Unit:1

Introduction

1.1 Definition:

A disaster is a serious problem occurring over a short or long period of time that causes
widespread human, material, economic or environmental loss which exceeds the ability of the
affected community or society to cope/handle using its own resources.

1.2 Factors:

1. Poverty
2. Population Growth
3. Rapid Urbanization
4. Transitions in Cultural Practices
5. Economic condition.
6. Geographical conditions.
1.3 Difference B/W Hazard & Disaster

HAZARD DISASTER

A dangerous situation needing to be A dangerous situation that has become out of control
headed because it can lead to a disaster. and is a disaster

Disasters are the outcomes of hazards when warning

Hazards are known to have specific warnings
signs were ignored.
usually man-made to prevent disastrous events.

A disaster is the result of a hazard but at the same time

Hazards can lead to disasters. is also a hazardous event.

Table-1.1

NATURAL
DISASTER
MAN-
MADE
Fig-1.1

1.4 Natural And Man-Made Disaster

1.4.1 Natural disaster
A natural disaster is described as a major event caused by Earth’s natural processes that result
in significant environmental harm and loss of life. The term natural has consequently been
disputed because the events simply are not hazards or disasters without human involvement.

2
Different types of natural disasters can be:
 Tsunamis
 Earthquakes
 Avalanches
 Volcanoes
 Landslides
 Floods
 Droughts

Fig 1.2

3
1.4.2 Man-made disasters
Human-induced disasters are very dangerous destruction caused by humans. Chemical spills,
hazardous material spills, explosives, chemical or biological attacks, nuclear blasts, rail
accidents, airline crashes, or groundwater poisoning are all instances of man-made disasters.

Fig 1.3

4
 1.4.3 Difference

Parameters of
Natural Disaster Man-Made Disaster
Comparison

Medium Natural Forces Human Error

Intensity Uncontrollable Can be deterred

Interference Can be influenced by human actions Can be boosted by natural forces

Examples of major Flood, volcanic eruptions, drought, Nuclear explosion, war, chemical
disaster cyclones, avalanches, etc. spills, etc.

Examples of minor Thunderstorms, mud slides, heat waves, Accidents in factories, industrial
disaster cold waves, etc. crisis, road accidents, etc.

Table 1.2 Difference Natural Disaster Between Man-Made Disaster

NATURAL MAN-MADE

Industrial
Geological
Disasters Accidents

Transporta
tion
Hydrological Accidents
Disasters
Terrorism

Meteorological
Disasters Nuclear &
Chemical
Disasters
Biological Sports
Disasters Disasters

Fig-1.4

5
1.4.4 Magnitude

Natural disasters cause destruction of property, loss of financial resources, and personal injury
or illness. The loss of resources, security and access to shelter can lead to massive population
migrations in lesser-developed countries.

Man -made disasters provoke a serious disruption of the economy, agriculture and health-care
sectors of a society, typically producing long-lasting effects that perpetuate underdevelopment.

6
 UNIT:2
2.1 Economic Damage

The economic damage caused by disasters varies. Capital assets and infrastructure such as
housing, schools, factories and equipment, roads, dams, and bridges are lost. Human capital is
depleted due to the loss of life, the loss of skilled workers and the destruction of education
infrastructure that disrupts schooling.

Fig-2.1: Economic Damage due to Disasters

2.2 Loss of Human and Animal Life:

When natural disasters hit, whether forest fires, earthquakes, or hurricanes, they leave behind a
trail of destruction. But, while we report human loss in the news, we often forget about the
animals. And the loss can be huge. Read on to find out more about how animals fared in some
of the best-known natural disasters.
We do sometimes see news images of wildlife in dire situations, such as kangaroos stranded on
a small piece of land above the surrounding floodwaters. But even here, many people consider
their plight as a natural occurrence.
Without food, these animals will starve to death or succumb to other conditions they may have,
such as injuries. Many animals are washed away or become so exhausted by always struggling
in water that they die from hypothermia, shock, or exhaustion.

7
 Fig-2.2 Loss of Human and Animal Life

2.3 The impact of ecosystem destruction

The following are the impact of ecosystem destruction
1. Increased flooding due to the erosion of soil and lack of trees.

2. Climate change causes the sea levels rising due to the melting of the glaciers.

3. More a likelihood that natural disasters such as tsunamis, earthquakes, droughts will be
commonplace.

4. Disruption of the food chain when the apex predators become extinct.

5. Water shortage – the supply of fresh drinking water is limited with only a few water
bodies being fit for human consumption.

6. Food shortage as the lands become barren and the oceans become devoid of fish and
other marine life

7. Loss of biodiversity as a whole species of living things disappear due to deforestation

8. Pollution will eventually become unmanageable and affect the health of the human
population. Rising temperatures may be too much to bear for every living organism on
the planet.

