Applied Physics Letters PERSPECTIVE scitation.

org/journal/apl

Development of microLED
Cite as: Appl. Phys. Lett. 116, 100502 (2020); doi: 10.1063/1.5145201
Submitted: 15 January 2020 . Accepted: 6 February 2020 .
Published Online: 9 March 2020

J. Y. Lina) and H. X. Jianga)

AFFILIATIONS
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, Texas 79409, USA

a)
[email protected] and [email protected]

ABSTRACT
This perspective provides an overview of early developments, current status, and remaining challenges of microLED (lLED) technology,
which was first reported in Applied Physics Letters in 2000 [S. X. Jin, J. Li, J. Z. Li, J. Y. Lin and H. X. Jiang, "GaN Microdisk Light Emitting
Diodes," Appl. Phys. Lett. 76, 631 (2000)]. Today, microLED is recognized as the ultimate display technology and is one of the fastest-
growing technologies in the world as technology giants utilize it on a wide range of products from large flat panel displays and televisions,
wearable displays, and virtual reality displays to light sources for the neural interface and optogenetics. It is anticipated that the collective
R&D efforts worldwide will bring microLED products not only to the mass consumer electronic markets but also to serve the society on the
broadest scale by encompassing sectors in medical/health, energy, transportation, communications, and entertainment.
Published under license by AIP Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1063/1.5145201

It is fascinating to witness that a change in the format of light (3D/AR/VR) display applications, high brightness/contrast large flat
emitting diodes (LEDs) from a standard size of 300 lm  300 lm for panel displays and TVs, and light sources for the neural interface and
indicators and 1 mm  1 mm for power LEDs for lighting1,2 to a optogenetics and for visible light communications (Li-Fi).
micro-size of 10–30 lm3–7 has created a sub-field in III-nitride and The inception of the microLED concept was3–7 during the period
display research and launched intensive efforts in the development of of the emergence of blue/white LED based solid-state lighting after the
emerging III-nitride devices and products.8 The huge opportunity in invention of III-nitride blue LEDs in the early 1990s.11–13 It was well
consumer electronics is the major driving force behind the recent
developments of innovative technologies and products based on
micro-size LEDs (or microLEDs). According to MarketWatch, “The
global MicroLED market is valued at $170 million in 2018 and is
expected to reach $17 billion by the end of 2025, growing at a com-
pound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 78.3% during 2019–2025.”9 To
further illustrate the growth of this sub-field within the III-nitride and
display fields, Fig. 1 plots the number of publication items related to
“microLEDs” or “micro-size LEDs” for the years from 2000 to 2019
via the Google Scholar search. The plot displays a typical growth of a
fresh field, which in this case began in 2000 with a gradual growth
until 2005. Beginning in 2006, the field experienced an exponential
growth with a total of nearly 3000 publication items in 2019. The
R&D activities most likely are not yet peaking off, and the growth is
expected to continue for a while since many researchers believe that
the opportunities created by the microLED technology will be too
massive to miss. Currently, “almost all the big names in the tech indus-
try see MicroLEDs as the next big thing,”10 and researchers are racing
to overcome the key technical barriers to bring microLED products to
the market. Emerging microLED products include wearable displays FIG. 1. Plot of publication items related to microLED or micro-size LED vs years
for high speed three-dimensional/augmented reality/virtual reality from 2000 to 2019 via the Google Scholar search.

