in the propagation of sound is very fast
and hence the process can't be isothermal. It must be adiabatic.
For an adiabatic process,

PV = constant

A (PV) = 0
2-1

3 AP = 0
 P3 V
BV
+

3-1
ри
з
V AV
|
-
(or
)
PRVAV
ΔΡ

-DP ор

.P
-VAP

84V
P
AP
6

From 2
and 6
8(AV/
V)
P=
Badia

(7
(or) Badia = y
P
y is the ratio of two specific heat of gas Cp and
Cv.

.. eqn.(D becomes v =
√YP/p.
This is known as Laplace's correction. For air y = 7/5 and the value of v is calculated to be 331.3m/s
which agrees with the measured speed.

Displacement relation in a progressive

wave
A wave, transverse or longitudinal is said to be travelling or progressive if it travels from one point
of the medium to another.

Consider a progressive wave traveling along positive X-axis as given

below.
ул

x
P

If time is counted from the position at which particle at O crosses the origin, the
displacement at O is given by
y = a sinot
The particle at P will receive the disturbance after some time. If the corresponding phase lag
is o, the displacement of the particle at P is given by

y(x,t) = a sin (ot - q)

7
y depends on the position of the particle from origin and time t. `a'is called amplitude and
(cot - q) is called phase.
The phase angle oa x
(or)
9 =kx
(2

When x = λ, Q = 211

शा = kx

(or)
k
 • Equation
=
2π1

be
written
as

3
can

4== =x
Substituting
y(x,t) = asin (wt
in

-
2π x)
2x)
(or)
уск,
y(x,t) = a sin (wt
-ku)

From
(4) y(x,t) =
น
a sin

y(x, t)
t
5
4
 1 (2TTE
- 2πx)
(푸ᄇ
门

a sin[2E (1-
x)]
= asin [2π (UE --

Consideri
ng
the

the
above
equatio
n

Y(x, t)
-

a
शा
‫دوا‬
 (~~ A
=λV=1)
-
x)]
じ
phas
e
as

Ф
а
becomes
initial

Sin [2πT (Ut-

7) + Po
入

In general the
displacement of
wave along positive x-
axis
 уск,
є)
If
the
wave

- y(x, t) =
(ё) уск,
-)
=

the

Can
be

a sin (wt - kx
+40)
is
travelling
along
a sin (wt-k. (~~) +
(c)
a sin (wt + kx +90)
progress
ive
 given
as

-ve x-axis, then

Speed of a traveling
wave

Дж

wave at t = OF

wave at t=0

If the point such as A retained its displacement as it moves then, according to the
equation

y(x,t) = a sin (ot - kx)

@t-kx constant

(ie) oot = kx
1

To keep the argument constant as 't' increases 'x' also increases.

To find v, differentiating Dw.r.t.

't'
d
LE (wt -kx)
W
- k d x
dt
O
 1 = kv

277

ᄉ
=

शा

(or) -
ने
入
i

(`k = 21 )
٢٠٠
W = 211
T

Principle of superposition of waves

waves
V=X X

Statement: When two or more traverse the same medium, the displacement of any element of the
medium is the algebraic sum of the displacements due to each wave. This is known as principle of
superposition of waves.

Let y1 and y2 are displacements due to two waves traveling in the same medium with the phase
difference of o, such that
and
yı(x,t) = a sin (ot - kx) y2(x,t)
= a sin (ot - kx + q)

Then according to principle of

superposition,
y(x,t) = yı(x,t) + y2 (x,t) = a sin (ot - kx) + a sin (ot - kx+)
wt-kk twt -ku+p cos
= 2a sin

sin
[wt
2

(-: SinA +
SinB
ist-ku-wt+ku-

=-ku+p]
cos [wt
9 Sin

‫تا‬
‫میا‬
‫م‬
n (A+B)
cos (A-
 B))
Y (x,
t)
=

2a

cos (0/2) sin /2 (wt -

ku)+p
2

(or, y (x,t) = 2 acos(92) sin (wt-

k
+9/2)
-

The above equation shows that resultant wave differs from its constituents in phase and amplitude
and its amplitude is given by

A(p) = 2acos(p/2)
2

> when o = 0, the two waves are in phase and eqns. and give
Resultant displacement = y(x,t) = 2a sin (ot - kx) and
resultant amplitude A = 2a respectively.
➤ when = JI, y(x,t) = 0 and amplitude A = 0.