8
2.4 Some of the natural disasters
2.4.1 Earthquake:
An earthquake (also known as a quake, tremor, or temblor) is the shaking of the surface of the
Earth resulting from a sudden release of energy in the Earth's lithosphere that creates seismic
waves. Earthquakes can range in size from those that are so weak that they cannot be felt to
those violent enough to propel objects and people into the air, and wreak destruction across
entire cities. The seismicity, or seismic activity, of an area is the frequency, type, and size of
earthquakes experienced over a particular time period.

Fig-2.3 Earthquake

9
2.4.2 Volcanism:
Volcanism is the eruption of molten rock from inside the Earth to the surface. Volcanism occurs
because of Earth's internal heat, and is associated with tectonic processes and a part of the rock
cycle. Volcanic eruptions occur when molten lava reaches the surface of the Earth.

Fig-2.4 Volcanism

10
2.4.3 Cyclones:
In meteorology, a cyclone is a large air mass that rotates around a strong center of low
atmospheric pressure, counter clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and clockwise in the
Southern Hemisphere as viewed from above. Cyclones are characterized by inward-spiralling
winds that rotate about a zone of low pressure.

Fig-2.5 Cyclone

11
2.4.4 Tsunami:
A tsunami is a series of waves in a water body caused by the displacement of a large volume of
water, generally in an ocean or a large lake. Earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and other
underwater explosions above or below water all have the potential to generate a tsunami.

Fig-2.6 Tsunami

12
2.4.5 Flood:
A flood is an overflow of water that submerges land that is usually dry. In the sense of "flowing
water", the word may also be applied to the inflow of the tide. Floods are an area of study of
the discipline hydrology and are of significant concern in agriculture, civil engineering, and
public health.

Fig-2.7 Flood

13
2.4.6 Droughts:
A drought is an event of prolonged shortages in the water supply, whether surface
water or ground water. A drought can last for months or years, or may be declared after as
few as 15 days.
1). It can have a substantial impact on the ecosystem and agriculture of the affected region
2). harm to the local economy.
3). Annual dry seasons in the tropics significantly increase the chances of a drought developing
and subsequent bush fires.
Periods of heat can significantly worsen drought conditions by hastening evaporation of water
vapour.

Fig-2.8 Droughts

14
2.4.7 Famine:
A famine is a widespread scarcity of food caused by several factors including war, natural
disasters, crop failure, population imbalance, widespread poverty, an economic catastrophe, or
government policies. This phenomenon is usually accompanied or followed by regional
malnutrition, starvation, epidemic, and increased mortality. Every inhabited continent in the
world has experienced a period of famine throughout history. In the 19th and 20th century,
generally characterized Southeast and South Asia, as well as Eastern and Central Europe, in
terms of having suffered most number of deaths from famine. The numbers dying from famine
began to fall sharply from the 2000s. Since 2010, Africa has been the most affected continent
in the world.

Fig-2.9 Famine

15
2.4.8 Landslide:
A landslide is defined as the movement of a mass of rock, debris, or earth down a slope.
Landslides are a type of "mass wasting," which denotes any down-slope movement of soil and
rock under the direct influence of gravity.

Fig-2.10 Landslide

16
2.4.8 Avalanche:
An avalanche is a rapid flow of snow down a hill or mountainside. Although avalanches can
occur on any slope given the right conditions, certain times of the year and certain locations are
naturally more dangerous than others. Wintertime, particularly from December to April, is
when most avalanches tend to happen.

Fig-2.11 Avalanche

17
2.5 Some of the Man-Made Disasters

2.5.1 Nuclear Reactor Meltdown:

A nuclear meltdown (core meltdown, core melt accident, meltdown or partial core melt) is a
severe nuclear reactor accident that results in core damage from overheating. The term nuclear
meltdown is not officially defined by the International Atomic Energy Agency or by the United
States Nuclear Regulatory Commission.

Fig-2.12 Nuclear Reactor Meltdown

18
2.5.2 Industrial Accidents:
An industrial accident is a serious event that involves hazardous materials and that can have
consequences for the surrounding population and environment. Depending on the nature of the
products involved, the accident can take the form of a fire, an explosion or the emission of toxic
or radioactive material.

Fig-2.13 Industrial Accident

19
2.5.3 Oil Spill:
An oil spill is the release of a liquid petroleum hydrocarbon into the environment, especially
the marine ecosystem, due to human activity, and is a form of pollution. The term is usually
given to marine oil spills, where oil is released into the ocean or coastal waters, but spills may
also occur on land.

Fig-2.14 Oil Spill

20
2.5.4 Oil Slick:
A mass of floating oil covering an area of water, esp oil that has leaked or been discharged from
a ship.