Appl. Phys. Lett. 116, 100502 (2020); doi: 10.1063/1.5145201 116, 100502-1
Published under license by AIP Publishing
 Applied Physics Letters PERSPECTIVE scitation.org/journal/apl

known from the traditional III–V semiconductors that optoelectronic conventional blue LED with a size of 300 lm  300 lm in action for
devices, including emitters and detectors with micro-cavities, possess comparison.
unique advantages such as low power consumption, high quantum A natural subsequent step was to implement various schemes to
efficiency, enhanced speed, reduced lasing threshold, ability of minia- address lLEDs within a lLED array to create practical devices. Very
turization and 2D array integration, and reduced cost.14–16 Various quickly, many potential applications started to emerge for lLEDs and
III-nitride microstructures, including micro-disks, rings, pyramids, arrays. One example is an interconnected l-LED with enhanced emis-
prisms, waveguides, and optically pumped vertical cavity surface emit- sion efficiency over the conventional LEDs of the same device area.4
ting lasers (VCSELs), have been successfully fabricated by different Another example is by connecting a number of lLEDs in series so
research groups prior to 2000.17–29 Enhanced quantum efficiencies, that the sum of the voltage drop across the individual lLEDs adds up
optical resonant modes, and optically pumped lasing actions were to the voltage of a high voltage AC or DC supply to create a single-
observed in GaN micro-disks, rings, pyramids, and GaN VCSEL chip high voltage AC/DC-LED to match the infrastructure for light-
structures.17–28 ing.31–33 As of today, GaN high voltage single-chip AC/DC-LEDs have
The question naturally arises: What features will a micro-sized been widely commercialized for general illumination and for automo-
blue/green LED and array have? Although the device architecture of bile headlights. The third example is a lLED array with independently
microLED itself is much simpler than that of a VCSEL,14 back then, addressed pixels or microdisplay (ldisplay), which was first intro-
we faced two major technical challenges for realizing blue/green duced by the authors’ group in between 2000 and 2001.5,6 To demon-
lLEDs.29 The first problem was the relatively poor p-type conductivity strate the concept, a 10  10 array (with a pixel size of 12 lm) passive
due to the known large Mg acceptor energy level of about 160 meV in driving “ldisplay” was first demonstrated, which is capable of only
GaN,1,11–13 which becomes more severe as the LED size scales down displaying characters.6 Around the same time, it was shown that
to about 10 lm. The second issue was that the ratio of the etched lLEDs have a sub-nanosecond response time.7 Several groups were
region to the active area increases with a decrease in the lLED size, engaged early in the development of lLED technology and its applica-
which tends to enhance the non-radiative recombination of injected tions.34–43 For instance, the concepts of MicroLEDs for Li-Fi and med-
electrons and holes due to plasma etching induced damage30 to the ical applications were pursued early on.34–40 A matrix-addressing
sidewalls of lLEDs. These two issues were overcome to some extent, scheme was developed to demonstrate a passive-matrix microdisplay
and we were able to inject current into lLEDs to generate intense blue with 128  96 pixels.35 The concepts of flip-chip bonded microdis-
emission.3–7 The results of the first lLED and lLED array based on plays and lLEDs on Si substrates have also been developed.41–43
InGaN quantum wells (QWs) are summarized in Fig. 2,3 which illus- The real breakthrough in lLED displays was achieved in 2011 by
trates a lLED array fabricated on a single InGaN LED wafer. The the authors’ group by demonstrating full-sale high-resolution
SEM image shown in Fig. 2(b) reveals that this first lLED array has a (640  480 pixels in Video Graphics Array or VGA format) mono-
pitch of 50 lm and a lLED pixel size of 12 lm in diameter with a Ni/ chrome blue and green microdisplays capable of delivering video
Au p-contact of 10 lm in diameter. Figure 2(c) illustrates a blue lLED graphics images using an active matrix driving scheme.44–46 The chal-
in action under current injection, whereas Fig. 2(d) shows a lenge for achieving lLED based ldisplays with active driving is that

FIG. 2. The first current injection microLED based on p-GaN/InGaN/n-GaN QWs. (a) Schematic layer structure diagram of an InGaN/GaN QW microLED (lLED) array. (b) SEM
image of an InGaN/GaN QW lLED array with a lLED pixel diameter of 12 lm and a p-type Ni/Au contact diameter of 10 lm. (c) Optical image of a blue lLED in action. (d) Optical
image of a conventional blue LED (0.3 mm  0.3 mm) in action for comparison. Reproduced from Jin , Appl. Phys. Lett. 76, 631 (2000). Copyright (2000) AIP Publishing.