Reflection of waves

incident wave

reflected ware
 Fig.a
incident ware

reflected ware
Fig.b

Travelling wave at a rigid boundary or closed end as in fig.a is reflected with a phase reversal. But
the reflection at the open boundary as in fig.b takes place without phase reversal.

If the incident wave is given by Yi(x,t) = a sin (ot - kx), then the reflected wave

➡for a rigid boundary will be

yr(x,t) = a sin (wt + kx + JI) =-a sin
(ot+x)

for an open boundary will be

yr (x,t) = a sin (ot +
kx)

Standing waves and normal modes

The interference of two identical waves moving in opposite directions produces
standing waves which are characterized by fixed locations of zero displacement called nodes and fixed
locations of maximum displacement called antinodes.

Consider a system which is bounded at both the ends such as a stretched string fixed at both the ends or air
column of fixed length. In such a system if a continuous sinusoidal wave is sent towards right, it
gets reflected at the right end. The reflected wave travels towards left and it overlaps with the incident
wave continuously. In such a situation, the wave traveling along +ve X-axis(incident wave) is given
by
yı(x,t) = a sin (ot - kx)
22
The equation y = -2a sin kx cosot satisfies the boundary condition only when A =
0.
(ie) 2asinkx = 0
 (or) 2a sinkL = 0 (x=L)
sin kL = 0

kL = nJI where n = 0,1,2,......

L
= n

ᅡ
nλ
where
2
=
n = 1, 2, 3,

First mode of vibration

If λ is the wavelength of standing wave set up when n=1, then from

L = 2/2
2

.. The string will have one segment as in the following figure.

A

N
N

x=0 21 = 21
L = X BX =
L
V1 = V /
M
(v=vλ)
(ie)
V1 =V/2L
(3

V1 is called fundamental frequency or first harmonic. It is the minimum frequency with which the
standing waves can be set up in the string.

V=
 √T/μ
(4

where T is the tension in the string and u is the mass per unit length of the
string. From (3) and (4
V1.2L =
√T/μ

= 1/(2L)√T/μ

Second mode of vibrtation

For second mode n = 2, eqn. 1 becomes L = 22

5

and therefore the string will have two segments as given below.

x=0

L= 12
=L

λ2 = L
(6
V1 = V/22 =V/L

using and
(7
V2 = 2V1
(8

It is called second harmonic and is twice the fundamental frequency.

Third mode of vibrtation

For second mode n = 2, eqn. 1 becomes L = 323/2

and therefore the string will have two segments as given below.

usin
g
x=0
L=
3
= L

λ3 = 2L/3
(9
(10)

and
(10)
V3 =
3V1
V3=V/23 = 3V/(2L)

It is called third harmonic and is thrice the fundamental frequency.

th

In general for n" mode of vibration of the string.

and
λn = L

Vn=vn/(2L)

It is called nth harmonic.

Standing waves in a pipe closed at one end - closed organ
pipe

Consider a pipe closed at one end and open at the other end. Let L be the length of the pipe
and v be the velocity of sound in air. In this pipe, the antinode will be formed at open end and
node at the closed end.
Since anitnode is formed at the closed end, as per the condition for the formation of
antinodes,

x = (2n+1)2/4=L
where n = 0, 1, 2, 3,.....

First mode of vibrtation

1

For first mode n = 0, eqn. becomes L = 21/4

and therefore the string will have segments as given
below.