Fig-2.15 Oil Slick

2.5.5 Outbreak of Diseases and Epidemics

A disease outbreak is the occurrence of disease cases in excess of normal expectancy. The
number of cases varies according to the disease-causing agent, and the size and type of previous
and existing exposure to the agent.
Disease outbreaks are usually caused by an infection, transmitted through person-to-person
contact, animal-to-person contact, or from the environment or other media. Outbreaks may also
occur following exposure to chemicals or to radioactive materials.
while

21
An epidemic is the rapid spread of disease to a large number of hosts in a given population
within a short period of time. For example, in meningococcal infections, an attack rate in excess
of 15 cases per 100,000 people for two consecutive weeks is considered an epidemic.

2.5.6 Conflict and War

The conflict must be widespread, intentional, and declared. It requires mobilization of personnel
and fighter or soldiers moving to front positions to defend territories. Conflict arises from
disagreement between two parties where parties perceive a threat to their needs and interests.
While War is an intense armed conflict between states, governments, societies, or paramilitary
groups such as mercenaries, insurgents, and militias. It is generally characterized by extreme
violence, aggression, destruction, and mortality, using regular or irregular military forces.

22
 Unit – 3
Disaster Prone Areas In India
3.1 Study of Seismic Zones
Seismic Zoning can be defined as a process by which areas are subdivided into seismic zones
based on expected of ground motion, which is expressed in terms of peak horizontal ground
acceleration (PGA) or peak ground velocity (PGV). On the other way, seismic Zonation
demarcates equal hazard with respect to a characteristic of strong ground shaking and of site or
structural response. A seismic zoning map differs from seismicity map by the fact that it
specifies the levels of force or ground motions for earthquake resistance design, whereas
seismicity map provides location and characteristics of earthquakes.

In seismology, a seismic zone or seismic belt is an area of seismicity potentially sharing a

common cause. It may also be a region on a map for which a common areal rate of seismicity
is assumed for the purpose of calculating probabilistic ground motions. An obsolete definition
is a region on a map in which a common level of seismic design is required.

3.2 Area Prone To Flood And Drought Flood

In India, flood prone areas cover 12.5% of the country.

The flood prone areas include West Bengal, Orissa, Andhra Pradesh, Kerala, Assam, Bihar,
Gujrat, Uttar Pradesh, Haryana and Punjab.

Drought prone areas Maharashtra, Odisha, Telangana, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Jharkhand,
Uttar Pradesh, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Chhattisgarh.

Drought prone districts in India comprise nearly 1/6th of this country in terms of area. These
areas receive an annual rainfall of around 60 cm or less.

The Western Ghats are highly erratic and receive rainfall lower than 750mm. Since this area is
highly populated, the suffering or damage caused by drought is high. The area extending from
Ahmedabad to Kanpur and from Kanpur to Jullundur receives less than 750mm or even less
than 400 mm rainfall.

23
Besides these areas, there are many pockets of drought in India. They are:
1.Coimbatore in Kerala
2. Kalahandi in Orissa
3. Palamu region and Mirzapur plateau in Uttar Pradesh
4. Purulia in West Bengal
5. Kutch and Saurashtra regions in Gujarat
6. Tirunelveli district in Tamil Nadu.

3.3 Landslide and Avalanche

3.3.1 Landslide:-
Studies show that more than 12 per cent of the land area in the country is susceptible to
landslides and more than 300 die every year, worldwide, due to landslides.
The major landslide prone areas in India include the Western Ghats and Konkan Hills (Tamil
Nadu, Kerala, Karnataka, Goa and Maharashtra), Eastern Ghats (Araku region in Andhra
Pradesh), North-East Himalayas (Darjeeling and Sikkim) and North West Himalayas
(Uttarakhand, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir).

3.3.2 Avalanche:-
The higher reaches of the Himalayan region are prone to attack by avalanches. The snowy
region of the Western Himalayas is particularly prone to avalanches. It includes higher areas in
Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and Uttaranchal. The details are as under:
1. Jammu and Kashmir – Higher reaches of Kashmir and Gurez valleys, Kargil and Ladakh and
some of the major roads.
2. Himachal Pradesh – Chamba, Kullu-Spiti and Kinnaur are vulnerable areas.
3. Uttaranchal – Parts of Tehri Garhwal and Chamoli districts are vulnerable areas.

3.4 Areas Prone to Cyclonic and Coastal Hazard

In India, eastern coastal region between West Bengal and Tamil Nadu has been affected
tremendous coastal hazards, such as storm surge, cyclone, tsunami, etc.
In the state of Andhra Pradesh, tremendous population living in the coastal region, especially
Krishna Godavari deltaic Plain, and also the region are prone to various hazards.

