Dynamic Physical Education

Dynamic Physical Education

for Secondary School Students
Darst Pangrazi Sariscsany Brusseau
Seventh Edition

Darst et al.
Seventh Edition
ISBN 978-1-29202-052-5

9 781292 020525
 Dynamic Physical Education
for Secondary School Students
Darst Pangrazi Sariscsany Brusseau
Seventh Edition
Pearson Education Limited
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Essex CM20 2JE
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 P E A R S O N C U S T O M L I B R A R Y

Table of Contents

Physical Education Methods: Creating a Quality Lesson Plan

Paul W. Darst/Robert P. Pangrazi 1
1. Physical Education in the Secondary School
Paul W. Darst/Robert P. Pangrazi 5
2. The Impact of Physical Activity on Adolescents
Paul W. Darst/Robert P. Pangrazi 29
3. Steps in Developing a Curriculum
Paul W. Darst/Robert P. Pangrazi 47
4. Curriculum Approaches
Paul W. Darst/Robert P. Pangrazi 73
5. Planning for Effective Instruction
Paul W. Darst/Robert P. Pangrazi 105
6. Improving Instructional Effectiveness
Paul W. Darst/Robert P. Pangrazi 131
7. Teaching Styles
Paul W. Darst/Robert P. Pangrazi 149
8. Management and Discipline
Paul W. Darst/Robert P. Pangrazi 175
9. Improving Instruction Systematically
Paul W. Darst/Robert P. Pangrazi 203
10. Assessment, Evaluation, and Grading
Paul W. Darst/Robert P. Pangrazi 229
11. Students with Disabilities
Paul W. Darst/Robert P. Pangrazi 263
12. Safety and Liability
Paul W. Darst/Robert P. Pangrazi 281

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 13. Activity Outside of the Physical Education Classroom: Intramurals, Sport Clubs, School
Programs, and Athletics
Paul W. Darst/Robert P. Pangrazi 297
14. Introductory Activities
Paul W. Darst/Robert P. Pangrazi 313
15. Physical Fitness
Paul W. Darst/Robert P. Pangrazi 327
16. Promoting and Monitoring Lifestyle Physical Activity
Paul W. Darst/Robert P. Pangrazi 367
17. Healthy Lifestyles: Activities for Instruction
Paul W. Darst/Robert P. Pangrazi 385
18. Promoting Motivation, Cooperation and Inclusion: Nontraditional Ideas for Instruction
Paul W. Darst/Robert P. Pangrazi 405
19. Sports
Paul W. Darst/Robert P. Pangrazi 427
National Standards for Physical Education
Paul W. Darst/Robert P. Pangrazi 477
Essential Components of Quality Programs
Paul W. Darst/Robert P. Pangrazi 479
Index 481

II
2
3
4
Physical Education in
the Secondary School
ESSENTIAL COMPONENTS OF
A QUALITY PROGRAM
▲ ▲

I. Organized around content standards

II. Student-centered and developmentally
appropriate
▲

III. Physical activity and motor skill develop-

ment form the core of the program
▲

IV. Teaches management skills and

self-discipline
▲ ▲ ▲

V. Promotes inclusion of all students

VI. Focuses on process over product
VII. Promotes lifetime personal health
and wellness
▲

VIII. Teaches cooperation and responsibility

and promotes sensitivity to diversity

NATIONAL STANDARDS FOR

PHYSICAL EDUCATION*
▲

1. Demonstrates competency in motor skills

and movement patterns needed to perform
a variety of physical activities.
▲

2. Demonstrates understanding of movement

concepts, principles, strategies, and tactics as
they apply to the learning and performance
of physical activities.
▲ ▲

3. Participates regularly in physical activity.

4. Achieves and maintains a health-enhancing
level of physical fitness.
▲

5. Exhibits responsible personal and social

behavior that respects self and others in
physical activity settings.
▲

6. Values physical activity for health, enjoyment,

challenge, self-expression, and/or social *National Association for Sport and Physical Education
interaction. (NASPE), 2004.

From Chapter 1 of Dynamic Physical Education for Secondary Schools, Seventh Edition. Paul W. Darst, Robert P. Pangrazi, Mary Jo Sariscsany,
Timothy A. Brusseau, Jr. Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. Published by Pearson Benjamin Cummings. All rights reserved.
 P H Y S I C A L E D U C AT I O N I N T H E S E C O N D A R Y S C H O O L

diving, martial arts, Frisbee games, and water aerobics.

Chapter Summary Modern fitness centers with indoor climbing walls are
becoming more common, providing access to a variety
Physical education is that phase of the general
educational program that focuses on movement of machines and equipment for working on the various
experiences to contribute to the total growth and components of health-related physical fitness. Two- or
development of each student. Program objectives 3-week mini-courses as well as semester-long, in-depth
provide the framework and direction to the physi- units are being designed by creative teachers to meet
cal education curriculum. Systematic and properly student needs and desires. New program offerings
taught physical education can help achieve the
include adventure and wilderness courses that teach
major content standards, such as movement com-
petence including skills and knowledge; partici-
caving, rock climbing, stream fishing, and backpacking
pation in physical activity and maintenance of as part of the physical education program. Middle
physical fitness; exhibition of personal and social schools are offering a wide variety of units—including
behavior that respects self and others; and a value cardio kickboxing, step aerobics, walking activities
of physical activity for health, enjoyment, chal- using pedometers, team handball, new games, initiative
lenge, self-expression, and/or social interaction. challenges, ropes course activities, modified lacrosse,
Modern programs of physical education have been
influenced by cultural and educational factors, and
Frisbee skills, bicycling, and orienteering—so students
many issues impact physical education programs. can explore and find activities they enjoy. Many of the
Quality programs include essential components physical activities are at times being integrated with
and specific characteristics. academic concepts from math, science, writing, and
geography.
Student Outcomes Many programs are emphasizing a more positive and
After reading this chapter, you will be able to: inclusive atmosphere. Strict dress codes have been relaxed
• Describe why people have misconceptions about to provide students with more choices. Instructional proce-
physical education. dures include learning stations in which students work on
• Define physical education and describe how it func- different tasks at different ability levels. Teachers move
tions as part of the secondary school experience. around the gymnasium providing information and correct-
• List program objectives and recognize the distinc- ing, encouraging, and praising students. Students have
tive contributions of physical education. more input about the type of activities they would like to
• Cite the content standards of secondary physical see offered. Physical fitness activities include innovative
education. visual materials and music; choices may include work with
• Verbally portray how a variety of societal influ- exercise balls; fitness scavenger hunts; rope jumping; circuit
ences and federal mandates have impacted sec- training; activity routines; partner resistance activities; use
ondary school physical education. of stationary bicycles, rowing machines, or stair-climbing
• Describe various trends and issues in secondary machines (Figure 1); or participation in orienteering courses.
physical education. These activities are arranged and presented so all students
• Describe the educational reasons for including can find personal satisfaction and success. Students at all
physical education as part of the school experi-
ability levels are provided with challenging and successful
ence.
activities that encourage them to expand their physical
• Identify essential components of a quality physical
limits and develop a level of personal success and
education program.
confidence.
• Describe the characteristics of successful physical
So, is this how the public perceives physical educa-
education programs.
tion today? What is physical education? Ask this question
and an infinite number of answers will result. People
have varied images of the physical education
environment. Some envision a class in which students
PHYSICAL education can be a positive and exciting dress in a required uniform and exercise in straight
experience for students. A quality program can offer lines under the watchful eye of a regimental instructor.
the opportunity to choose between activities such as Accompanying this image is a negative atmosphere where
mountain bicycling, skating with rollerblades, golf, running laps and exercise are used as punishment for
rock climbing, tennis, racquetball, group activities on a dress code infractions or misbehavior. Others might view
ropes course, and wilderness survival. Some high physical education as a subject to be avoided because of
schools offer elective choices, including sailing, scuba crowded classes, smelly locker rooms, forced showers,

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opportunity to experience a quality physical education

that could significantly impact their lives (Pangrazi &
Beighle, 2010).
Clearly, the term physical education implies widely
differing experiences to the public. It is easy to see why
many people have misunderstood physical education.
Programs vary significantly from place to place and situa-
tion to situation. Knowledge, attitudes, and behaviors
toward physical activity are strongly influenced by the
type of physical education program students experience.
Consequently, in developing an effective physical educa-
tion program, teachers must have a clear understanding of
what physical education is and what it should be doing in
school settings.

WHAT IS PHYSICAL EDUCATION?

Physical education is a learning process that focuses on
knowledge, attitudes, and behaviors relative to physical
activity. Physically educating oneself can occur inside
FIGURE 1 Fitness center activities or outside the schools. It can be formal or informal. It
might include a mother teaching her son or daughter
how to play golf or a player receiving information from
the coach of the youth soccer team. It can be a family
and a lack of time for changing clothes. Athletically walking together with pedometers and keeping track of
inclined participants often remember physical education their steps or a mother explaining pacing to her chil-
as a time for playing sports on a daily basis with little or dren during a 10-k run. It can be a youth explaining
no instruction. the rules of football to his grandfather or a wife teach-
These memories of physical education create a public ing her husband how to play racquetball. It is a group
perception package that might be described as follows: of seventh graders learning to play badminton in a
Students are hurried into their gym clothes only to wait at middle school, or high school students learning the
attention for dress inspection. Next, never-changing group concepts of health-related fitness in a classroom set-
calisthenics and stretching are followed by a lap around the ting. Physical education is the passing of information,
track. Students then choose up sides and play the tradi- attitudes, and skills from one person to another
tional team sport or game of the day (e.g., flag football, (Figure 2).
basketball, softball, or volleyball). The final activity of the Physical education is an important component of
day involves showering in 4 minutes, with a mandatory the overall school program. It is an integral part of the
shower inspection to make sure that all students are wet. total educational program that contributes, primarily
Curriculum variety, student input, activity choices, coed through physical activity experiences, to the total
activities, and individualized instruction are seldom a part growth and development of all students. Physical educa-
of the program most people remember. tion programs make four unique contributions to the
Sadly, the public’s perception of physical education lives of students. The first is the achievement of daily
often diminishes the importance of the program in the physical activity for all students. The second is the
total school curriculum. Even though physically active achievement of a personalized level of physical fitness.
forms of sport and play can have a positive impact on Third is the development of competency in a variety
students, many adults still hold a negative view of physi- of physical skills to ensure successful functioning in
cal education. Even more unfortunate, unsatisfactory lifetime physical activities. The fourth contribution
physical education classes still exist in some schools requires that students acquire requisite knowledge for
across the country. Physical miseducation is a dragon living an active and healthy lifestyle. If these contribu-
that rears its ugly head for various reasons, and it is tions are not accomplished in physical education
extremely tough to slay. These negative programs create a classes, they will not be realized elsewhere in the school
situation where young adolescents never get the valuable curriculum. Physical education instructors have a

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more likely to be overweight as adults (Ferraro, Thorpe, &

Wilkinson, 2003). It is becoming clear that the strong
push for academic performance is surging while concern
for the health of students is lagging.
Schools are places where physical activity is often dis-
couraged. A physical education class can provide 2,000 or
more steps (nearly a mile) of moderate to vigorous phys-
ical activity for students (Morgan, 2004). National health
goals for 2010 (U.S. Department of Health and Human
Services [USDHHS], 2000) are designed to increase daily
levels of physical activity. Many of the goals directly
target schools or programs that take place within the
school setting. These goals emphasize reducing inactivity
and increasing moderate to vigorous physical activity.
The need is clear: physical education programs can teach
youth how to live an active and healthy lifestyle.
Currently, many studies offer a strong rationale for
increasing the amount of physical education contact
offered to students:
■ The percentage of overweight youth has more than
FIGURE 2 Teacher and student working tripled in the past 30 years (USDHHS, 2002). A
together recent study suggests that the prevalence of being
overweight is more strongly related to decreases in
energy expenditure than to increases in energy
responsibility to develop and teach a systematically or- intake (Jebb & Moore, 1999). The school environ-
ganized curriculum for kindergarten through grade 12 ment discourages physical activity. Students are
that favorably influences all students and enhances their asked to sit most of the day and walk between
physical activity habits. Students deserve a thoughtful classes, which results in decreased energy expendi-
program of physical education that contributes to their ture. A 30-minute physical education class can offer
quality of life and an active lifestyle. The transmission 1,200 to 2,000 steps of moderate to vigorous physi-
of knowledge, skills, and attitudes toward this end is cal activity to counteract the effects of an inactive
physical education. day (Morgan, Pangrazi, & Beighle, 2003). This is a
substantial contribution to the daily energy expen-
diture of students, particularly those students who
RATIONALE FOR PHYSICAL are inactive. For example, for a student who aver-
EDUCATION ages 8,000 steps a day, a quality physical education
There is certainly a need for quality physical education in class could increase their number of steps by 20
the schools. The Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance System percent, a substantial increase in physical activity.
(YRBSS) is a nationwide survey conducted by the Centers ■ A positive experience in physical education classes can
for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC, 2005). The encourage young people to be active as adults. In a sur-
2005 survey showed that only 36 percent of youth were vey sponsored by the Sporting Goods Manufacturers
active at least 60 minutes a day on 5 or more of the past Association (2000), 60 percent of respondents, ages
7 days. At the same time, the number of youth who 18–34, reported that a positive experience in physical
attended daily high school physical education classes education classes encouraged them to be active in
decreased to 29 percent for girls and 37 percent for boys. later life. On the other hand, of those respondents
To further compound the lack of physical activity issue, who said they were sedentary, only 10 percent said
students in 11th and 12th grade are rarely required to take their physical education classes encouraged them to
physical education classes. A study by Ogden et al. (2006) be active. It should be added here that the high
showed that 31.7 percent of girls and 36.8 percent of boys, school years are usually the last contact students have
ages 12–19, were at risk of being overweight or were over- with physical education. Their opinion of physical
weight during the 2003–2004 time period. Unfortunately, education will primarily be based on the type of
studies show that adolescents who are overweight are experience they received.

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■ Overweight youth grow into overweight adults. pressure and improves the blood lipid profile for
Studies show that adolescent weight is a good high health-risk students. Finally, evidence shows
predictor of adult obesity (Guo, Roche, Chumlea, that weight-bearing activities performed during
Gardner, & Siervogel, 1994; Must, Jacques, Dallal, the school years offer bone mineral density
Bajema, & Dietz, 1992). A study by Whitiker et al. benefits that carry over into adulthood (Bailey,
(1997) showed that the risk of obesity persisting Faulkner, & McKay, 1996).
into adulthood is much higher among adoles- ■ Active youth tend to become active adults. Telama,
cents than younger children. The chance for Yang, Laakso, and Viikari (1997) looked at retro-
childhood overweight persisting into adulthood spective and longitudinal tracking studies and
increases from 20 percent at age 4 to 80 percent concluded that the results “indicate that physical
by adolescence (Guo & Chumlea, 1999). activity and sport participation in childhood and
Considering a quality program encourages active adolescence represent a significant prediction for
behavior, it makes sense that a program be in physical activity in adulthood.” The relationship
place to help young people understand the is weak but still indicates that activity during
importance of proper weight management and youth has an impact on adult activity levels.
an active lifestyle. Another study (Raitakari et al., 1994) showed how
■ A quality physical education program educates young strongly inactivity patterns track. In that study,
people physically but does not detract from the aca- the probability of an inactive 12-year-old remain-
demic performance of the school. An argument often ing sedentary at age 18 was 51–63 percent for girls
made is that spending time on physical education and 54–61 percent for boys. This clearly shows
will lower the academic performance of students how we perpetuate the ongoing inactivity pat-
because they have less time to study and learn. terns of youth by placing them in an inactive
To the contrary, studies have shown that students school environment.
who spend time in physical education classes do
equally well or better in academic classes (Trost &
van der Mars, 2010). Two major studies that MAJOR OUTCOMES FOR
looked at this issue are the Three Rivers
Study (Trudeau, Laurencelle, Tremblay, Rajic, &
PHYSICAL EDUCATION
Shephard, 1998) and a SPARK (Sports, Play and Two words often used in education are outcomes and
Active Recreation for Kids) related activity pro- standards. Many use the terms interchangeably; however
gram study (Sallis et al., 1999). In both cases, in this text, they have different meanings. Outcomes are
students received the health benefits of physical defined here as lifetime behaviors that impact the lifestyles
education without any negative impact on their of individuals. In physical education, the two major out-
academic performance. comes that should override everything else are physical
activity and health, particularly healthy eating habits. In
■ Physical education gives students the skills they need other words, all the activities and content of a physical
to be active as adults. One commodity that youth education program are targeted to improve health and
have—in contrast to adults—is the time to practice increase the activity levels of students. Additionally, these
and learn new skills. Few adults learn an entirely outcomes are reached through behavior-based activities
new set of physical skills. More often than not, they so that students live what they learn in school throughout
practice and enhance skills they have learned earlier life. If a physical education program can increase the
in childhood. Considering many adults like to par- amount of moderate to vigorous physical activity students
ticipate in activities that require a requisite skill achieve and improve their eating habits, more than likely
level (golf, tennis, racquetball, and so on), learning the issue of being overweight in our society can be
such skills during their school years makes it more stemmed.
likely they will feel able and competent to partici- It makes sense to monitor and evaluate the success
pate in later life. of a physical education program in terms of physical
■ Physical activity (which most often occurs in physi- activity and healthy behaviors because they can be
cal education classes) provides immediate and short- achieved by all students regardless of genetic limita-
term health benefits for youth (Bar-Or, 1995). For tions and ability levels. All students can learn to live an
overweight students, increased physical activity active lifestyle and increase the amount of activity they
results in a reduction of the percentage of body perform on a daily basis. Physical educators now have
fat. Additionally, increased activity reduces blood pedometers available that monitor total daily activity

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and the amount of moderate to vigorous physical The standards not only give direction to instruction
activity students accomplish. Teachers can assign activ- but also form the framework for assessment and account-
ity homework that can be monitored and logged into ability in the program. NASPE publications also offer an
notebooks and Internet programs. In terms of healthy assessment series with a wide range of strategies for as-
eating habits, schools and physical education programs sessing progress toward the standards. A wide range of
can take a much more active role in helping students strategies is recommended in the assessment series, in-
learn how to fuel their bodies. Eating to live rather cluding teacher observations, written tests, student logs,
than living to eat is an important distinction students student projects, student journals, class projects, and
must learn. Physical educators can spearhead efforts to portfolios. The assessment strategies show teachers exam-
improve the quality of food offered in school cafete- ples of many forms of assessment, with the expectation
rias, improve the quality of brown-bag lunches that each teacher will modify and select assessment tools
students carry to school, and monitor the types of that are meaningful in his or her setting. The following
celebratory foods offered to students. In addition, the sections show how the Dynamic Physical Education for
current push to offer healthy drinks and snacks in Secondary School Students program addresses the NASPE
vending machines has not resulted in reduced funds National Standards for Physical Education.
for schools as once feared. Instead, students learn to
choose from a healthy assortment of attractive and
COMPETENCY IN MOTOR SKILLS
healthy snacks. In short, if the physical education suc-
cessfully graduated students who were active and AND MOVEMENT PATTERNS
possessed healthy eating habits, few would doubt the
worth of such a program.
Standard 1: Demonstrates competency
in motor skills and movement patterns needed
to perform a variety of physical activities.
PHYSICAL EDUCATION CONTENT
STANDARDS
Content standards dictate the curriculum and what All people want to be skilled and competent in the area of
skills, knowledge, and behavior will be taught to stu- motor performance. The secondary school years are an
dents. They are the framework of a program; they deter- opportune time to teach motor skills because students
mine the focus and direction of instruction. Standards have the time and the predisposition to learn. People tend
specify what students should know and be able to per- to repeat activities they do well or find rewarding. Success
form, with the purpose of reaching the activity and is a great motivator. If students improve their volleyball
health outcomes. Physical education teaches skills and bumps, Frisbee sidearm throws, or tennis serves, chances
behaviors taught nowhere else in the school curriculum. are great that they will repeat the activity and incorporate
When these standards are not accomplished in physical it into their lifestyles. Skill development does not occur
education classes, students leave school without skills, overnight or in a 3-week unit. Students should be coun-
knowledge, and attitudes related to an active lifestyle. seled about how to find opportunities for developing
The National Association for Sport and Physical physical skills outside the school program. Teachers pro-
Education (NASPE) professionals have identified a set of vide a support system for students as their skills improve,
standards that give direction to physical education. NASPE and the positive benefits of physical activity begin to
published these standards in a booklet (2004) that is most appear. Students change their attitudes toward physical
useful for teachers designing, implementing, and evaluat- activity when personal skill levels improve. Students ex-
ing physical education curricula. pect instant success, and teachers can help them learn
There is a general description of the standards and that physical skill development is not easy and demands
specific information for the standards according to the long, continuous effort. The role of teachers is to help
following grade-level ranges: kindergarten–second, students find individual levels of success—success that is
third–fifth, sixth–eighth, and ninth–twelfth. Student ex- unique to each person.
pectations are delineated for each standard and show The range of skills presented in physical education
what students should know and be able to do at the end should be unlimited. Because students vary in genetic
of each grade-level range. Examples of sample student endowment and interest, it is important that they have
performance outcomes are included to give teachers an opportunity to explore and learn about their abilities
ideas about how their students should be progressing in many types of physical skills. The hierarchy of skill
toward the achievement of each standard.

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development progresses from fundamental motor skills attained through planned instruction and drills. These
to specialized skills. Components of motor skill devel- skills have critical points of technique, and proper teach-
opment and movement competence follow. ing emphasizes correct performance. In most cases, these
skills are not well learned until the middle and high
Fundamental Motor Skills school years.
Fundamental skills are those utilitarian skills people
use to enhance the quality of life. The designation
UNDERSTANDING OF MOVEMENT
fundamental skills is used because skills are basic to a
fully functioning individual. These skills help students CONCEPTS, PRINCIPLES, STRATEGIES,
to function in the environment around them. These AND TACTICS
skills are divided into three categories: locomotor,
nonlocomotor, and manipulative. The majority of these
skills should be learned during the elementary school
years.
Standard 2: Demonstrates understanding
of movement concepts, principles, strategies, and
1. Locomotor Skills Locomotor skills are used to move tactics as they apply to the learning and perform-
the body from one place to another or to project the ance of physical activities.
body upward, as in jumping and hopping. These
skills also include walking, running, skipping, leaping,
and galloping. A physical education program should provide students
with a wide range of knowledge about many areas. A
2. Nonlocomotor Skills Nonlocomotor skills are per-
knowledge component is intertwined with all objectives.
formed in place, without appreciable spatial move-
Indeed, accomplishing any objective is difficult if students
ment. They include bending, stretching, pushing and
do not have a certain amount of knowledge. For example,
pulling, raising and lowering, twisting and turning,
getting students to enjoy tennis without understanding
shaking, bouncing, circling, and so on.
rules, strategies, and etiquette is difficult, and most people
3. Manipulative Skills Manipulative skills are devel- will not incorporate an aerobic activity into his or her
oped through object handling. This manipulation of lifestyle without understanding the possible health-related
objects leads to hand–eye and foot–eye coordination, benefits.
which are particularly important for tracking items Students need to learn about the classification of
in space. Manipulative skills form the important movement concepts, which includes body awareness, space
basis for many game skills and lifetime activities. awareness, qualities of movement, and relationships. It is
Propulsion (throwing, striking, kicking), receipt not enough to learn only the fundamental skills; students
(catching), rebounding, or redirection of objects need to perform these skills in a variety of settings. For
(such as volleyball) are basic to this set of skills. example, students are asked to run in different directions, at
different levels, and along different pathways. They can
Rhythmic Movement Skills learn to move slowly or quickly or to make a series of strong
Individuals who excel in movement activities possess a movements. Movement themes form the foundation of
strong sense of rhythmic ability. Rhythmic movement in- movement experiences necessary for developing specific
volves motion that possesses regularity and a predictable fundamental skills. Through this process, students develop
pattern. The aptitude to move rhythmically is basic skill an increased awareness and understanding of the body as a
performance in all areas. A rhythmic program that includes vehicle for movement and for the acquisition of a personal
aerobic dance, folk and square dancing, rope jumping, and vocabulary of movement skills. These skills are usually
rhythmic gymnastics offers a set of experiences that help taught in elementary and middle school years. They are
attain this objective. used in the secondary school years without instruction and
practice; it is usually assumed they have been learned in the
Specialized Motor Skills earlier grades.
Specialized skills are used in various sports, games, and The school years should be the years of opportunity—
other areas of physical education, including adventure the opportunity to explore and experience many different
activities, apparatus activities, tumbling, cooperative types of physical activity. Students should be able to find
activities, swimming, dance, and so on. When developing physical activities that provide personal satisfaction and
specialized skills such as tennis strokes, racquetball success. The curriculum should be expansive rather than
serves, or softball fielding techniques, progression is restrictive. It should allow students to better understand

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their strengths and limitations and to establish the types social, physical-environmental, and biological. Physical
of activities they prefer and dislike. Related to this experience education programs should foster those factors often
is the opportunity to learn basic concepts of movement and referred to as the determinants of active learning.
physical activity. Students should leave school knowing Psychological determinants are among the most power-
about center of gravity, force, leverage, stability, and other ful. For example, students must derive enjoyment
factors related to efficient movement. Learning basic princi- through activity so they will seek further participation.
ples and concepts of physical activity, especially with refer- To this end, students must become proficient in a variety
ence to how physical activity contributes to good health of motor skills. Also, most adults will not participate in
and wellness, is important in this knowledge objective. activities unless they have an adequate level of perceived
Understanding the genetic diversity among people, such as competence. Because learning new motor skills takes a
body physiques, muscle fibers, cardiovascular-respiratory great deal of time and repetition, everyday life often pro-
endurance, and motor coordination, is requisite for helping hibits busy adults from developing a level of skill compe-
students evaluate their physical capabilities. Specifically tence to ensure play without embarrassment. Students
learning how to assess personal fitness and activity levels, also need a rational basis for play. This can be established
how to plan activity levels, and how to make informed deci- through activity orientations that can be transferred to
sions about physical activity and fitness are all important other situations. Such activities should include a variety
objectives in this domain. of games suitable for small groups and sport activities
Related to understanding principles of human per- adapted to local situations.
formance is knowing how to safely participate in activi- Social influences include factors such as family and
ties. The school has both a legal and moral obligation peer role models, encouragement from significant others,
to provide a safe environment. Safety must be actively and opportunities to participate in activity with others in
taught, and activities must be conducted in a safe environ- one’s social group. Physical-environmental factors include
ment. Instructional procedures in activity must include adequate programs and facilities, satisfactory equipment
safety factors, and active supervision is necessary to guide and supplies, safe outdoor environments, and available
students in safe participation. Students must leave school opportunities near home and at school. Included are ade-
with an understanding of safety principles of human quate school opportunities in physical education, intra-
movement. mural sports, and after-school recreation and sports
programs. Biological factors include age, gender, ethnic,
and/or socioeconomic status (Sallis, 1994).
REGULAR PHYSICAL ACTIVITY Without proper planning and systematic arrangement
of the learning environment, the probability of developing
positive student attitudes and physically active lifestyles is
Standard 3: Participates regularly in physical greatly reduced. Secondary curriculum plans and instruc-
activity. tional strategies should be concerned with developing
learning environments that help students enjoy physical
activities for a lifetime.
An important objective of a secondary school physical
education program is to help students incorporate physical
activity into their lifestyles. This requires that curriculum,
ACHIEVEMENT AND MAINTENANCE OF
instruction, and teachers have a positive impact on students’ HEALTH-ENHANCING PHYSICAL FITNESS
knowledge, attitudes, and skill behaviors relative to physical
activities. A successful physical education program is not
measured by the current level of knowledge, the physical fit-
Standard 4: Achieves and maintains
a health-enhancing level of physical fitness.
ness level, or the physical skills of students, nor is it meas-
ured by the number of participants on the varsity athletic
teams. Certainly it is not the number of victories the football Physical educators provide experiences for students that lead
or basketball teams accumulate. The ultimate measure of to successful encounters with exercise and regular physical ac-
success is the number of students who participate in daily tivity. Proper development in this area implies a focus on reg-
physical activities such as exercise, sports, dance, and out- ular physical activity that results in a fitness level that
door adventure activities throughout their lives. motivation and heredity allow. This emphasis leads to
There are several basic considerations for lifetime improved health-related physical fitness (Corbin, Pangrazi, &
activity. Sallis (1994) classifies the factors that influence Welk, 1994). This includes cardiovascular efficiency,
people to be active in four categories: psychological, flexibility, body fat reduction, and muscular strength and

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endurance. Recent physical fitness test batteries focus on the excellent setting for teaching responsibility because most
development of criterion-related health standards associated behavior is highly visible. Some young people in a com-
with reduced health risk rather than skill-related fitness based petitive setting may react openly in an irresponsible fash-
on normative standards (Cooper Institute, 2007). ion, offering instructors a “teachable moment” to discuss 1
Students need to experience activities that demonstrate such unacceptable behavior. Additionally, students have to
the benefits of physical fitness firsthand. Student participa- learn to win and lose in an acceptable manner and assume
tion in activity choices and the opportunity to offer input responsibility for their performances. Accepting the con-
about the fitness program help create a personalized pro- sequences of one’s behavior is a lesson that arises regularly
gram. Learning how to develop and arrange suitable fitness in a cooperative/competitive environment.
routines that positively impact health is an important Cooperation precedes the development of competi-
higher-order objective. Physical fitness development is simi- tion, which makes it an important behavior to teach in
lar to physical skill development in that it requires time, en- physical education settings (Figure 3). Without coopera-
ergy, and self-discipline. Students need to be aware of the tion, competitive games cannot be played. The nature of
factors that influence fitness development. Eating habits, competitive games demands cooperation, fair play, and
types of activities, heredity, and frequency of activity are just “sportspersonship,” and when these are not present, the
a few of the factors that students must learn. Physical educa- joy of participation is lost. Cooperative games teach stu-
tion programs play an important role in helping students dents that all teammates are needed to reach group goals.
develop activity habits that will benefit their physical health. Physical activity environments provide a number of
Allotting a portion of each class to fitness activities helps unique opportunities for students to experience and develop
students understand what is necessary for fitness enhan- social-emotional skills. Getting along with other people,
cement. Learning about fitness is much more than facts; being part of a team, accepting an official’s judgment, losing
students need the participation experience to make fitness the final game of a tournament, dealing with peers who have
activities a habit. Many people know the facts about fitness varying levels of ability, or changing clothes in a crowded
but are not participating in regular physical activity. This is locker room are just a few of the many experiences that may
not to say that knowledge is unimportant, but rather that reg- occur in a physical education class. These are important
ular physical activity in a person’s lifestyle is a top priority for experiences for students. Physical educators have a responsi-
a physical education program. A positive experience in fitness bility to help guide and direct students in understanding
activities can help students develop attitudes that ensure these various social-emotional behaviors.
active adult lifestyles. Programs are not successful if students All students need to understand and internalize the
leave school with a dislike for physical activity. Establishing a merits of participation, cooperation, competition, and toler-
desire in students to maintain fitness and wellness through- ance. Good citizenship and fair play help define a desirable
out their adult years is the most important outcome. social atmosphere. A teacher who listens, shows empathy,
and offers guidance can help students differentiate between
RESPONSIBLE PERSONAL AND SOCIAL acceptable and unacceptable ways of dealing with others and
BEHAVIOR

Standard 5: Exhibits responsible personal

and social behavior that respects self and others
in physical activity settings.