X=0
A

L=
X1/4
x =

λι = 4L
V1 = V/λ = v/ (4L)

It is called fundamental frequency or first harmonic.

Second mode of vibrtation

3
For second mode n = 1, eqn. 1 becomes L = ( 3⁄4)λ2 and
therefore the string will have segments as given below.
A
A

N
N

X=0
L = 3/4 12
31412
36=L

22 = 4L/3

V2V/22=3v/(4L)

using3 and 4 V2 =
3V1
It is called third harmonic.

Third mode of vibrtation

4

For second mode n = 2, eqn. becomes L = 523/4 and

therefore the string will have segments as given below.

N
N

A
A

L =
5/473
X=0

23 = 4L/5
 V3=V/23 = 5v/(4L)

using3 and 5
V3 =
5V1
5

It is called third harmonic.

Thus in closed organ pipe the fundamental frequency is v/4L and the higher frequencies are
odd harmonics only.

Standing waves in a pipe open at both

ends
Consider a pipe open at both the ends. When it is vibrated always antinodes will be formed at
the open end. If the reference origin is taken as antinode, then the equation of stationary wave will
be

y = 2acoskx sinot -------

For antinode formation, y has to be maximum.

‚".
.. From y = 2a only when coskx = +1

(or) kx =
nЛI
भ्रम
x = nπ

x = nλ/2

where n = 1, 2, 3, 4,.

First mode of vibrtation

.....
For first mode n = 1, eqn. becomes L = 21/2
>0

and therefore the string will have segments as given below.

A
N
A

A
A

X
=0

X=L

K
λ = 2L
L=>1/2

V1 = v/λ = v/ (2L)

It is called first harmonic or fundamental

frequency.

Second mode of vibrtation

For second mode n = 2, eqn. O becomes L = 22

and therefore the string will have segments as given below.

x=0
A
A

N
N

A
A
 L = λ2
2=L

λ2 = L

V2 = V/λ2 = V/L

using2 and 3
V2 = 2v1
3

It is called second harmonic and is twice the fundamental frequency.

Third mode of vibrtation

For third mode n = 3, eqn.(D becomes L =

3^3/2
and therefore the string will have segments as given
below.

XXX
X=0
A
K
‫اد‬
23=2L/3

V3=V/23=3v/(2L)

using and 4
V3 = 3VI
4
It is called third harmonic.

In general nth harmonic will have the frequency

as

Vn nvi

Thus in an open organ pipe all harmonics will be present.

Beats

The phenomenon of wavering of sound intensity(increase and decrease in amplitude) when two
waves of nearly same frequencies and amplitudes traveling in the same direction are
superimposed on each other is called beats.

Expression for beat

frequency

Consider two waves having slightly different frequency are superimposed on each
other. Let the time dependant variations of displacement due to two sound waves at a particular
location be

y1 = a sin c1t

y2 = a sin c2t
2

where @1002 and the waves assumed to have same amplitude and phase. According to
the principle of superposition
J
(or) y
‫می‬
y = y + y12 a sin o1t+a sin w2t

= 2a sin (w, tw)t cos

(W; _w2) =
=2a
t
 a sin/2TT (8, +22) (), cos
(2πT (21 - Y2)†)
2

1
)
.
2

= 2a sin (π (√, +12) E), cos (πT (1,

− 1 1⁄2) + )
-
82
)
= 2α COST (7, -12) L. Sin Ti (17,
+82) =

It is of the form y = A sin ot

where A = 2acosЛ(v1 - v2 )t

and
2=2πT
+
2
3

= 2πT 2, +
→2 2

21+22
2
Case 1: Condition for maximum intensity of sound
5

From equation (4) A will be maximum when JI(v1 - V2 )t =

nЛI
where n = 0,1,2,3,..

t = n/ (V1 --v2) where n =

0,1,2,3,.......................