24
3.5 Post-Disaster Disease and Epidemic
The relationship between natural disasters and communicable diseases is frequently
misconstrued. When death is directly due to a natural disaster, human remains do not pose a
risk for outbreaks. Dead bodies only pose health risks in select situations that require specific
precautions, such as death from cholera, shigellosis or hemorrhagic fevers. Risk for
communicable disease transmission after disasters is associated primarily with the size and
characteristics of the population displaced, proximity of safe water and functioning latrines,
nutritional status of the displaced population, level of immunity to vaccine preventable diseases
such as measles, and access to health care services.
Several types of communicable diseases have been associated with populations displaced by
natural disasters. Diarrheal disease outbreaks can occur after drinking water that has been
contaminated and have been reported after flooding and related displacement. Etiologic agents
include Vibrio cholerae, enterotoxigenic Escherichia Coli, Salmonella
enterica and Cryptosporidium parvum. Although the risk for diarrheal disease outbreaks
following natural disasters is higher in developing countries than in industrialized countries,
norovirus, Salmonella and toxigenic and nontoxigenic V. cholerae were confirmed among
Hurricane Katrina evacuees in the United States.
Crowding is common in populations displaced by natural disasters and can facilitate the
transmission of communicable diseases, e.g., measles and meningococcal meningitis. Acute
respiratory infections are a major cause of illness and death among displaced populations,
particularly in children less than 5 years of age. Acute respiratory infections accounted for the
highest number of cases and deaths among those displaced by the tsunami in Aceh in 2004 and
by the 2005 earthquake in Pakistan.

Natural disasters, particularly meterologic events such as cyclones, hurricanes and flooding can
affect vector-breeding sites and vectorborne disease transmission. Malaria outbreaks in the
wake of flooding are a well-known phenomenon. Although not directly associated with
flooding, the risk for dengue outbreaks can be influenced by other complicating factors, such
as changes in human behavior, movement to endemic areas, interruption in disease control
activities and changes in habitat.

25
Other diseases associated with natural disasters include tetanus and coccidioidomycosis. A
cluster of 106 cases of tetanus, including 20 deaths, occurred in Aceh and peaked 2 1/2 weeks
after the tsunami. An outbreak of coccidioidomycosis was associated with exposure to
increased levels of airborne dust subsequent to landslides in the aftermath of the 1994 Southern
California earthquake.

26
 Unit-4
Disaster Preparedness And Management

4.1 Preparedness:- Monitoring of Phenomenon Triggering a Disaster or a

Hazard
These are the measures that ensure the organized mobilization of personnel, funds, equipments,
and supplies within a safe environment for effective relief. Disaster preparedness is building up
of capacities before a disaster situation prevails in order to reduce impacts. Its measures include
inter alia, availability of food reserve, emergency reserve fund, seed reserve, health facilities,
warning systems, logistical infrastructure, relief manual, and shelves of projects.
Hazard is a rare or extreme event in the natural or human made environment that adversely
affects human life, property or activity to the extent of causing a disaster. It is essential to make
a distinction between hazards and disasters, and to recognize that the effect of the former upon
the latter is essentially a measure of the society’s vulnerability.

4.2 Evaluation of Risk: (Application of Remote Sensing)

During the disaster prevention stage, GIS is used in managing the huge levels of data required
for vulnerability and hazard assessment. In the disaster preparedness stage, it is a tool for
planning evacuation routes, designing centres for emergency operations, and for the integration
of satellite data with other relevant data in the design of disaster warning systems. In the disaster
relief phase, GIS, in combination with GPS, is extremely useful in search and rescue operations
in areas that have been devastated and where it is difficult to find one’s bearings. In the disaster
rehabilitation stage, GIS is used to organise the damage information and post-disaster census
information and in the evaluation of sites for reconstruction. Natural hazard information should
be included routinely in developmental planning and investment projects preparation. They
should include cost/benefit analysis of investing in hazard mitigation measures and weigh them
against the losses that are likely to occur if these measures are not taken. GIS can play a role at
the following levels:
 National level
 State level
 District level

27
 Block level
 Ward or village level
 Site investigation scale.

1. Land Use Mapping

Remote sensing data is useful in obtaining up-to-date land use pattern of large areas at any
given time and also monitor changes that occur from time to time. It can be used for updating
road maps, asphalt conditions, and wetland delineation. This information is used by regional
planners and administrators to frame policy matters for all-round development of the region.

2. Weather Forecasting
Remote sensing is extensively used in India for weather forecasting. It is also used to warn
people about impending cyclones.

3. Environmental Study
It can be used to study deforestation, degradation of fertile lands, pollution in atmosphere,
desertification, eutrophication of large water bodies and oil spillage from oil tankers.

4. Study of Natural hazards

Remote sensing can be used to study damages caused by earthquakes, volcanoes, landslides,
and floods and melting of ice in Polar Regions. Many times remote sensing will be helpful to
predict the occurrence of natural hazards.

5. Resource exploration
Remote sensing data is helpful for updating existing geological maps, rapid preparation of
lineament and tectonic maps, identifying the sites for quarrying the minerals and helpful in
locating fossil fuel deposits.