Responsible behavior involves behaving in a manner that

doesn’t negatively impact others. Hellison (2003) and oth-
ers have developed methodology for teaching responsible
behavior. It is generally accepted that if responsible behav-
ior is to be learned, it must be taught through experiences
where such behavior is reinforced on a regular basis.
Accepting consequences for one’s behavior is learned and
needs to be valued and reinforced by responsible adults.
Responsible behavior occurs in a hierarchy of behavior, FIGURE 3 Students working cooperatively in
ranging from acting irresponsibly to caring and behaving a team-building class
in a responsible manner. Physical education classes are an

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expressing feelings. Students need to develop an awareness individuals. Students need to know about the variety of
of how they interact with others and how the quality of their benefits and be able to look at all the options involved
behavior influences others’ responses to them. If students do with different types of physical activity and how they
not receive feedback about negative behavior from teachers relate to their personal interests. They need the knowl-
and peers, they may not realize that the behavior is inappro- edge necessary to make thoughtful decisions about
priate. Establishing reasonable limits of appropriate student which activities impact a person’s health and wellness.
behavior followed by consistent enforcement of those limits They need to know which activities will be more fun for
will help students understand the parameters of acceptable them. Some students will select activities because of the
behavior. challenge or the opportunity for self-expression. There
Teachers help students develop positive attitudes to- are many, many activity opportunities for a lifetime of
ward learning by teaching an understanding of various regular physical activity, and a quality program will
student ability levels, the role of winning and losing, and help students value the activities that meet their own
the value of making an effort to succeed. Positive and con- needs. As students develop this understanding of all the
cerned instruction has a powerful impact on students’ atti- benefits of physical activity participation, they will pur-
tudes and self-concepts. A positive teacher communicates sue activities that are meaningful to them.
to students that they are loved, capable, and contributing
individuals. Not only must teachers understand students,
but students should understand themselves because self- PERSPECTIVES INFLUENCING
understanding has a powerful influence on human behav- PHYSICAL EDUCATION
ior. The self-concept that a student develops is vital to the Though physical education programs vary widely across
learning process. If students believe they belong, that they the United States, most endorse similar outcomes. Programs
are important people, and that their successes outweigh are greatly influenced by current social and professional
their failures, they are given momentum toward develop- perspectives. Most curricula are based on a wide variety of
ing a desirable self-concept. Encouraging students to pro- goals and objectives emanating from a wide variety of
vide positive feedback to each other will help students feel sources. Nevertheless, some schools orient their programs
positive about their efforts. more closely to one perspective than another. Therefore, an
The ability to move with grace, confidence, and understanding of these perspectives will help the reader
ease helps students perceive themselves in a positive better understand how curricula reflect the social needs of a
manner. Achieving self-satisfying levels of skill compe- culture.
tency and fitness can also make students feel confident
and assured. The self-concept is related to perceived
physical skill competence. If students perceive them- THE SOCIAL-HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE
selves as competent in a physical activity setting, they European gymnastics and highly organized and disci-
will want to participate in physical activity outside of plined calisthenics programs dominated early physical
the school environment. On the other hand, if they feel education in the United States. Many of the early leaders
incompetent, they will avoid activity at all costs in an were European immigrants, primarily from Germany and
attempt to maintain their self-esteem and avoid embar- Sweden, who brought these formal programs with them
rassment. and implemented them first in colleges and then in the
public schools. These systems included formal and struc-
tured exercises centered on development of the body.
VALUING PHYSICAL ACTIVITY FOR MANY Some have called this an education of the physical focus.
REASONS In the early 1900s, a major shift in perspective began to
occur. As education in general altered its perspective based
on the teachings of John Dewey and others, physical educa-
Standard 6: Values physical activity for tion shifted as well. Two of Dewey’s cardinal aims of educa-
health, enjoyment, challenge, self-expression, tion stressed the promotion of health and a worthy use of
and/or social interaction. leisure time. People became interested in using sports and
games to foster these two aims. The school curriculum
became a logical place to include these sports and games.
This standard focuses on the development of students’ Jesse F. Williams, whose text (1927) was published in numer-
awareness of the wide variety of benefits that can be ous editions, was one of several leaders who did much to
obtained from leading a physically active life. The bene- change the perspective of American physical education at
fits can take many forms and be perceived differently by

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this time. Williams and others championed democratic American youth. All of the objectives in the physical activ-
ideals and the concepts of sportspersonship and teamwork. ity area emphasized increasing the amount of time stu-
Thus, the strong focus on team sports in physical education dents participate in light to moderate activity. Based on
was started. This focus is called an “education through the this evidence, several public health experts called for the
physical” approach. This perspective did not negate the use of physical education as a public health tool (Sallis &
importance of physical fitness and “education of the physi- McKenzie, 1991). They suggested that implementation of
cal,” but it did place a strong emphasis on social develop- programs designed to promote lifetime physical activity in
ment through physical education. This perspective was the school would reap important public health benefits,
perpetuated by followers of these early leaders and continues including reduced morbidity and mortality from hypoki-
to have currency in the secondary physical education field. netic conditions such as heart disease, back pain, obesity,
diabetes, high blood pressure, and cancer. The public
THE CULTURAL-SPORTS PERSPECTIVE health perspective has had considerable impact on cur-
riculum and instruction in physical education. This per-
Since the turn of the century, sports have become a diver-
spective gave impetus to the recommendation within
sion not only for millions of Americans who are partici-
Healthy People 2000 that there be an increase in physical
pants, but for millions of American spectators (Eitzen &
education in schools by the year 2000.
Sage, 1986). Youth sports are now highly organized and
The release of Physical Activity and Health: A Report
have large participant rates. Collegiate and professional
of the Surgeon General (USDHHS, 1996) documented
sports have become big business. Title IX of the Education
many health benefits achieved through moderate and
Amendments Act of 1972 was enacted to provide greater
regular activity. The report showed that people of all
access for girls and women in sports. With the shift from
ages, both male and female, benefit from regular physical
more formal gymnastics to more “American” activities such
activity. Never before had a body of research been com-
as football, basketball, and softball, sports became central to
piled to show the strong need for activity and fitness in
the programs of physical education. Because sports are part
the lives of young people. Activity programs are a requi-
of the American culture, the development and appreciation
site for healthy young bodies and minds. Yet in spite of
of sports skills was logically accepted as a part of American
the strong emphasis the report placed on regular and
education. This perspective accounts for the emphasis on
daily activity, many physical education programs con-
sports in the expanded curriculum, which includes inter-
tinue to emphasize physical fitness goals instead of
scholastic and intramural programs.
lifestyle physical activity goals.
Primarily based on the Surgeon General’s report pro-
THE PUBLIC HEALTH PERSPECTIVE moting physical activity, a new set of goals for America
A renewed emphasis on physical fitness occurred in the emerged: Healthy People 2010: National Health Promotion
1950s, caused by the publication of the Kraus-Weber tests and Disease Objectives (U.S. Public Health Service, 2000).
comparing fitness levels of American and European stu- This document once again continued to focus on physical
dents on strength and flexibility. The public became con- activity goals that would increase the years of healthy life
cerned about the comparable weakness of U.S. students. and eliminate health disparities. These major goals are
In response to this concern, President Dwight Eisenhower supported with enabling goals concerned with promoting
established the President’s Council on Physical Fitness and healthy behaviors, protecting health, achieving access to
Sports, an agency that promotes physical fitness not only quality health care, and strengthening community preven-
for students, but also for citizens of all ages. This was the tion. The objectives are grouped into a number of focus
beginning of a fitness boom that has continued to this day. areas similar to those described in Healthy People 2000.
In recent years, more and more evidence indicates that the New focus areas in this document include disability, peo-
lack of regular physical activity among adults is a primary ple with low income, race and ethnicity, chronic diseases,
risk factor for heart disease and a major contributor to and public health infrastructure.
other diseases as well. Data now exist to show that students
who are active are more likely to be active later in life, and
those who are active during school years have health bene-
fits that extend to later life (Raitakari et al., 1994).
ISSUES AFFECTING PHYSICAL
The document Healthy People 2000: National Health EDUCATION PROGRAMS
Promotion and Disease Objectives (U.S. Public Health A number of trends and related issues impact the develop-
Service, 1990) was released by the government with goals ment of secondary school physical education programs.
to improve the health of all Americans. Many of the target Some of the factors considered when developing a program
goals were directed toward improving the health status of are discussed in the following section.

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STATE AND LOCAL PHYSICAL EDUCATION ensures that students will receive a variety of activities as
well as the opportunity to choose according to their inter-
REQUIREMENTS
ests. Students have choice but not total freedom, so a
Most state departments of education set some type of
balanced curricular approach is ensured.
requirement for physical education (NASPE, 2006). Policies
differ dramatically from state to state. Some require a num-
ber of minutes per week for each grade level, whereas others COEDUCATIONAL CLASSES
specify a number of days per week. Several states do not Title IX of the Educational Amendments Act of 1972
have any physical education requirement. Each school dis- has had a significant impact on most secondary school
trict usually sets requirements designed to fit within the physical education programs. The law is based on the
requirements defined by the state department of education. principle that school activities and programs are of
Consequently, district policies can vary dramatically and equal value and importance for both male and female
still be within state guidelines. As an example, in Arizona students. Students should not be denied access to par-
(which has standards and recommendations by grade ticipation in school activities on the basis of gender.
level), there is no requirement at the state level for physi- This law has stirred up much debate and controversy.
cal education. Most Arizona high schools have a 1-year Interpretations and details continue to be studied by
physical education requirement, others have a 2- or 3-year school districts, state departments of education, and the
requirement, and some offer only an elective physical edu- judicial system.
cation program. The state requirement significantly affects Legal ramifications mandate equal access to physical
the curriculum, the students, and the teachers. Physical education activities for both boys and girls (Figure 4).
educators have always been involved to ensure that physical Separate classes for males and females have been reduced
education is a basic part of the school district’s require- in most schools. This does not imply that students of both
ments. Many school districts continue to allow substitu- genders must wrestle together, share locker facilities, or
tions for physical education credit. Most notable is the have the same activity interests; however, it does mean
substitution of varsity athletics, cheerleading, marching that, for example, males can participate in a dance class
band, and ROTC training programs for physical education and females can elect a strength training class when they
credit. Some districts have created physical education have interest in these respective areas. In principle, the law
classes for specific athletic teams such as soccer, basketball, also means that instruction is provided by the most quali-
football, and so forth. These classes are then taught by the fied person regardless of gender.
coach of the team even though they are not physical educa- The law allows schools to group students by ability,
tors. This issue has been discussed and debated for many even if the result is groups consisting of primarily one
years by physical educators and NASPE. There are two sides gender. The law also allows teachers to segregate the sexes
to the debate, and physical educators should think about during a game or competitive aspect of contact sports
this issue and have an opinion for their administrators and such as wrestling, basketball, football, ice hockey, and oth-
school board. We believe that physical education should be ers. Teachers must also ensure that grading standards and
physical education with NASPE standards and not athletics, procedures are not having an adverse effect on one gender
cheerleading, marching band, or ROTC. These other pro- group, a specified regulation of Title IX. Standards must
grams are great, and serve as a valuable experience for stu- be equally fair to both sexes.
dents, but they are different from physical education and
its goals.
Designing local requirements can often be a positive
practice for physical education programs because it lends
stability and credibility at the district level. Some districts
have developed requirements that facilitate a selective
or elective type of curriculum. This involves specifying
requirements by activity category such as team sports, life-
time sports, gymnastics, aquatics, recreational activities,
and dance. For example, students might be required to
complete 12 activities in 1 year. The requirement might be
that three of the activities must be team sports, three must
be lifetime sports, and one each must be selected from the
areas of dance, aquatics, and gymnastics. The remaining
activity choices would be left to the student. This proce- FIGURE 4 Coed team-building class
dure gives students choice within a requirement and

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Amid all of the controversy, it is important to exam- CONCEPTUAL PHYSICAL FITNESS

ine the objectives of the physical education program and
PROGRAMS
focus on developing an environment that will meet the
A program that started at the college level and has filtered
requirements of Title IX. There are challenges, but they
down to many secondary schools including the middle
are a small price to pay to mitigate inequities in opportu-
school is called the conceptual approach. An example of
nities for learning and participation in sports and physical
the conceptual approach for secondary high schools is the
education. Law or no law, physical education is important
Fitness for Life text by Corbin and Lindsey (2007). This
to all students regardless of gender. There are also clear
approach has been called a lecture–laboratory method.
advantages to coeducational programs in the areas of
Students spend time receiving information in a lecture
social development, activity offerings, and instructional
situation and then try out or test the information on
quality. Teachers should be responsible for all students in
themselves or on peers in a laboratory setting. Emphasis is
their classes, regardless of ability or gender.
placed on information, appraisal procedures, and pro-
gram planning. Students are expected to understand the
STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES “how, what, and why” of physical activity, physical fitness,
Public Law (PL) 94-142, the Education of All Handicapped and exercise. They learn to use diagnostic tests in areas
Children Act, was signed in 1975 by President Ford. This such as cardiovascular endurance, muscular strength and
law ensures that all young people with disabilities receive endurance, flexibility, body composition, and motor abil-
an appropriate public education that serves their unique ity. Corbin, LeMasurier, and Lambdin (2007) have devel-
needs. A 1990 amendment, PL 101-476 (also known as oped a Fitness for Life model for middle school that is
IDEA—Individuals with Disabilities Education Act), con- currently available and in use with many school districts.
tinues with the objective of providing disabled individuals A variety of conceptual programs have been field-
with the least restrictive environment in the school setting. tested in various situations. In some schools, concepts
Autism and traumatic brain injury have been added to the make up the entire physical education program, while in
list of handicapping conditions that should receive the other programs, the concepts may be only a portion of the
least restrictive environment. IDEA provides that an indi- requirement such as a semester class or 6-week unit.
vidual transition plan be developed no later than age 16 as Several books are available with lesson sequences and other
a component of the individualized education program instructional materials such as slide–tape lectures, scripts,
(IEP) process. Rehabilitation and social work services are review questions, tests, handouts, overhead transparencies,
included as related services. and laboratory experiments.
The law has compelled physical educators to develop The conceptual approach is currently popular for
specialized classes and programs for many students with several reasons. First, many believe an academic approach
disabilities. Other students are mainstreamed into the focused on knowledge and cognitive growth instead of on
regular physical education program as part of the least physical skill is a more respectable educational endeavor.
restrictive environment advocated by PL 94-142. School Others believe that when student knowledge is increased,
districts are required to hire qualified instructors for attitudes and behaviors also change, causing physical ac-
these programs as well as to encourage current teachers tivity to be incorporated into the student’s lifestyle. This is
to develop skills for providing meaningful experiences not a proven phenomenon. Increasing a person’s knowl-
for mainstreamed children with disabilities. Physical edge does not ensure a change in behavior, and students
education has been specified as an important part of the must also experience physical activity as well as under-
disabled student’s curricula or IEP. The IEP contains stand it conceptually. Conceptual learning is an important
extensive information covering the student’s present sta- part of a physical education program, but physical skill
tus, program objectives, learning activities, and evalua- development must also receive strong emphasis.
tion procedures.
The law can create challenges for physical educators INTERDISCIPLINARY COURSES
in planning, organizing, managing, and evaluating daily In some secondary schools, physical education is combined
and yearly programs for the disabled. In most situa- with other disciplines, such as health, biology, geology, and
tions, the teacher must establish learning environments geography. In these programs, students have opportunities
concurrently for students with and without disabilities. to learn about subjects such as drugs, alcohol, diseases,
Regardless of the law, the issue is a moral necessity. safety, first aid, hunting and fishing, taxidermy, rock forma-
Physical education is as important to disabled students tions, and environmental concerns. Emphasis is placed on
as it is to other students. All students deserve physical combining physical skill development with knowledge. For
education experiences regardless of their abilities or example, students can learn about the flora and fauna of an
disabilities.

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area while concurrently learning camping and backpacking These students record the type of activity they did, their
skills. This is the basic thesis of many outdoor education heart rate, and perceived exertion. The students in these
programs in which several disciplines are integrated to online courses must have their log signed off by a parent,
teach students about the outdoors. coach, trainer, or other adult. The Florida program is
This approach also balances the acquisition of knowl- slightly different in that students record their activity on
edge and physical skill development, and it offers interest- the Web and can interact with a number of sources, in-
ing opportunities for students and teachers. Teachers can cluding the instructor who will give advice and answer
take advantage of geographical locations, different learn- student questions throughout the day by e-mail, instant
ing environments, and the interests of students living in messaging, phone, or fax.
these areas. The physical education teacher can team- These online programs offer possibilities for advanced
teach with teachers from other subject areas such as biol- study and can add an exciting dimension to the curricula.
ogy, zoology, or geography. In this way, many interesting Students often develop self-management skills and become
learning experiences can be developed. A downside of this self-motivated because they select activities that appeal to
approach is that the time available for physical skill devel- them and are primarily responsible for what they learn
opment is usually reduced in favor of more knowledge from the experience. Both program leaders admit it is
time, thus reducing the opportunity to become competent possible to cheat. However, the majority of students view
in physical skills. such programs as a privilege and usually respond in a
mature manner. The bottom line is that if students learn to
direct their own physical activity experiences without adult
OFF-CAMPUS AND VIRTUAL (ONLINE) supervision, they are a step closer to a lifetime of activity
PHYSICAL EDUCATION CLASSES and better health.
Off-campus physical education programs give students an
opportunity to earn credit for advanced study or off-campus INSTRUCTION IN COMMUNITY FACILITIES
courses not available in the basic curricula. Students are
Another trend that can be positive for school programs is
offered the opportunity to earn credit for off-campus study
the use of community facilities. This approach allows
involving surfing, ice skating, horseback riding, bowling,
schools to use community bowling alleys, golf courses, ski
golf, and other disciplines. These programs are available to
slopes, and skating rinks to enhance the physical education
students after they have completed basic requirements on
program. Many schools bus students to a bowling alley or
campus. Some type of monitoring and weekly check-in pro-
golf course once a week. Sometimes schools provide trans-
cedure is arranged, with the student, parent, and teacher
portation and participation funds; in other cases, students
agreeing to a contract. Many of these programs also contain
pay the expenses. Funding can also be provided through
a fitness component requiring that students show some evi-
car washes, candy sales, and raffles. Programs and proce-
dence of maintenance or improvement in fitness (e.g., body
dures are limited only by a teacher’s ingenuity and creative
composition or cardiovascular endurance).
direction.
A common model, currently used in Florida and
Community facilities can add a valuable dimension to
Minnesota, involves offering personal fitness classes to
secondary programs. Physical educators can broaden their
students in an unstructured environment. Students can
areas of competency or find other professionals who have
sign up for the class, receive instruction from videos and
requisite expertise. A noted physical educator once asked a
class materials, and do their workouts at home or in other
physical education teacher who taught at a school situated
settings. There are no walls, no whistles, and no teachers
near a beautiful lake, “Do you teach swimming, boating,
on-site. Instead, students design their fitness programs
and sailing here?” “No,” replied the teacher, “we don’t have
based on personal needs and desires. One of the require-
the facilities.” Finding a way to use community resources
ments is that students keep a log of their daily activity
for the betterment of students is surely possible. Qualified
with a record of exercises and activities they completed.
personnel from the community often want to share their
Students can record their progress in a personal log or
expertise.
online. Jan Braaten, curriculum coordinator for physical
education and health for the Minneapolis Public Schools
(MPS), explained why her district began offering online PRIVATE SPORTS INSTRUCTION
physical education classes in the spring of 2005: “Things Opportunities for sports and fitness instruction in the pri-
have changed in the 21st century in many ways, and one vate sector continue to expand rapidly. These programs
change is the wide variety of options and lifestyles for our are responsive to the demands of consumers. Indoor
students.” In the Minneapolis courses, students are asked climbing walls, YMCA basketball, gymnastics clubs, soccer
to perform 30 minutes of vigorous activity 3 days a week. leagues, Pop Warner football, motocross bicycle racing,

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Little League Baseball, and racquet clubs are a few exam- EQUIPMENT, FACILITIES, AND CLASS SIZE
ples of programs available to students. Students receive A continuing and growing problem physical educators at
in-depth instruction, practice with adequate equipment, all levels face is inadequate equipment, limited facilities,
have many competitive opportunities, and receive tro- and increased class sizes. For some reason, many adminis-
phies, T-shirts, and similar rewards. Private instruction trators believe physical education classes can be larger in
programs must meet the demands of consumers or lose number and yet manage with less equipment than an
their clientele. Often, such programs use quality equip- academic class. They fail to realize that it is impossible to
ment, the newest techniques, highly skilled instructors, learn to dribble a basketball without having access to a
and excellent teachers. Many of these instructional pro- basketball on a regular basis. Students become frustrated
grams offer strong competition for physical education and bored when standing in line waiting for a turn to
programs because of their ability to provide personalized dribble the ball. Teachers have a difficult situation with
instruction. 40 students on six tennis courts. Economic conditions
Private sector instructional programs can create chal- make these problems difficult, and physical educators
lenges for school-based physical education programs. must strive to get a fair share of the budget and contribute
The first challenge is that private instruction creates a to fund-raising ideas. Many schools are doing multiple
wide range of backgrounds, experiences, and abilities fund-raising projects to combat this problem. Physical
among students who are participating in school physical educators need to get involved and contribute to this
education. Students from middle- and upper-class fami- endeavor. Students are not asked to learn to read and write
lies may have a wealth of experience in sports such as without books, paper, and pencils. Physical education is
tennis, golf, soccer, and gymnastics, whereas students just as important as other discipline areas and should
from lower-income families might not be able to finance receive an equal share of the budget dollar and have simi-
private instruction. Another problem is that it can be lar class sizes for the most part. Many secondary programs
difficult to develop a gymnastics unit that is meaningful are increasing their health club type activities with large
to eighth-grade students who have had 5 years of inten- group classes on activities such as kickboxing, yoga, aero-
sive training at a private sports academy. This same bics, and so forth.
point can be illustrated by comparing students involved
in a soccer league for several years with students who
have never played the game. Teachers face a difficult chal- LEGAL LIABILITY
lenge when trying to motivate students with such diverse Many lawsuits appearing in various aspects of society con-
backgrounds. cern physical educators. Teachers are not immune to liabil-
A second concern relates to public opinion. As oppor- ity lawsuits, as evidenced by an increasing number of cases
tunities in the private sector increase, public support for involving parents and students suing teachers, administra-
the school physical education curricula may lessen. Some tors, and school boards. This situation is unnerving when
people currently believe that secondary school physical teachers attempt new activities or use new teaching tech-
education programs can be eliminated because adequate niques that involve any type of risk. Many teachers and
opportunities are available in the private sector. “Let administrators have become extremely cautious and con-
students learn physical activities outside the school setting servative about activities that contain an element of risk,
so there is more time and money for academic subjects” is yet often many of these activities are actually safer than
a common viewpoint. An opposing viewpoint argues those traditionally included in the curriculum. Teachers
that private instruction opportunities are available only to may refuse to offer new activities for fear of a lawsuit.
the upper middle class and that lower socioeconomic Ultimately, students become the victims in this process
groups will have limited opportunities. Physical educators because programs become limited in scope.
need to find ways to use the specialized private sector Teachers certainly need to acquire adequate knowl-
opportunities to enhance the physical education experi- edge about safety and instructional procedures before
ence for all students in their programs. There are ways to implementing a new activity. Legal ramifications must be
take students to these opportunities and bring these pro- understood when developing a broad and balanced cur-
grams to the schools. The trend toward private instruction riculum. With proper information and careful planning,
is continuing to grow, and the possibility is strong that the instructional risks of various activities can be mini-
the private sports industry may become a serious com- mized. If sound policies and procedures are followed on a
petitor of school programs. Physical educators face the daily basis, teachers should not worry about legal liability.
challenge of developing quality programs that provide
meaningful learning experiences for all students regard-
less of background.

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TEACHING AND COACHING CONFLICTS included to ensure that young people receive a quality
The public often has a difficult time separating the physical physical education experience? The following components
education program from the athletic program. The athletic interlock to form a comprehensive physical education
program is concerned with recruiting, coaching, and admin- program that will be valued by parents, teachers, and stu-
istering teams that will compete against other school teams. dents. Each of the components is described briefly in this
These goals are significantly different from the goals of the section. In-depth coverage is offered in the referenced
secondary school physical education program, yet athletics chapters under each point. Figure 5 identifies eight essential
and physical education are often linked because the pro- components of a quality program.
grams share facilities, equipment, fields, and teachers.
■ A quality physical education program is organized
In addition, pressure often comes from the local com-
around NASPE content standards that offer direc-
munity to produce winning teams. Pressure to develop out-
tion and continuity to instruction and evaluation.
standing physical education programs is not nearly as strong,
A quality program is driven by a set of content stan-
and the visibility of the two programs is markedly different.
dards that are defined by a number of competencies
This creates a difficult situation for the physical education
young people are expected to accomplish. Standards
teacher who is also a coach. The coach may support the con-
are measurable so both teachers and students know
cept of an outstanding curriculum but may not find enough
when progress has been made. Previously in this
time and energy to do both, causing physical education to
chapter, you read about a comprehensive set of
take a backseat. This problem has no simple solution. Many
physical education content standards.
physical education teachers want to work in both programs.
The pressure to produce winners is apparent, and the indi- ■ A quality program is student centered and based on
vidual instructor will determine the quality of the physical the developmental urges, characteristics, and inter-
education program that is implemented. Many people do ests of students. Students learn best when the skills
excellent work in both areas, but it is not an easy task. and activities they must learn match their physical
and emotional development. Including activities in
the program because they match the competencies
of the teacher is not a criterion. Teachers have to
ESSENTIAL COMPONENTS OF teach new activities outside their comfort zone if
A QUALITY PROGRAM they are going to present a comprehensive program.
Physical education teachers need to know the essential
components of a quality physical education program. In
other words, what are critical elements that should be

I
Guided by Content
VIII II
Standards
Teaches responsibility Student-centered
and cooperation and and developmentally
promotes diversity appropriate

Dynamic
VII III
Physical Education:
Promotes lifetime Physical activity and
Components of a Quality
personal wellness Physical Education Program motor skills form the
core of the program

VI IV
Emphasizes Teaches management
learning correctly skills and promotes
V
rather than outcome self-discipline
Promotes inclusion
of ALL students

FIGURE 5 Eight essential components of a quality program

Reprinted from R. P. Pangrazi and A. Beighle, Dynamic Physical Education for Elementary School Children, 16th ed. (p. 16),
with permission. Copyright © 2010 by Pearson Benjamin Cummings.

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A quality program focuses on the successes of stu- confidence and often are unable to help themselves.
dents so there is motivation to continue. Developing Physical education is often one of the few opportuni-
a positive set of behaviors toward physical activity is ties many young people will have to learn skills in a
a key goal of physical education. caring and positive environment. Instructional pro-
■ Quality physical education makes physical activ- gressions designed to help young people whose abil-
ity and motor-skill development the core of the ity places them in the lower 70 percent of the class
program. Physical education is the only place in ensure a positive experience for all. Students who
the total school curriculum where instruction is aren’t naturally gifted must feel successful if they are
focused on teaching motor skills. Physical educa- expected to enjoy and value physical activity.
tion is a unique discipline that focuses on physical ■ In a quality physical education setting, instruction
activity to ensure the physical development of stu- focuses on the process of learning skills rather than
dents. It is mandatory that the program focus on the product or outcome of the skill performance.
skill development and quality physical activity. When young people are learning new motor skills,
A quality program also follows NASPE Initial performing the skill correctly is more important
Physical Education Teacher Education Standards than the outcome of the skill. Young learners need to
(2008). Standard 2 focuses on skill and fitness based understand proper techniques first and then focus
competence. Teacher candidates should demon- on the product of the skill performance. This means
strate personal competence in motor skill perform- teaching a young person to catch a softball properly
ance for a variety of activities. Teachers should also rather than worrying about how many he or she
achieve and maintain a health-enhancing level of catches or misses.
fitness not only for themselves but also with their ■ A quality physical education program teaches life-
students. The teachers should also be able to time activities students can use to promote their
demonstrate performance concepts as they relate health and personal wellness. Quality physical edu-
to skillful movement. cation programs prepare young people to participate
■ Physical education programs teach management in activities they can perform when they become
skills and self-discipline. Physical education teachers adults. If a program is restricted to team sports, the
are usually evaluated based on how students in their program will be of little value to the majority of
classes behave. Administrators and parents look to adults. Participation in sport activities declines rap-
see that students are on task and receiving many idly with age. Less than 5 percent of adults above age
opportunities to learn new skills. When a class is 30 report playing a team sport (USDHHS, 1996). By
well managed and students work with self-discipline, far, walking is the most frequently reported activity
the experience compares to classroom instruction, in adulthood. Other activities such as stretching
bringing credibility to the program. exercises, bicycling, strength development exercises,
■ Quality programs emphasize inclusion of all stu- jogging, swimming, and aerobics are also popular
dents. Instruction is designed for students who need with adults. Quality physical education looks to the
help the most, those with fewer skills, and students future and offers activities young participants can
with disabilities. Students who are skilled and blessed enjoy over the years and use as adults.
with innate ability have many opportunities to learn. ■ Quality physical education teaches cooperative and
They have the confidence to take private lessons, responsibility skills and helps students develop sensi-
join clubs, and play in after-school sport programs. tivity to diversity and gender issues. Cooperative
Unskilled youth or children with disabilities may lack skills precede competitive skills. Students have to
agree to follow rules in order to enjoy group activities.

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The majority of fights and physical violence occur physical education instead of learning to avoid the envi-
when young people are in a physical activity setting. ronment. Running and exercise are not used as a form
Physical education is an effective laboratory for learn- of punishment. Students are rewarded for competitive
ing to behave responsibly because behavior is so efforts even if their team happens to lose on a given day.
observable to others. Situations in physical activity Teachers use students’ first names and interact with all
give rise to the need to resolve conflicts in a peaceful students on a daily basis. Students are offered a degree of
manner. Students need to learn about similarities and choice and freedom in the learning process in an effort to
differences between cultures. Competitive activities increase student motivation.
such as the Olympics often bring cultures together Research on teaching continues to provide information
and offer students the opportunity to see different about ways effective teachers impact the teaching–learning
cultures compete with respect and dignity. Coed- process (Siedentop and Tannehill, 2000). Modeling behav-
ucational activities help students understand how ior is an effective strategy for influencing specific types of
activities cut across gender and stereotypes. When student behavior. Guidelines concerning how to model
gender differences occur in physical activities, it is have long been available. Students want to see models of
an excellent time to point out that individuals differ persons who have incorporated physical activity in their
regardless of race or gender. lifestyles. Teachers can discuss their exercise habits with stu-
dents and allow students to see them participating in and
enjoying physical activity. Influential teachers are aware of
CHARACTERISTICS OF SUCCESSFUL the powerful effect their behavior has on students and use
PHYSICAL EDUCATION PROGRAMS modeling to help students develop healthy activity habits.
A quality physical education program can be designed and Enthusiasm is another behavior that promotes a posi-
implemented in many ways. As discussed earlier, a num- tive environment. Evidence shows that this difficult to
ber of factors impact physical education programs. A wide define behavior is a teaching skill associated with student
spectrum of possibilities makes the accomplishment of a learning. Teachers need to display their love of and excite-
quality program possible. The following are characteris- ment for physical activity and their joy in teaching.
tics often found in successful programs regardless of the Expecting students to perform well is another critical factor
model or design of the curriculum. in developing a positive atmosphere for teaching. If stu-
dents are expected to be unmotivated and troublesome,
then the possibility is strong that these behaviors will occur.
A POSITIVE LEARNING ENVIRONMENT
If students are expected to learn and work hard, then the
EXISTS chance is better that they will perform at a higher level.
The instructor is the most important factor in the learning Physical educators need to look carefully at the effects
environment. Regardless of the teaching method or cur- of policies and procedures used in programs. If proce-
riculum design, a perceptive, analytical teacher is para- dures discourage students from being active, they should
mount to student learning. An effective teacher creates a be reevaluated. If dress codes and grading procedures are
teaching–learning atmosphere that is both positive and causing students to develop avoidance behaviors, accept-
caring. Instructional procedures are planned carefully so able alternatives must be developed. The overall atmos-
students experience immediate success. The instructor’s phere of the physical education environment has a strong
reactions to student failure are kept minimal and momen- impact on students and on their attitude toward physical
tary. Instruction focuses feedback and reactions on posi- activity. When students leave the physical education envi-
tive student behaviors rather than using a “correction ronment, they should have a good feeling about physical
complex” that responds only to students’ mistakes. activity and a desire to return for more.
Effective teachers realize they must take an active role in
the teaching–learning process by demonstrating, partici- STUDENT CHOICE IS OFFERED
pating, encouraging, giving feedback, and hustling. The elective approach to physical education curricula refers
Teachers who incorporate physical activities into their to allowing student choice for an optional or elective year of
lifestyles influence students significantly. physical education or allowing students to select between
Competent teachers use positive methods to disci- several activities options during each activity interval. For
pline, teach, and motivate. Students are taught to enjoy example, students can select tennis, weight training, or soc-
cer during the first 3-week unit, and racquetball, archery, or
flag football during the second 3 weeks, and so on. The
choice can occur not only during the optional class, but also
during a required class. The choice process starts in some

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schools as early as the middle school, while in others it does A WIDE VARIETY OF ACTIVITIES
not begin until high school. This type of program gives stu-
ARE AVAILABLE
dents an opportunity to choose activities of personal inter-
The variety of physical activities available to consumers
est to them and to avoid activities in which they have little
continues to expand. New and exciting activities such as
interest. Surveys have shown that some students would not
Frisbee spinjammers, waveboards, rollerblades, cardio kick
elect to take an extra class of physical education because
boxing, yoga/Pilates, medicine and stability balls, body
they wanted to avoid one or two specific units of activity,
bars, pedometer walking activities, step aerobics, coopera-
such as swimming, gymnastics, or wrestling. These students
tive games, and rock climbing are included in programs
would sacrifice an entire year of physical education to avoid
across the country. A broad-based program increases the
certain activities. To circumvent this behavior, curriculum
possibility that all students will find an enjoyable physical
planners design elective programs so students can choose
activity. Physical education programs should offer as many
from a number of activities.
activities as possible. A balance among team sports,
Another advantage of the elective approach is that
lifestyle sports, dance, aquatics, outdoor activities, and
students will be more motivated when they have influ-
physical-conditioning activities should be a major pro-
enced the selection of learning activities (Prusak, Treasure,
gram goal. The following categories illustrate the wide
Darst, & Pangrazi, 2004). Fewer problems occur in the
range of activities that can be incorporated into an exem-
areas of participation and discipline. Having more stu-
plary program.
dents involved in the program can also mean more sup-
port for teachers, equipment, and facilities. Flexibility in
class size is yet another advantage. Certain activities can Lifestyle Sports and Activities
easily accommodate more students, depending on the This area of activities in the secondary school physical
equipment and facilities. For example, golf and tennis education curriculum continues to grow and evolve.
might have smaller classes than soccer and flag football. These sports and activities are primarily individual or
Finally, considering these advantages, many teachers dual activities that can be used for a lifetime as opposed to
are motivated and enthusiastic about teaching in this type team sports that are difficult to continue after the school
of program. An elective program can improve the motiva- years. These activities are easily incorporated into a per-
tional level of both students and teachers. Any educational son’s lifestyle. An early factor in the development of this
practice that can affect the teaching–learning environment concept was the Lifetime Sports Education Project
should be considered when developing programs in sec- (LSEP), sponsored by the American Alliance for Health,
ondary school physical education. Problems do have to be Physical Education, Recreation, and Dance (AAHPERD).
worked out concerning grades, registration procedures, LSEP originally focused on bowling, archery, badminton,
teaching attitudes, and class-roll procedures. However, sev- tennis, and golf. Instructional materials and teaching clin-
eral solutions are available to a teaching staff that believes ics were developed by LSEP to encourage physical educa-
in the advantages of the approach. tors to expand their curricula.
Elective programs can be an influence in a positive Today, lifestyle sports and activities have become
direction. A number of secondary school physical educa- tremendously popular and have been expanded to include
tion programs that have converted to elective programs a host of activities such as walking, Frisbee, racquetball,
have experienced an increase in students. Teachers point sand volleyball, and even lunchtime basketball. AAH-
out that an elective program offers advantages such as PERD estimates that 75 percent of the nation’s secondary
increased student participation, enthusiasm, and motiva- schools emphasize lifestyle sports in their physical educa-
tion as well as increased enthusiasm and motivation of tion programs. This expanded offering has provided many
teachers. Students in 10th grade and above should be able participation opportunities for students and adults who
to select all of their physical activities and not be forced are not interested in traditional team sports. Secondary
into activities they are not interested in learning or dislike. school physical education programs are better able to
Students in middle school might be restricted to choosing serve all students when a wide variety of lifestyle sports
from categories of activities such as team sports, lifetime and activities are offered, considering different students
sports, fitness activities, dance, aquatics, and adventure are successful and motivated with different activities.
activities to ensure a measure of breadth in activity experi-
ences. If possible, they should be permitted to choose from Outdoor Adventure Activities
a number of activities in each category. In the fitness area, Another category of activity that has continually gained
for example, they might choose aerobic dance, weight popularity in the past 30 years is the outdoor adventure
training, or jogging. In the lifetime sport area, the choices or wilderness sports. Backpacking, rock climbing, various
might be tennis, golf, or bowling. ropes course activities (Figure 6), orienteering, and

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(USDHHS, 1996), Healthy People 2010: National Health

Promotion and Disease Objectives (U.S. Public Health
Service, 2000), and Physical Activity for Children: A
Statement of Guidelines for Children Ages 5–12 (Corbin
& Pangrazi, 2004), and the high media emphasis on
active lifestyles, have continued to focus attention across
the nation on a variety of physical activities and the
importance of an active lifestyle for all ages. Aero-
bic rhythmic exercise, aerobic kickboxing, walking
activities, step aerobics, jogging, weight training (Figure 7),
and weight-control classes are extremely popular with sec-
ondary students and adults. Modern fitness centers are
being built in high schools and shared with community
partners after school hours. Many schools now offer a
variety of classes—such as step aerobics, Pilates
Method, exercise balls, and aerobics—that emphasize top-
ics such as nutrition, weight maintenance, coronary heart
disease, flexibility, and strength. Human Kinetics, the
Cooper Institute, and AAHPERD joined forces and cre-
ated the American Fitness Alliance, with updated materials
including the Fitnessgram/Activitygram K–12 program
(Cooper Institute, 2007), which includes an updated fitness
education program that focuses on increasing activity in
everyday activities. Also accompanying the Fitnessgram
is a program called the Activitygram that emphasizes
monitoring and recording the amount of moderate
FIGURE 6 Adventure activities physical activity accumulated each day for 3 days. The

mountain bicycling are just a few of the activities in this

category. These activities are similar to the lifestyle sports or
activities and are primarily individual or dual activities that
can be enjoyed over a lifetime. The emphasis is on risk and
excitement in using the earth’s natural environments such
as snow, water, mountains, ice, rivers, and wilderness areas.
Exploration, travel, and adventure are important elements
in these activities. To train students in outdoor adventure
skills, many schools are developing on-campus facilities
such as climbing walls, ropes courses, and orienteering sites
as well as using nearby community environments such as
ski slopes, parks, rivers, and mountains. These activities
emphasize competition with oneself and the environment
in contrast to competition with other people. This is an
attractive feature for many students. Outdoor adventure
activities can also be enjoyed with family and friends during
expanded leisure hours, providing an opportunity to get
away from the city and experience the natural environment
in a time of vanishing wilderness areas.