Appl. Phys. Lett. 116, 100502 (2020); doi: 10.1063/1.5145201 116, 100502-2
Published under license by AIP Publishing
 Applied Physics Letters PERSPECTIVE scitation.org/journal/apl

III-nitride lLEDs cannot be fabricated directly over Si IC circuitry. To free holes and improved p-type conductivity of the p-layer with
achieve an active driving scheme, a hybrid ldisplay concept was increasing temperature.44 Moreover, lLEDs have a “turn-off” speed on
adopted. The microLED array was heterogeneously integrated with a the order of 0.2 ns.7
CMOS active matrix driver via flip-chip bonding using indium metal Though the first active matrix driving lLED microdisplay capa-
bumps,44–48 as shown schematically in Fig. 3(a). A microdisplay con- ble of video graphics image delivery is monochromatic (blue or
troller CMOS active matrix with 640  480 pixels with a controllable green),44–48 it demonstrated the validity of the lLED technology. It
current from 0.5 to 10 lA per pixel has been designed and fabricated in possesses outstanding characteristics as a display in comparison with
a CMOS process.44–48 Figure 3(b) shows an image of a packaged flip- other technologies such as LCD and OLED displays, including high
chip bonded actively driven microdisplay. This microdisplay has brightness, efficiency, speed, high thermal stability, and contrast.44–48
640  480 pixels in a VGA format with a lLED pixel size of 12 lm in These exceptional features were quickly recognized as important
diameter and 15 lm in pitch or 1667 pixels per inch (ppi). Figure 3(c) advantages for next generation displays. Figure 4 summarizes potential
shows a green ldisplay in action with its size relative to a US quarter applications of lLEDs, which currently are under intensive pursuits by
and displays a video graphic image of a leopard in Fig. 3(d). Each green almost all the big names in the tech industry for (a) smart watches, (b)
lLED pixel outputs roughly 1 mcd/lA, and the luminance increases smart phones, (c) i-glasses, (d) dashboard- and pico-projectors, and
almost linearly with driving current (I) for I 100 lA. For the ldisplay (e) 3D/AR/VR displays. In particular, the sub-nanosecond response
shown in Fig. 3 with a pitch distance of 15 lm, when every pixel within of lLEDs has a huge advantage over other display technologies for
the array is lit up and operates at 1 lA, the brightness of the ldisplay is 3D/AR/VR displays since these devices need more images, more pixels
several orders of magnitude higher than those of liquid crystal displays per image, more frames per second, and fast response.49
(LCDs) and organic LEDs (OLEDs).44–48 The lLED microdisplay also After the demonstration of the first VGA monochrome lLED
has an outstanding thermal stability. The emission intensity of the microdisplay,44–48 substantial progress has been made in the develop-
lLED emission decreased only by about 10% when the operating tem- ment of monochromatic lLED microdisplays with higher pixel
perature was raised from room temperature to þ100  C and remained density, smaller pixels, and larger display size.50–53 However, the most
almost constant when the temperature was cooled down from room
important next step for lLED microdisplays is the realization of a full
temperature to 100  C, while the operating voltage at 0.1 mA
color microdisplay. Different approaches to the pursuit of full color
decreased from 4.1 V at 100  C to 2.9 V at þ100  C due to increased
include (a) quantum dot (QD) color conversion,54–57 (b) nanowire
microLEDs,58–60 and (c) combination of three monochromatic red,
green, and blue ldisplays based on AIGalnP (Red) and GaN (green
and blue) materials.61 However, these approaches face different chal-
lenges such as low convention efficiency and cross talk for QD color
conversion, are difficult to integrate nanowire wafers with driving cir-
cuits, and are difficult to integrate ldisplays with an optical control
system for the combination of three ldisplays. Therefore, it remains to
be seen which method will eventually succeed. We believe that this is a
remaining area that academic researchers can still make important
contributions.