4.3 Data from Meteorological and Other Agencies

Modernized meteorological observations and research in India was initiated more than 200 year
ago, since 1793, when the first Indian Meteorological observatory was set up at Madras (now
Chennai). IMD was formally established in 1875 with a network of about 90 weather
observatories for systematic observation and research.
India Meteorological Department’s tradition of monitoring weather and climate spans more
than 135 years giving it a sound and useful dataset to fall back upon for environmental
assessment. Ozone monitoring network was started as a globally pioneering effort as early as
in 1954 realizing that this trace gas plays a very important role in atmospheric chemical
mechanisms. It also started radiation measurements about 50 year back and currently

28
maintaining 45 stations in the country for providing exclusive countrywide dataset for
assessment of solar energy resources.
A network of 10 Global Atmosphere Watch Stations (GAW, formerly Background Air
Pollution Monitoring Network or BAPMoN) consisting of Allahabad, Jodhpur, Kodaikanal,
Minicoy, Mohanbari, Port Blair, Pune, Nagpur, Srinagar and Vishakhapatnam, is maintained
by IMD as per WMO protocols and standards since 1974 to generate data and information on
the exchange of trace materials between the atmosphere and the earth’s surface, making
atmospheric turbidity and air quality measurements to quantify trends and acid rain threats.
Atmospheric monitoring: There are 25 types of atmospheric monitoring networks that are
operated and coordinated by the IMD. This includes meteorological, climatologically,
environment, air pollution and other specialized observation of atmospheric trace constituents.
It maintains 559 surface meteorological observatories, about 35 radio-stations and 64 pilot
balloon stations for monitoring the upper atmosphere. Specialized observations are made for
agro meteorological purposes at 219 stations and radiation parameters are monitored at 45
stations. There are about 70 observatories that monitor current weather conditions for aviation.
The IMD collects meteorological data over oceans by an establishment of cooperation fleet of
Voluntary Observing Ships (VOF) comprising merchant ships of Indian registry, some foreign
merchant vessels and a few ships of the Indian Navy. These ships, while sailing on the high
seas, function as floating observatories. Records of observations are passed on to the IMD for
analysis and archival.

4.4 Media Reports: Governmental and Community Preparedness

The media forges a direct link between the public and the emergency organizations and play a
very important role in disseminating vital information to the public before, during and after the
disasters. The media assists in the management of disasters by educating the public about the
disasters; warning of hazards; gathering and transmitting information about the affected areas;
alerting govt. officials, relief organizations and the public to specific needs; and the facilitating
discussions about the disaster preparedness and the response for the continuous improvement.
To help the disaster management organizations should be established and maintains.
Experience shows that regular interactions with the media before a disaster strikes, aids the
effective flow of information and lays the ground work for effective working relationships in
the aftermaths of a disasters

29
Community preparedness: Being prepared is the key to a community's ability to respond to and
recover from an incident. It requires engagement and coordination with a cross-section of state,
local, and tribal partners as well as other stakeholders.
Community preparedness is the ability of communities to prepare for, withstand, and recover
from public health incidents in both the short and long term.

30
 Unit-5
Risk Assessment
5.1 Concept and Elements
A risk assessment is a process to identify potential hazards and analyze what could happen if a
hazard occurs. A business impact analysis (BIA) is the process for determining the potential
impacts resulting from the interruption of time sensitive or critical business processes.
There are numerous hazards to consider. For each hazard there are many possible scenarios that
could unfold depending on timing, magnitude and location of the hazard. Consider hurricanes:
A Hurricane forecast to make landfall near your business could change direction and go out to
sea.
The storm could intensify into a major hurricane and make landfall.
There are many “assets” at risk from hazards. First and foremost, injuries to people should be
the first consideration of the risk assessment. Hazard scenarios that could cause significant
injuries should be highlighted to ensure that appropriate emergency plans are in place. Many
other physical assets may be at risk. These include buildings, information technology, utility
systems, machinery, raw materials and finished goods. The potential for environmental impact
should also be considered. Consider the impact an incident could have on your relationships
with customers, the surrounding community and other stakeholders. Consider situations that
would cause customers to lose confidence in your organization and its products or services.

Hazard – A potentially destructive physical phenomenon (e.g., an earthquake, a windstorm, a

flood). Common natural hazards include floods, volcanic eruptions,, hurricanes, drought,
tsunami, landslides, and more.

Exposure – The location, attributes, and value of assets that are important to communities
(people, buildings, factories, farmland, etc.) and that could be affected by a hazard.

Vulnerability -The likelihood that assets will be damaged/destroyed/affected when exposed to

a hazard. For example, a building with multiple floors may be more vulnerable to shaking from
an earthquake and more likely to collapse than a one-story building. Another example, an
elderly person may be more vulnerable to the impacts of flooding because s/he has a harder
time evacuating or moving quickly.