Health-Related Physical Activities

The combination of many publications, such as Physical FIGURE 7 Weight-lifting class
Activity and Health: A Report of the Surgeon General

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program prints out a view of the student’s activity focus only on beginning levels. Many students do not
patterns after all the data have been entered. participate in intramural sports, sport clubs, athletics, or
outside-school programs; therefore, the physical educa-
Novel or Modified Team Sports tion program may be the only opportunity to receive
Finally, the development of novel or modified team in-depth instruction for students. A high level of skill
sports is continuing in many schools. Activities such development usually increases a person’s tendency to
as team handball, Ultimate Frisbee, floor hockey, repeat and enjoy an activity.
speed-a-way, broomball, flickerball, angleball, modified The length of activity units has shortened over the
lacrosse, and pillow polo are some of the newer team past decade, especially at the middle school level. In qual-
sports variations that are popular in various areas of ity programs, 6- to 9-week units are becoming obsolete. In
the country. Some of these are new activities, whereas most middle school programs, 2- to 3-week units are the
others are modifications of existing sports. They add norm. These shorter units enable physical educators to
another positive dimension to programs because of the expand the breadth of their programs and to give students
increased variety and opportunities for success with an introduction to a wider variety of activities. Some peo-
certain types of students. ple question this trend because of the reduction in depth
New team sport activities provide many interesting of instruction, but students can choose to develop depth
and exciting challenges for both students and instructors. in an activity in the high school years. Short units also
In teaching almost any activity, problems may exist with reduce boredom and frustration, which are common
safety, liability, competent instruction, equipment, and problems among middle school students. With increased
teacher’s comfort zones, but the advantages of offering program breadth, educators have a better opportunity to
new team sports are well worth the encountered prob- provide students with some type of physical activity that
lems. A wide variety of activities should enhance the they can enjoy and continue to use.
objective of developing in all students a positive attitude Depth in an activity is made available in high school
toward a lifetime of physical activity. curricula by allowing students to choose a semester-
long unit. This specialized approach is part of an elec-
tive or optional program instead of a required program.
STUDENTS RECEIVE IN-DEPTH Semester-long classes give students a chance to gain
INSTRUCTION in-depth skill in an activity of their choice after they
Some high schools offer different levels of instruction, such complete the required program. Many schools offer
as beginning and intermediate classes. Some schools use the semester- or year-long units focusing on popular activi-
classifications beginning, team, and recreational. Three-week ties such as fitness center classes, cardio combinations,
units are now offered for beginning basketball, team basket- lifetime racquet sports, and weight training. The middle
ball, and recreational basketball. The beginning class covers school program provides breadth of activity while the
dribbling, passing, pivoting, rebounding, and so forth, while high school program gives students the opportunity to
the team class includes such areas as offensive strategy, zone develop a high level of skill competency.
defenses, and techniques on beating a half-court trap. The
final recreational class allows opportunity for team play and
tournaments. Students can take three units in a progressive,
DIAGNOSTIC AND COUNSELING
systematic procedure. An advantage of this approach is that PRACTICES ARE EVIDENT
teachers can do a better job of instruction because classes Students in middle school need guidance and counseling
are more homogeneous in motivation and ability. Students to direct them toward activities that match their interests
usually feel more comfortable in a group in which similar and physical abilities. Teachers can help students under-
attitudes and abilities prevail. stand their physical strengths and shortcomings and the
In grades 10–12, programs should offer intermediate possibilities for alleviating problems. This means data col-
and advanced levels of instruction. Students at these lection and the procedures for interpreting the data to
developmental levels choose one or two activities in students and parents. Obese and overweight students, for
which they want to excel. Advanced instruction is differ- example, might be channeled into activities in which they
ent from a free-play recreational situation commonly can find success and feel competent. Students with strong
found in many programs. Depth refers to organized upper bodies might be encouraged to try activities that
instruction rather than simply increasing the amount of involve strength. Activity counseling can help students
participation time. Physical educators must move away make wise decisions about activities that are well suited to
from the notion that physical education programs should their abilities and will help them address problem areas.

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High school students also need to learn about the swimming, as well as basic physical activity programs for stu-
benefits of physical activity and the types of activities avail- dents at the schools. Physical educators should contribute to
able. They can use counseling in several other areas, such as the leadership aspects of physical activity programs that aug-
behavioral self-modification techniques to aid them in ment physical education. Strong leadership ensures the qual-
the change and maintenance of activity habits. Students ity of these programs and guards against possible abuses.
should understand environmental factors and obstacles Many teacher education programs across the country (for
that work against their attempts to participate in physical example, Arizona State University) are encouraging and pro-
activities. Employment parameters, marriage, children, viding coursework and internships for undergraduate and
and climate are factors that affect activity lifestyles. graduate students on how to run school physical activity pro-
Learning to keep records, set goals, and establish reinforce- grams before, during, and after school when facilities and
ment procedures can help students with their activity equipment are available and are not being used at the school.
habits. Another important area of activity counseling deals Unqualified leaders with inappropriate program goals can
with changing interests and activities of people as they lead to a discouraging experience for young, immature stu-
grow older. Many adults have been conditioned to think dents. Programs must be developed with the idea of fostering
that physical activity is only for the young. This attitude a love of physical activity in students (rather than promoting
needs to change in light of the revelation that numerous escape or avoidance behaviors). Physical educators should
benefits are derived from being active at all age levels. help parents, other teachers, and adults organize these pro-
Fitness and play activities are important regardless of age. grams with the proper goals in mind.
Some secondary schools have designed a series of com-
pulsory units that require students to assess their physical
abilities and make decisions about physical activities that
offer them success and remediate weaknesses. A counseling
program helps channel students into physical education
STUDY STIMULATORS
activities that can enhance their strengths and alleviate AND REVIEW QUESTIONS
weaknesses. The testing and counseling procedures should 1. Describe the public’s general perception of phys-
be set up in a systematic, organized fashion. A physical edu- ical education.
cation advisor should be assigned to each student to guide 2. Explain physical education’s unique contribution
to the lives of students.
her or him through the process in an attempt to give stu- 3. What is the role of the National Standards for
dents information on which they can base sound decisions Physical Education?
about their future. Counseling students combined with 4. Describe the relationship between “knowing
implementing the previously described elective program is about fitness” and “engaging in physical activity.”
an effective way to fuse students’ interests with their physi- 5. Explain why physical education is an excellent
cal ability requirements. This model provides a blend of environment for teaching students about respon-
sible behavior.
information about physical activity and gives students ex-
6. How would you use the public health perspec-
periences in improving physical skills and physical fitness. tive to defend physical education as a subject in
Students should leave the program with approach tenden- the schools?
cies for physical activity instead of avoidance behaviors. 7. Describe four essential components of a quality
physical education program.
8. Explain the limitations of a curriculum domi-
ALL SCHOOL PHYSICAL ACTIVITY nated by team sports.
9. List and discuss strategies teachers can use to
PROGRAMS ARE INTEGRATED develop positive attitudes toward physical activity
AND ORGANIZED in their students.
Activity programs such as sport clubs, intramural sports, 10. Explain how the NASPE National Initial Physical
Education Teacher Education Standards should
and interscholastic athletics can effectively help students
impact quality physical education programs across
improve their skills and become more proficient. Such pro- the country.
grams also provide opportunities for young people to meet 11. Describe five characteristics of successful physical
others with similar interests. A variety of important qualities education programs.
can be experienced through these programs (e.g., teamwork, 12. Discuss the role of a physical education teacher as
dedication, perseverance, deferred rewards, and loyalty). it relates to their involvement in the leadership of
the various physical activity programs (intramu-
These qualities should be nurtured in today’s youth.
rals, lunch time activities, before school and after
School physical activity programs could include com- school open gym, sport physical activity clubs, and
munity youth sports, YMCA activities, parks and recre- athletics) at the school where they are teaching.
ation activities, private sport programs such as soccer or

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WEBSITES for youth. Physical Activity and Fitness Research

Digest, 2(2), 1–8.
American Alliance for Health, Physical Darst, P., & Armstrong, G. (1991). Outdoor adventure
Education, Recreation and Dance activities for school and recreation programs.
www.aahperd.org Prospect Heights, IL: Waveland Press.
Eitzen, D. S., & Sage, G. (1986). Sociology of North
American Heart Association American sport. Dubuque, IA: W. C. Brown.
www.americanheart.org Ferraro, K. F., Thorpe, R. J., Jr., & Wilkinson, J. A. (2003).
The life course of severe obesity: Does childhood
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention overweight matter? Journal of Gerontology, 58B(2),
www.cdc.gov S110–S119.
Fitness Products Council. (1999). U.S. participation in
Fitness for Life
fitness activities, 1987–1998. North Palm Beach, FL:
www.fitnessforlife.org Sporting Goods Manufacturers Association.
Gortmaker, S. L., Must, A., Sobol, A. M., Peterson, K.,
Fitnessgram/Activitygram
Colditz, G. A., & Dietz, W. H. (1996). Archives of
www.fitnessgram.net
Pediatric Adolescent Medicine, 150, 356–362.
Human Kinetics Guo, S. S., & Chumlea, W. C. (1999). Tracking of body mass
index in children in relation to overweight in adulthood.
www.humankinetics.com
American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 70, 145S–148S.
National Association for Sport and Guo, S. S., Roche, A. F., Chumlea, W. C., Gardner, J. D., &
Physical Education Siervogel, R. M. (1994). The predictive value of child-
www.aahperd.org/naspe hood body mass index values for overweight at age 35.
American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 59, 810–819.
www.aahperd.org/naspe/grants/accreditation/
Hellison, D. (2003). Teaching responsibility through physi-
ncatestandards.cfm
cal activity (2nd ed.). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics
Physical Education Teaching and Curriculum Publishers.
Information Jebb, S. A., & Moore, M. S. (1999). Contribution of a
www.pecentral.com sedentary lifestyle and inactivity to the etiology of
overweight and obesity: Current evidence and re-
www.pelinks4u.org
search issues. Medicine and Science in Sports and
www.pe4life.org
Exercise, 31, S534–S541.
Morgan, C. (2004). A longitudinal study of the relation-
ships between physical activity, body mass index, and
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American Alliance for Health, Physical Education, pedometers to promote physical activity in physical
Recreation, and Dance and Cooper Institute for Aerobics education. Journal of Physical Education Recreation
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Aerobics Research. W. H. (1992). Long-term morbidity and mortality of
Bailey, D. A., Faulkner, R. A., & McKay, H. A. (1996). Growth, overweight adolescents: A follow-up of the Harvard
physical activity, and bone mineral acquisition. Exercise Growth Study of 1922 to 1935. New England Journal
and Sport Science Reviews, 24, 233–266. of Medicine, 327, 1350–1355.
Bar-Or, O. (1995). Health benefits of physical activity dur- National Association for Sport and Physical Education.
ing childhood and adolescence. Physical Activity and (1992). Outcomes of Quality Physical Education
Fitness Research Digest, 2(4), 1–6. Programs. Reston, VA: AAHPERD.
Burgeson, C. R., Wechsler, H., Brener, N. D., Young, J. C., & National Association for Sport and Physical Education.
Spain, C. G. (2001). Physical education and activity: (2008). Initial Physical Education Teacher Education
Results from the school health policies and programs Standards. Reston, VA: Author.
study (SHPPS) 2000. Journal of School Health, 71(7), National Association for Sport and Physical Education.
279–293. (2006). Shape of the Nation 2006: A Survey of State
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2006). Youth Physical Education Requirements. Reston, VA: AAHPERD.
risk behavior surveillance—United States, 2005. National Association for Sport and Physical Education.
Morbidity & Mortality Weekly Report (MMWR), (2004). Moving into the future: National standards
55(SS5), 1–108. for physical education (2nd ed.). Reston, VA: Author.
Cooper Institute, Meredith, M., & Welk, G., (Eds.). (2007). National Association for Sport and Physical Education.
Fitnessgram/activitygram test administration manual (2004). Physical activity for children: A statement of
(4th ed.). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics Publishers. guidelines (2nd ed.). Reston, VA: Author.
Corbin, C., & Lindsey, R. (2007). Fitness for life (updated National Association for Sport and Physical Education.
5th ed.). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics Publishers. (2005). Physical Best Activity Guide: Middle and High
Corbin, C., & Pangrazi, R. (2004). Physical activity for chil- School Levels. (2nd ed.) Champaign, IL: Human
dren: A statement of guidelines for children ages 5–12. Kinetics Publishers.
Reston, VA: NASPE. National Center for Health Statistics. (2004). Health,
Corbin, C. B., Pangrazi, R. P., & Welk, G. (1994). Toward an United States, 2004 with chartbook on trends in the
understanding of appropriate physical activity levels health of Americans. Hyattsville, MD.

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 P H Y S I C A L E D U C AT I O N I N T H E S E C O N D A R Y S C H O O L

Ogden, C. L., Carroll, M. D., Curtain, L. R., McDowell, M. A., predictors of physical activity in young adulthood.
Tabak, C. J., & Flegal, K. M. (2006). Prevalence of over- American Journal of Preventative Medicine, 13,
weight and obesity in the United States, 1999–2004. 317–323.
Journal of the American Medical Association, 295, Trost, S.G., & van der Mars, H., (2010). Why We Should
1549–1555. Not Cut P.E. Educational Leadership, December
Pangrazi, R. P., & Beighle, A. (2010). Dynamic physical 2009/January 2010, 60-65.
education for elementary school children (16th ed.). Trudeau, F., Laurencelle, L., Tremblay, J., Rajic, M., &
San Francisco: Benjamin Cummings. Shephard, R. J. (1998). A long-term follow-up of partici-
Prusak, K., Treasure, D., Darst, P., & Pangrazi (2004). The pants in the Trois-Rivieres semi-longitudinal study of
effects of choice on the motivation of adolescent girls growth and development. Pediatric Exercise Science, 10,
in physical education. Journal of Teaching in Physical 366–377.
Education, 23(1), 19–29. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. (1996).
Raitakari, O. T., Porkka, K. V. K., Taimela, S., Telama, R., Physical activity and health: A report of the surgeon
Rasanen, L., & Viikari, J. S. A. (1994). Effects of persist- general. Atlanta, GA: U.S. Department of Health and
ent physical activity and inactivity on coronary risk Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and
factors in children and young adults. American Prevention, National Center for Chronic Disease
Journal of Epidemiology, 140, 195–205. Prevention and Health Promotion.
Sallis, J. F. (1994). Influences on physical activity of children, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. (2002).
adolescents, and adults or determinants of active Prevalence of overweight among children and adoles-
learning. Physical Activity and Fitness Research Digest, cents: United States, 1999. Atlanta, GA: Centers for
1(7), 1–8. Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for
Sallis, J. F., & McKenzie, T. L. (1991). Physical education’s Health Statistics.
role in public health. Research Quarterly for Exercise U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. (2000).
and Sport, 62, 124–137. Healthy people 2010: National health promotion and
Sallis, J. F., McKenzie, T. L., Kolody, B., Lewis, M., disease objectives. Washington, DC: U.S. Government
Marshall, S., & Rosengard, P. (1999). Effects of health- Printing Office.
related physical education on academic achievement: U.S. Public Health Service. (1990). Healthy people
Project SPARK. Research Quarterly for Exercise and 2000: National health promotion and disease objec-
Sport, 70, 127–134. tives. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing
Siedentop, D., & Tannehill, D. (2000). Developing teach- Office.
ing skills in physical education (4th ed.). Mountain Whitaker, R. C., Wright, J. A., Pepe, M. S., Seidel, K. D., &
View, CA: Mayfield Publishing. Dietz, W. H. (1997). Predicting obesity in young
Sporting Goods Manufacturers Association. (2000, adulthood from childhood and parental obesity. New
May/June). Fitness and Sports Newletter. England Journal of Medicine, 337, 869–873.
Telama, R., Yang, X., Laakso, L., & Viikari, J. (1997). Williams, J. F. (1927). The principles of physical education.
Physical activity in childhood and adolescence as Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders.

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The Impact of Physical
Activity on Adolescents
ESSENTIAL COMPONENTS OF
A QUALITY PROGRAM
I. Organized around content standards
▲

II. Student-centered and developmentally

appropriate
▲

III. Physical activity and motor skill develop-

ment form the core of the program
IV. Teaches management skills and
self-discipline
V. Promotes inclusion of all students
VI. Focuses on process over product
VII. Promotes lifetime personal health
and wellness
VIII. Teaches cooperation and responsibility
and promotes sensitivity to diversity

NATIONAL STANDARDS FOR

PHYSICAL EDUCATION*
1. Demonstrates competency in motor skills
and movement patterns needed to perform
a variety of physical activities.
▲

2. Demonstrates understanding of movement

concepts, principles, strategies, and tactics as
they apply to the learning and performance
of physical activities.
3. Participates regularly in physical activity.
4. Achieves and maintains a health-enhancing
level of physical fitness.
5. Exhibits responsible personal and social
behavior that respects self and others in
physical activity settings.
6. Values physical activity for health, enjoyment,
challenge, self-expression, and/or social *National Association for Sport and Physical Education
interaction. (NASPE), 2004.

From Chapter 2 of Dynamic Physical Education for Secondary Schools, Seventh Edition. Paul W. Darst, Robert P. Pangrazi, Mary Jo Sariscsany,
Timothy A. Brusseau, Jr. Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. Published by Pearson Benjamin Cummings. All rights reserved.
 THE IMPACT OF PHYSICAL ACTIVITY ON ADOLESCENTS

led public health experts to propose a change in focus for

Chapter Summary physical education programs. Currently, the government
has issued a draft of 2020 objectives for national review by
This chapter offers an overview of the impact of physi-
the citizenry (Proposed Healthy People 2020 Objectives,
cal activity on the growing adolescent. The chapter
also looks at important research and cites empirical U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 2009).
evidence supporting the value of an active lifestyle in The following are examples of objectives that pertain
promoting optimum growth and development of sec- specifically to adolescents and are currently under review
ondary school students. Differences in growth pat- and consideration:
terns and maturation rates of students impact the
physical performance of youth. Additionally, the needs ■ Increase the proportion of the nation’s public and
of overweight youth are discussed and methodology is
presented for teaching them in a manner that pro-
private schools that require daily physical education
motes increased physical activity. Promoting lifestyle for all children.
activity is an important outcome for quality physical ■ Increase the proportion of adolescents who partici-
education programs.
pate in daily school physical education.
Student Outcomes ■ Increase the proportion of adolescents that meet
After reading this chapter, you will be able to: current physical activity guidelines for aerobic
• Discuss how physical maturity affects the physical physical activity and for muscle strengthening
skills of students. activity.
• Identify the impact of regular physical activity on ■ Increase the proportion of adolescents who spend
adolescent students. at least 50 percent of school physical education class
• Describe the general health and activity status of time being physically active.
students in American schools.
• Explain the harmful effects that being overweight The Healthy People objectives are reviewed at a number
can have on the health and well-being of a of meetings across the United States. Any person or
student.
organization may comment on the objectives and recom-
• Defend physical education with available research mend amendments and changes in the document. National
and empirical evidence.
organizations often play a role in contributing to the out-
• Identify principles to follow for exercising safely comes. The following are some of the organizations that
in warm climates.
promote public health through physical activity and healthy
• Describe a safe approach for distance running
eating habits.
with adolescent students.

■ NASPE National Standards for Physical Education

(2004). NASPE has defined a physically educated
person with six major standards. These standards
The Healthy People National Health Promotion and emphasize being active, knowing the benefits of
Disease Objectives report (U.S. Public Health Service, physical activity, and developing skills to support
2000) is generated each decennial by the government. The physical activity.
report is designed to give direction and goals for improv-
ing health and reducing disease over the next 10 years. For ■ American Heart Association Statement on
many years, the report listed goals based on physical fit- Promoting Physical Activity in Children and Youth
ness. However, little improvement in fitness scores over a (2006). This article offers strong scientific support for
number of decades led the government to reconsider maintaining and increasing time for physical educa-
whether fitness was the proper goal to pursue. The last tion. Strong concern is stated regarding the increase
two reports have listed all goals in terms of physical activ- in obesity and decrease in physical activity. This is an
ity rather than fitness. Included are national goals for excellent platform for justifying physical education
physical activity promotion for youth and national goals based on facts and studies.
for increasing physical education in the schools. ■ Centers for Disease Control and Prevention 2008
Members of the public health community in the Physical Activity Guidelines for Americans (2008).
United States now focus on physical activity as a method These guidelines outline methods of promotion of
of chronic disease prevention. The emphasis on physical physical activity for adults, children, and youth. The
activity apparent in this national statement of goals has guidelines recommend more than 1 hour a day of

30
 THE IMPACT OF PHYSICAL ACTIVITY ON ADOLESCENTS

moderate or vigorous physical activity. In addition, ■ Additional health benefits are gained through
adolescents should do vigorous physical activity and greater amounts or intensities of physical activity.
muscle and bone strengthening at least three days a People who can maintain a regular regimen of
week. Promoting activity in the school setting is longer duration or of more vigorous intensity are 2
central to these guidelines. likely to derive the greatest benefit.
■ NASPE Physical Activity Guidelines for Children ■ Physical activity reduces the risk of premature mor-
(2004). This statement extends public health tality in general and of coronary heart disease, dia-
goals and outlines activity guidelines based specif- betes mellitus, hypertension, and colon cancer in
ically on the needs of children and youth. particular. Physical activity also improves mental
health and is important for the health of muscles,
■ American College of Sports Medicine and
bones, and joints.
American Heart Association Physical Activity and
Public Health Guidelines (Haskell et al., 2007). Prior to this, no body of research had ever been com-
This recent set of guidelines places new emphasis piled demonstrating the strong need for physical
on the importance of 30 minutes of moderate in- activity in the lives of youth. Activity programs are a
tensity lifestyle physical activity five days a week as a requisite for healthy young bodies and minds. Physical
part of healthy living. Thirty minutes of vigorous education today has a clearer mandate than ever to play
activity three days a week (or a combination of an important role in the total school curriculum. The
moderate and vigorous) activity can be substituted. fitness and activity program must produce an enjoyable
and positive social experience so youth develop a posi-
These statements provide the basis for a consistent tive attitude toward activity. A large part of making the
and repeated challenge for physical education pro- experience meaningful is to allow students choice in the
grams, especially if the goal is to teach young people selection of activities they prefer. For years, schools have
how to maintain an active lifestyle that promotes health focused on training students and raising their fitness
and vitality. Administrators and school boards often feel levels. As we have shown, this has been an unsuccessful
physical education is a frill to be taught only after all venture because of genetic limitations and the emo-
other subjects have received adequate coverage and sup- tional makeup of developing young people. Promoting
port. Schools teach youth how to achieve academically and encouraging physical activity is an outcome that
in order to live a productive life and few question the can be accomplished by all youth regardless of ability or
importance of learning to read and write. However, personal interests. Participating in moderate activity
there is no higher priority in life than health. Few peo- decreases the risk of morbidity and mortality if contin-
ple are productive if they are in poor health. Healthy ued throughout the lifespan. Regular activity for youth
individuals are assets to society while those in poor increases the probability of an active lifestyle as they age
health are a liability and contribute little to the welfare (Janz, Kwon, Letuchy, Gilmore, Burns, Torner, Willing,
of others. Without it, all other skills lack meaning and & Levy, 2009). The study also revealed that kids active
utility. The science is clear and well documented in the at age 5 end up with less fat at age 8 and 11, even when
reports noted in the list presented in the previous sec- controlling for their accumulated level of activity. The
tion. However, the Surgeon General’s report, Physical average 5-year-old in the study got 30 minutes of mod-
Activity and Health (USDHHS, 1996), documents the erate to vigorous exercise per day. For every 10 minutes
health benefits of physical activity as evidenced by these on top of that, kids had one-third of a pound less fat
major conclusions: tissue at ages 8 and 11.
Focusing on physical activity benefits those young
■ People of all ages, both male and female, benefit people who need it the most—the unskilled and over-
from regular physical activity. weight. These students often find it difficult to play in
■ Significant health benefits can be obtained by sports that demand coordination, speed, and quickness.
adults who perform moderate physical activity However, they can be successful in walking, swimming,
(e.g., 30 minutes of brisk walking or raking leaves, and biking programs that promote a level of participa-
15 minutes of running, or 45 minutes of playing tion to be maintained throughout the lifespan. Figure 1
volleyball) on most, if not all, days of the week. compares and contrasts the focus on physical fitness ver-
sus physical activity. The point here is not to deny that
fitness is a goal for those who feel able to achieve it, but
rather to understand that fitness is genetically controlled

31
 THE IMPACT OF PHYSICAL ACTIVITY ON ADOLESCENTS

Physical Fitness Physical Activity

Youth who fail an item on a fitness test are labeled Youth who are inactive can become active. Becoming
unfit even though they may not be able to rectify the more active is easy to understand and achieve.
situation.
Physical fitness performance is strongly impacted by All youngsters can become physically active
genetic endowment. regardless of their physical limitations.
Physical fitness performance is usually reviewed in a Physical activity goals can be reached in many
comparative manner. different ways, making them personal accomplishments.
Physical fitness is usually a short-term goal for Physical activity focuses on long-term lifestyle goals.
youngsters.
Physical fitness is difficult to assess. Even the best Physical activity goals can be monitored in many
tests are not highly reliable and valid. ways, such as amount of time, number of steps,
and activity recall.

It is difficult to assign physical fitness workouts as Physical activity can easily be assigned to students,
homework since the workloads are very dependent and they can personalize it to fit their needs.
on the individual.