FIG. 3. The first monochromatic (blue or green) full-scale InGaN/GaN QW microLED

microdisplay in the VGA format (640  480 pixels) capable of playing video graphics
images. (a) Illustration of flip-chip bonding between the lLED matrix array and
CMOS driver IC via indium bumps to form a highly integrated microdisplay in one
package. Reproduced from Day , Appl. Phys. Lett. 99, 031116 (2011). Copyright
(2011) AIP Publishing; (b) Optical microscopy image of a packed VGA InGaN/GaN
QW microdisplay. Reproduced from Day , Appl. Phys. Lett. 99, 031116 (2011).
Copyright (2011) AIP Publishing. (c) A fully assembled InGaN/GaN QW microdisplay
(having 640  480 pixel with a pixel size of 12 lm and a pitch distance of 15 lm)
operating at a driving current of 1 lA per pixel, with its size relative to a US quarter.
Reproduced from Day , Proc. SPIE 8268, 82681X (2012). Copyright (2012)
SPIE. (d) A grayscale projected image of a leopard from a green VGA InGaN/GaN FIG. 4. Potential applications of microLED microdisplays for (a) smart watches
QW microdisplay (having 640  480 pixels with a pixel size of 12 lm and a pitch dis- [credit: Apple], (b) smart phones [credit: Apple], (c) i-glasses [credit: Apple], (c)
tance of 15 lm) operating at a driving current of 1 lA per pixel. Reproduced from dashboard and pico-projectors [credit: Fabian Kirchbauer; BMW AG], and (e) 3D/
Day , Proc. SPIE 8268, 82681X (2012). Copyright (2012) SPIE. AR/VR displays [credit: Yucel Yilmaz, Adobe Stock].

Appl. Phys. Lett. 116, 100502 (2020); doi: 10.1063/1.5145201 116, 100502-3
Published under license by AIP Publishing
 Applied Physics Letters PERSPECTIVE scitation.org/journal/apl