31
5.2 Disaster Risk Reduction
Disaster risk reduction is aimed at preventing new and reducing existing disaster risk and
managing residual risk, all of which contribute to strengthening resilience and therefore to the
achievement of sustainable development.
Annotation: Disaster risk reduction is the policy objective of disaster risk management, and its
goals and objectives are defined in disaster risk reduction strategies and plans.
Disaster risk reduction strategies and policies: Define goals and objectives across different
timescales and with concrete targets, indicators and time frames. In line with the Sendai
Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015-2030, these should be aimed at preventing the
creation of disaster risk, the reduction of existing risk and the strengthening of economic, social,
health and environmental resilience.

5.3 Global and National Disaster Risk Situation

At the global level, there has been considerable concern over natural disasters. Even as
substantial scientific and material progress is made, the loss of lives and property due to
disasters has not decreased. In fact, the human toll and economic losses have mounted. It was
in this background that the United Nations General Assembly, in 1989, declared the decade
1990-2000 as the International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction with the objective to
reduce loss of lives and property and restrict socio-economic damage through concerted
international action, especially in developing countries.

India has been traditionally vulnerable to natural disasters on account of its unique geo-climatic
conditions. Floods, droughts, cyclones, earthquakes and landslides have been a recurrent
phenomenon. About 60% of the landmass is prone to earthquakes of various intensities; over
40 million hectares is prone to floods; about 8% of the total area is prone to cyclones and 68%
of the area is susceptible to drought. In the decade 1990-2000, an average of about 4344 people
lost their lives and about 30 million people were affected by disasters every year. The loss in
terms of private, community and public assets has been astronomical.

32
5.4 Techniques of Risk Assessment

1) Qualitative Risk Assessments

This type of risk assessment is based on the personal judgement and expertise of the assessor,
who will often use their own experience to decide on the risk levels involved. The assessor will
also consult with others carrying out the activity and best practice guidance to reach their
decisions.
A qualitative risk assessment will look at the risk of somebody getting injured, and if that is
high, medium or low. Just like any other type of risk assessment, any high risks will need to be
addressed as a priority. Low-level risks can be looked at later, or might not need any further
action to be taken.

2) Quantitative Risk Assessments

The quantitative risk assessment is used to measure risk by assigning a numerical value. So
instead of high, medium, and low, you could have 3, 2 and 1. Or the scale could be much larger
than 3.
This type of risk assessment is more likely to be used with major hazards, like aircraft design,
complex chemical or nuclear plants. Sometimes, a qualitative risk assessment might become
semi-quantitative, for example when some hazards or aspects can be measured, and others are
based on judgement.

3) Generic Risk Assessments

Generic risk assessments cover common hazards for a task or activity. The idea behind generic
risk assessment is to cut down on duplication of effort and paperwork. This type of risk
assessment will consider the hazards for an activity in a single assessment. And be used where
that activity may be carried out across different areas of the workplace or different sites.
It's important to remember that while the risks from an activity may be common across different
sites, changes in the environment can affect risk levels, and even introduce new hazards. It's
probably best to use generic risk assessments as a starting point for a site-specific risk
assessment.

33
4) Site-Specific Risk Assessments
A site-specific risk assessment is a risk assessment completed for a specific item of work. It
takes account of the site location, environment, and people doing the work.
ite-specific risk assessment might be qualitative or quantitative. And you might start with a
generic risk assessment template. But you should finish with a site-specific risk assessment that
is suitable and sufficient for the hazards present.
A site-specific risk assessment will do more than look at common hazards. It will also address
the unusual. Hazards that might only apply to that specific situation, on that particular day.

5) Dynamic Risk Assessments

A dynamic risk assessment is a process of assessing risk in an on the spot situation. This type
of risk assessment is often used to cope with unknown risks and handle uncertainty. People who
need to deal with developing and changing situations will often use dynamic risk assessments.
It is not always possible to prepare for every risk or hazard. A written risk assessment should
assess the level of 'unknown' risks. Where an element of dynamic risk analysis is required,
workers need to have the skills and awareness to recognise and deal with danger.

5.5 People’s Participation in Risk Assessment

People’s participation is widely acknowledged as a necessary component of effective, efficient,

and inclusive disaster-risk reduction. However, there is little reflection on how commitments
for participation in disaster literature and policy translate into meaningful participation in
practice. Participation often takes the form of standardized, top-down approaches that have little
interaction with decision-making processes. Such approaches often perpetuate existing power
relations privileging some and marginalizing others, and resulting in misunderstandings,
disillusionment, and creation or exacerbation of distrust among stakeholders.

34
 Unit-6

Disaster Mitigation
6.1 Meaning
Disaster Mitigation is the cornerstone of emergency management.
It’s the ongoing effort to lessen the impact disasters have on people and property. Mitigation
involves keeping homes away from floodplains, engineering bridges to withstand earthquakes,
creating and enforcing effective building codes to protect property from hurricanes, and more.
Mitigation is defined as “sustained action that reduces or eliminates long-term risk to people
and property from natural hazards and their effects.” It describes the ongoing effort at the
federal, state, local and individual levels to lessen the impact of disasters upon our families,
homes, communities and economy.