FIGURE 1 Physical fitness versus physical activity outcomes for youth

and not achievable by many. A better goal for the masses GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT
is physical activity. It is an outcome that can be achieved
by all regardless of genetic ability. All students can pur- OF ADOLESCENTS
sue and maintain an active lifestyle Adolescence is a time of rapid growth and development.
While we know a lot about physical activity and Much variation exists in the actual onset of adolescence
how to promote it, especially among adults, we know and entry into adulthood. For example, CDC defines
little about the effectiveness of secondary school physi- adolescence as occurring between ages 12 and 19 in
cal education in promoting physical activity among their operational definitions for Healthy People 2010
adolescents. There has been a decrease in physical edu- (2000). During this period, the body matures physically
cation programs in high schools in the United States and sexually.
(USDHHS, 1996; Morrow, Jackson, & Payne, 1999). Growth patterns are generally controlled by genetic
This suggests that most parents and school officials do makeup at birth. Although unhealthy parents or poor
not value physical education programs and do not see dietary practices can have a negative impact on proper
physical education as an effective means of achieving growth and development, the focus in this section is on
national health goals. Results of Project Active Teen normal maturation common to the majority of young
(Dale, Corbin, & Cuddihy, 1998; Dale & Corbin, 2000) people. Developing young people follow a general
provide evidence that secondary programs can promote growth pattern; however, each individual’s timing is
long-term activity adherence. High school students who unique. Some students will be advanced physically for
completed a health-based physical education program, their chronological age, whereas others will be identi-
including classroom study and physical activity partici- fied as slow maturers. Only when aberration from the
pation, were more likely to meet national health goals norm is excessive should teachers and parents become
for activity several years after completing their physical concerned.
education requirement than those who took traditional
physical education. Stone, McKenzie, Welk, and Booth GROWTH PATTERNS
(1998) describe other school-based interventions de- Maturing early has a strong impact on success in physical
signed to promote lifespan physical activity. Several activities. Young people who mature early are often better
large-scale intervention projects designed to promote athletes at an early age. This may not be the case when
physical activity are currently conducted under govern- they all reach full maturity; however, it may be too late for
mental grant sponsorship to test the activity promotion the late maturers to catch up with their peers. Parents
capabilities of physical education. often want to know how their child is growing compared

32
 THE IMPACT OF PHYSICAL ACTIVITY ON ADOLESCENTS

to other children of the same age. Weight- and stature and legs increase in length in proportion to their trunk.
(height)-for-age percentiles have been produced for this In addition, muscle fiber differentiation now occurs,
purpose. Figures 2 and 3 display stature and weight per- meaning that adolescents now have a combination of
centiles that have been developed by the Centers for slow (aerobic)- and fast (anaerobic)-twitch muscle
Disease Control and Prevention (2000). Another method fibers. This change means they may or may not excel at
of examining growth patterns is to look at a growth veloc- certain types of activities as their muscle physiology
ity curve for height and weight. The velocity curve is quite changes. Elementary school-aged children do not have
useful because it reveals how much a young body grows muscle fiber differentiation, so those who excel at anaer-
on a year-to-year basis (see Figures 4 and 5). Note that the obic activities also excel at aerobic activities. Muscle fiber
growth of boys and girls slows down between ages 3 and 7. differentiation occurs during the adolescent growth
Slow growth is usually a good time to learn motor spurt; those students who end up with more slow-twitch
skills because learning is not confounded by the changing fibers will tend to do better at aerobic activities while
body parameters such as center of gravity and limb those with a higher proportion of fast-twitch fibers will
length. In girls, at age 9, growth velocity increases perform better in anaerobic activities. A broad-based
rapidly and slows at 12 years. For boys, growth velocity middle school program helps these youth find their new
increases at age 11 and peaks at 13. With girls, growth areas of physical competency.
slows down and levels off around age 13, as contrasted These changes make the middle school teacher a
with boys, who continue to grow rapidly until they are major key in helping students continue to feel competent
nearly 15. What does all this mean for secondary physical in physical activities. Because these students have a dif-
educators? ferent body than they had in elementary school, they
First, because females reach the adolescent growth need to relearn and practice skills they were taught previ-
spurt first, they often grow taller and heavier during sixth ously. Sometimes, it is common to criticize students and
and seventh grade. Males catch up, however, and grow elementary physical education teachers by assuming skills
larger and stronger. When growth velocity increases in were not taught. This is seldom the case; instead, matu-
large amounts, an individual’s ability to learn motor skills rity has changed a student’s ability to perform previously
decreases. Because the growth of boys and girls occurs at learned skills. Middle school teachers must be adept at
different times and rates, it implies that different strate- re-teaching the basic skills of throwing, catching, striking,
gies for instruction should be used. The middle school and kicking. With effective skill instruction, the middle
years are a critical time for teachers to understand how school years will be a time when students learn what their
the great variation in growth and development impacts true abilities are.
physical performance. Students who might have been
early maturers may become discouraged because their
peers are improving more than they are. On the other PHYSICAL MATURITY
hand, the early maturers may make the late maturers feel Teachers in physical education often talk about the
inept in performing physical tasks. These years require maturity of students. Usually, they are identified as being
sensitive and caring teachers to help students understand early, late, or average maturers, with teachers often refer-
how their growth and development patterns impact their ring to social maturity rather than physical maturity.
performance. Physical maturity, however, has a strong impact on a stu-
Boys continue to grow rapidly throughout high dent’s performance in physical education. The most
school. This often makes it a difficult time for them to commonly used method to identify the degree of physical
learn and perform motor skills. On the other hand, the maturity is to compare chronological age with skeletal
growth of girls has slowed by seventh or eighth grade, age. Ossification (hardening) of the bones occurs in the
making them more able to learn new skills. Focusing on center of the bone shaft and at the ends of the long bones
learning motor skills should be reduced during periods of (growth plates). Physical maturation or skeletal age
rapid growth. It is a time to place emphasis on maintain- (which can be identified by X-raying the wrist bones and
ing positive attitudes by focusing on the program and comparing the development of the subject’s bones with a
successful performance of skills learned during the earlier set of standardized X-rays) gives an objective view of the
years in school. student’s physical maturity (Roche, Chumlea, & Thissen,
This rapid growth spurt also brings adolescents a 1988; Malina, Bouchard, & Bar-Or 2004). If chronological
“new” body. The head is about 90 percent developed by age is greater than skeletal age, the child is said to be a late
age 6, so as youth enter adolescence, they become less (or slow) maturer. On the other hand, if skeletal age is
top-heavy. They have to learn to move with a new center advanced beyond chronological age, the student is labeled
of gravity as they grow “into their head,” and their arms an early (or fast) maturer.

33
 FIGURE 2 Stature-for-age and weight-for-age percentiles for girls
Data from the National Center for Health Statistics in collaboration with the National Center for Chronic Disease Preventions
and Health Promotion, 2000.

34
FIGURE 3 Stature-for-age and weight-for-age percentiles for boys
Data from the National Center for Health Statistics in collaboration with the National Center for Chronic Disease Preventions
and Health Promotion, 2000.

35
 THE IMPACT OF PHYSICAL ACTIVITY ON ADOLESCENTS

maturing young people also have larger amounts of muscle

and bone tissue because of their larger body size. However,
the early maturer also carries a greater percentage of body
weight as fat tissue (Malina, Bourchard, & Bar-Or, 2004).
Late maturing youth usually catch up to early maturers in
height but not in weight. In addition, an early maturing
student in elementary school will also be an early maturer
in secondary school. Generally, early maturing males have
mesomorphic physiques, and early maturing females are
characterized by endomorphy. These differences in body
size and composition probably account for male–female
performance differences in activities that require strength
and power.
The motor performance of males is related to early
maturity; more mature boys usually perform better on
motor tasks (Malina, Bourchard, & Bar-Or, 2004). For
FIGURE 4 Distance curves for height and weight females, however, motor performance appears to be less
Data from Malina, R. (1975). Growth and Development: The
First Twenty Years in Man. Minneapolis, MN: Burgess. p. 19.
related to physiological maturity. Because many sports
require size and strength, it is likely that male early matur-
Early maturing students of both sexes are generally ers have a strong advantage in athletic endeavors. This
heavier and taller for their age than average- or late- points out the need to design a physical education curri-
maturing students. Overweight youth are often more culum that meets the needs of both early and late maturers.
mature for their age than their normal-weight peers. Early Units of instruction that emphasize activities relying less on
strength and size and more on aerobic capacity, agility, bal-
ance, and coordination need to be included. Instruction
often forces students to learn at the same rate or participate
in activities with other students regardless of skill level,
even though this practice may be detrimental to students
who are developing at a faster or slower rate. Teachers
sometimes expect students to be capable of performing the
same activity at the same time, regardless of maturation.
Students do not mature at the same rate and are therefore
not at similar levels of readiness to learn. If physical
education is to be intended for all students, the curriculum
needs to offer successful experiences for less mature
young people.

The Effect of Activity on Growth Patterns

It appears that activity has little or no impact on the
stature of maturing students (Malina, Bourchard, & Bar-
Or, 2004). Some people have theorized that strenuous
physical activity disrupts normal developmental patterns,
but there is no consistent evidence to support such con-
cerns. Involvement in activity impacts the body composi-
tion of participants. The long-term effect of such activity
is not known, however, and it is quite possible that once
students quit participating, they may return to a body
type similar to nonexercisers. A number of studies with
teenagers show that short-term training has a strong im-
FIGURE 5 Growth velocity curve for height pact on muscular development (Rowland, 2005). Strength
Data from Tanner, J. M., Whitehouse, R. H., & Takaishi, M. (1966). Archives of training causes muscular hypertrophy in teenagers in a
Diseases in Childhood, 41: 466. manner similar to adults. However, if the activity is not

36
 THE IMPACT OF PHYSICAL ACTIVITY ON ADOLESCENTS

continued, lean body mass decreases and fat levels slowly It appears that, in adolescents, aerobic power can be
increase. increased 10 to 20 percent through training. However,
Physical activity that is high impact (in contrast to not all individuals respond to training in a similar fash-
swimming) affects skeletal growth by increasing the bone ion. Studies have shown that individual responses to
mineral density. Vigorous high-impact activity improves training vary from almost no increase to more than
internal bone structure so that bones are much more 40 percent in aerobic fitness (Hautala et al., 2003). This
resistant to pressure, tension, and ultimately, to breakage. research shows that it is possible to train two young peo-
The bones increase in diameter and density in response to ple with the same fitness routine and end up with dra-
activity. Inactivity for prolonged periods causes deminer- matically different results. Often, youth are told they
alization and makes the bones more prone to fracture. aren’t working hard enough when the real issue could
Research shows that increased calcium intake coupled be their genetic limitations. It points out why focusing
with regular physical activity results in a significant gain in on fitness gains is a difficult issue at best. Grading or
bone density (Rowlands, Ingledew, Powell, & Eston, rewarding students on their fitness test performance
2004). Peak gain in bone mineral density occurs at 13 to (which is limited by their physical makeup) is a simplis-
14 years of age, and 90 percent of adult bone mineral con- tic approach to a complicated issue. A better approach is
tent is established by the end of adolescence (Bailey, to focus on lifestyle activity (being active is not geneti-
Faulkner, & McKay, 1996). Osteoporosis is a major cause cally limited) and cultivating a positive attitude toward
of death and disability in older adults because of skeletal moderate to vigorous physical activity. Developing a
fractures and disfigurement. positive attitude toward fitness and activity is more
Even though activity enhances skeletal density, it does important than training and testing students to see if
not appear to affect the rate of skeletal maturity. Young peo- they can reach their maximum capacity and physical
ple who are most mature at an early age will still be the most limit. Few adults ever exercise throughout their lifetime
mature when evaluated later in adolescence. Daily physical using high-intensity activities. A final thought: if physi-
activity ensures optimum growth of bones in maturing cal fitness testing is an important skill to use throughout
young bodies. life, how many adults do you know that test their physi-
cal fitness levels on a regular basis?

AEROBIC CAPACITY The Impact of Being Overweight

Maximal aerobic power is an individual’s maximum ability on Aerobic Capacity
to use oxygen in the body for metabolic purposes. The oxy- Overweight students seldom perform physical activities
gen uptake of an individual, all other factors being equal, on a par with their leaner peers. In part, this is because of
determines the quality of endurance-oriented performance. the greater metabolic cost for an overweight young
Aerobic power increases with chronological age during the person. Overweight students require a higher oxygen
elementary school years in males and females at a similar uptake cost to perform a given task. Because overweight
rate, even though males exhibit higher levels as early as age students have to move at a higher percentage of their
5 (Malina, Bouchard, & Bar-Or, 2004). At age 12, oxygen aerobic capacity, they have less reserve and perceive
uptake continues to increase in males and stops improving greater exertion (Bar-Or & Ward, 1989). This lack of
in females after age 14. Because maximal aerobic power is reserve probably explains why overweight young people
closely related to lean body mass, this tapering off in aerobic perceive aerobic tasks as demanding and unenjoyable.
power among older females is explained by an increase in The task not only feels more demanding, it is more
reproductive body fat. When aerobic power is related to demanding for overweight students.
muscle mass and adjustments are made for body-fat differ- This increased demand on the cardiovascular system
ences, aerobic power is similar between the sexes. leads to a commonly-held perception that overweight
Another method for viewing aerobic power in young youth “don’t like to run.” Some teachers take the unaccept-
people is to adjust their maximum oxygen uptake on a able approach that the best thing for overweight young
per-kilogram-of-body-weight basis. When adjusted in this people is to run hard so they can burn more calories and
manner, it shows little change for males (no increase) and lose weight. Instead, it should be accepted that most over-
a continual decrease for females (Malina, Bouchard, & weight students are working hard; therefore, workloads
Bar-Or, 2004). Again, this decrease among females is in must be adjusted accordingly. There is no acceptable prem-
large part caused by an increase in body fat and a propor- ise, physiological or psychological, for asking all students to
tionate decrease in lean body mass. This lack of increase run the same distance regardless of ability. In fact, for
raises the question as to whether training youth increases many overweight youth, running may be a poor choice of
their aerobic performance. physical activity because of the risk of joint injury.

37
 THE IMPACT OF PHYSICAL ACTIVITY ON ADOLESCENTS

Exercise workloads for all students need to be based on What is the significance of variation in the ratio of mus-
time rather than distance or intensity. Aerobically gifted cle fiber type for physical educators? The ST fibers have a
runners should be expected to move farther and faster than rich supply of blood and related energy mechanisms. This
overweight runners during a stipulated time period. All stu- results in a slowly contracting, fatigue-resistant muscle fiber
dents do not and should not have to do the same amount of that is well suited to endurance-type (aerobic) activities. In
exercise. Just as one would not expect seventh graders to contrast, the FT fibers are capable of bursts of intense
perform the same workload as that of high school seniors, it (anaerobic) activity but are subject to rapid fatigue. These
is unreasonable to expect all students to perform similar fibers are well suited to activities demanding short-term
workloads. Assigning the same workload for all students speed and power (such as pull ups, the standing long jump,
(often referred to as mass prescription) is easy for the and the shuttle run). ST fibers facilitate performance in the
teacher but not beneficial for students. Exercise programs distance runs or other endurance-oriented activity. If an
for overweight subjects should be designed to increase individual has a high ration of slow twitch fibers, they may
caloric expenditure (emphasize duration of movement) do poorly in a physical education program dominated by
rather than improve cardiovascular fitness (intensity of the team sports that place a premium on quickness and
movement) (Rowland, 2005). The intensity of the activity strength. Designing a program that offers activities demand-
should be secondary to the amount of time the student is ing a wide range of physical attributes—that is, endurance,
involved in some type of moderate activity. balance, and flexibility—is essential if all students are going
to have a successful experience.
STRENGTH
During the elementary school years, muscular strength in-
creases linearly with chronological age (Malina, Bouchard,
THE IMPACT OF ACTIVITY
& Bar-Or, 2004) until adolescence, at which time a rapid ON HEALTH
increase in strength occurs. Strength is related to body size Pick up any newspaper, and there will be an article about
and lean body mass. When differences in strength between the benefits derived from an active lifestyle. Unfortunately,
the sexes are adjusted for height, there is no difference in the nation’s enthusiasm for physical activity has not af-
lower body strength from ages 7 through 17. When the fected physical education programs. In the Youth Risk
same adjustment is made for upper-body strength, how- Behavior Surveillance System (CDC/YRBSS, 2010), less
ever, males have more upper extremity and trunk strength. than 37 percent of students reported that they accumu-
Males and females can compete on somewhat even terms in lated 60 minutes of any type of physical activity five out
activities demanding leg strength, particularly if size and seven days. On the flip side, 25 percent of students played
mass are similar. On the other hand, in activities demand- video or computer games for three or more hours per day.
ing arm or trunk strength, males have a definite advantage, Unfortunately, only 33 percent of high school boys and
even if they are similar to females in height and mass. These 32 percent of high school girls attended daily physical
considerations are important when students are paired to education classes during the 2008–2009 school year
create equality in competitive situations. (CDC, YRBSS, 2010). These statistics show how important
it is for physical education teachers to promote physical
Muscle Fiber Type and Performance activity for students outside of the school setting. School
The number of muscle fibers an individual possesses is is basically a sedentary activity and, for many students,
genetically predetermined. An increase in muscle size is they leave school and become sedentary watching TV or
accomplished by an increase in the size of each muscle playing video games.
fiber. The muscled look of an individual is determined first The need to promote physical activity as an integral
by the number of fibers and second by the size of the fibers. part of a healthy lifestyle is obvious. Sadly, rather than
Skeletal muscle tissue contains a ratio of fibers that are fast encourage increased activity among youth, many schools
contracting (fast twitch [FT]) and slow contracting (slow have focused on physical fitness testing. This excessive con-
twitch [ST]) (Saltin, 1973). The percentage of fast- versus cern about the fitness levels of youth has resulted in a need
slow-contracting fibers varies from muscle to muscle and to “train students to pass fitness tests” to meet district stan-
among individuals. The percentage of each type of muscle dards. When fitness outcomes become more important
fiber is determined during the first weeks of postnatal life than participation in regular activity, students learn that it
(Dubowitz, 1970). Most individuals are believed to possess is more important to focus on short-term goals (fitness test
about a 50:50 split; that is, half of the muscle fibers are FT results) rather than a long-term lifestyle (daily activity).
and half are ST. A small percentage of people have a ratio Health goals for the nation for the year 2010 (U.S. Public
of 60:40 (in either direction), and researchers have verified Health Service, 2000) are primarily based on increasing
that some people possess an even more extreme ratio. daily levels of physical activity, not fitness levels. Many of

38
 THE IMPACT OF PHYSICAL ACTIVITY ON ADOLESCENTS

the goals directly target schools or programs that can take them to solve their problems through increased and man-
place within the school setting. These goals are stated in dated exercise. If the treatment is unsuccessful, students
terms of activity objectives rather than fitness objectives, may view it as another failure in trying to manage their
and emphasis is placed on reducing inactivity and increas- weight and be strongly opposed to future activity programs.
ing light to moderate physical activity. Adults often say: “Don’t worry about excessive weight;
The physical education profession must reinvent it- it will come off when the student reaches adolescence.” The
self so that their programs promote and teach lifestyle opposite is usually true, however. If a youth’s parents are
changes related to increased physical activity and both overweight, there is an 80 percent chance he or she will
healthy eating habits. Whereas fitness testing has be overweight. The majority of overweight pre-adolescents
anointed a few gifted students and failed the majority of grow into overweight adults. Young people clearly do not
others, developing programs that change the activity grow out of obesity; they grow into it. Weight management
patterns of youth allows all students the opportunity for issues need to be challenged, and this challenge must come
success and long-term health. Students should be recog- from increased movement and activity. In addition, many
nized for their willingness to participate rather than overweight students are victims of their home environ-
their reticence to be tested. ment. There are no easy answers, and to solve such a com-
plex problem as weight management, parents, nutritionists,
EXCESSIVE WEIGHT counselors, nurses, and physicians need to be involved in
Body composition refers to the varying amounts of mus- the process.
cle, bone, and fat within the body. More than half of the The advantage of using physical activity to treat over-
fat stored in the body is stored in a layer just below the weight problems is that it increases energy expenditure.
skin. One of the easiest (however, not the most accurate) In contrast to rigid diets, exercise minimizes the loss of
ways to evaluate whether an individual is overweight and lean body mass and stimulates fat loss. Physical activity
a health risk is to use the Body Mass Index (BMI). BMI is inexpensive, easy to do in a variety of situations, and
is a relationship between weight and height associated often a positive social experience.
with body fat and health risk. The equation is BMI ⫽
body weight in kilograms/height in meters squared or Overweight and Type 2 Diabetes
BMI ⫽ weight (lbs.)/height (in.)/height (in.) ⫻ 703. BMI Other diseases are associated with a lack of physical activ-
has replaced skinfolds as a measure because it is less inva- ity. One of the areas of grave concern is the high incidence
sive. Individuals can equate their own BMI by weighing and of overweight young people. Closely related to these
measuring themselves. There are many BMI calculators on weight problems is that of type 2 diabetes. CDC reports
the Web that make it simple to compute. Data gathered for that about 1.7 per 1,000 young people (ages 0 to 19 years)
the 2009 CDC/YRBSS showed that over 13 percent of high are afflicted with this serious ailment. Properly adminis-
school students were obese. Obese is defined as having a tered exercise programs can be an effective approach for
BMI equal to or above the 95th percentile for age and sex positively influencing this chronic disorder. Overweight
(see the charts on previous pages). The percentage of obese and obesity, which is influenced by physical inactivity and
students was 10.5 in 2001. This is a 19.3 percent increase poor diet, is significantly associated with an increased risk
over nine years. There are signs that the upward trend of diabetes among youth (USDHHS, 2008). The fitness of
toward obesity among children is slowing down; however, diabetic teenagers, caused by lack of exercise, is lower than
many children are still overweight. This increase is occur- that of nondiabetic students. This probably occurs be-
ring at all ages and shows the need to increase the amount cause nurses and teachers fear that exercise will cause
of activity youth receive in the school environment. hypoglycemia. Proper management of diet and insulin is a
Lack of physical activity is common among both key factor, which usually means ensuring that the energy
normal-weight and overweight young people. Only about intake is increased while the insulin dose is maintained.
35 percent of high school students met recommended levels Unfortunately, many teenagers decrease the amount of
of physical activity (CDC/YRBSS, 2009). Inactivity and voluntary physical activity when they enter middle and
overweight issues are closely linked. In a study by Vincent, senior high school.
Pangrazi, Raustorp, Tomson, and Cuddihy, (2003), inactiv-
ity and weight management issues were strongly correlated.
Overweight students need to increase their daily physical PHYSICAL EDUCATION DROPOUTS
activity and develop an attitudinal shift. Students need to Students who feel physically incompetent usually drop
develop positive feelings about the role of physical activity out of physical education, and leave school with negative
in weight management strategies. It is best to deal with feelings about maintaining an active lifestyle. Dropping
overweight youth in a positive fashion rather than pushing out of physical education commonly occurs at the middle

39
 THE IMPACT OF PHYSICAL ACTIVITY ON ADOLESCENTS

school level because it is offered as an elective. Dropping contributions to the physical well-being of young people
out of activities because of a perceived lack of skill com- cannot be developed elsewhere in the curriculum, con-
petency is most unfortunate. It is difficult to predict vincing administrators and parents that intellectual
who will be an outstanding athlete in junior or senior development is enhanced by physical education should
high school by observing their performance in the pre- not be necessary. Physical educators can justify inclusion
adolescent years. In an early study by Clarke (1968), of the program on the basis of its unique contributions.
coaches rated boys who were outstanding athletes. Of the The public has shown support for a physical education
boys who were rated as outstanding in the elementary program if it aids, nurtures, and shows concern for the
school years, only 25 percent received this rating when physical development of all students.
they were in middle school. Teachers should avoid trying A study that created much interest was the Trois
to predict who will be an excellent athlete and try to keep Rivieres regional experiment (Shephard, 1984b). The
all students engaged in activities as long as possible. If a study provides a well-conceived design for increased
student is labeled at an early age, there is a good chance physical education programming. Even though students
that they will believe the label and be unable to change received more time for physical education (and less for
the expectations of others. academics), their academic performance did not decrease.
One of the problems with trying to predict who will These results counter the objection that more physical
be an outstanding athlete at an early age is that it places education will result in poorer academic performance
early maturing youth in skilled positions. For example, because less time is spent in the classroom. Additionally, a
children selected as outstanding athletes at age 10 receive follow-up study of participants in the Trois Rivieres study
extra amounts of reinforcement from teachers and peers. 20 years later suggested that students who had more phys-
Additionally, they are placed in skilled positions, allow- ical education time in school were more likely to be active
ing them to receive much more practice (e.g., pitching later in life (Trudeau, Laurencelle, Trembley, Rajic, &
versus playing right field in baseball). This self-fulfilling Shephard, 1998). Administrators need to be informed
prophecy results in young people practicing more to live about this study, particularly today, when many schools
up to the expectations of those who selected them. On have a back-to-basics emphasis. This emphasis usually
the other hand, youth who develop more slowly often means “back to the classroom,” without physical activity
become discouraged and drop out of the sporting expe- or the arts. One wonders if this lack of concern for the
rience at a later age. body, our “home to the brain,” is detrimental to total
This inability to predict excellence emphasizes the need development of students. The ability to read is less impor-
for physical education programs to focus on keeping young tant if one’s health has degenerated. No priority in life is
people enthusiastic and engaged until they are capable higher than physical well-being.
of performing successfully. The purpose of a physical edu-
cation program is not to develop athletes. Physical educa-
tion is for everyone. Physically-gifted young people have SAFETY GUIDELINES FOR EXERCISE
myriad opportunities to enhance their skills; however, less AND PHYSICAL ACTIVITY
skilled students have only the physical education program
Two areas of concern for physical educators who are respon-
to help them develop and improve.
sible for exercising young people are (1) the avoidance of
physical injury or harm and (2) the maintenance and devel-
opment of positive attitudes and feelings about exercise.
INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT Healthy students are capable of vigorous workloads; how-
AND PHYSICAL EDUCATION ever, when exercise is not conducted properly or is pushed to
excess, students may develop negative attitudes about being
For years, physical educators have attempted to demon-
active. The following sections present guidelines for offering
strate a relationship between physical education and
students exercise in a safe and positive manner.
intellectual development. Many professionals believe that
if intellectual development or academic achievement
could be linked to physical education, the profession MODERATION
might rank higher as an educational priority. A relation- Using moderation when teaching physical activities helps
ship to other academic areas should not be a requisite for ensure that young people grow up with positive feelings
a physical education program. Physical education makes toward maintaining an active lifestyle. Many benefits can
unique contributions to the total school curriculum: accrue through participation in moderate physical activity.
motor skill development and the understanding and Moderate activity is most often recreational lifetime activ-
maintenance of physical fitness. Considering that these ity and is used by the vast majority of adults who want to

40
 THE IMPACT OF PHYSICAL ACTIVITY ON ADOLESCENTS

participate. This raises the question of what is moderate ■ Sweating capacity is not as great in some teenagers
and/or vigorous physical activity. How does one know as in adults, resulting in a lowered ability to cool
when they are performing moderate to vigorous physical the body.
activity (MVPA)? The simplest definition of moderate ■ The ability to convey heat by blood from the body
activity is defined as equivalent to a brisk walk that notice- core to the skin is reduced in youth because of a
ably accelerates the heart rate. Other examples of moderate lower cardiac output at a given oxygen uptake.
activity are cycling at a moderate speed, raking leaves, or
walking with a purpose. These physiological differences demonstrate that teenagers
Another way to teach students about moderate and are at a disadvantage compared to adults when exercising in
vigorous activity is to teach them about the Compendium an environment where the ambient air temperature is higher
of Physical Activities Tracking Guide (Ainsworth, 2003). than the skin temperature. In addition, the physical maturity
The compendium uses metabolic equivalents (METS), of teenagers varies considerably, so it is possible that some
which is a ratio of the work metabolic rate and the resting youths are more physically similar to adults, whereas others
metabolic rate. One MET is defined as 1 kcal/kg/hour and is are still childlike in terms of their maturation levels.
roughly equivalent to the energy cost of sitting quietly. A Often, teenagers do not instinctively drink enough liq-
MET also is defined as oxygen uptake in ml/kg/min with uids to replenish fluids lost during exercise. The American
one MET equal to the oxygen cost of sitting quietly, equiva- Academy of Pediatrics (2000) offers the following guidelines
lent to 3.5 ml/kg/min. The guide lists metabolic equivalents for exercising young people in hot weather:
for a variety of activities. For example, if one was to bicycle
at 16–19 mph, the work MET would be 16 (or 16 times ■ The intensity of activities that last 30 minutes or
greater energy expenditure than sitting at rest). Playing more should be reduced whenever relative humid-
competitive football would be a 9 MET activity, while com- ity and air temperature are above critical levels.
petitive basketball would be an 8 MET activity. Generally Figure 6 shows the relationship between humidity
speaking, moderate intensity activities are those that fall in and air temperature and when it is necessary to
the range of 3 to 6 METs. Vigorous intensity activities are moderate activity demands.
those that are greater than 6 METs. ■ When beginning an exercise program in warm
Educators are sometimes concerned that vigorous weather, the intensity and duration of exercise should
activity may not be beneficial for middle and high school be restrained initially and then increased gradually
students. To date, there is no evidence that a healthy student over a period of 10 to 14 days to accomplish acclima-
can be harmed through vigorous exercise. This does not tion to the effects of heat.
mean that a student is capable of the same unadjusted phys- ■ Before prolonged physical activity, participants
ical workload as an adult. Evidence does indicate, however, should be fully hydrated. During the activity, periodic
that young people can withstand a gradual increase in work- drinking (e.g., 5 ounces of cold tap water every
load and are capable of workloads comparable to those of 30 minutes for a student weighing 88 pounds) should
adults when the load is adjusted for height and size. be enforced.
■ Clothing should be lightweight and limited to one
EXERCISE AND HEAT
layer of absorbent material to facilitate evaporation
It is possible to exercise youth in hot weather, but certain
measures should be used to avoid heat-related illness.
Adolescents, particularly in middle school, do not adapt to
extremes of temperature as effectively as adults for the fol- Relative Air
Humidity Level (%) Temperature (°F)
lowing physiological reasons (Baker and Kenney, 2007;
American Academy of Pediatrics, 2000): 40 90
50 85
■ Youth have a higher surface area/mass ratio than
60 80
adults. This allows a greater amount of heat to transfer
70 75
between the environment and the body. 80 70
■ When walking or running, adolescents produce 90 65
more metabolic heat per unit mass than adults pro- 100 60
duce. Middle and high school students are not as
efficient in executing movement patterns, so they FIGURE 6 Weather guide: When the humidity and air
generate more metabolic heat than adults perform- temperature exceed the corresponding levels, intense activity
ing a similar task. should be curtailed

41
 THE IMPACT OF PHYSICAL ACTIVITY ON ADOLESCENTS

of sweat and to expose as much skin as possible.

Sweat-saturated garments should be replaced by
dry ones. Rubberized sweat suits should never be
used to produce weight loss.
The academy identifies youth with the following condi-
tions as at a potentially high risk for heat stress: excessive
weight, febrile (feverish) state, cystic fibrosis, gastrointestinal
infection, diabetes, type 2 diabetes, chronic heart failure,
caloric malnutrition, anorexia nervosa, sweating insuffi-
ciency syndrome, and mental retardation.

DISTANCE RUNNING AND FITNESS TESTING

The question often arises as to how much and how far young
people should be allowed to run, particularly in a competitive
or training-for-competition setting. Because parents, teach-
ers, and coaches seldom see the long-term effects of distance
running, they often show little concern or willingness to limit FIGURE 7 The PACER fitness test avoids
the amount of activity. However, the American Academy of many of the pitfalls of the mile run
Pediatrics (2000) has identified possible problems that could
arise. Lifetime involvement in a sport often depends on the
type of early participation and gratification gained.
Psychological problems can result from setting unrealistic run. The PACER offers validity and reliability coefficients
goals for distance running by young people. A student who similar to the mile run/walk.
participates in distance running primarily for parental grati-
fication may tire of the activity after a time and quit, or the RESISTANCE (STRENGTH) TRAINING
student may continue and chafe under the coaching or Resistance training refers here to a method of condition-
parental pressure. In either case, psychological damage can ing that involves a wide range of resistive loads including
occur, causing the student to become discouraged and un- free weights, weight machines, stretch bands, medicine
willing to participate—either immediately or in the long run. balls, and even traditional exercises such as push ups and
Participants should be allowed to participate for the sit ups. It is not competitive bodybuilding or power lifting,
enjoyment of running, without fear of teacher, parental, or which involve maximum efforts in an attempt to dramati-
peer rejection or pressure. A student’s sense of accomplish- cally increase strength and muscle size. The American
ment, satisfaction, and appreciation by peers, parents, and Academy of Pediatrics (2008) recommends that adoles-
coaches will foster involvement in running and other sports cents should avoid competitive weight lifting, power lift-
during school years and in later life. ing, bodybuilding, and maximal lifts until they reach
An issue related to running is the common practice of skeletal maturity. In physical education, the goal is to
fitness testing students at the start of the school year in the teach students the fundamentals of resistance training as
mile run/walk. Many students may not have ample condi- part of a total fitness program.
tioning to participate safely in the activity. In addition, in Resistance training for youth often generates concern
many parts of the country, the start of the school year is among educators. Many worry about safety and stress-
hot and humid, adding to the stress placed on the cardio- related injuries while others question whether such train-
vascular system. If testing is deemed necessary, it is recom- ing produces significant strength gains. Many teachers have
mended that the test be done near the end of the school avoided resistance training in middle school physical edu-
year after students have had an opportunity to train for cation because of safety issues and the wide variation in
the activity. If this is not possible, allow young people at maturity. Accepted thinking for years was that since many
least 4 to 6 weeks of activity to achieve proper condition- middle school students are just entering adolescence,
ing. Rowland (2005) recommends starting with a 1⁄8-mile they are incapable of making significant strength gains
run/walk and gradually building to a mile run/walk over a because they lack adequate levels of circulating androgens.
4-week period. A better alternative is to use the PACER Evidence is continuing to build that contradicts this point
(Progressive Aerobic Cardiovascular Endurance Run) aer- of view (Faigenbaum, 2003) and shows that students of
obic fitness test (Figure 7). This test can be administered any age and stage of development can increase strength
indoors and does not require completing a mile distance through resistance training. Strength gains of roughly 30 to

42
 THE IMPACT OF PHYSICAL ACTIVITY ON ADOLESCENTS

50 percent occur in 8–12 weeks with untrained adoles- school classes. There are many ways to enhance strength
cents. Resistance training is an excellent fitness activity for besides using weights if safety or lack of equipment is an
overweight youth because they are often stronger than issue.
their smaller and leaner peers. This offers them success and If a decision is made to include a weight-training pro-
competence in an activity that is less aerobic based. A con- gram in the physical education program, it should be done
cern that females often have is that they will develop excess in a thoughtful and studied manner. Focus on correct lift-
muscle mass from resistance training. Boys increase in fat- ing techniques instead of the amounts of weight lifted.
free mass because of hormonal influences; however, girls Proper supervision and technique are key ingredients in a
show less muscular development because of lower levels of successful program. Program prescription guidelines rec-
androgens (Faigenbaum, 2003). ommended by Faigenbaum et al. (2009) follow:
Safety and prevention of injury are paramount consid-
erations for those interested in weight training for youth. ■ Training is recommended two or three times a week
When injuries are reported in a school setting, most have on nonconsecutive days for 20- to 30-minute periods.
occurred because of inadequate supervision, lack of proper High repetitions (10–15) at low resistance appear to
technique, or competitive lifting, however, these are rare. be most safe for middle-school-aged youth.
The majority of weight-lifting injuries occur on home ■ Ensure the activities and exercises are developmen-
equipment in unsupervised settings. (AAP, 2008). A resist- tally appropriate. Stretch bands or medicine balls
ance training program is only one component of a compre- might be more attractive to less motivated youth and
hensive fitness program for youth. The National Strength are safer alternatives to weights. Weight machines are
and Conditioning Association (Faigenbaum et al., 2009) expensive but also help ensure proper lifting form
offers an excellent set of guidelines (Figure 8) to guide and easily adjusted resistance.
instruction and program development in middle and high

Example of Youth Resistance Training Guidelines

• Provide qualified instruction and supervision

• Ensure the exercise environment is safe and hazard-free
• Start each training session with a 5- to 10-minute dynamic warm-up period
• Begin with relatively light loads and always focus on the correct exercise technique
• Perform 1 to 3 sets of 6 to 15 repetitions of a variety of upper- and lower-body strength exercises
• Include specific exercises that strengthen the abdominal and lower back region
• Focus on symmetrical muscular development and appropriate muscle balance around joints
• Perform 1 to 3 sets of 3 to 6 repetitions on avariety of upper- and lower-body power exercises
• Progress sensibly through the training program depending on needs, goals, and abilities
• Increase the resistance gradually (5–10%) as strength improves
• Cool-down with less intense calisthenics and static stretching
• Listen to individual needs and concerns throughout each session
• Begin resistance training 2–3 times per week on nonconsecutive days
• Use individualized workout logs to monitor progress
• Keep the program fresh and challenging by systematically varying the training program
• Optimize performance and recovery through healthy nutrition, proper hydration, and adequate sleep
• Integrate support and encouragement from instructors and parents to help maintain student interest

FIGURE 8 Example of youth resistance training guidelines

Data from Faigenbaum, A. D., Kraemer, W. J. Blimkie, C. J. R., Jeffreys, I., Micheli, L. J., Nitka, M., & Rowland, T. W. (2009). Youth re-
sistance training: updated position statement paper from the national strength and conditioning association. Journal of Strength
and Conditioning Research 23(Supplement 5), S60–S79. Used with permission.