conventional LEDs, and they have a lower light intensity in comparison

with a micro-laser, which may cause damage to neurons or cells.
The most significant progress made in lLED displays is in fact in
the large flat panel displays and TVs. Figure 6 illustrates several gener-
ations of such products demonstrated by large consumer electronics
companies since 2012. The first large screen lLED TV was successfully
developed by Sony in 2012, named Crystal LED display.72 It has a total
of 6.22 million lLED pixels (1920  1080  3). In comparison to LCD
displays, it has 3.5 times higher picture contrast, 1.4 times better color
range, a wider viewing angle of 180 , a lower power consumption of
less than 70 watts, and better motion reproduction with 10 times faster
response time compared to LCD models. Based on Sony’s Crystal
LED display, a mechanical method has been developed and used to
transfer millions of lLED pixels from III-nitride blue/green and
AlGaInP red wafers to a large flat surface, which provides electrical
and control circuit connections to each lLED pixel of the display.
Sony’s large-scale lLED TV again demonstrated the validity of
lLED technology and initiated a furious race in the display industry to
bring lLED large flat panel display products to the global consumer
FIG. 5. MicroLED for medical applications. (a) Rat implanted with a green l-LED for electronic markets. Though with many outstanding features, the
optogenetic stimulation. Reproduced from Mickle , Nature 565, 361 (2019).
Copyright (2019) Springer Nature. (b) lLED probe drives localized spiking in freely
manufacturing yield of Sony’s first generation large lLED TV could
moving mice: photograph of an implantation-ready lLED probe on a penny and high- be problematic because the whole TV was built from a single panel of
magnification images of the illuminated lLEDs (inset, scale bar, 15 lm). Reproduced millions of pixels. As illustrated in Fig. 6(b), when the next large lLED
from Wu , Neuron 88, 1136 (2015). Copyright (2015) Elsevier, Inc. (c) Neural TV, a 146-in. lLED TV, showcased with the brand name of “The
cells expressing ChR2 are covered by a 64  64 matrix of the lLED array with indi- Wall” by Samsung in 2017,73 it incorporates a method of combining
vidual control of their intensity and timing (inset, scale bar, 30 lm). Reproduced from
an array of much smaller modules (or panels) to form a large flat panel
Grossman , J. Neural Eng. 7, 016004 (2010). Copyright (2010) IOP Publishing.
(d) l-LED microdisplay aiding people who are blind or have sight loss. Reproduced display. This modular approach significantly improved the overall
from V. C. Coffey; Opt. Photonics News 29(4), 24–31 (2018). Copyright (2018) OSA. manufacturing yield since the yields for each module and for the final
(e) Schematic of an optical cochlear implant probe comprising a probe base carrying TV assembly are enhanced. It appears that the use of the modular
contact pads and a 1.5-cm-long shaft comprising 144 lLEDs. Reproduced from Klein approach has become an industrial standard for manufacturing large
, Front. Neurosci. 12, 659 (2018). Copyright (2018) Klein, Gossler, Paul, and flat panel lLED displays and TVs. The most recent lLED large display
Ruther.
showcased by Sony at the 2019 National Association of Broadcasters
trade show in Las Vegas has a format of 16 K and a dimension as large
Another area in which lLEDs can make a large impact is in med- as 21 m  5.5 m, as illustrated in Fig. 6(c). It still maintains all the out-
ical applications.38–40,62–71 Figure 5 shows the illustrations of (a) a standing features of lLEDs mentioned above. This recent progress
lLED array implanted inside a rat for neutron stimulation with wire- clearly demonstrates that with the method of combining many mod-
less control;68 (b) lLED based multi-shank optogenetic neural probes ules, there is no limit in terms of size of the flat panel displays.
that can provide spatially confined optical stimulation of simultaneously However, as of today, even with the modular approach, the price of
monitored neurons in behaving animals;64 (c) l-LED for neural stimu- these products is still beyond having a mass market appeal. With the
lation and optogenetics,38–40 (d) lLED microdisplays to aid people who rapid progress made recently in this field, the question is no longer if
are blind or have sight loss;69 and (e) lLEDs for optical cochlear they can but rather when they will penetrate mass markets for various
implants to aid people with hearing loss.66,70,71 The most important applications. One thing to be cautious about is how large will the mar-
advantages of lLEDs for applications of neural stimulation/optoge- ket demand for lLED flat panel displays and TVs actually be. With
netics are its ability of array formation, comparable size with neurons the existing OLED and QD LCD displays with good performances on
and high spatial resolution, and high speed in comparison with the market at relatively low prices, it still remains to be seen if lLED
flat-panel displays can dominate the mass consumer electronic mar-
kets as the “ultimate display” or just suite for some niche applications.
Looking forward, lLEDs appear to be particularly suitable for
medical applications for the neural interface/optogenetics38–40,62–71
and for LiFi.36,37,74–76 There appear no genuine barriers to use lLEDs
for these applications. Various lLEDs including different sizes, form
factors such as lLEDs on flexible and curved surfaces,62–71 colors, and
response speeds for different applications have already emerged.
FIG. 6. Evolution of MicroLED large flat panel displays and TVs: (a) first lLED TV
However, the efficiency of lLEDs tends to decrease with reducing size
of 55’’ “Crystal LED TV” produced by Sony in 2012 [credit: Sony]. (b) 14600 modular
MicroLED TV “The Wall” showcased by Samsung in 2017 [credit: Samsung]. (c) An due to enhanced surface effects, and hence, one needs to take into con-
extremely large 16 K (21 m  5.5 m) MicroLED “Crystal LED TV” showcased by sideration the trade-off between bandwidth, operating speed, and effi-
Sony in 2019 [credit: Sony]. ciency when designing optical systems for these applications.77

Appl. Phys. Lett. 116, 100502 (2020); doi: 10.1063/1.5145201 116, 100502-4
Published under license by AIP Publishing