6.2 Concept of Disaster Mitigation

Disaster Mitigation is the cornerstone of emergency management. It’s the ongoing effort to
lessen the impact disasters have on people and property. Mitigation involves keeping homes
away from floodplains, engineering bridges to withstand earthquakes, creating and enforcing
effective building codes to protect property from hurricanes, and more.
Mitigation is defined as “sustained action that reduces or eliminates long-term risk to people
and property from natural hazards and their effects.” It describes the ongoing effort at the
federal, state, local and individual levels to lessen the impact of disasters upon our families,
homes, communities and economy.

6.3 Strategies of Disaster Mitigation

The Mitigation Strategy: Goals, Actions, Action Plan
The mitigation strategy is made up of three main required components: mitigation goals,
mitigation actions, and an action plan for implementation. These provide the framework to
identify, prioritize and implement actions to reduce risk to hazards.
Goals are general guidelines that explain what the community wants to achieve with the plan .
They are usually broad policy-type statements that are long-term, and they represent visions for
reducing or avoiding losses from the identified hazards. Example goal: Minimize new
development in hazard-prone areas.

35
Actions are specific projects and activities that help achieve the goals. Example action: Amend
zoning ordinance to permit only open space land uses within floodplains.
The action plan describes how the mitigation actions will be implemented, including how
those actions will be prioritized, administered and incorporated into the community’s existing
planning mechanisms. In a multi-jurisdictional plan, each jurisdiction must have an action plan
specific to that jurisdiction and its vulnerabilities.
Although not required, some communities choose to develop objectives to help define or
organize mitigation actions (see figure above). Objectives are broader than specific actions, but
are measurable, unlike goals. Objectives connect goals with the actual mitigation actions.

6.4 Emerging Trends In Mitigation

 Role of Local Self Governments: What is needed is a central role for democratically-
elected local governments, to ensure greater inclusion and a sense of community.
 A top-level department for climate change adaptation is best suited to serve as a unifier,
bringing all relevant departments in a State, such as housing and urban development,
transport, water supply, energy, land use, public works and irrigation to work with elected
local governments that set priorities and become accountable.
 Holistic Engagement: Urban floods of large scale cannot be contained by the municipal
authorities alone, without concerted and focused investments of energy and resources.
 The Metropolitan Development Authorities, NDMA, State revenue and irrigation
departments along with municipal corporations should be involved in such work together.

 Better City Planning: All dimensions of a city’s growth, starting with affordable housing,
play a central role in adapting to future climate change.
 They can lower carbon emissions growth even during infrastructure creation if biophilic
design and green materials are used.
 Planned urbanization can withstand disasters, the perfect example being Japan which faces
earthquakes at regular intervals.
 The India Disaster Resource Network should be institutionalized as a repository for
organized information and equipment gathering.
 Drainage Planning: Watershed management and emergency drainage plan should be
clearly enunciated in policy and law.
 Urban watersheds are micro ecological drainage systems, shaped by contours of terrain.

36
 Detailed documentation of these must be held by agencies which are not bound by
municipal jurisdictions, instead, there is a need to consider natural boundaries such as
watersheds instead of governance boundaries like electoral wards for shaping a drainage
plan.
 Project on deployment of Mobile Radiation Detection Systems(MRDS) to handle
Radiological Hazards in Metros/Capital Cities/Big Cities in India:- To detect unclaimed
radioactive materials/substances and save public from its hazardous effects ,NDMA has
chalked out a plan to provide States/UTs Mobile Radiation Detection Systems to be
deployed in Metros/all Capital Cities and Big Cities in India and also train personnels as
‘Trainer of Trainers’. Landslide Risk Mitigation Scheme (LRMS)

6.5 Structural Mitigation and Non-Structural Mitigation

6.5.1 Structural Mitigation:

Structural mitigation measures are those that involve or dictate a necessity for some kind of
construction, engineering, or other mechanical changes or improvements aimed at reducing
hazard risk likelihood or consequence. They often are considered at “man controlling nature”
when applied to natural disasters. Structural measures are generally expensive and include a
full range of regulation, compliance, enforcement, inspection, maintenance, and renewal issues.
Structural Strategies:-

a) Flood Mitigation :- Flood mitigation measures have been in place since 1950s, in the form
of embankments, dams and barrages etc. In order to respond effectively to floods, the
Ministry of Home Affairs has initiated measures such as drawing up mitigation plans at the
state, district, block, village levels, training of elected representatives and officials in flood
management. etc.

b) Earthquake Risk Mitigation:- a comprehensive programme for earthquake risk mitigation

is being taken up. This includes incorporation of Bureau of Indian Standard (BIS) Codes
ir-r building regulations, - town and country planning Acts etc. Especially states in
earthquake- prone zones have been requested to incorporate BIS Seismic Codes for
construction in the concerned zones. An Expert Committee appointed by the National Core
Group for Earthquake Risk Mitigation, has submitted its report covering appropriate
amendments to the existing Town and Country Planning Acts, Land-use Zoning
Regulation, Development Control Regulations and Building Byelaws.