43
 THE IMPACT OF PHYSICAL ACTIVITY ON ADOLESCENTS

■ No resistance should be applied until proper form the risk of accidents and failure. As a teacher, it is
is demonstrated. important to help students progress according to
■ Start gradually with light weights that ensure success. sound training principles.
There is little point in students trying and failing at ■ Focus on the positive aspects of fitness workouts.
excessive workloads. When beginning a training pro- Students should learn to chart their exercises, work-
gram, a single set of 10–15 repetitions is a good start- loads, and repetitions. Young people have the benefit
ing point (Faigenbaum, 2003). After a program has of growth and maturity to help ensure that many of
been established, one to three sets per exercise should them will improve—a surefire path to adherence
be done. and motivation.
■ Increase weight or resistance in 1- to 3-pound incre- ■ One goal does not fit all makes and models of
ments when 15 repetitions are performed with good students. Boys and girls will have different reasons
form and under control. for resistance training and fitness regimens. A major
■ Maximal lifts should not be performed until partic- instructional objective should be to counsel individ-
ipants are at least 16 to 17 years old. Some students uals and help them identify reasonable and mean-
will want to lift their max, but this often increases ingful goals.

STUDY STIMULATORS Fitness Tests

www.cooperinst.org
AND REVIEW QUESTIONS www.presidentschallenge.org
1. Explain the reasons behind the recent efforts to Obesity
make the promotion of physical activity engage- www.cdc.gov/nccdphp/dnpa/obesity
ment a central goal for school physical education
programs. Presidential Active Lifestyle Award
2. Explain why efforts to raise physical fitness levels www.presidentschallenge.org/educators/program
in youth have been largely unsuccessful. Strength Training and Children
3. Discuss the reason behind the recent efforts to www.acsm.org
promote activity in female students.
4. Describe the relationship between chronological Youth Sports
age and skeletal age. www.nays.org
5. Why is learning new and more complex skills
difficult for students between the ages of 9
and 15?
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unenjoyable. President’s Council on Physical Fitness and Sports
7. Discuss the rationale for basing fitness work- Research Digest, 4(2), 1–8.
loads on time rather than distance or number. American Academy of Pediatrics. (2008). Policy Statement:
8. Discuss why physical activity, as compared to rigid Strength Training by Children and Adolescents.
diets, is a much more attractive intervention to Pediatrics, 121(4), 835–840.
American Academy of Pediatrics. (2008). Clinical Report:
treating overweight students.
Overuse injuries, overtraining, and burnout in child and
9. Explain why physical education professionals
adolescent athletes. Pediatrics, 119(6), 1242–1245.
should be concerned when the emphasis on “back American Academy of Pediatrics. (2000). Policy statement:
to the basics” continues. Climatic heat stress and the exercising child and ado-
10. List and explain two strategies to follow when lescent. Pediatrics, 106(01), 158–159.
students exercise in extreme heat. American Academy of Pediatrics. (2008). Policy statement:
Strength training by children and adolescents.
Pediatrics, 121(4), 835–840.
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Activity in Children and Youth: A Leadership Role for
Children and Physical Activity
Schools. Circulation, 114, 1214–1224.
www.cdc.gov/nccdphp/dash
Bailey, D. A., Faulkner, R. A., & McKay, H. A. (1996). Growth,
www.kidsource.com/kidsource physical activity, and bone mineral acquisition. Exercise
www.americanheart.org and Sport Science Reviews, 24, 233–266.
Baker, L. B., & Kenney, W. B. (2007). Exercising in the heat
Children’s Health and sun. President’s Council on Physical Fitness and
www.aap.org Sports Research Digest, 8(2), 1–8.

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Bar-Or, O., & Ward, D. S. (1989). Rating of perceived exertion guidelines for children ages 5–12 (2nd ed.). Reston,
in children. In O. Bar-Or (Ed.), Advances in Pediatric VA:AAHPERD and NASPE Publications.
Sport Sciences: Vol. 3. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics National Association for Sport and Physical Education.
Publishers. (2004). Moving into the future—National standards
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2009). for physical education (2nd ed.). Reston, VA: Author.
Surveillance Summaries. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Roberts, S. O., Ciapponi, T., & Lytle, R. (2008). Strength train-
Report, 59(SS-5). ing for children and adolescents. Reston, VA: National
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2008). Association for Sport and Physical Education.
National diabetes fact sheet: general information and Roche, A. F., Chumlea, W. C., & Thissen, D. (1988). Assessing
national estimates on diabetes in the United States, the skeletal maturity of the hand–wrist: Fels Method.
2007. Atlanta, GA: U.S. Department of Health and Springfield, IL: Thomas Publishing Co.
Human Services,. Rowland, T. W. (2005). Children’s Exercise Physiology,
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2000). CDC Second edition. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics
growth charts—United States. Washington, DC: U.S. Publishers.
Department of Health and Human Services. Rowlands, A. V., Ingledew, D. K., Powell, S. M., & Eston, R. G.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2010). Youth (2004). Interactive effects of habitual physical activity and
risk behavior surveillance—United States. Atlanta, GA. calcium intake on bone density in boys and girls. Journal
Clarke, H. H. (1968). Characteristics of the young athlete: of Applied Physiology, 97: 1203–1208.
A longitudinal look. Kinesiology Review, 3, 33–42. Saltin, B. (1973). Metabolic fundamentals of exercise.
Dale, D., & Corbin, C. B. (2000). Physical activity participation Medicine and Science of Sports, 5, 137–146.
of high school graduates following exposure to concep- Shephard, R. J. (1984a). Physical activity and child health.
tual or traditional physical education. Research Sports Medicine, 1, 205–233.
Quarterly of Exercise and Sport, 71, 61–68. Shephard, R. J. (1984b). Physical activity and “wellness” of
Dale, D., Corbin, C. B., & Cuddihy, T. F. (1998). Can concep- the child. In R. A. Boileau (Ed.), Advances in pediatric
tual physical education promote physically active sport sciences. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics
lifestyles? Pediatric Exercise Science, 10, 97–109. Publishers.
Dubowitz, V. (1970). Differentiation of fiber types in skeletal Stone, E. J., McKenzie T. L., Welk, G. J., & Booth, M. L.
muscle. In E. J. Briskey, R. G. Cassens, & B. B. Marsh (1998). Effects of physical activity interventions in
(Eds.), Physiology and biochemistry of muscle as a food: youth: Review and synthesis. American Journal of
Vol. 2. Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press. Preventive Medicine, 15, 298–315.
Faigenbaum, A.D. (2003). Youth resistance training. Tanner, J. M., Whitehouse, R. H., & Takaishi, M. (1966).
President’s Council on Physical Fitness and Sports Growth velocity curve for height. Archives of Diseases
Research Digest, 4(3), 1–8. in Childhood, 41, 467.
Faigenbaum, A. D., Kraemer, W. J. Blimkie, C. J. R., Jeffreys, I., Trout, J., & Kahan, D. (2008). Supersized PE: A compre-
Micheli, L. J., Nitka, M., & Rowland, T. W. (2009). Youth hensive guidebook for teaching overweight students.
resistance training: updated position statement paper Reston, VA: National Association for Sport and
from the national strength and conditioning association. Physical Education.
Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, Trudeau, F., Laurencelle, L., Trembley, J., Rajic, M., &
23(Supplement 5), S60–S79. Shephard, R. J. (1998). A long-term follow-up of partici-
Freedson, P. S. (1986). Cardiorespiratory diseases. In V. pants in the Trois-Rivieres semi-longitudinal study of
Seefeldt (Ed.), Physical activity and well-being. growth and development. Pediatric Exercise Science,
Reston, VA: AAHPERD. 10, 366–377.
Haskell, W. L., Lee, I-Min, Pate, R. R., Powell, K. E., Blair, S. N., U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. (1996).
Franklin, B. A., Macera, C. A., Heath, G. W., Thompson, Physical activity and health: A report of the surgeon
P. D., & Bauman, A. (2007). Physical Activity and Public general. Atlanta, GA: U.S. Department of Health and
Health: Updated Recommendation for Adults from the Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and
American College of Sports Medicine and the American Prevention, National Center for Chronic Disease
Heart Association. Medicine & Science in Sports & Prevention and Health Promotion.
Exercise, 39(8), 1423–1434. United States Department of Health and Human Services.
Hautala, A. J., Mäkikallio, Y. H., Kiviniemi, A., Laukkanen, R. (2008). Physical Activity Guidelines for Americans.
T., Nissilä, S., Heikki, V., Huikuri and Mikko, P. Tulppo Data available at http://www.health.gov/paguidelines/
(2003). Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol 285: 1747–1752. guidelines/summary.aspx.
Janz, K. F., Kwon, S., Letuchy, E. M., Gilmore, J. M., Burns, T. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. (2009).
L., Torner, J. C., Willing, M. C., & Levy, S. M. (2009). Proposed Healthy People 2020 Objectives for National
Sustained effect of early physical activity on later fat- Review by the Citizenry. http://www.healthypeople.gov
ness during childhood. American Journal of Preventive /HP2020/Objectives/TopicAreas.aspx.
Medicine, 37: 35–40. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. (2008). 2008
Malina, R., Bouchard, C., & Bar-Or, O. (2004). Growth, Physical Activity Guidelines for Americans. www.health.
Maturation, and Physical Activity-2nd Edition. gov/paguidelines/guidelines/default.aspx#toc.
Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. U.S. Public Health Service. (2000). Healthy people 2010:
Morrow, J. R., Jackson, A. W., & Payne, V. G. (1999). Physical National health promotion and disease objectives.
activity promotion and school physical education. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.
President’s Council on Physical Fitness and Sports Vincent, S. D., Pangrazi, R. P., Raustorp, A., Tomson, L. M., &
Research Digest, Series 3, No. 7. Cuddihy, T. F. (2003). Activity levels and BMI of children
National Association for Sport and Physical Education. in the United States, Sweden, and Australia. Medicine
(2004). Physical activity for children: A statement of and Science in Sports and Exercise, 35(8), 1367–1373.

45
46
 Steps in Developing
a Curriculum

From Chapter 3 of Dynamic Physical Education for Secondary Schools, Seventh Edition. Paul W. Darst, Robert P. Pangrazi, Mary Jo Sariscsany,
Timothy A. Brusseau, Jr. Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. Published by Pearson Benjamin Cummings. All rights reserved.
 Steps in Developing
a Curriculum
ESSENTIAL COMPONENTS OF
A QUALITY PROGRAM
▲ ▲

I. Organized around content standards

II. Student-centered and developmentally
appropriate
▲

III. Physical activity and motor skill develop-

ment form the core of the program
▲

IV. Teaches management skills and

self-discipline
▲ ▲ ▲

V. Promotes inclusion of all students

VI. Focuses on process over product
VII. Promotes lifetime personal health
and wellness
VIII. Teaches cooperation and responsibility
and promotes sensitivity to diversity

NATIONAL STANDARDS FOR

PHYSICAL EDUCATION*
1. Demonstrates competency in motor skills
and movement patterns needed to perform
a variety of physical activities.
▲

2. Demonstrates understanding of movement

concepts, principles, strategies, and tactics as
they apply to the learning and performance
of physical activities.
3. Participates regularly in physical activity.
4. Achieves and maintains a health-enhancing
level of physical fitness.
▲

5. Exhibits responsible personal and social

behavior that respects self and others in
physical activity settings.
6. Values physical activity for health, enjoyment,
challenge, self-expression, and/or social *National Association for Sport and Physical Education
interaction. (NASPE), 2004.

48
 STEPS IN DEVELOPING A CURRICULUM

set of personal and professional beliefs that provides a

Chapter Summary basis for determining curricular decisions (Figure 1).
Most often, physical educators have several value orien-
This chapter offers a systematic approach for de-
veloping a curriculum, with suggested formats for tations, and physical education programs reflect a blend
organization and evaluation. A written curriculum of different values. For example, a chosen curriculum
gives direction to the instructional program. A se- approach might include establishing lifetime participa-
quence of steps is offered for planning and de- tion in physical activities, developing sports skills,
signing a comprehensive curriculum. The concepts acquiring fitness knowledge, improving social skills,
of scope, sequence, breadth, depth, and balance
acquiring disciplinary knowledge, or combining a vari-
help ensure that the curriculum will meet the
needs of all students. The chapter also provides a ety of orientations.
discussion on the importance and advantages of When developing or revising an existing curricu-
articulating the curriculum from kindergarten lum, the value orientation of the physical education
through 12th grade. staff toward the existing curriculum and toward pro-
posed changes is a necessary consideration (Jewett,
Bain, & Ennis, 1995). Determining the value orienta-
Student Outcomes tion of the curriculum involves consideration of three
After reading this chapter, you will be able to:
major components: the subject matter to be learned,
• Explain the meaning of standards-based curriculum. the students for whom the curriculum is being devel-
• Discuss the common value orientations in physical oped, and the society that has established the schools.
education curriculum approaches. Priorities in curriculum vary depending on the value
• List and discuss the steps of curriculum construction. orientations of the physical educators involved in the
• Describe the issues that must be considered in de- planning. Physical educators who place highest prior-
veloping a philosophy and conceptual framework. ity on subject matter mastery include an emphasis on
• Describe various environmental factors that must sports, dance, outdoor adventure activities, physical
be considered when developing a physical educa- fitness activities, and aquatic activities. This orienta-
tion curriculum.
tion places strong emphasis on learning skills and
• Analyze the content standards that should guide gaining knowledge so students have the opportunity to
curriculum development.
learn the subject matter and continue active participa-
• Explain how to write the three parts of student-
tion for a lifetime. In contrast, instructors who favor a
centered objectives.
student-centered approach prize activities that develop
• Discuss the goals of adults and students regarding
the individual student. They emphasize helping
physical education activities.
students find activities that are personally meaningful.
• Explain the physical, social, emotional, and intel-
lectual differences between middle and senior
Other physical educators see student autonomy and
high school students. self-direction as the most important goals. They focus
• Discuss the following concepts as they relate to
instruction and curricula on lifetime sport skills
curriculum construction: scope, sequence, and nontraditional activities—such as cooperative
breadth, depth, and balance. games, trust-building procedures, and group
• Give several examples of how curriculum can be activities—in an attempt to foster problem-solving
evaluated. and interpersonal skills.
• Explain the advantages of an articulated K–12 These examples illustrate a few of the different
curriculum. value orientations of physical educators. Usually, most
curricula in the secondary schools are put together by
committee and therefore reflect a number of value
orientations. Teacher’s value orientations influence
their curricular decisions, so it is important to assess
Curriculum is a framework of student-centered physical personal beliefs in order to develop clarity between
activities that promotes physical activity and skill curriculum and instructional goals. Uncovering
development. A curriculum is a delivery system that shared value orientations makes it easier for a staff to
gives sequence and direction to the learning experiences present lessons that reflect common goals and objec-
of students. The development of a curriculum includes tives. See the accompanying box for suggested ques-
a set of beliefs and goals that evolves from a theoretical tions to ask before accepting a physical education
framework or value orientation. Value orientation is a teaching position.

49
 STEPS IN DEVELOPING A CURRICULUM

Value Orientations Outcomes Learning Domain Focus

Disciplinary Mastery Emphasis is placed on Psychomotor/Cognitive
motor skill acquisition, skill
and discipline knowledge
(e.g., biomechanics,
exercise physiology), and
skill performance.

Learning Process Emphasis is placed on using Psychomotor/Cognitive

new knowledge and
developing problem-solving
skills.

Self-Actualization Emphasis is placed on Affective

student’s developing self-
direction and taking
personal responsibility for
their learning. Students
learn about themselves.

Ecological Integration Emphasis is placed on the Affective

learning process, and
discovering student needs
and interests as they
develop and interact with
the world around them.

Social Reconstruction/ Emphasis is placed on Affective

Social Responsibility students developing pro-
social behaviors.

FIGURE 1 Value orientations provide direction in developing a curriculum

Data from Ennis, C.D. (1992) Curriculum theory as practiced: Case studies of operationalized value orienta-
tions. Journal of Teaching in Physical Education 11:358–375.

DESIGNING A QUALITY
Before accepting a teaching position, ask the
following questions about a prospective CURRICULUM
school’s curriculum: Quality physical education programs are shaped by
quality curriculum. Developing curriculum is a critical
■ Will the school curriculum express a point of
step in assuring that physical education is effective in
view about the subject matter that is consis-
providing students with appropriate knowledge, skills,
tent with mine?
and confidence to be physically active throughout their
■ Does the school curriculum express a point of life. The steps that follow offer a sequential approach
view about student learning that I share? for constructing a meaningful, well-planned curricu-
■ Does the school curriculum express a point of lum. The first four steps are designed to establish the
view that is consistent with mine about the framework that guides selection of activities for the
school’s role in accomplishing social and/or curriculum. These steps are critical to ensuring that
cultural goals? the activities are selected based on how well they con-
■ Can I implement instructional strategies that tribute to content standards; otherwise a curriculum has
I value using the school’s model? little direction, a situation similar to building a house
without blueprints.

50
 STEPS IN DEVELOPING A CURRICULUM

What Do You BELIEVE?

1. What are your personal and professional beliefs about physical education?
2. What do you feel is the primary purpose of secondary-level physical education?
3. What do you feel is the physical educator’s role in achieving the outcomes of their
personal and professional beliefs about physical education?
4. What do you want you students to have accomplished upon completion of your
curriculum?

FIGURE 2 Answering questions about your beliefs can clarify and guide your physi-
cal education curriculum

STEP ONE: DEVELOP A motor skills. Instruction should focus on learning

GUIDING PHILOSOPHY motor skills in a positive and nurturing envi-
ronment that assures students the joy of activity.
Defining a philosophy that reflects the beliefs that guide
Personal competency in a wide variety of skills
the developmental process is the initial step in curriculum
gives students the tools they need to lead an active
design. A philosophical statement defines how physical
and rewarding life.
education fits into the total school curriculum and what it
will accomplish for each student. The following is an ex- ■ Develop an understanding of the concepts related
ample of a philosophical platform for physical education to active and healthy behaviors. It is not enough
(Figure 2). to be active without understanding the reasons for
Physical education is that portion of the student’s being active and healthy. Moving efficiently requires
overall education that is accomplished through physical understanding anatomical and mechanical prin-
activity, that is, the process of educating the entire person: ciples of skill performance. Physical education
the body and the mind. Physical education is responsible instruction integrates knowledge about physical
for developing the body through instruction predomi- activity and skill performance so students learn
nantly focused on physical activity and skill development. how to maintain personal fitness.
A high-quality program teaches students how to live an
active and healthy lifestyle. A quality physical education STEP TWO: DEFINE A CONCEPTUAL
program uniquely contributes to the development of stu-
dents in the following ways: FRAMEWORK FOR THE CURRICULUM
A conceptual framework is a series of statements that
■ Develop personal activity and fitness behaviors. characterize the desired curriculum. These concepts
Students experience a large variety of activities so establish the criteria that will be used to select activities
they develop an understanding of their personal and experiences included in the curriculum. The frame-
strengths and weaknesses. Knowledge contributes work not only directs the activities, but also reflects beliefs
one aspect of developing activity and fitness behav- about education and the learner. Following are some con-
iors. Many adults have plenty of knowledge related ceptual statements that define a student-centered, devel-
to the need for fitness and activity but don’t prac- opmental curriculum.
tice what they know. Engaging in physical activity
that leads to personal health is a habit that can be ■ Curriculum goals and objectives are appropriate
learned during the middle and high school years. for all students. This implies a balanced curricu-
Physical education at this level may be the last lum that covers fundamental skills, sport skills,
learning experience for many students as they enter games, rhythms and dance, gymnastics, and indi-
adulthood. Personal physical activity behaviors and vidual and dual activities. Emphasis is placed on
fitness are learned through regular participation in developing a broad physical activity foundation
daily physical activity. for all students.
■ Learn motor skills that can be used for recre- ■ Activities in the curriculum are selected based on
ational activity throughout life. Movement com- their potential to help students reach content
petency is rooted in developing a broad base of standards. Middle and high school students benefit

51
 STEPS IN DEVELOPING A CURRICULUM

from physical experiences that provide experimenta- ■ Activities in the curriculum are presented in an
tion, exploration, practice, and decision making with educationally sound sequence. Progression is the
many movement possibilities. Inclusion of activities center of learning, and the curriculum should
in the curriculum is not based on teacher or student reflect progression vertically (between grade and
preferences but because they contribute to student developmental levels) and horizontally (within
progress toward content standards. each level and within each activity). Sequencing is
■ The curriculum helps students develop lifelong phys- developmentally appropriate and moves from
ical activity habits and understand basic fitness con- simple to more complex, both vertically and
cepts. A curriculum is designed so students leave horizontally.
school with active lifestyle habits. A meaningful ■ The curriculum includes an appropriate means
curriculum helps students understand that physical of assessing student progress. Student assessment
activity and fitness are personal in nature, need to be includes health-related fitness, skill development
maintained throughout life, and contribute to better and application, cognitive learning, and attitude
health. Fitness is an important component of the cur- development toward physical activity. Assessment
riculum that provides students with opportunities to should enhance the effectiveness of the program
participate in fitness activities that are varied, positive, and help teachers communicate learning out-
and educational. Students participate in fitness activi- comes, individualize instruction, communicate
ties rather than just being told the facts of fitness. with students and parents, and identify students
■ The curriculum includes activities that enhance with special needs.
cognitive and affective learning. Students are
whole beings and need to learn more than the phys-
ical performance of skills. They must understand STEP THREE: CONSIDER
skill performance principles and develop cognitive ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS
learning related to physical activity and wellness. Environmental factors are conditions within the commu-
Affective development, the learning of cooperative nity and school district that limit or extend the content of
and social skills, is fostered through group activities the yearly curriculum. Examples of environmental factors
that include all students regardless of their widely include the cultural makeup and interests of the commu-
varying skills and abilities. nity, the amount and type of equipment, and budget size.
■ The curriculum provides experiences that allow all Other factors, such as administrator support, can affect
students to succeed and feel satisfaction. Quality the type of scheduling or amount of required physical
programs focus on emphasizing success and minimiz- education. Although environmental factors need to be
ing failure. Activities encourage self-improvement, examined carefully, they should not circumvent and limit
participation, and cooperation enhancing the devel- curriculum scope and sequence. These factors should give
opment of positive self-concepts. Physical education direction to the curriculum development process. A
instruction focuses on developing a learning environ- well-designed curriculum provides a goal, direction, and
ment that supports all students. destination for the future, a map to instructional success.
Environmental factors can be used to enhance the creativ-
■ The curriculum is planned and based on an
ity and scope of the curriculum.
educational environment consistent with other
Following are specific examples of environmental fac-
academic areas in the school. Physical education
tors that may limit the development of a quality curricu-
teachers need the same working conditions as
lum. Although these factors can sometimes be limiting,
other teachers in the school setting. Class sizes
they can be handled creatively to ensure an effective cur-
similar to those of other classroom teachers (20
riculum. Think big; develop a comprehensive and ideal
to 35 students) and an assigned teaching area
curriculum that is as varied, broad, and creative as possi-
(e.g., gym space, outdoor fields, or exercise
ble. Seek to expand and develop the curriculum beyond
rooms) are needed for physical education
these limiting factors.
instruction. Enough equipment for maximum
activity and participation implies one piece of
individual equipment for each student and ample School Administrators
apparatuses to limit long lines while waiting for a School administrators’ support has a significant impact
turn. A daily program ensures maximum oppor- on the curriculum. Program goals must be communicated
tunity for learning and retention. clearly to administrators. Administrators may have

52
 STEPS IN DEVELOPING A CURRICULUM

misconceptions about physical education and its contri- community off-campus areas (e.g., swimming pool, park,
bution to students’ overall education. They are more likely fitness facilities). One piece of good condition equipment
to support a program built on sound educational princi- per child is necessary if students are to learn at an
ples that are documented and evaluated. School adminis- optimum rate. School funds or special funds raised by
trators’ support yields positive dividends over time. They students through selective programs can be used to
have the power to influence situations and implement purchase equipment. School maintenance departments
strategies. Areas where administrative support is necessary or industrial arts programs can be asked to construct
include the following: some equipment. Students can also be asked to bring
equipment, such as in-line skates, soccer balls, and
■ Determining the number of staff members and
basketballs.
class size.
■ Hiring staff to fill specific departmental needs. Laws and Requirements
■ Constructing or developing facilities and teaching Laws, regulations, and requirements at the national, state,
areas (e.g., racquetball courts, weight rooms, exercise and local levels may restrict or direct a curriculum.
trails, or swimming pools). Programs must conform to these laws. Examples of two
■ Purchasing equipment and teaching aids (e.g., golf federal legislation acts affecting physical education pro-
clubs, jump bands, rollerblades, medicine balls, grams are Individuals with Disabilities Education Act
body bars, physioballs, or jump ropes). (IDEA) of 2004 and Title IX of the Educational
■ Supporting innovative ideas or new activities (e.g., a Amendments Act of 1972. IDEA defines physical educa-
pilot unit on orienteering, an off-campus cross- tion as a necessary component of special education for
country skiing lesson, or a team-teaching presenta- student ages 3–21. Title IX enforces equal opportunities
tion of a golf unit). for both sexes. Individual states may have various laws
that affect physical education programming.
■ Maintaining existing teaching stations (e.g., watering
the fields, cleaning the gymnasium, or repairing Scheduling
weight machines).
School time schedules or organizational patterns have an
■ Supporting professional development with in-service impact on curriculum development. Consideration of
workshops, professional conferences, and current how many times per week classes meet, the length of class
literature. periods, and who teaches the classes are important factors
■ Providing useful and meaningful feedback to teach- in the development of curriculum. Many scheduling
ers on their teaching performance (e.g., collecting alternatives exist: daily, two or three times per week,
data on management time, productive time, active every other week, and other variations. Regardless of the
learning time, or behavior patterns). various parameters, most secondary schools put together
a scheduling committee consisting of administrators,
The Community: People and Climate teachers, parents, and students in order to develop a
workable schedule for all parties. There are two basic types
Occupations, religions, educational levels, cultural values,
of schedules: the traditional schedule and the flexible or
and physical activity habits within the community are fac-
block schedule. The traditional plan divides the school
tors that might affect curriculum development. Parents
day into five or six equal time periods. Each class, such as
have a strong influence on children’s activity interests and
math, science, or physical education, meets for the same
habits. Geographical location and climate of the area are
length of time on each day of the school week. Traditional
also important factors for consideration. Terrain (moun-
schedules (Figure 3) offer some advantages over others, it
tains, deserts, plains, and so on), combined with weather
is easier to set up, more economical, and easier to
conditions particular to each area, have an effect on
administer. Students are in the same class at the same time
people’s activity interests. Extremely hot or cold climates
each day providing a stable routine for students, teachers,
markedly influence what activities are included in the cur-
and administrators.
riculum and at what time of the year activities should be
Flexible or block schedules (Figure 4) provide a
scheduled.
varying length of time for classes depending on the nature
of the subject matter and the type of instruction given.
Facilities and Equipment Block schedules offer time periods almost two times
Available teaching facilities dictate activity offerings. longer than a traditional schedule. Seventy to 90 minutes
Facilities include on-campus as well as neighboring is a common length for a block schedule. A block schedule

53
 STEPS IN DEVELOPING A CURRICULUM

Period Time Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday

Homeroom 8:00–8:15

1 8:15–9:10 General math

2 9:15–10:10 English

3 10:15–11:10 Biology

Lunch 11:15–11:45

Study hall 11:45–12:15

Physical
4 12:15–1:10 education

5 1:15–2:10 History

Home
6 2:15–3:10 economics

FIGURE 3 Example of a traditional schedule

allows physical education students time to travel to alter- block schedules improve the learning in their classes
native locations (e.g., a local ski slope, a rock-climbing (Hastie, 2003).
center, a Frisbee golf course). Schools use different flexible
schedules to meet the needs of students and teachers Budget and Funding
involved. There are a number of popular block schedules Budget and funding procedures differ among school
such as the 4-by-4 format where students take only four districts; however, the physical education department
classes each semester, usually two 90-minute classes in the chairperson is usually involved in developing and
morning and two classes in the afternoon. Another varia- submitting the budget. Understanding the funding
tion is called an alternating block plan where students go procedures and planning an aggressive strategy for
to four classes one day and then four different classes the obtaining an adequate budget is a necessity for a qual-
next day. This rotates every day and gives the students ity program. Physical educators should seek parity
eight classes for the year. A flexible or block schedule pro- with other school departments in terms of class size
vides more time for skill development, the option of and equipment. Student learning in physical education
grouping students for different types of instruction (large is dependent on appropriate amounts and quality of
or small groups), or the use of limited and specific types necessary equipment.
of equipment. Most physical education teachers feel that In addition to the basic departmental budget, funds
may be available through outside sources. Sometimes the
athletic and physical education departments can share
equipment. With tight budgets, this is an effective way to
Block Time Semester 1 Semester 2 cut costs. Various community and parent groups, such
as the Lions or Rotary Club, may help with short-term
1 8:00–9:30 Math History funding for special facility or equipment needs such as a
2 9:35–11:05 Physical Computers
weight room, racquetball courts, or tennis racquets. Some
Education schools allow departments to have special fund-raising
campaigns involving students and faculty. Car washes,
11:05–11:30 Lunch Lunch candy sales, or admission to special sports demonstrations
are useful projects for generating funds. Some states offer
3 11:35–1:05 Biology Geography
tax incentives for contributions to school programs. The
4 1:10–2:40 English 1 English 2 best programs are not always the ones with the most
funding, but adequate funding is necessary to produce a
FIGURE 4 Example of a 4-by-4 block schedule quality curriculum.

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 STEPS IN DEVELOPING A CURRICULUM

STEP FOUR: DETERMINE CONTENT 1. Psychomotor domain. This domain is the primary
STANDARDS AND STUDENT OBJECTIVES focus of instruction for physical educators. The seven
levels in psychomotor domain taxonomy are move-
Content standards determine the direction of the pro-
ment vocabulary, movement of body parts, locomotor
gram as directed by the state, district, or individual school.
movements, movement implements and objects, pat-
Such standards provide fixed goals for learning, and deter-
terns of movement, movement with others, and move-
mine what students should know and be able to do when
ment problem solving. This graduated list progresses in
they complete their schooling. Student progress is deter-
line with the developmental level of learners. Students
mined by how students compare to the fixed standards
learn the vocabulary of movement before proceeding
rather than how they compare with other students.
to simple body-part movements and then on to more
Content standards determine what criteria will be used to
complex sport skills. More complex movements are
select instructional activities for the curriculum. The
learned to enable students to participate in activities
National Standards for Physical Education (NASPE)
with others and to solve personal movement dilemmas.
(2004) listed at the beginning of this chapter should be
reviewed carefully—in addition to state and local 2. Cognitive domain. The cognitive domain includes
standards—and should guide the depth and breadth of six major areas: knowledge, comprehension, appli-
standards-based curriculum in middle and high school. cation, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation. The focus of
the cognitive domain for physical education is knowing
Write Student-Centered Objectives rules and strategies, health information, safety, and so
After content standards have been defined, student- on, and being able to understand and apply such knowl-
centered objectives are written. Objectives dictate the edge. As students mature, they learn to analyze differ-
specific learning outcomes students will achieve by ent activities, develop personalized exercise routines
participating in varies activities throughout the school (synthesis), and evaluate their fitness/activity levels.
year. Student-focused learning objectives are usually 3. Affective domain. The affective domain deals with
written in behavioral terms. Behavioral objectives con- feelings, attitudes, and values. The major cate-
tain three key characteristics: (1) a desired behavior that gories of learning in this area are receiving, re-
is observable and measurable, (2) the conditions or sponding, valuing, organizing, and characterizing.
environment where the behavior should occur, and (3) a The affective domain changes more slowly than
criterion for success that can be measured. Objectives are the psychomotor and cognitive domains. How
written for all three of the learning domains: psychomo- teachers treat students and the feelings students
tor, cognitive, and affective (Figure 5). A description of develop toward physical education are ultimately
each domain follows. more important than the knowledge and skills
developed in physical education programs.
Behavioral objectives must represent student’s
developmental needs. When teachers write objec-
tives with the students in mind, they ensure that
motor skills, physical activity, and fitness assess-
Psychomotor ments are age and developmentally appropriate.
Student learning objectives represent levels of
Cognitive
learning within each learning domain. Six levels of
learning have been identified (Figure 6) (Bloom,
1956). They range from simple recall or recognition
of facts at the lowest level to more complex and
Affective
abstract learning such as evaluation. Figure 7
provides examples of behavioral objectives within
each of the domains and levels of learning.