t = 0, 1/(V1-V2), 2/(V1-V2 ),............... n/(vi-V2)

Time period between two consecutive maximum sound is given by

T = 1/ (V1-V2)

.*. Beat frequency = (V1-V2)

Case 2: Condition for minimum intensity of sound

From equation 4 A will be minimum when JI(vi - v2 )t = (2n+1)JI/2

where n = 0,1,2,3,....

t = (2n+1)/2 (VI-V2) where n = 0,1,2,3,........

t = 1/2(V1-V2), 3/2(V1-V2), 5/2 (V1 ~ V2

),

Time period between two consecutive maximum sound is given by

T = 1/ (V1-V2)

... Beat frequency = (V1-V2)

Application of
beats
Refer page no.
379
Doppler effect

If the observer is situated at a fixed distance from a sound-source, the frequency heard
by the observer is the same. If the sound source and the observer are in motion the frequency of
sound appears to be changed by the observer. This phenomenon of apparent change in the
frequency due to the relative motion between the source and observer is called Doppler effect.

Doppler effect can be discussed under three cases.

Effect of motion of sound-source alone

Effect of motion of the observer

Effect of motion of both together

Expression for apparent frequency

Consider S be the source and O be the observer and both are in motion.

AAMA
S
‫شا‬
(2)
V
V

velocity of sound = v

frequency of sound = y
V

velocity of source = Vs

velocity of observer = vo

velocity of sound w.r.t. source v' = v - Vs

velocity of sound w.r.t. observer v" = v - Vo
(
D
(2)

Apparent wavelength emitted by the source 2' = v/v = (v-vs) /v

Apparent frequency of sound received by the observer v' = v "/2"
Substituting and 3 in4
 ‫اال‬
V-1

(U9_U
S)/

(or
)
=

i_vs

Equation gives the expression for apparent frequency.

I Effect of motion of sound source

alone
i) Observer is at rest and the source is moving towards the observer

So
Us
(tve)

Equation becomes
O

भा
Le
ery
observer.
3-

v- v

→→→ The apparent frequency increases as the source moves

towards the stationary
ii) Observer is at rest and the source is moving away from the observer

S
(U1 =>
_ve)
Equation becomes
‫ارد‬
‫ـق‬
1% = 0
‫شا‬

|_ (-5)

(or, pi
ग
‫شا‬

V+Vs

'. The apparent frequency decreases as the source moves away

from the stationary
3
observer.

II Effect of motion of the observer alone

i) Source is at rest and the observer is moving towards the stationary
source
Equation becomes
Up (-
ve)
0+1%
२
७-

source.

‫اال‬
The apparent frequency increases as the observer moves towards the
stationary

ii) Source is at rest and the observer is moving away from the stationary
source
S

Equation (5)
becomes
D
18
(+ve)

V_V2
‫فا‬

‫جدے اور‬
source.

(a) The apparent frequency decreases as the observer moves away from
the stationary

III Effect of motion of both source and observer

together
i) When observer and source are moving towards each other

V1
(+ve)
| (-ve)

Equation (5)
becomes

other.
‫ادا‬
U+1
хя

V_Vs

The apparent frequency increases as the observer and source move towards each

ii) When observer and source are moving away from each other
S

V (-ve)
is
 (+ve)
(

Equation becomes
‫اال‬
ひーじ。

19+1
8
‫ال‬

other.

(C) The apparent frequency decreases as the observer

and source move towards each

iii) When source moves towards the observer and the observer moves away from
source

Equation becomes
S

Vs
(tve)
to (tre)
and observer.
The apparent frequency either decreases or increases according the velocity of
source

iv) When source moves away from the observer and the observer moves towards the source

<=
(-
ve)
Equation 3
becomes
21= 1 +1
‫وال‬
V2 (-
ve)

1+1

and observer.
The apparent frequency either decreases or increases according the velocity of source

Application of Doppler effect

Refer page no. 382