37
c) Constitution of Hazard Safety Cells in States The states have been advised to constitute
Hazard Safety Cells (HSC) headed by Chief Engineer, State Public Works Department with
necessary engineering staff so as to establish mechanism for proper implementation of the
building codes in all future government constructions and to ensure safety of buildings and
structures from various hazards.

d) Retrofitting of Lifeline Buildings The Ministries of Civil Aviation, Railways,

Telecommunications, Power, Health and Family Welfare have been advised to take
appropriate action for detailed evaluation of retrofitting of lifeline buildings located in
seismically vulnerable zones to comply with BIS norms

e) Mainstreaming Mitigation in Rural Development Schemes -Rural housing and community

assets for vulnerable sections of the population are created on a fairly large scale by the
Ministry of Rural Development under the Indira Awaas Yojna (IAY), Sampooran Grameen
Rojgar Yojna (SGRY). This includes construction of compact housing units, community
assets such as community centres, recreation centres, anganwadi centres etc. Efforts are
being made to ensure that buildings constructed under this scheme are disaster-resistant.

f) National Cyclone Mitigation Project - This project drawn up in consultation with the
cyclone-prone states envisages construction of cyclone shelters, coastal shelter belt
plantation, strengthening of warning systems etc.

g) Landslide Hazard Mitigation- A National Group has been constituted under the
Chairmanship of Secretary, Border Management, with the collabor~ltion of Department of
Science and Technology, Road Transport and Highways, Geological Survey of India,
National Remote Sensing Agency, to examine several aspects of landslide mitigation,
including landslide hazard zonation, early warning system etc.

6.5.2 Non Structural Mitigation:

Non-structural mitigation in emergency management involves what people can do on a personal
level that is not structurally or physically evident as a protective defense such as a surge wall
or a storm shelter. Non- structural mitigation in general would involve things such as having
flood insurance. In addition another example would be a family creating a family emergency
plan. Any mental preparedness, training, insurance, discussion, and planning would be
considered items of non-structural mitigation.
Non-structural Strategies:-

Human Resource Development Human resource development at all levels is critical for
institutionalising disaster rnitigation strategy. The National Centre for Disaster Management

38
(NCDM) at the national level has been upgsaded and designated as the National Institute of
Disaster Management (NIDM). This is entrusted with the task of developing training modules
at different levels, , ~lndertaking training of trainers, organising training programmes,
developing national level I information base on disaster management policies, prevention
mechanism, mitigation measures etc. Disaster management has been incorporated in the
training curricula of All India Services with effect from 2004-2005. There is a separate faculty
in the area of Disaster. I management in 29 State level training institutes.

a) Capacity Building of Engineers and Architects in Earthquake Risk Mitigation 1: This

activity is being initiated under two national programmes for Capacity Building for
Earthquake Risk Miligation. Around 10,000 engineers and 10,000 architects in the
states, will be imparted training in seismically safe building designs and related techno-
legal requirements. Seven National Resource Institutions have been designated as
National Resource Institutions for imparting training to faculty of select State
Engineering and Architecture colleges, and also put in place a framework for
mandatory registration and compulsory competency assessment of the practicing
architects.

6.6 Programs of Disaster Mitigation In India

A number of programs have been launched by the Government to mitigate the impact of drought
in the long run. These programs include Drought Prone Area Programme (DPAP), Desert
Development Programme (DDP), and National Watershed Development Project for Rainfed
Areas (NWDPRA), Watershed Development Programme for Shifting Cultivation (WDPSC),
Integrated Water Development Project (IWDP), Integrated Afforestation and Eco-development
Project Scheme (IAEPS).
The programme of disaster mitigation would include the following components:

 Development of state and district disaster management plans.

 Development of disaster risk management and response plans at Village/ Ward, Gram
Panchayat, Block/Urban Local Body levels.

39
 Constitutions of Disaster Management Teams and Committees at all Levels with adequate
representation of women in all committees and team. (Village/ Ward, Gram Panchayat,
Block/Urban local body, District and State.)

 Capacity building of Disaster Management Teams at all levels. Special training for women
in first aid, shelter management, water and sanitation, rescue and evacuation, etc.

 Capacity building in cyclone and earthquake resistant features for houses in disaster-prone
districts, training in retrofitting, and construction of technology demonstration units.

 Integration of disaster management plans with development plans of local self-

governments.

40