STEP FIVE: SELECT

STUDENT-CENTERED ACTIVITIES
Student Learning Outcomes
When selecting activities for a student-centered curricu-
FIGURE 5 Integration of learning domains is essential for lum, a clear understanding of students is requisite. The
the development of student learning outcomes task of designing a program that flows with students

55
 STEPS IN DEVELOPING A CURRICULUM

for developing requisite instructional competency and to

learn to teach new activities so students experience and
EVALUATION
learn all requisite physical skills.
Breadth of content refers to the variety of content to
SYNTHESIS be covered and depth means that students will develop
competence and mastery. Depending on the selected cur-
ANALYSIS riculum models, as many activities as possible that con-
tribute to content standards and goals should be gathered
APPLICATION in the planning stage. The greater the number of activities
considered, the more varied and imaginative the final pro-
UNDERSTANDING
gram. Emphasis is placed on brainstorming, creating, and
innovating without restriction. Later steps will offer an
KNOWLEDGE
opportunity to delete inappropriate activities.
Another important consideration in selecting activi-
FIGURE 6 Bloom’s six levels of learning ties for the program is to look at the desires of parents
and students in the community. Years ago, people
rather than runs contrary to their desires, characteristics, banded together and decided to set aside land and build
and interests requires a clear view of their nature. It makes schools because they wanted their children to acquire
little sense to gather activities for instruction if they are certain information, attitudes, and skills in a systematic
not developmentally appropriate or do not appeal to stu- manner from professionally prepared teachers. These
dents. The major criterion to follow when selecting activi- parents had certain ambitions for their youth. Even
ties for the curriculum is, “Do the activities contribute to though society has changed dramatically and much new
content standards and student-centered objectives?” This information has been discovered, parents and students
approach contrasts with selecting activities because they still have a number of desires that may impact physical
are fun or are the teacher’s favorite. Some teachers do not education curriculum planners.
include activities in the curriculum if they lack confidence
or feel incompetent with regard to the activity (such as Desires of Parents and Students
rhythms). Activities are included because they contribute Desire to Be Physically Fit, Healthy, and Attractive
to student achievement of content standards, rather than Being fit, healthy, and attractive is especially important
designed for the teacher’s benefit. Teachers are responsible to physical educators because of the contribution that

Psychomotor Domain
1. Move efficiently using a variety of locomotor skills, such as walking, sliding, carioca,
running, and backward running.
2. Use the proper technique to throw a Frisbee accurately to an established target.
3. Knock down 3 bowling pins using correct stance and approach.
4. Utilize strategies in order to get into open space during a modified game.
Cognitive Domain

1. Understand how warm-up and cool-down periods prevent injuries.

2. Analyze bowling movements in order to improve accuracy and consistency in
knocking down specific arrangements of pins.
3. Use principles of rhythm and beat to design an activity performance in small groups.

Affective Domain
1. Show empathy for the concerns and limitations of peers.
2. Demonstrate a willingness to participate with diverse peers regardless of disabilities.
3. Use teamwork to incorporate syncopation and fluid beats in a small group
performance.

FIGURE 7 Examples of behavioral objectives within learning domains

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 STEPS IN DEVELOPING A CURRICULUM

physical activity makes in these areas. Proof that activity Information is imparted in the school setting regar-
aids in achieving weight control, cardiovascular ding dating, mental health, sex education, nutrition, and
efficiency, flexibility, and strength is well documented. many other important areas. Physical education offers
The public is aware of the humiliation and problems unique opportunities in this social-emotional area be-
that individuals face throughout life if they are over- cause of the nature and arrangement of its subject matter.
weight, weak, or unattractive. Physically fit people feel Competitive situations (involving winning, losing, and
positive and successful, and they portray a positive accepting referee decisions) and coeducational activities
image to others. These successes add up to a positive (with emphasis on movement skills) provide a rich source
self-concept. In contrast, overweight people often have of social and emotional experiences for youth. Physical
difficulty with simple daily activities like dressing, education teachers can have a tremendous impact on
sitting, and walking. They may have a negative self- students in these areas.
image and often cannot participate in or enjoy many
activities. Desire to Compete
Most societies are competitive. Indeed, competition is
Desire to Play present in almost all aspects of our culture. People
Play has been frequently discussed as an important be- learn to compete at an early age, and many employers
havior that permeates all cultures in a variety of forms. believe the best competitors are the most successful
Sports, dance, and various types of physical activity are workers in the business world. Adults want their chil-
serious forms of play. Many other forms of play, includ- dren to be competitors and winners. In many youth
ing music, drama, and art, are also important in society. sport leagues, children are forced at an early age to
Indeed, play is as important to most people as work, and compete for league championships, trophies, and adult
an enjoyable play life is as valuable as a productive work approval. Some people believe this early competitive
life. In fact, to many, play is the most important aspect experience is beneficial for young people, but others
of their lives. It is what they would call “paradise” or question these assumptions and practices. Regardless of
“the good life.” They look forward to a round of golf, a the stand taken, most societies are competitive. The
jog along a canal, or a backpacking trip in the moun- competitive nature of sports and physical activity
tains. Physical education can make a significant contri- requires physical educators to take a stand on compe-
bution to this universal desire to play. tition. Physical education programs can have a strong
influence on young people and their ability to compete
Desire for Knowledge (Figure 8).
The human race continues to search for knowledge in all
areas. People are curious about the world around them.
Physical education has an extensive body of knowledge

Courtesy of the Mesa High School Physical Education Program, Mesa, AZ. With permission.
that comes from the various subfields, including exercise
physiology, kinesiology, motor learning, sport psychology,
and sport sociology.

Desire for Success, Approval, and Satisfaction

People tend to repeat activities that provide them with
success. They also tend to avoid activities in which they
are not successful. Various types of success usually lead to
recognition, approval, or self-satisfaction. People partici-
pate in activities in which they are successful because
feelings of success lead to satisfaction and happiness.
Physical activities are in this category and thus make a
significant contribution to one’s life.

Desire for Social and Emotional Competence

Most people are concerned about how other people feel
about them. People want to be accepted, respected, and
liked. Adults want their children to develop acceptable FIGURE 8 Physical education programs can
social and emotional skills so that they can enjoy life. exert a strong influence on young people
Schools are the major social agency in our culture.
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 STEPS IN DEVELOPING A CURRICULUM

Desire for Risk, Adventure, and Excitement

Perhaps because of increased urbanization, mechaniza-
tion, and impersonal, fast-paced lifestyles, many people
are turning to high-risk adventurous activities for fun.

Courtesy of the Mesa High School Physical Education Program, Mesa, AZ. With permission.
Physical activities such as rock climbing, skiing, white-
water canoeing, and backpacking are increasing in
popularity and give people an opportunity to do some-
thing new, risky, and exciting. The physical education
curriculum can provide many experiences to satisfy this
desire (Figure 9).

Desire for Rhythmic Expression

Most people enjoy listening to and moving to rhythmic
sounds. Many forms of rhythmic activity have been
popular in a wide variety of cultures throughout
history. They can include many forms of dance, such as
folk, square, and aerobic dancing, as well as sport move-
ments, such as jumping rope, running hurdles, or exer-
cising to music. Rhythms can be both enjoyable and
motivational. A variety of rhythmic activities are an
important part of a physical education curriculum FIGURE 10 Rhythmic and creative expression
(Figure 10). can be an engaging part of a physical
education program
Desire for Creative Expression
People look for ways to express their autonomy and indi-
viduality. Clothes and hairstyles are popular ways to reveal
oneself to the world. Play and leisure time is another
opportunity for self-expression. The work world often
puts limits on individuality, stimulating people to channel
their creative and individual desires into play or leisure
pursuits. Physical activities provide numerous possibilities
for creative outlets structured by the rules that govern the
activities. In basketball, students enjoy trying to develop
Courtesy of the Mesa High School Physical Education Program, Mesa, AZ. With permission.

acrobatic shots or creative drives to the basket, passes,

and assists. In gymnastics, the opportunity to develop a
creative routine to music or to perfect new moves may be
challenging. New plays and defenses are created in foot-
ball. The challenges are unlimited, and the opportunities
for creative expression appeal to students. Physical educa-
tion curricula should be planned carefully to help satisfy
this desire.

Developmental Levels and

Characteristics of Students
In addition to the desires of parents and students, the
developmental levels and characteristics of students
should also be examined. Characteristics are those
typical or distinctive features of students that repre-
FIGURE 9 Student desires for risk, adventure, sent a given developmental or age level. As students
and excitement can be met by physical grow and develop, certain characteristics appear and
education curricula disappear. Within a specific age range, most students
will exhibit similar characteristics. There will always be

58
 STEPS IN DEVELOPING A CURRICULUM

extreme ends of the normal curve regarding devel- special attention is paid to the unique developmental
opmental levels. Students will vary in height, weight, impact of the middle school period.
social abilities, and in many other areas at each Middle school students’ characteristics are different
chronological age. from those of senior high students, and their developmen-
Developmental characteristics are usually defined tal levels should be considered separately. It is difficult to
by chronological age. The problem with this approach sort out characteristics by each of the four categories
is that four or five different developmental age levels (physical, social, emotional, and intellectual). In the
may exist within a given chronological age range (e.g., following discussion of middle and senior high school
seventh grade may contain students who have develop- student development, two areas will be highlighted: the
mental ages ranging from 10 to 14 years old) (Figure 11). physical, and a combination of the social, emotional, and
Most schools, however, group students by chronologi- intellectual.
cal age rather than developmental level because of Middle school curriculum is an important link in
administrative ease. Physical education teachers must the total school curriculum. There is plenty of data to
be aware of the wide range of developmental levels that support the importance of physical education. Middle
exist at a given grade level. These developmental differ- school years represent the first time students are able
ences affect physical abilities and performance in physi- to make personal decisions about what they like and
cal activities. dislike. Decisions made are often irreversible and last
Student characteristics are categorized into physical, a lifetime. Middle school is a time when students may
social, emotional, and intellectual areas. Curriculum plan- choose to avoid physical activity whenever possible.
ners carefully consider all areas because physical Teachers and administrators understand that this is a
education programs contribute to all four. Some physical difficult time for most young people, so it is
educators mistakenly believe their program contributes important to keep students turned on toward activity
only to the physical area, but physical activities are not through a well-organized and expertly taught pro-
learned in a vacuum; students are also involved mentally, gram. It is often difficult to find a curriculum
socially, and emotionally. The characteristics of students designed expressly for the adolescent student.
are important to understand when determining the types Curricula for middle school students may be watered-
of activities, the length of units, the amount of student down high school programs or an extension of the
choice, and the content to be emphasized. In addition, elementary school curriculum. Neither program suits
adolescents; they need a program designed to meet
traits and characteristics that are unique to their stage
of development.
Never again will young people have to experience as
many major changes as they do during middle school.
Courtesy of the Mesa High School Physical Education Program, Mesa, AZ. With permission.

Students at this level want to be independent but still

desire the security of authority. This places teachers in a
situation where they are consistently challenged and ques-
tioned but expected to exert direction when necessary.
Understanding student’s developmental characteristics is
requisite to effective instruction.
Middle school can be a challenging and difficult
time for students. Many students are confused by their
rapidly changing physical appearance and the transi-
tion from childhood into adulthood. Many important
decisions are made during this period about their
careers and life goals. The challenges experienced by
their students can also be frustrating and demanding,
as well as rewarding, for physical edition teachers.
Physical education can play a significant role in these
students’ lives.
The following box examines the physical and social/
FIGURE 11 Secondary school students may emotional/intellectual characteristics of middle school and
vary developmentally by as much as four years high school students, including some of the broader implica-
tions of various traits.

59
 STEPS IN DEVELOPING A CURRICULUM

Physical and Other Characteristics of Middle School Students

Characteristic Implications

I. PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT
Rapid and uneven growth
Middle school students go through a rapid and • Girls become stronger, faster, and larger than boys
uneven growth spurt. Girls enter this spurt about • Size and skill influence performance in activities
18 months earlier than boys and are usually taller • Physical activities should be designed to support
and more mature early in this period. variations in student developmental levels
• Insecurities arise based on different developmental
levels between boys and girls
• Teachers should educate students about developmental
differences
• Students should be educated on the influence of their
size and developmental levels relative to their
participation in physical activities

Decreased effectiveness to learn motor skill

The range of motor ability levels increases among • Difficult time to teach motor skills
students, and the skill level differences of students • Fear of failure and embarrassment
become increasingly apparent. Awkwardness, poor • Avoid learning new skills because of fears
coordination, low strength, and low endurance are • Selected activities should ensure initial success
common during rapid growth spurts.
• Center of gravity and perception influenced success in
activities requiring balance and body coordination

Changes in physical traits

BOys become stronger and gain endurance. Females • Teachers should discuss the differences and impact
often gain an advantage over boys in the areas of of body types
balance and flexibility. Posture is sometimes a prob- • Focus discussions on the importance of posture and
lem with young people. Ossification of the bones is lifetime fitness
usually not complete. • Help students select activities that are well suited
to their build and physique
• Avoid heavy physical contact sports because of
incomplete bone ossification
• Learn to participate with others of differing ability

II. SOCIAL, EMOTIONAL, AND INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT

Independence and peer groups
Students have a strong need for independence. • Provide situations that allow students to make decisions
Peer groups, provide the standards for behavior, • Learn consequences of their decisions and behaviors
and represent independence. • Offer opportunities for leaderships and decision
making skills
• Participation in games and sport activities fosters an
understanding of rules in maintaining an acceptable
learning environment for all students

Emotional instability • Teachers should be even-tempered and unruffled by

Moods change quickly, students often become students mood changes
angry, fearful, and easily upset. • Teachers should display patience and give direction
without excessive demand
• Teachers should model desirable behavior and avoid
double standards

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 STEPS IN DEVELOPING A CURRICULUM

Social awareness
Students are interested in improving themselves, • Discuss physiological changes and their implications
especially in the physical area. Strong concerns • Allow for student expression without ridicule or
about size and abilities are common. Grooming, embarrassment
clothes, and appearance become important. Social • Encourage self-expression
activities become important, and dances, movies, • Develop activities that provide students with
parties, and athletic events serve as social meeting opportunities to learn proper social behaviors
places.

Intellectual development
Intellectual development continues throughout this • Explain why certain activities are being taught
period. Students can concentrate longer, are able to • Help students become familiar with their physical
understand more complex concepts, and are better abilities in order to make thoughtful activity choices
able to follow directions. An interest in the “why” • Thoroughly cover safety procedures so students
of physical activity occurs. Students begin to make understand the consequences of their choices
decisions about areas in which they want to special-
ize. A strong interest in risk, excitement, and adven-
ture is common.

Physical and Other Characteristics of High School Students

Characteristic Implications

I. PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT
Increased motor ability and coordination
Most students have finished their growth spurt and • Excellent time to improve motor skills and learn
are approaching physical maturity. Bone growth and new skills
the ossification process are complete for most stu- • Instructional progressions move at a much
dents. Motor ability and coordination improve faster rate
quicker during this time period.

Modification of physical traits

Strength, endurance, and speed continue to increase. • Help students understand the impact of physical
Boys surpass girls in height and weight. Boys continue differences on skill performance
to develop muscularity while most girls level off in • Guide students toward activities they will be able to suc-
this area. cessfully participate in by matching their physical strengths
• Develop sensitivity for participating with others of
differing abilities

II. SOCIAL, EMOTIONAL, AND INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT

Social awareness
Social activities such as going to dances, parties, • Provide students with choice of activities
athletic events, and clubs dominate the lives of high • Students should have input on dress requirements,
school students. Peer groups are important and help time for dressing in and out and course requirements
provide behavioral standards in areas such as dress,
• Be able to express their opinions and ideas
grooming, and interests. Peer groups teach students
group loyalty yet independence from adults. There is • Activities such as personal fitness (e.g., Pilates, weight
continued concern about size, strength, and physical lifting, aerobics) are attractive to students
ability, but students show more interest in cosmetic
fitness than health-related fitness.

(Continued)

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 STEPS IN DEVELOPING A CURRICULUM

Physical and Other Characteristics of High School Students (Continued )

Characteristic Implications

Emotional development
Most students have completed the puberty cycle and • Need additional experiences with emotional control
are comfortable with their bodies and the direction • Teachers should model appropriate behaviors and
of their lives. There are fewer mood swings, and stu- emotional control
dents seem to be more stable emotionally. Problems
with fighting, extreme competitiveness, and arguing
over issues start to diminish.

Intellectual development
Students are approaching their intellectual potential. • Focus on the “why” of physical education and the
Their memories and their abilities to reason, concen- objectives of the program
trate, imagine, and think conceptually have improved • Student choice in activities they want to learn
and continue to develop. They have a large base of
• Longer units to ensure in-depth instruction
knowledge and experience. Students express strong
concern about security, attention, affection, self- • Emphasize cognitive concepts and improving physical
worth, and intellectual improvement. There is a skills
continued narrowing of interests and an emphasis • Students practice decision making to help transforma-
on specialization in activities where they perceive tion to the realities of the world
themselves to be competent. • Teachers should impart information, attitudes and skills

Consider the Activity Interests offer students four or five activity choices. High school
of Students programs should not be the time to force students into
Program planners should examine student interests of activities in which they have little or no interest.
activities being offered. A teacher’s comfort zone can be Surveys or checklists can be used to gather data about
narrow and limit curriculum development. This often leads student activity interests. Surveys completed in the spring
to a lack of content variety, which may cause students to de- help determine the curricular offerings for the following
velop escape or avoidance behaviors in physical education. fall and spring semesters. The survey can be administered
Students may like physical activity, but not like the content every other year to all demographic groups within the
activities presented or the methods of instruction. Effective schools (i.e., boys, girls, athletes, nonathletes, various
teachers learn to expand their teaching repertoire of activi- racial groups, and various grade levels). As many students
ties and methods to better meet students’ interests. as possible should be surveyed to ensure valid informa-
When the activity interests of students are not consid- tion. Ideally, the survey can be administered in a class
ered, students may avoid taking physical education, espe- or homeroom period (math, science, or English) so all
cially at the high school level, where the program should students have the opportunity to respond. Analysis of
be consumer driven. For example, teachers at a particular student interests can be completed using separate cate-
school may try offering units on lifetime activities such as gories by age, sex, or racial group.
golf, bowling, and archery and then find out that only a A survey instrument should include all possible
few students may register because of the lack of student physical activities that contribute toward content stan-
interest or expense of the activities. In another example, if dard attainment. Student surveys should include a variety
all of the units in the curriculum are required during an of activities and not be restricted by environmental
optional year of physical education, some students may restrictions (e.g., lack of a pool, racquetball courts,
avoid the entire year because they do not wish to take one ski slopes, or various types of equipment for specific
or two of the specific units. In other words, students will activities). Most communities have nearby golf driving
avoid an entire year because of one or two compulsory ranges, racquet clubs, bowling alleys, pools, ski slopes,
activities. As a minimum, the high school program should or wooded areas that can be used for the school

62
 STEPS IN DEVELOPING A CURRICULUM

program. Data collected from surveys can be used to are 3-week units, there is a big difference in the amount of
support the need for expanding physical facilities. If actual class time for instruction.
student interest is evident, administrators may be con- At one end of the spectrum is an arrangement of long
vinced that facilities and equipment, course offerings, units of activity (depth) focused on a few activities.
or new teachers should be added to the physical educa- Students take four to eight activities in a year. An example
tion program. is the following:
An example of an interest survey is shown in
First 9 weeks—LaCrosse or soccer
Figure 12. Survey instruments can be revised every other
year, and new activity trends included. Professional and pop- Second 9 weeks—Pickleball or team handball
ular literature help provide information about the new Third 9 weeks—Ultimate frisbee or rugby
activity patterns and habits. Interests in the community can Last 9 weeks—Pilates or step aerobics
be determined by looking at various recreation programs
offered through the “Y” (YMCA), the parks and recreation Another design uses 6-week units:
department, private clubs, community leagues, and corpora- First 6 weeks—Water polo
tions. Facilities available, such as bowling alleys, golf courses,
Second 6 weeks—Badminton
ski slopes, health clubs, and swimming pools, provide
additional information about interests in the community. Third 6 weeks—Team handball
Fourth 6 weeks—Martial arts
Fifth 6 weeks—Ultimate frisbee
STEP SIX: ORGANIZE SELECTED
Last 6 weeks—Orienteering
ACTIVITIES INTO INSTRUCTIONAL
UNITS FOR A YEARLY PLAN Still another design is to offer two units during each
9-week grading period. One unit is 5 weeks and the other
A yearly plan is developed after appropriate activities that
4 weeks. In this way, students take 8 units per year. Two
contribute to content standards have been selected. This
examples of this approach are as follows:
ensures all activities are scheduled and taught. Activities
are most often grouped by grade level and put into units Program A
arranged in a weekly format. This approach allows for First 9 weeks
instruction to be focused on an activity over an entire Ultimate frisbee (5 weeks)
week. Weekly plans have three major advantages. First, a LaCrosse (4 weeks)
comprehensive lesson plan for the week can be developed Second 9 weeks
and divided into the appropriate number of days in the Badminton (5 weeks)
school calendar. Instructional pacing of the content allows Pickleball (4 weeks)
students to move along the path of learning at an optimal Third 9 weeks
rate. What cannot be covered one day is taught in the next Team handball (5 weeks)
lesson. Second, less orientation instruction is needed after Health club activities (4 weeks)
the first day. Safety factors, teaching hints, and key points Last 9 weeks
need only a brief review each day, and equipment needs are Outdoor adventure activities I (5 weeks)
similar from day to day. Third, progression and learning Outdoor adventure activities II (4 weeks)
sequences are evident; both teacher and students can see Program B
progress. First 9 weeks
Field hockey (5 weeks)
Determine Length of Activity Units Speed-a-way (4 weeks)
Activity unit length can vary from 2 weeks to 1 year. For Second 9 weeks
example, a 2-week unit on Frisbee or a 1-year course on Badminton (5 weeks)
weight training or dance could be offered. Developmental Dance (4 weeks)
levels and interests of students affect the length of a unit, as Third 9 weeks
does the school schedule and the number of days per week LaCrosse (5 weeks)
that a class meets. The number of class meetings per week is Fitness center activities (4 weeks)
a key factor in deciding the length of a unit. A 3-week unit Last 9 weeks
that meets daily offers 15 sessions, while a 3-week unit that Pickleball (5 weeks)
meets twice a week allows only six sessions. Although both Frisbee golf (4 weeks)

63
 STEPS IN DEVELOPING A CURRICULUM

Physical Activity Interest Survey

Name

Grade Age Sex

Athletic team
Instructions: Which of the following physical activities or sports would you be most interested in taking as a course in the physical
education program? Please list your top 5 choices on the lines provided. Place a number 1 in front of your highest choice, a number
2 in front of your next choice, and so on, until you reach choice number 5. Remember to make only 5 choices.
Aquatic Activities

Lifesaving, water safety Cycling (bicycling)

Skin and scuba diving Fishing
Surfing Horseback riding
Swimming, diving Hunting
Water sports (polo, volleyball, basketball) Ice-skating
Orienteering
Individual Activities
Outdoor survival
Archery Rock climbing
Badminton Sailing
Fencing Skiing (cross country)
Frisbee Skiing (downhill)
Golf Snowshoeing
Gymnastics
Rhythmic Activities
Handball
Racquetball Ballet
Recreational games (bowling, horseshoes, Country swing dance
shuffleboard, etc.) Disco
Roller-skating Folk and square dance
Skateboarding Jazz dance
Squash Modern dance
Tennis Social dance
Track and field
Team Activities
Physical Conditioning Activities
Baseball
Aerobic dance Basketball
Body conditioning, weight control Eclipse ball
Cardio kickboxing Field hockey
Martial arts (judo, karate, kendo, etc.) Flag football
Medicine balls Ice hockey
Physioballs Lacrosse
Pilates Soccer
Walking activities Softball
Weight training Speedball/speed-a-way
Yoga Team handball
Outdoor Adventure Activities Volleyball
Wrestling
Backpacking
Canoeing, kayaking
Directions for the teacher: Remind students to select only 5 choices, using the numbers 1–5 on the lines beside the activities.
When analyzing the data, it is helpful to transpose numbers 1 and 5 and numbers 2 and 4. In other words, a 1 becomes a 5 and a 5
becomes a 1. A 2 is worth 4 and a 4 worth 2. The numbers are added for each activity. The activities with the most points are the
most popular, and those with the least points are the least popular.

FIGURE 12 A physical activity interest survey

64
 STEPS IN DEVELOPING A CURRICULUM

At the opposite end of the spectrum is an arrange- Activity sequence in the curriculum is arranged pro-
ment using short 1-, 2-, and 3-week units (breadth) that gressively throughout the year and from year to year. Yearly
offer students 12 to 18 different activities during the year. and year-to-year curriculum plans serve as guides for teach-
The following is an example: ers. Curricula are articulated in two planes, horizontal and
vertical. Horizontal articulation includes the yearly plan
Weeks Activity and defines the skills and activities for that year. Vertical
1–3 Swimming/Water Polo articulation is concerned with scope and sequence for all
4–6 Rugby/Soccer years K–12. Sequence ensures that students receive different
instruction and activities at each grade or developmental
7–9 Pickleball/Raquetball
level. Of particular importance is the articulation of pro-
10–12 Volleyball/Eclipse Ball gram material throughout elementary, middle, and high
13–15 Dance Variations school programs. Figure 14 is an example of a page from a
16–18 Recreational games/Team Handball scope and sequence chart for a K–12 curriculum. Notice
19–21 Badminton/Fishing how the different units of instruction are added throughout
the grades 4–12 on the chart. Different units and skills
22–24 Tumbling/Orienteering
are introduced(I), reviewed and reinforced(R), and taken to
25–27 Frisbee Games/Frisbee Golf proficiency(P) at the indicated grade levels.
28–30 Speed-a-way/Flickerball Balance ensures that all objectives in the program
31–33 Frisbee golf/Golf receive adequate coverage. When reviewing the scope and
34–36 Orienteering/Over-the-Line sequence of the curriculum, checking for balance avoids
skewing toward one particular area. To ensure balance,
Each unit starts with basic skills and strategies and major areas of emphasis are determined based on pro-
progresses to a point where instruction and skill practice gram objectives. These areas can be allotted a percentage
is necessary because students cannot perform adequately. of program time based on the characteristics and interests
Starting each unit with the easiest activity ensures success of students. This determination reveals to administrators,
and review for all students. Instructional sequences for teachers, and parents the direction and emphasis of the
each day are built on the preceding lesson. program. All areas have a proportionate share of instruc-
tional time, and the percentage of time allotted to each
area reflects the needs and characteristics.
Check the Scope, Sequence, Common categories of activities emphasized are team
and Balance of the Curriculum sports, lifetime sports, physical conditioning or fitness
An important step in creating a quality program is to activities, dance activities, gymnastics activities, aquatic
review and monitor the scope, sequence, and balance of activities, and adventure activities. An important point is
the curriculum, in addition to its breadth and depth. These to ensure that all students have experience with a variety
important concepts ensure that a quality curriculum is of activities selected from as many categories as possible in
being implemented. the middle school setting. Too often, the curriculum is
Scope is the yearly curriculum content. Monitoring heavily tipped toward team sports because of class size,
the scope of the curriculum ensures that the entire con- facilities, equipment, or the instructor’s lack of interest or
tent of the program will be covered in a systematic and ability in other areas. An unbalanced curriculum is not
accountable manner each year. In middle school physical appropriate for students interested in activity categories
education, the scope of the curriculum is broad; many not offered. For example, many students enjoy Frisbee,
activities are presented to ensure that a breadth of activi- orienteering, dance, or skin diving. They may not enjoy
ties is included. Student interest wanes if units are too football, basketball, wrestling, or volleyball. If the curricu-
long. Also, middle school physical education is designed to lum is unbalanced, these students will not have access to
help students learn about and explore all the available potentially fulfilling activities. Teachers must make every
types of physical activity. There is in-depth coverage of effort to offer a balanced program.
fewer activities in the high school program. High school Skillful curriculum planners arrange activities in the
students are ready to choose longer activity units that will program to influence the habits of students with regard to
help them increase their skills dramatically. Figure 13 physical activity, rhythms, and sports areas. Initially, stu-
shows an example of a yearly plan with a four-part lesson dents not interested in physical activity may have to be pos-
for seventh graders that focuses on breadth with 18 to 20 itively directed toward those activities. They may need a
units in the yearly curriculum. gentle push to engage in the activities until the reinforcing

65
 STEPS IN DEVELOPING A CURRICULUM

Unit Introductory Fitness Lesson Focus Game

No.
1 Move and Freeze Orientation Orientation Simple Games
2 Basic Movements Teacher Leader Soccer Skills Lead-up Soccer Games
3 Walk, Trot, Jog Stretching Soccer Skills Soccer Game
4 Fugitive Tag Variations Form Running Football Skills Lead-up Football Games
5 Pivot Variations Racetrack Fitness Football Skills/Throton Small-Sided Football Games
6 Flag Grab Aerobic Fitness and Partner Resistance Group Team Building Paper, Scissors, Rock
7 Marking Walking Activities Pedometer Activities Pedometer Game
8 Run, Stop, and Pivot Circuit Training Volleyball Skills Lead-Up Volleyball Games
9 Flag Grab Variations Astronaut Drills Volleyball Skills/Eclipse Ball Small-Sided Volleyball Games
10 Marking Variations Jump Rope Continuity Rope Jumping Skills Chicken Baseball
11 Move and Change Directions Squad Leader Floor Hockey Lead-up Hockey Games
12 Quick Hands Step Aerobics Floor Hockey/Roller Hockey Small-Sided Hockey Games
13 Partner Over and Around Dyna-Bands Team Handball Lead-up Team Handball Games
14 Flash Drills Cardio Choice Team Handball Small-Sided Team Handball Games
15 Agility Drills Jump and Jog Tennis Skills Lead-up Tennis Games
16 Moving Throw and Catch Fortune Cookie Tennis Skills Eclipse Ball Variations
17 Clothespin Tag Scavenger Hunt Basketball Skills Lead-up Basketball Games
18 File Running Basketball Circuit Basketball Skills Small-Sides Basketball Games
19 Moving High Fives Monopoly Fitness Rhythms Dances
20 Jumping and Plyometrics Squad Leader Variations with Task Cards Rhythms Dances
21 Fastest Tag Variations Kickboxing Aerobics New Games New Game Activities
22 Standing High Fives Novel Walking Activities Track and Field Running Relays
23 Loose Caboose Pacer Run Track and Field Running Relays
24 Leaping Lena/Rooster Hop Long Jump Rope Fitness Gymnastics Pyramid Building
25 Move and Change Directions Scavenger Hunt Frisbee Skills/Spinjammers Ultimate Frisbee
26 Triangle and One Circuit Training with a Jog Softball Skills Frisbee Softball
27 Spider Tag Variations Yoga/Pilates Softball Skills Over-the-Line Softball
28 Marking Variations Walking Activities Golf Skills Golf Skills
29 Blob Tag Cardio Choice/Medicine Balls Badminton Skills Lead-up Badminton Games
30 Quarter Eagle Agility Frisbee Fitness Badminton Skills Badminton Games
31 Triangle and Two Scavenger Hunt Orienteering Skills Orienteering Meet
32 Power Walk Variations Rope Jumping and Partner Resistance Flickerball Skills Flickerball Game
33 Move and Perform a Stretch Cardio Choice/Physioballs Speed-a-way Speed-a-way Game
34 Tag Games Monopoly Fitness Juggling Skills Partner Juggling
35 Fitness Self-Testing Fitness Self-Testing Fitness Self-Testing Fitness Self-Testing
36 Teacher Choice Teacher Choice Cageball Games Relays/Tag Games

FIGURE 13 A yearly curriculum plan for seventh graders

aspects of physical activities have developed a “positively More often than not, they are popular with vocal students
addicted” person. All students need to find activities for fun who are skilled in such sports. Less-skilled students may
and health-related fitness in the physical education curricu- be intimidated and afraid to admit they don’t like team
lum. Physical education programs can take a leadership role sports. Another claim suggests that team sports are more
in trying to shape activity preferences, and teachers should economical to offer (in terms of required equipment).
select and arrange activities with this goal in mind. This may be true if teachers use limited pieces of equip-
Team sports are frequently the most used activity ment resulting in the majority of students standing rather
classification. Many physical educators claim these are the than practicing skills in a semi-individualized manner.
most popular activities with students and are the most More teachers are including a variety of lifetime ac-
economical activities in terms of facilities and equipment. tivities such as walking, jogging, hiking, step aerobics,

66
 STEPS IN DEVELOPING A CURRICULUM

L
OO

LE
CH

OR
.

D
EM
ES

NI
ID
K 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

PR

SE
EL

M
Archery
1. History I I R
2. Safety—Rules—Strategy I I R
3. Equipment I I R
4. Shooting I I R
Badminton
1. History I I R
2. Safety—Rules—Strategy I P I R I I R
3. Equipment I P I R R R R
4. Skills I P I R R R R
a. Grip I P I R R R R
b. Serves I P I R R R R
c. Strokes I P I R R R R
Bowling
1. History I R I I R
2. Safety—Rules—Strategy I R I R I I R
3. Equipment I R I R I I R
4. Skills I R I R I I R
a. Grip I R I R I I R
b. Approach I R I R I I R
c. Delivery I R I R I I R
Cross-Country Skiing
1. History I I R
2. Safety—Rules—Strategy I R I I R
3. Equipment I R I I R
4. Skills I R I I R
a. Kick glide I R I I R
b. Stop I R I I R
c. Turns I R I I R
d. Poling I R I I R
e. Climb I R I I R
Curling
1. History I I R
2. Safety—Rules—Strategy I I R
3. Equipment I I R
4. Skills I I R
a. Delivery I I R
b. Sweeping I I R
Golf
1. History I I R
2. Safety—Rules—Strategy I I R
3. Equipment I I R
4. Skills I I R
a. Grip I I R
b. Full swings I I R
c. Approach shots I I R
d. Putting I I R
I—Introduce: initial instruction of psychomotor, cognitive, and affective skills that are explained, demonstrated, and practiced.
R—Review and reinforce: continued instruction of skill-level improvement and increased knowledge of techniques.
P—Proficiency: the attainment of an individual’s maximum skill level through instruction and practice.

FIGURE 14 An example of a scope and sequence chart for a K–12 curriculum

Data from LaCrosse, WI, Public Schools, with permission.

67
 STEPS IN DEVELOPING A CURRICULUM

kickboxing, Pilates, yoga, weight training, racquetball, tion. Modification of possible program deficiencies is
tennis, badminton, bowling, and golf. These activities based on sound educational philosophy and valid and
have more carryover value for later life because they do reliable assessment and evaluation tools. Identifying weak-
not require a number of teammates for participation. nesses and determining causes are important steps in
Successful programs develop a balance of team sports, developing physical education programs that provide
lifetime sports, physical fitness, gymnastics, dance, aquat- students with opportunities to develop lifetime physical
ics, and currently popular activities. Curricula that offer activity habits.
an activity balance have a higher potential for positively A pilot or trial project can help teachers and students
affecting all students within the school. transition from the old to the new. One school in the district
might be chosen to develop and implement a pilot physical
education program. Pilot programs provide quality instruc-
STEP SEVEN: EVALUATE, ASSESS, tion and services to ensure student success. In some cases,
AND MODIFY THE CURRICULUM the experimental program might be implemented with only
Regular evaluation is an important step in ensuring that one class in a school. Enthusiastic, skilled direction is nec-
physical education programs are effective and assist in essary for such projects. Pilot programs can be analyzed
assessing its alignment with national, state, and/or dis- and results used to refine and adjust areas before an entire
trict standards. What makes a quality physical education program is implemented throughout the school system.
program? Until recently, physical educators had limited ac-
cess to tools that assess the quality of physical education
curricula. The Physical Education Curriculum Analysis Tool
AN ARTICULATED CURRICULUM:
(PECAT) (2006) was developed to assist in the develop- GRADES K–12
ment and enhancement of programs for the purpose of in- Often, physical education curricula are developed in parts.
fluencing school-aged students physical activity behaviors. There is usually a curriculum for the elementary school
PECAT is designed to analyze curricula content and stu- level, one for middle school, and another for the high
dent assessment (Figure 15) Revisions can be made with school. Each curriculum is written and organized inde-
existing curriculum or provide a focus for what should be pendently of the others. A districtwide K–12 plan that
included when writing a new curriculum. considers all of the steps mentioned is seldom developed.
A number of sources can supply evaluative data: In many cases, elementary physical education specialists
pupils, teachers, consultants, parents, and administrators. do not know middle and high school physical education
The type of data desired can vary. Achievement test scores teachers, let alone have an understanding of the curricu-
can supply hard data to compare pre-assessments and lum taught at each level. Teachers operate autonomously,
post-assessments with those of other programs. Subjective without concern for or knowledge of what is done at other
assessments might include likes and dislikes, value judg- levels. This leads to a fragmented program that shows lit-
ments, problem areas, and needed adjustments. The evalu- tle articulation between levels. Time, energy, and learning
ation schedule can select a limited area for assessment, or of activities may be wasted, duplicated, or omitted in a
assessment can be broadened to cover the entire program curriculum that is not vertically articulated.
such as PECAT (Figure 16). Collecting information is only Curriculum planners need an understanding of the
the first step; the information must be translated into ac- impact these curriculum steps have on students in terms

Physical Education Curriculum Analysis Tool (PECAT)

What the PECAT can do:

• Assess how closely the written curriculum aligns with national standards
• Identifies where revisions might be needed
• Provides a vision of what should be included in a high-quality curriculum.
• Used to compare strengths and weaknesses of various physical education
curricula.

FIGURE 15 The PECAT assessment tool for evaluating curricular programs

Data from Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Physical Education Curriculum
Analysis Tool. Atlanta, Georgia, 2006.

68
 STEPS IN DEVELOPING A CURRICULUM

What is High Quality Physical Education?

Appropriate actions should be taken in four main areas to ensure a high quality physical
education program: (1) curriculum, (2) policies and environment, (3) instruction, and
(4) student assessment.
Policy and environmental actions that support high quality physical education require:

• Adequate instructional time (at least 150 minutes per week for elementary
school students and 225 minutes per week for middle and high school students)
• All classes taught by qualified physical education specialists
• Reasonable class sizes
• Proper equipment and facilities

Instructional strategies that support high-quality physical education emphasize:

• Inclusion of all students

• Adaptations for students with disabilities
• Opportunities to be physically active for most of the class time
• Well-designed lessons
• Out-of-school assignments to support learning
• Physical activity not used as a punishment

Regular student assessment within a high-quality physical education program features:

• Appropriate use of physical activity and fitness assessment tools

• Ongoing opportunities for students to conduct self-assessments and practice
self-monitoring of physical activity
• Communication with students and parents on assessment results
• Clarity regarding the elements used for determining grades or student
proficiency systems

FIGURE 16 The PECAT definition of High Quality Physical Education

of overall program objectives. An articulated curriculum throughout this text with respect to each of these pro-
with consistent policies and procedures on instruction, gram steps.
management, discipline, grading, student choices, dress
codes, and so forth will impact students in a positive THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PROGRAM
manner and improve participation in the program. This
Elementary school physical education programs place em-
approach will also impact students’ attitudes toward
phasis on expanding the activity experiences of students.
physical education and physical activity participation
While children entering kindergarten generally have simi-
now and in the future. For example, a teacher who does
lar skills among themselves, elementary school curricula
not look carefully at the scope, sequence, and balance of
strives to offer a wider variety of activities to ensure that
the curriculum may repeat or omit important aspects of
students have the opportunity to experience success. In
the program. A well-developed K–12 curriculum plan
addition, a wide variety of activities ensures that students
will provide fitness activities, lifetime sports, rhythmic
will be involved in short units of instruction in order to
activities, gymnastics, and outdoor adventure-type activ-
minimize long bouts of failure. If units are short, students
ities as well as team sports. An articulated physical edu-
who don’t like a certain activity or feel like failures know
cation program should also consider the after-school
they will not have to continue the activity for an extended
participation opportunities for students such as activity
time. In addition, the wide variety of short units ensures
clubs, intramural sports, or athletic programs. An articu-
that all students will find some activity they enjoy, increas-
lated quality physical education curriculum can lead stu-
ing their opportunity to experience success.
dents into these after-school participation opportunities.
Physical educators must carefully consider these curricu-
lum steps and elements when policies, procedures, yearly THE MIDDLE SCHOOL PROGRAM
plans, daily plans, and other aspects of dealing with In middle school, this variety of units continues, and the
students are formulated. Specific suggestions are made units are short to ensure that students will not have to

69
 STEPS IN DEVELOPING A CURRICULUM

excessively endure an activity they dislike. A balanced THE HIGH SCHOOL PROGRAM
curriculum places equal emphasis on all activities in the Senior high school physical education curricula vary
curriculum consistent with the program objectives and greatly from state to state and from large urban schools
goals. Activities are included if they meet the needs and with six to eight physical education teachers to the small
interests of all learners and contribute to program stan- rural schools with one or two teachers. Local school dis-
dards. For example, a design that offers only four or five tricts have the ultimate responsibility for developing a
team sports during the year does not meet the needs of program that meets state guidelines. State requirements
students who do not like team sports, are uninterested in are different, and some school districts allow a number
the sports offered, or prefer individual activities. of substitutions for physical education. Some districts
Another important consideration in organizing the have a 4-year requirement, while others do not have
middle school curriculum is the matter of sequence. any requirements. Another district may have a 3-year
Organized correctly, sequence ensures that students re- requirement but allow substitutions such as cheerleading,
ceive instruction in a progressive manner from kinder- athletics, orchestra, or band to fulfill the requirement.
garten to graduation. Skills and knowledge are learned in The variations and possibilities are endless. Nevertheless,
a sequential manner, so previous material taught con- the high school program should build on the middle
tributes to current learning. An example of a lack of school program.
sequence is teaching students basketball skills in the first At the high school level, quality programs come in
grade and continuing to teach these same skills until many sizes and shapes. A small high school in upstate New
students leave school. It would be unthinkable to give York, a large urban high school in eastern Pennsylvania, or
children a calculus book in first grade, ask them to repeat a medium-sized high school in central Arizona can all have
the material for 12 years, and then assume they have quality programs within their existing frameworks. Some
learned calculus through repetition. programs will have more students, more teachers, more
Sequence in the middle school years ensures that facilities, and better equipment. Requirements, schedules,
units of instruction are organized and designed expressly and administrative support may be quite different in each
for this level. Emphasis on strategy and advanced skill situation. Quality programs are not, however, a function of
should be minimized because students at this age enter a large facilities, abundant equipment, extensive physical
rapid growth curve that reduces the ability to learn motor education requirements, numerous teachers, or small class
skills. Asking students to split their concentration on skill sizes. Outstanding high school programs are developed by
performance and strategy reduces the odds they will learn a group of hardworking, dedicated professionals who are
either. As an example, think back to learning to drive a doing their best with given resources. There is strong lead-
car for the first time. It was difficult to concentrate on the ership and purpose found in successful programs. A con-
fine motor skills involved in driving while thinking about tinual effort must be made to improve programs and to
the rules of the road. After driving skills were over- change those aspects that are detrimental to accomplishing
learned, it was possible to think about many other things goals. A sense of excitement and enthusiasm must be
(e.g., putting on makeup and talking on a cell phone). found within the program. Curriculum developers can
Frustration and fear can be the result of this type of over- work positively within the existing framework to change
load. Until a skill is over-learned, concentration should existing parameters that cause difficulties.
be on skill performance. When the skills become over- The high school years offer opportunities to polish
learned, students can concentrate on the cognitive aspect and improve their ultimate product: young adults who are
of sport strategy. Most middle school students have not productive members of society. To ensure that the physical
over-learned skills, so strategy should be a minor part of education program contributes to this long-term objective,
instruction. it’s important to understand the growth and development
When developing scope and sequence for middle school of students and the implications these characteristics have
students, it is difficult to design a sequence that is perfect for on designing a well-planned curriculum. A quality experi-
everyone. Students are grouped (whether it be by grade, age, ence for the entire K–12 sequence emphasizes individual
or developmental level), and every group is characterized by success, physical fitness, exploration, guidance and coun-
a range of differences. To expect students to strictly follow a seling, self-testing, monitoring, physical skill development,
predetermined sequence is unrealistic. Effective teachers requisite knowledge, wellness concepts, choice, and prepa-
modify the sequence depending on the capabilities of the ration for a lifetime of physical activity. It is important that
student. The best teaching is one-on-one, when activities the high school curriculum build vertically on the middle
and instruction are in line with student ability level. school curriculum and the middle school curriculum build
Regardless, scope and sequence are important because they on the elementary curriculum.
lend general direction to instruction.

70
 STEPS IN DEVELOPING A CURRICULUM

STUDY STIMULATORS REFERENCES AND

AND REVIEW QUESTIONS SUGGESTED READINGS
1. Explain the role of a teacher’s value orientation Bloom, B. (1956). Taxonomy of Educational Objectives,
when developing a curriculum. Handbook I: Cognitive Domain. NY: David McKay.
2. List and explain three environmental factors Buck, M. M., Lund, J. L., Harrison, J. M., & Blakemore Cook,
that will influence the scope and general focus C. L. (2007). Instructional strategies for secondary phys-
ical education (6th ed.). Boston: McGraw-Hill.
of a curriculum.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2006).
3. Explain the focus of the affective learning domain. Physical Education Curriculum Analysis Tool. Atlanta,
4. What are the three central components of a Georgia,
behavioral objective? Ennis, C. D. (1992). Curriculum theory as practiced: Case
5. List and briefly explain two societal influences studies of operationalized value orientations. Journal
that should be considered when designing a of Teaching in Physical Education 11: 358–375.
curriculum. Hastie, P. (2003). Teaching for lifetime physical activity
6. Discuss the implication of students’ rapid and through quality high school physical education. San
often uneven growth patterns for physical edu- Francisco: Benjamin Cummings.
cation teachers. Himberg, C., Hutchinson, G. E., & Roussell, J. M. (2003).
Teaching secondary physical education preparing
7. Compared to middle school students why high
adolescents to be active for life. Champaign, IL:
school students generally have less difficulty Human Kinetics.
learning new skills. Jewett, A., Bain, L., & Ennis, K. (1995). The curriculum
8. Explain what is meant by the “scope” of a process in physical education. Dubuque, IA: W. B.
curriculum. Brown and Benchmark.
9. Discuss the importance of periodically evaluat- Kelly, L., & Melograno, V. J. (2004). Developing the physi-
ing the curriculum. cal education curriculum: An achievement based ap-
proach. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics Publishers.
National Association for Sport & Physical Education.
WEBSITES (2004). Moving into the future—National standards
for physical education (2nd ed.). Reston, VA: Author.
Curricula Examples
Rink, J. (2006). Teaching physical education for learning
www.sasked.gov.sk.ca/docs/physed/physed1-5 (5th ed). Boston: McGraw-Hill.
Physical Education Curriculum Information Siedentop, D., & Tannehill, D. (2000). Developing teaching
www.pecentral.org skills in physical education (4th ed.). Mountain View,
reach.ucf.edu CA: Mayfield Publishing Co.
U.S. Department of Education, (June 21, 2005). Individuals
Research for Education and Learning with Disabilities Education Act Amendments of 2004.
www.mcrel.org Vol. 70, Number 118, 34 CFR, 300. Washington, D.C.

71
72
 Curriculum
Approaches

From Chapter 4 of Dynamic Physical Education for Secondary Schools, Seventh Edition. Paul W. Darst, Robert P. Pangrazi, Mary Jo Sariscsany,
Timothy A. Brusseau, Jr. Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. Published by Pearson Benjamin Cummings. All rights reserved.
 Curriculum
Approaches
ESSENTIAL COMPONENTS OF
A QUALITY PROGRAM
▲ ▲

I. Organized around content standards

II. Student-centered and developmentally
appropriate
▲

III. Physical activity and motor skill develop-

ment form the core of the program
▲

IV. Teaches management skills and

self-discipline
▲ ▲ ▲

V. Promotes inclusion of all students

VI. Focuses on process over product
VII. Promotes lifetime personal health
and wellness
▲

VIII. Teaches cooperation and responsibility

and promotes sensitivity to diversity

NATIONAL STANDARDS FOR

PHYSICAL EDUCATION*
▲

1. Demonstrates competency in motor skills

and movement patterns needed to perform
a variety of physical activities.
▲

2. Demonstrates understanding of movement

concepts, principles, strategies, and tactics as
they apply to the learning and performance
of physical activities.
▲ ▲

3. Participates regularly in physical activity.

4. Achieves and maintains a health-enhancing
level of physical fitness.
▲

5. Exhibits responsible personal and social

behavior that respects self and others in
physical activity settings.
▲

6. Values physical activity for health, enjoyment,

challenge, self-expression, and/or social *National Association for Sport and Physical Education
interaction. (NASPE), 2004.

74
 CURRICULUM APPROACHES

The program can be accepted in total with only

Chapter Summary minor changes for local school or community
preferences.
This chapter focuses on the various curriculum ap-
proaches and its many variations in use today. Allied 2. Adaptation of an existing curriculum approach to
to this purpose is an analysis of the characteristics meet the local interests, preferences, and school prior-
and strengths of the various approaches. ities is a second alternative. The existing approach is
modified by incorporating local interests, preferences,
Student Outcomes and school philosophies into a restructured program.
After reading this chapter, you will be able to:
3. A new approach is constructed, coordinating ideas
• Describe curriculum approaches and explain the from many sources to form a unified program. This
various ways they are used by physical educators.
is the most difficult and time-consuming challenge
• List and discuss commonly used organizing centers
and requires a breadth of experience and clear
in secondary school physical education.
understanding of the curriculum process.
• List and describe the popular categories of activi-
ties commonly used in the approach known as Formal curricula are usually organized around a major
promoting physical activity/skill development.
theme, often called an organizing center. The most com-
• Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of the mon organizing centers for physical education curricula
popular promoting physical activity/skill develop-
are the following:
ment approach.
• Discuss the problems of implementing an outdoor ■ Physical skills involved in various movement forms,
adventure activity approach in a high school. sports, and physical activities; commonly included
• Describe the pros and cons of a sport education units are basketball, tennis, line and social dancing,
approach for secondary school physical education. volleyball, weight training, walking, and jogging.
• Explain the characteristics of a knowledge con-
cepts curriculum approach. ■ Physical fitness components such as cardiovascular
• Describe the games classification, problem classifi-
efficiency, strength, and control of body fat.
cation, and tactical complexity associated with the ■ Health and wellness knowledge and activities involv-
tactical games approach. ing stress management, nutrition, weight control,
• Understand how fitness education can be inte- substance abuse, personal safety, physical fitness, en-
grated into a knowledge concepts curriculum vironmental awareness, and behavioral self-control.
approach.
■ Movement themes such as propelling, catching,
• List the different levels of social development in
Hellison’s approach. striking, and balancing.
■ Analysis of movement elements such as force, time,
space, and flow.
■ Student motives such as appearance, health, and
achievement.

Curriculum approaches include a set of beliefs and goals ■ Developing a tactical understanding of game play.
that evolve from a theoretical framework or value base. ■ Disciplinary knowledge from such areas as biome-
These approaches provide the basis for organizing objec- chanics, motor learning, exercise physiology, and
tives and content, structuring and sequencing activities, and sport philosophy.
evaluating the curriculum plan. The scope and sequence of ■ Social development themes, such as competi-
activities for the instructional program evolve from the tion, emotional control, sportspersonship, and
curriculum approach. Approaches provide interrelation- cooperation.
ships between content and the instructional process. An
understanding of popular curriculum appro-aches and
how they can be adapted to unique situations facilitates the PROMOTING PHYSICAL ACTIVITY/
development process. When building a quality physical ed-
ucation curriculum, different approaches can be used:
SKILL DEVELOPMENT APPROACH
The most commonly used curriculum approach at the
1. A curriculum approach functioning in another secondary level is a broad-based multiple activity ap-
school can be incorporated into a new setting. proach that focuses on promoting physical activity and
developing physical skills with students. A wide variety

75
 CURRICULUM APPROACHES

of activities are included from several categories. These

include fitness activities such as jogging or walking;
sport units including tennis, basketball, gymnastics,
aquatics, and dance; and nontraditional activities like
Frisbee variations or new games. This system uses units
of physical activity or sport as the basic core of the cur-
riculum. The primary focus is promoting activity and
learning motor skills. These skills and activities provide
the content of the model and the structure or format of
the curriculum. Units vary in length from 2 weeks to 1
full school year, depending on program philosophy and
the school level of the student. Middle schools usually
offer shorter units that ensure variety and introduction
to skills, while high schools have longer units with an in-
depth focus on activities. Included activities change de-
pending on the desires of society and needs and interests
of the students. Most often, activities are classified in the
following categories:

■ Team sports: basketball, volleyball, flag football,

softball, or soccer
■ Lifetime sports: golf, tennis, bowling, archery, or FIGURE 1 Adventure activity
racquetball
■ Dance: folk, line, social, modern, or country swing
with rollerblades, mountain biking, Spinjammer Frisbees,
■ Fitness activities: jogging, walking, aerobics, weight throtons—are usually indicative of the desires of the peo-
training, use of exercise machines, Pilates, exercise ple whom the program serves. Instructors have to stay
balls, or cardio kickboxing aware of student activity interests and trends of society in
■ Recreational games: horseshoes, shuffleboard, or table order to update the curriculum. This approach is popular
tennis because it allows for diversity and flexibility in meeting
■ Outdoor adventure activities: cycling, rock climbing, the changing interests and desires of today’s students. To
skiing, or orienteering (Figure 1) attract students to this program, a variety of “current and
popular” activities with “cool new equipment” need to be
■ Aquatics: swimming, diving, skin and scuba diving, offered. Because students have different competencies and
or water sports interests, most want to be able to participate in activities
■ Nontraditional activities: Ultimate Frisbee and disc related to their personal abilities. Offering a wide range of
golf, modified sports or games (i.e., touch rugby), instructional units makes the program more appealing to
Eclipse Ball, throtons, Spinjammer Frisbees, mar- the entire student body.
tial arts, cooperative activities, or new games
(Figure 2)

This type of curriculum is usually arranged with a

balance of activities from these categories. However, it is
possible to concentrate the focus on one or more cate-
gories of activity such as the outdoor adventure activities
or fitness activities. In most cases, activities are included
on the basis of a number of mediating factors such as
student interest, teacher interest and expertise, commu-
nity interest, class size, facilities, equipment, and climate.
Activities in the curriculum generally follow the prefer-
ences of society, usually with a significant time lag. The
arrival of the “new” units and skills in physical education FIGURE 2 Frisbee activity, Spinjammers
curricula—such as step aerobics, power walking, skating

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 CURRICULUM APPROACHES

This approach provides the opportunity for stu- Learning environments can be productive when units
dents to explore, experiment, and experience a wide are changed often. Students and teachers are excited when
variety of physical skills and physical activities. The a new activity begins. Long units can turn into a pro-
approach also provides in-depth units that help stu- longed class tournament without variety and structured
dents gain sufficient experience and skill competency skill work. Some students, usually unskilled, may feel they
for adult participation. There are many opportunities are placed in tournament play and forced into highly
for students to learn lifetime skills and compete with competitive situations without the opportunity to develop
others, the environment, or against themselves in dif- an adequate skill level. This only adds to the frustration
ferent units. for less-skilled students. Finally, some teachers advocate
Some experts argue that the promotion of physical long units to minimize their preparation duties and requi-
activity with a skill-based model using short units site instructional competency. The fewer units taught, the
offers exposure to a variety of activities but does not less planning and knowledge needed. This rationale is dif-
allow ample time to develop competency or mastery of ficult to accept if the needs and interests of all students are
skills and knowledge (Ennis, 1993). They believe that kept in focus.
units should be a minimum of 10 to 12 weeks, with
in-depth instruction available for those activities of
interest to students. They argue that short units (2 to CHOICE IN THE APPROACH
4 weeks) offer minimal time and provide little change Instruction in a promoting physical activity/skill develop-
in skill level. At the high school level, short units ment curriculum proceeds from introductory lessons to
restrict learning opportunities, and many educators advanced and specialized courses. Students are most often
advocate semester-long classes as a minimal time grouped by grade level than by ability or developmental
requirement to ensure development of adequate levels level. In most situations, students proceed through a
of competency. sequence of required physical activities throughout the
The authors have advocated short units for middle school year in middle school and continue on to an elective
school students and long units for high school students program in high school.
because of their students’ interests and developmental The choice concept can be used in a number of ways
characteristics. Middle school students going through with any length unit and any type of organizational sched-
puberty, a rapid growth spurt, or a period of slow motor ule in the skills-based curriculum. This strategy in the
development need successful experiences with a wide curriculum can increase the level of motivation of both
variety of activities. At a time when students find it diffi- students and teachers and help create a more positive
cult to tolerate failure, longer units can lock students into learning environment. Allowing for choice offers the fol-
a frustrating or boring experience for a long period of lowing advantages:
time. Variety and novelty in a success-oriented atmos-
phere are important motivational keys for this age group. ■ Increased student motivation and enthusiasm and a
Short units of instruction are usually presented in middle desire to take more physical education because of a
school so that students can experience many different higher interest level.
activities and learn about their areas of personal interest ■ Fewer problems with dressing, participation, and
and competency. The flow of the curriculum from middle discipline.
school to high school goes from short units to long
■ Better use of teaching expertise and the develop-
units—from searching for areas of competency to
ment of specialists.
consumer-driven choices for achieving high levels of
interest and success. ■ Improved instruction over a period of time.
Students can find success in short units when em- ■ Increased teacher motivation and enthusiasm.
phasis is on exploring and learning about one’s personal
strengths and weaknesses. Finally, because a majority of This trend of incorporating choice into the curricu-
students are still trying to identify their strengths and lum, which started at the college level and filtered down
weaknesses, this is possibly the last opportunity they to high school and middle school programs, allows stu-
will have to experience a wide variety of activities. dents a degree of choice for activities in the program.
Nontraditional units of instruction can be used to Classes are open to both genders, and the gender com-
offer variety and help maintain student interest. position of the class will depend on personal interests in
The middle school years should not be a time of the activities. Using this approach, male and female
specialization and refinement, but rather a time of ex- teachers work together and decide who is better quali-
ploration and discovery. fied to teach a specific activity. Each teacher develops

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 CURRICULUM APPROACHES

two or three specialties and teaches those specialties to 4 units of physical fitness
different classes of students, rather than teaching all 5 units of lifetime sports
activities to the same students.
5 units of team sports
Many schools are on a 9-week grading schedule.
Students could choose physical education units at the 5 units of elective activities
beginning of each semester. An example of this design Twenty-four Units Total
with three teachers has been used coeducationally, with
males and females allowed to select all activities. If more
than three teachers are available, students have the CONSIDERATION OF PROFICIENCY
opportunity to make choices from a broader selection.
LEVELS IN THE APPROACH
The following is an example of alternating 4- and 5-week
units in a coeducational curriculum with choices for Many high schools are attempting to offer different
students: proficiency levels for various activities. This implies
sections for beginning, intermediate, and advanced lev-
els of instruction for the most popular activities.
First Semester
Grouping students by ability and experience can offer
First 9 Weeks: efficient teaching and learning situations for teachers
Eclipse Ball/volleyball, yoga/Pilates, or soccer and students. Students may be more comfortable with
(4 weeks) others near their ability level. Students can skip a level
Flag football, archery, or tennis (5 weeks) if they are proficient at the earlier level. Teachers can
Second 9 Weeks: provide more specialized and in-depth instruction
Eclipse Ball/volleyball, badminton, or lacrosse when students are similar in experience and ability
(4 weeks) with the activity. The following are descriptions that
Basketball, team handball, or field hockey can be used for different levels of instruction:
(5 weeks)
■ Beginning level: introductory units for the develop-
Second Semester
ment of the basic skills and knowledge of the activity.
Third 9 Weeks:
Aerobics, speed-a-way, or basketball (4 weeks) ■ Intermediate level: more advanced skills and
Wrestling, orienteering, or volleyball knowledge about the activity and the team concepts
(5 weeks) of the team sports.
Fourth 9 Weeks: ■ Advanced level: advanced units that allow the stu-
Softball, track and field, or badminton (4 weeks) dents to continue pursuing higher skill levels and to
Swimming, Frisbee games, or cardio focus more on competitive or challenging levels of
kickboxing/physioballs (5 weeks) activities.

Some schools vary this approach by developing

A SUGGESTED MIDDLE SCHOOL
requirements by activity categories to ensure that breadth
across categories is provided. For example, students take a CURRICULUM FOR THE PROMOTING
certain number of team sports, lifetime sports, physical fit- PHYSICAL ACTIVITY/SKILL DEVELOPMENT
ness activities, dance units, aquatics, or recreational APPROACH
activities. This concept is referred to as a choice within a
The daily lesson plan format for this approach in the mid-
requirement. Depending on the number of units offered,
dle school should include an introductory or warm-up
students are required to take a specified number of units
activity (3 to 5 minutes), a physical fitness routine (10 to
from each category. For example, if the program offers
15 minutes), and a lesson focus and game segment (25 to
twenty-four 3-week units over a 2-year period, the require-
35 minutes). This format should be consistent and an out-
ments might include the following:
growth of the elementary physical education program. A
1 unit of Fitness for Life: Middle School concepts consistent instructional format within each class provides
teachers and students with an important measure of
(Corbin, LeMasurier, & Lambdin, 2007)
2 units of aquatics
2 units of dance

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 CURRICULUM APPROACHES

stability and routine. Each of the four areas in the lesson Fitness Routines
plan should be planned out for the year so that all activi- The fitness routines use 10 to 15 minutes of the lesson, and
ties will be covered. If activities are not planned, teachers their primary purpose is the development of physical
will find that they forgot to include certain activities or fitness and positive attitudes toward lifetime activity and
that they don’t have enough activities for the remainder of fitness. Fitness routines should offer total fitness develop-
the year. In addition, trying to design a scope and ment to the students. In other words, an attempt should
sequence is impossible if activities are not in a written for- be made to develop and enhance major components
mat. How does one modify the curriculum when the of fitness—especially flexibility, muscular strength and
activities presented cannot be recalled? endurance, body composition, and cardiovascular
endurance. The activities should be demanding, progres-
Introductory Activities sive in nature, and useful after graduation and into the
The introductory activity occupies 3 to 5 minutes of the future. Students must experience a wide variety of fitness
total lesson format. The purpose of this is to prepare routines so they can learn to select methods acceptable to
students physiologically for strenuous activity. An allied them for a lifetime. They should leave school with an
purpose is to psychologically ready students for activity. understanding that there are many ways to develop and
Students usually take a few minutes to become emotion- maintain an active lifestyle and that the responsibility for
ally involved in activity after a day of sitting in classes. The doing so lies with them.
introductory activity requires minimal organization and Students in the middle school should stay with the
demands large muscle movement. It may be an integral same routine for 2 weeks in order to get a good feel for a
part of the fitness routine or can be a separate entity. In routine over a 10-day period. Minor changes and varia-
either case, the introductory activity should raise the heart tions can be used with each routine to provide success,
rate, warm up the body, and stretch the muscles in antici- variety, and a challenge for all the students. Success in the
pation of the fitness development activity. Teachers should fitness routines will help motivate students and serve as a
change the introductory activity each week to add variety basis for future skill development in the lessons. Students
to the warm-up procedure. The sixth-, seventh-, and need to experience and learn that fitness is individual
eighth-grade students can perform similar introductory and relative to their genetic and trainability background.
activities. Figure 3 shows a recommended yearly sequence Teachers need to remind students that through continued
(36 weeks). efforts in the fitness area, all students can be successful.

Week Introductory Activity Week Introductory Activity

1 Move and freeze 18 Form running

2 Basic movements (walk, slide, carioca, 19 Jumping and plyometric drills
step-hop) 20 Fastest tag variations
3 Fugitive tag with a variety of movements 21 Seat rolls and wave drill
4 Walk, trot, sprint 22 Standing high fives
5 Basic movement (pivots, slide and pivot, 23 Loose caboose
carioca and pivot) 24 Spider tag variations
6 Run, stop, and pivot 25 Leaping Lena
7 Flag grab with a variety of movements 26 Rooster hop
8 Marking variations 27 Move, change directions, and freeze
9 Move and change directions 28 Triangle and one
10 Quick hands with beanbags 29 Making variations
11 Flash drills 30 Power-walk variations—Add ‘em up
12 Partner over and under 31 Throwing and catching variations on the move
13 Throw and catch on the move 32 Follow the leader
14 Clothespin tag variations 33 Triangle and two
15 File running variations 34 Wave drill variations
16 Quickness drills 35 Standing high fives
17 Movements with high fives 36 Blob tag

FIGURE 3 Yearly sequence of introductory activities for middle school students

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 CURRICULUM APPROACHES

The Fitnessgram (Cooper Institute, 2007) can be used to 3 weeks if the classes meet daily. Two-week units are
educate and monitor students in the fitness area. A fit- recommended with a daily format. Three-week units can
ness report and “Activitygram” can be used for self-test- be a combination of two activities, such as football and
ing, goal setting, and communication with parents. A Frisbee. The combination-type unit allows a daily alter-
printout graphically reveals the student’s fitness profile. It nation of the two activities. This combination can be an
can be a positive part of the fitness segment of the class effective way to keep all students involved; if they don’t
and a good way to involve students and parents by col- like football, they can always look forward to Frisbee the
lecting information, entering it in the computer, and an- next day.
alyzing it for future use. Fitness self-testing should not Middle school students should have some choice as
take a lot of class time and maintains the purpose of to which units they take. They should be required to take
teaching students skills that they can use for a lifetime. at least one unit from each of the following categories:
team sports, lifetime sports, nontraditional activities,
Lesson Focus and Game rhythms, and aquatics. Physical fitness routines should
The lesson focus and game should last 25 to 35 minutes, be required in all units of instruction on a daily basis.
depending on the length of the period. This is the Teachers should decide which activities in their program
instructional part of the lesson, with the major emphasis fit the various categories. The category requirement
on skill development, cognitive learning, and enhance- ensures a measure of breadth for each student in the pro-
ment of the affective domain. This phase of the lesson gram. Students should not be allowed to repeat the same
contains skills to be taught, drills, and lead-up activities unit because the emphasis of the model is to ensure that
necessary for skill practice, all of which culminate in students explore and receive a breadth of activities.
games and tournaments. The length of activity units Students should have the opportunity to learn the fun-
in the lesson focus should be short, in the range of 2 to damentals of personal fitness and physical activity before
they leave the middle school in case the high school they
attend does not have a physical education requirement.
Each student will thus have five required categories of
activity. The remaining units are then chosen by each
student in any category where they have an interest.
Allow students to take advanced-level units after meeting
their basic requirements.
The specific activity units offered should be deter-
mined through a student interest survey. This approach
Weeks Fitness Routines offers the physical education staff insight into units
that are attractive to students. Activity units must
1–2 Teacher–leader activities accomplish NASPE and state standards and be updated
3–4 Stretching and form running from year to year, depending on the interests of the stu-
5–6 Four corner fitness dents and the opinions of the staff. This approach
7–8 Partner race track fitness should provide a balance of activities from the required
9–10 Exercise to music
categories.
11–12 Jump bands fitness
A school with four physical education teachers might
13–14 Circuit training fitness
offer the curriculum design shown in Figure 5. During the
15–16 Step aerobics
17–18 Jump and jog fitness
first unit of each semester, students would make their eight
19–20 Monopoly fitness choices based on the required categories and their personal
21–22 Power-walking variations interests. At that time, students would be reminded to select
23–24 Partner resistance and aerobic fitness activities based on their interests and curriculum require-
25–26 Long jump-rope fitness ments, rather than on the teacher or on who else is in the
27–28 Fortune cookie fitness class. Student interests and course requirements should
29–30 Squad leader fitness determine the composition of the class. The first unit of the
31–32 Cardio kickboxing semester is a required unit that focuses on an introduction
33–34 Jump-rope fitness to the program and a discussion and practice of all rules,
35–36 Group fitness scavenger hunt routines, and policies.
Previous learning is considered in the sequence of
FIGURE 4 Yearly sequence of fitness routines the horizontal or yearly curriculum. Activities that use
for mddle school students common skills can be placed later in the year (e.g., team

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Weeks Lesson Focus Choices

First Semester (Weeks 1–18)

1–2 Introduction and orientation to physical education
3–4 Swimming, volleyball, Eclipse Ball, Frisbee games, or flag football
5–6 Swimming, tennis, badminton, or soccer
7–8 Weight training, tennis, basketball, or lacrosse
9–10 Gymnastics, badminton, soccer, or Frisbee games
11–12 Aerobics, basketball, field hockey, or lacrosse
13–14 Orienteering, basketball, team handball, or wrestling
15–16 Jogging, yoga, speed-a-way, or aerobics
17–18 Modern dance, step aerobics, team handball, or golf
Second Semester (Weeks 19–36)
19–20 Dance: folk, square, line and country; aerobics and cardio kickboxing; weight
training; or cooperative activities
21–22 Orienteering, speed-a-way, weight training, or new games
23–24 Frisbee games, basketball, soccer, or volleyball
25–26 Gymnastics, badminton, tennis, or field hockey
27–28 Track and field, softball, volleyball, or physical conditioning
29–30 Modern dance, self-defense, lacrosse, or Frisbee games
31–32 Track and field, walking activities, team handball, or new games
33–34 Swimming, modern dance, recreational games, or flag football variations
35–36 Swimming, speed-a-way, group team building, or team handball

FIGURE 5 Middle school lesson focus sequence for a four-person physical education department

handball, speed-a-way, and floor hockey can build on for the Dynamic Secondary School Physical Education
basketball, volleyball, and soccer). Within the vertical Curriculum approach used in many middle schools
arrangement, the seventh grade should build on the sixth across the country.
grade in terms of skills, cognitive learning, and lead-up
games. The eighth-grade curriculum should then build
on the seventh grade. Increased knowledge, more in- A SUGGESTED NINTH-GRADE CURRICULUM
depth strategies, and higher skill levels are the focus of FOR PROMOTING PHYSICAL ACTIVITY/
the eighth grade. Because of scheduling problems, some
schools must put seventh- and eighth-grade students
SKILL DEVELOPMENT: THE TRANSITION
together in the same class. This is unfortunate because of YEAR TO HIGH SCHOOL
the wide range of developmental levels of students in The ninth-grade year is the last required class of physical
these two grades. Teachers are always faced with many education in many schools. Consequently, it is important
different physical skill levels within their classes no for ninth graders to leave with positive attitudes toward
matter what the organizational scheme. Teachers must physical activity, a desire to return for additional physical
be aware of the developmental differences and provide a education classes, and a desire to pursue a lifetime of
variety of learning activities for different levels within physical activity.
each unit. Ninth graders are usually in a transition from middle
This curriculum approach for middle school stu- school to senior high school. Some districts put the ninth
dents can be implemented effectively with a variety of graders with seventh and eighth graders, while most other
adaptations depending on the number of students and districts place them with 10th-, 11th-, and 12th-grade
teachers, the school requirements, the teaching facilities, students. Both arrangements have advantages and disad-
the equipment available, the school schedule, and other vantages, and decisions are usually based on such factors as
environmental factors. This framework serves as the basis historical arrangements, class size, building space, and
projected district growth. The ninth-grade curriculum
design usually resembles that of the other grades with

81
 CURRICULUM APPROACHES

which the students are grouped. The requirements, sched- This requirement ensures a measure of breadth by cate-
ules, length of units, types of activities, amount of choice, gory. The electives can be used for greater depth in an activ-
and other factors are usually the same as the middle school ity or for additional breadth, depending on the interests of
programs. A major difference is that the length of the ninth- the student. Ninth graders should be able to repeat a unit or
grade units tends to be longer than the middle school units. take an intermediate-level class as part of their electives.
Some schools also allow ninth graders to take longer, Because students at this age have started to narrow their
specialized units in a few popular activities such as dance, activity interests, they should be able to start specializing in
gymnastics, aerobics, or weight training. Different profi- favorite activities. Their developmental level will allow them
ciency levels may also be available for some ninth graders to improve faster than the sixth, seventh, or eighth graders in
(e.g., beginning, intermediate, and advanced units). the motor skills area. Students who take two 3-week units of
The grade 9 curriculum design for physical education the same activity should demonstrate visible improvement
should be especially attractive to students because it may be in skill-level development.
their last organized physical activity experience. Making a
curriculum attractive does not mean compromising educa- Introductory Activities
tional objectives. The curricula must be designed with spe- A short introductory or warm-up activity (3 to 5 minutes) is
cific, valuable objectives in mind, and students should not be useful to prepare students for the physical fitness routine.
allowed to make all their curricular decisions in any situation. These activities should be attractive and challenging with lots
A curriculum approach can be made both attractive of variety. Low organization and large muscle type activities
and educationally sound by incorporating a number of that get students moving quickly should dominate this seg-
factors. First, students should have some activity choices for ment of the lesson. An example is the popular “high-five”
each unit. At this grade level, they need continued activity in which football, baseball, and basketball teammates
opportunities to explore different activities. Second, the slap hands together overhead or down low after performing
arrangement should incorporate organized self-testing, per- some feat of excellence. Ninth graders can be challenged
sonal counseling, and a wellness orientation to give students to warm up by alternating various locomotor movements
additional information for making decisions about physical (walking, jogging, sliding, and doing carioca) with giving
activity and their lifestyles. Third, the choices of activity classmates a “high five,” a “low five,” or a “medium five.”
should include a wide variety of different categories of phys- Music can be programmed with 15-second intervals on and
ical activity, especially new and popular units such as skating off to change the movements of the students. Another exam-
with rollerblades, mountain biking, rock climbing, Frisbee, ple is to have student partners give each other a high-five
walking, cardiovascular machines, weight training, phys- after a 90-, 180-, 270-, or a 360-degree turn and jump to the
ioballs, cardio kickboxing, and aerobics. Fourth, the pro- right or left. These are good ways to prepare students
gram should lead students into more depth in their selected for the vigorous fitness routines in a novel and interesting
activities so that they can develop a higher skill level. This manner.
means having different proficiency levels, such as beginning, The introductory activity should be changed at least
intermediate, and advanced sections, or at least the opportu- every week. There are many ways to add variety and chal-
nity to repeat favorite units. Finally, efforts should be made lenge with each weekly introductory activity. The yearly
to develop a positive learning environment so students will sequence suggested for middle school students can serve as
enjoy the process and have a desire to return for additional the basis for the ninth graders. For added interest, modified
learning during the remainder of their high school years. or new warm-up activities can be created, depending on the
Classes should meet daily, and units should be 2 to season, the type of fitness routine that follows (strength,
3 weeks in length. Ninth graders should be required to endurance, or flexibility focus), or the type of lesson focus
take units from the following categories: activity that follows (basketball, golf, or tennis). The yearly
sequence of introductory activities for ninth graders shown
2 units of Fitness for Life (Corbin & Lindsey, 2007) and
in Figure 6 is suggested.
wellness concepts
1 unit of team sports Fitness Routines
1 unit of lifetime sports A vigorous and demanding physical fitness routine (10 to
1 unit of rhythms 15 minutes) should follow the introductory segment of
the lesson. A different routine every 3 weeks gives students
1 unit of aquatics
a final chance to explore many different fitness activities.
1 unit of novel activities or adventure activities
5 units of electives from any category

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 CURRICULUM APPROACHES

Week Activity Week Activity

1 Basic movements (walk, slide, carioca, triple jump) 1–3 Teacher–leader activities and form
2 Stretching and flexibility exercises running
3 Form running variations 4–6 Weight training stations
4 Basic sport movement (pivots, slide and pivot, 7–9 Partner race track fitness
carioca, run backwards) 10–12 Step aerobics
5 Fugitive tag variations 13–15 Exercise machines
6 Flag grab with a variety of movements 16–18 Circuit training stations
7 Marking variations 19–21 Jump and jog fitness
8 Move and change directions 22–24 Fitness scavenger hunt
9 Quick hands with Throtons 25–27 Power-walk variations
10 Flash drills 28–30 Cardio kickboxing fitness
11 Jog and stretch variations 31–33 Partner jump-rope activities
12 Throw and catch on the move 34–36 Fortune cookie fitness/Monopoly fitness
13 Clothespin tag variations
14 File running variations
15 Quickness drills
FIGURE 7 Yearly sequence of fitness routines for
ninth graders
16 Movements with high fives
17 Form running
18 Jumping and plyometric drills importance of regular activity relative to the results of the
19 Fastest tag variations fitness test.
20 Seat rolls and wave drill The 3-week physical fitness routines in Figure 7 are
21 Standing high fives with a turn suggested for the ninth-grade curriculum. Instructors
22 Loose caboose variations should carefully explain and demonstrate progression
23 Spider tag variations and overload principles to the students. Within each of the
24 Flexibility challenges 3-week routines, teachers should vary the activities as much
25 Quarter eagle footwork as possible to provide variety, success, and a challenge for all
26 Move, change directions, and freeze students.
27 Triangle and one
28 Making variations Lesson Focus and Games
29 Power walk variations (Chapter 15)
Results of a student interest survey combined with the opin-
30 Throwing and catching variations on the move
31 Blob tag variations
ions of teachers can be used to determine the activity units
32 Triangle and two offered during the lesson focus segment (25 to 35 minutes).
33 Wave drill variations Classes should meet daily, and the units should be 3 weeks
34 Student choice long. When feasible, the curriculum should be extended into
35 Student choice the community to use nearby facilities, such as Frisbee golf
36 Student choice courses, local climbing gyms, golf ranges, bowling alleys, ski
slopes, and rivers or lakes. Community resources can be-
FIGURE 6 Yearly sequence of introductory activities for come an important part of the program both in terms of
ninth graders facilities and instructional personnel. Schools must work in
concert with the private sport and recreation groups in the
Emphasis should be placed on imparting knowledge to community. Students need to be socialized into the activities
students so they understand which activities affect various available in the local community.
parameters of fitness. Students need to be taught and Physical skills can be taught and monitored with per-
encouraged to make decisions relative to physical fitness formance objectives written for each unit. Programmed
and their personal fitness routine choices. Students should practice sheets can also be added to structure skill work
self-test their fitness level at least once a year with the during the lesson focus. A strong knowledge component
Fitnessgram system (Cooper Institute, 2007) and be edu- should also be incorporated into all units. A written test
cated on the various components of health-related fitness. should be given every 9 weeks after completing three units.
Teachers need to ensure that students understand the role Students should be given reading assignments, written
that genetics and training factors play in the results of fit- work for portfolios, and outside-of-class projects to en-
ness testing and make sure that students understand the hance their attitudes toward physical activity.

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 CURRICULUM APPROACHES

Weeks Lesson Focus Options

First Semester (Weeks 1–18)

1–3 Fitness for Life concepts (required: 6 sections) (Corbin & Lindsey, 2007)
4–6 Swimming 1 & 2, novel activities (Eclipse Ball), dance 1, badminton, or
soccer
7–9 Swimming 1 & 2, volleyball, dance 1 & 2, or fitness walking
10–12 Dance 1 & 2, Frisbee games, speed-a-way, team handball, or volleyball
13–15 Dance 2, tennis, basketball, field hockey, novel activities (Eclipse Ball), or
combatives
16–18 Aerobic and weight training 1 & 2, tennis, golf, badminton, or lacrosse
Second Semester (Weeks 19–36)
19–21 Fitness for Life concepts (required: 6 sections) (Corbin & Lindsey, 2007)
22–24 Soccer, basketball, tennis, weight training, orienteering, or field hockey
25–27 Gymnastics, basketball 2, Frisbee games, lacrosse, speed-a-way, or tennis
28–30 Dance 2, volleyball, recreational games, softball 1 & 2, or weight training
31–33 Soccer, team handball, dance (2 sections), weight training, or new games
34–36 Swimming 1 & 2, Frisbee games 1 & 2, or orienteering games 1 & 2

FIGURE 8 Ninth-grade lesson focus sequence for a six-person physical

education department

Instructors must take care to organize the curricu- the physical activities they want to pursue. By 10th grade,
lum activities horizontally throughout the year and en- the program should be totally elective and participant-
sure vertical articulation with the eighth-grade program. driven. This is not the time to force students into certain
Opportunities should be available to increase skill levels activity settings where they have no interest. It is a time for
and knowledge of activities included in previous years. growing student independence and choice. Students
The sequence of activity units in Figure 8 is suggested for should decide what activities to take under the structure
a ninth-grade curriculum with six teachers. The first unit and guidance of a well-developed physical education elec-
of each semester is required for all students. It should tive approach.
consist of a Fitness for Life concepts class (see the Fitness Classes should meet daily and last 6 to 9 weeks,
Education Approach section later in this chapter). The re- depending on the school schedule. Units offered and class
maining units are choices for the students based on the composition should be determined by student interest.
category requirements and the students’ interests. These longer units allow for in-depth instruction and the
Students must meet the category requirement, and then development of a high level of skill competency. High
the remaining units are electives. school students have the ability to persist at tasks for a
longer period and can benefit from the long units of
A SUGGESTED HIGH SCHOOL CURRICULUM instruction. After 6 to 9 weeks of instruction, students
should have a sufficient level of skill and knowledge so that
FOR PROMOTING PHYSICAL ACTIVITY/ the reinforcing aspects of the activity will motivate them to
SKILL DEVELOPMENT: A TOTAL ELECTIVE continue outside the school environment. The curriculum
PROGRAM WITH A HEALTH CLUB/FITNESS should emphasize a health club or fitness center approach
of lifetime or lifestyle-type activities usually available in a
CENTER EMPHASIS (10TH, 11TH, AND community health club or elsewhere in the community.
12TH GRADES) This could include such activities as walking, jogging, step
At these grade levels, students continue to narrow their aerobics, yoga, Pilates, cardio kickboxing, physioballs, body
range of interests in many areas, including physical activ- bars, medicine balls, swimming, tennis, racquetball, weight
ity. Students are capable and should be allowed to choose training, bicycling, hiking, and so on. The program should
also offer as many proficiency levels of instruction as possi-
ble to accommodate different students’ abilities.

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Students switch lesson focus activities only after a mini- ■ Aerobic dance/cardio kickboxing (intermediate level)
mum of 6 to 9 weeks of instruction and practice. They can ■ Weight training (beginning and intermediate)
repeat a lesson focus unit at a higher skill level if it is offered,
or they can take different units for another 6 to 9 weeks. ■ Yoga/Pilates exercise and work with physioballs or
Facilities, student interest, and faculty expertise will deter- medicine balls
mine which activities are taught each period. Community
If facilities are limited and certain fitness activities
facilities and programs should be used as much as possible
are extremely popular (weight training or aerobic
within the existing parameters available for funds, travel
dance), then a rotation schedule might allow students
arrangements, and legal liability. Sometimes the students
whose last names start with letters A–M to participate on
can go into the community for units, and sometimes the
Monday and Wednesday, while N–Z would participate
community programs can be brought to the schools. The
on Tuesday and Thursday. In any of these formats, tea-
community facilities might include swimming pools, fitness
chers have to solve potential problems with attendance
centers, rock-climbing gyms, hiking or cycling trails, martial
and rotation procedures for students who might ride a
arts centers, orienteering sites, ski slopes, bowling alleys, golf
bus to a ski slope or walk to a local bowling alley. There
ranges, or canoeing areas.
may be times when some students would have to miss
The fitness portion of the lesson (15 to 20 minutes)
the fitness portion of the lesson because of the logistics
should also be elective in nature. It could be organized in
of the situation.
several ways. One format would have each available teacher
Figure 9 is an example of a yearly lesson focus
coordinating a different fitness activity at a different teach-
sequence for a high school promoting a physical activity/
ing site. Specific activities might include stretching, weight
skill development program with a health club focus that
lifting, walking and jogging variations, step aerobics, box
aerobics, or rope jumping. Students could pursue their
preferences on certain days of the week and then switch to
different activities on alternate days. The only requirement
Weeks Elective Class Offerings
is that students must maintain a balance of cardiovascular
activities and muscular strength or flexibility activities. 1–9 Fitness for Life concepts (Corbin & Lindsey, 2007)
Students could switch instructors and activities depending Tennis
on their needs and interests. After the fitness portion of the Golf
lesson, students and teachers move on to their selected les- Dance
son focus unit. This allows students to select the type and Fitness center activities
variety of fitness activity they desire, as long as they main- Novel cooperative activities and new games
tain the balance we’ve described. Details for switching 10–18 Racquetball
from activity to activity and keeping track of student atten- Volleyball/Eclipse Ball
dance would be worked out among teachers. Fitness center activities
Another format could have students going to the fit- Rock climbing
ness activities for the entire class period on Tuesday and Frisbee
Thursday while going to the lesson focus activities for the Soccer
entire period on Monday, Wednesday, and Friday. Still 19–27 Bowling
another format could have students rotating between fit- Bicycling
ness days and lesson focus days every other day of the Badminton
week so that the time eventually equalizes with 3 days one Fitness center activities
week and then 2 days the next week. No matter which for- Orienteering
mat is used, teachers must emphasize the importance of a Basketball
daily and balanced program of physical activity for all stu- 28–36 Fitness center activities
dents. A school that has six teachers available per period Dance
and appropriate facilities could offer the following fitness Water sports and activities
stations: Tennis
Racquetball
Hiking and camping
■ Stretching and brisk walking
■ Slow jogging and interval training FIGURE 9 Tenth-, 11th-, and 12th-grade lesson focus
■ Aerobic dance (beginning level) sequence for a six-person physical education department

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 CURRICULUM APPROACHES

has six teachers available. Teachers can become specialists with physical activity so they will leave school with posi-
in certain popular activities that students elect each year. tive approach tendencies toward learning in general and
The quality of instruction should be at the highest possi- physical activities in particular.
ble level. Activities in the program will change as often as
students desire. Communities with strong interests in
specific activities (golf, tennis, sailing, horseback riding,
OUTDOOR ADVENTURE ACTIVITIES
hockey, rock climbing, lacrosse, and so on) will dictate the APPROACH
activity choices of students. The schools will then be Another variation of the promoting physical activity/skill
cooperating with the private sector by preparing students development approach is the outdoor adventure activities
for lifestyle activities available in the surrounding com- approach. Popular activities in this approach are cycling,
munity. The physical education profession can no longer orienteering, backpacking, skin or scuba diving, canoeing,
afford to offer programs that show little or no concern for cross-country skiing, downhill skiing, caving, rock climbing
student preference. or rappelling, group initiatives, and ropes course activities.
Some schools include a limited number of short units
ARTICULATION IN PROMOTING (either elective or required) of adventure activities as part of
the program, while others offer an entire semester course of
PHYSICAL ACTIVITY/SKILL adventure activities. Most often, high schools offer a year-
DEVELOPMENT: ELEMENTARY SCHOOL long elective course designed with a variety of outdoor
THROUGH HIGH SCHOOL adventure pursuits. The program might include a yearlong
The approach presented here is carefully articulated from elective wilderness adventure class in the physical education
elementary school through high school. It is built on the program that includes instruction and field trips for rock
popular elementary (K–6) physical education model climbing, rappelling, caving, beginning and advanced back-
developed by Pangrazi and Beighle (2010). It follows the packing, and day hikes. Usually, the focus of these programs
same daily format and uses arrangements of learning is on the development of basic skills requisite for participa-
activities appropriate for the developmental levels of stu- tion in these activities. Another approach is to offer group
dents. The entire K–12 sequence emphasizes skill develop- initiative and cooperative activities that help students learn
ment, individual success, a process focus, regular physical group and individual problem-solving skills under stressful
activity, exploration, guidance, self-monitoring, knowl- situations.
edge, and a lifetime of physical activity. The components Adding outdoor adventure activities to the program
of this model are shown in Figure 10. This model provides creates significant change for teachers, students, administra-
school districts with a sound, progressively arranged phys- tors, and parents. Many of the activities must be done
ical education curriculum that has been field-tested by the off-campus. For example, rock-climbing areas, wooded or
authors in many districts. Options have been used de- desert locations, caves, rivers, and lakes can be used.
pending on the specific factors involved. The model is Establishing a nearby off-campus environment with various
built on educational theory and research as well as on outdoor facilities can provide a variety of teaching areas for
practical environmental factors influencing learning envi- these activities. The units can culminate with an off-campus
ronments. It gives students many successful encounters trip during the school day or as an after-school or weekend
trip with parents involved. The trips give students an oppor-
tunity to learn and experience activities that are different
from regular school offerings. After-school, weekend, and
Grades vacation times are often used for these classes.
Safety and liability problems related to these activities
K 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
require special safety and insurance arrangements. Many
Required units - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Elective units administrators and parents show little concern about injuries
Variety and exploration - - - - -- - - - - -Specialized units related to athletic programs such as football, wrestling, and
Balance and breadth - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - Depth gymnastics, but they are extremely cautious about imple-
Physical fitness/activity - - - - - - Physical fitness/activity menting adventure activities that appear risky. Most of
Required and varied - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -Choice
the activities require funding for specialized equipment such
as compasses, climbing ropes, and camping gear. Teachers
Health/Wellness concepts- - - Health/Wellness concepts
must show evidence of having proper qualifications because
Required - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -Choice of the expertise required for high-risk activities.
With the problems created by outdoor adventure
FIGURE 10 K–12 Curriculum components activities, why take the time to do the extra work? Because,

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 CURRICULUM APPROACHES

in most cases, secondary students are highly motivated and Another more advanced and demanding course could
enthusiastic about the activities. There are many reasons include skills in rock climbing, backpacking, caving, orien-
for this increased interest. Some students enjoy the novelty teering, and skiing. Arizona students could select field trips
of the activities; others like the risk and excitement, the from the following choices: hiking at Mount Humphrey in
challenge of the environment, or the opportunity to make Flagstaff, backpacking into the Havasupai Falls area of the
decisions; while still others like the social opportunities Grand Canyon, orienteering at North Mountain Park in
without competition between people. Other students are Phoenix, rock climbing in the McDowell Mountains, cave
attracted to the lifetime participation emphasis and the exploring in the Tucson area, cross-country and downhill
opportunities that exist within the community. The activi- skiing in Flagstaff, and backpacking and rock climbing at
ties offer the opportunity to travel, explore new areas, and Weaver’s Needle in the Superstition Mountains. These
enjoy competition with an environment of wind, water, classes could be elective and meet daily to work on the
snow, mountains, and woods. These activities satisfy the skills involved and prepare for the various field trips.
objectives of physical education and make it worth the Students may have to pay a special class fee for travel
extra effort. expenses and extra equipment (see Figure 11).
Physical educators continually need to dispel the fol- Austin O’Brien High School in Calgary, Alberta,
lowing four myths that often block the introduction of Canada, has offered a variety of outdoor adventure-type
outdoor pursuits into the physical education curriculum activities as part of their curricular offerings. Students
(Parker & Steen, 1988). select units on canoeing, sailing, kayaking, basic rock
climbing, orienteering, outdoor survival, wilderness camp-
1. The school must be located near major outdoor
ing, backpacking, and cross-country skiing. A senior-level
areas or state parks.
elective physical education class includes the yearly
2. The teacher must have advanced skill levels in out- sequence of activities shown in Figure 12, including
door activities. outdoor adventure activities and several popular lifetime
3. There are insurmountable obstacles regarding activities.
safety, legal liability, and insurance.
4. The cost of outdoor pursuits is too expensive for SPORT EDUCATION APPROACH
schools.
The sport education curriculum was developed to pro-
Schools and physical educators can overcome these mote a positive sport experience for all students regard-
problems in a number of ways. By starting small and less of their ability level (Siedentop, Hastie, & van der
being creative and innovative, much can be accom- Mars, 2004; Bulger, Mohr, Rairigh, & Townsend, 2007).
plished. Many of the activities are easy to implement The curriculum includes a combination of physical edu-
and can be started on campus with a limited budget. cation, intramural sports, and interscholastic athletics.
With proper training and supervision, students can It allows students, regardless of ability level, to experience
experience a safe and rewarding experience with out- the positive values of sports in a manner similar to
door activities. involvement in an interscholastic sports program. The
Some schools have offered an elective outdoor adven- goal of the sport education approach is to help students
ture curriculum with two different levels. The first level is experience such qualities as working to reach deferred
an introductory course that gives students an opportunity goals, teamwork, loyalty, commitment, perseverance,
to enjoy and learn about the local outdoor areas. Students dedication, and concern for other people. The approach
learn the fundamental skills of backpacking, fishing, hunt- emphasizes the importance of teams, leagues, seasons,
ing, camping, and wilderness first aid. Field trips are set up championships, coaches, practice, player involvement,
during the school day, after school, and over weekends. formal records, statistics, and competitive balance. These
Students make choices on which and how many field trips characteristics are usually emphasized in sport programs
they are going to take. Examples of activities and trips that but not in a physical education program. This model
have been used in Phoenix, Arizona, include hiking along a gives all students a chance to experience a quality com-
river or stream, fishing and camping in the high desert, petitive sports program that is organized and supervised
participating in desert awareness activities at the Arizona- by an unbiased physical educator who will protect the
Sonora Desert Museum in Tucson, learning trap or skeet important values of sports. Students learn to compete
shooting and gun safety at a shooting range, hunting and be good competitors. A desired outcome is that stu-
pheasants at a local hunting club, shooting arrows at an dents become competent, literate, and enthusiastic sports
archery range, and learning basic horsemanship skills at a participants who want to play sports at local, national,
local horse stable. and international levels.

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88
Outdoor Adventure Schedule

Type
Return of
Date(s) Day(s) Activity Destination Depart Approx. Fee Comments Tran.*

Sept. 19 Friday Day hike Wet Beaver Creek— 7 A.M. 5 P.M. Paid Bring a swimming suit and old tennis shoes. SB
Sedona Don’t forget water and your lunch.
27–28 Sat.–Sun. Fishing/camping Payson area 8 A.M. 8 P.M. $20 Great place to fish and swim—may need license. CV
trip
Oct. 7 Tuesday Desert awareness Arizona-Sonora Desert 8 A.M. 5 P.M. Paid This is the best desert museum in the Southwest. SB
Museum—Tucson
24 Friday Gun safety Black Canyon Range 8 A.M. 2 P.M. Paid Bring your own shells—adults needed. SB
25 Saturday Trap/skeet Black Canyon Range 8 A.M. 2 P.M. $10 Includes 2 rounds of shooting and prizes. SV
competition Bring your own shells.
Nov. 15 Saturday Pheasant hunt Salt Cedar Preserve 7 A.M. 2 P.M. $15 Bring own gun and shells—must have adult with CV
each student—you keep pheasants you shoot.
26 Wednesday Field archery Black Canyon Range 8 A.M. 2 P.M. Paid Compound bows OK—adults needed. SB
Wear tennis shoes.
Dec. 9 Tuesday Horsemanship Pointe Stables 8 A.M. 1 P.M. Paid Wear jeans and tennis shoes or boots. SB
12 Friday Horsemanship Pointe Stables 6 P.M. 10 P.M. Paid All parents are invited and needed for potluck None
under the stars—guests of students are welcome.
Jan. 31 Saturday Downhill skiing Flagstaff 6 A.M. 8 P.M. $ ??? Rent boots, skis, and poles in Phoenix. CB
Feb. 7 Saturday Cross-country skiing Flagstaff 6 A.M. 6 P.M. Paid Bring gloves, hat, change of clothes—overdress. CV
March 6 Friday Rock climbing South Mountain Park 8 A.M. 5 P.M. Paid Bring chocolate chip cookies for instructor. SB
28 Saturday Rock climbing McDowell Mts. 6 A.M. 6 P.M. Paid Bring chocolate chip cookies for instructor. SV
April 4–5 Sat.–Sun. Caving/day hike Tucson Area 6 A.M. 8 P.M. $25 Bring change of clothes and plastic bag. PV
16 Thurs. Map and compass North Mountain Park 8 A.M. 2 P.M. Paid Bring water, lunch, hat, sunglasses, notebook, SB
ruler, and pencil.
25 Saturday Day hike Superstitions 6 A.M. 5 P.M. Paid Bring water, hat, sunglasses, and lunch. SB
May 8 Friday Day hike Mt. Humphreys 5 A.M. 9 P.M. Paid Bring warm clothing, rain gear, lunch, water, hat. SB
14–18 Thurs.–Mon. Backpacking trip North Rim—Grand 4 P.M. 4 P.M. $30 Advanced hike—30 miles—qualifying hike will CV
Canyon be Thurs., May 7th, 6 P.M., Squaw Peak Park.

*SB—School bus CB—Commercial bus SV—School van CV—Commercial van

REMINDER! Unless someone takes your place, there will be no refunds on nonpaid field trips for any reason. Nonpaid field trips are limited in number.
Participants will be selected by physical conditioning and/or class grade point average.

FIGURE 11 Course sequence for an outdoor adventure class in Arizona

 CURRICULUM APPROACHES

during the regular class period followed by competition

Austin O’Brien High School outside of class.
Depending on student interests, available facilities,
1. Learn-to-sail program—Lake Wabamum
and school schedules, different activities can be selected
2. Walleyball
for the program. Traditional team sports and individual
3. Bicycle mechanics course and Elk Island Tour
sports such as basketball, volleyball, flag football, soccer,
4. Curling
5. Archery
softball, badminton, gymnastics, cross-country running,
6. Rifle target shooting (trap and skeet) or track and field can be selected. The sports could be
7. Camping and hiking program modified into activities such as three-person volleyball,
8. Cross-country skiing three-person basketball, or over-the-line softball. Lifetime
9. Tennis sports such as tennis, bowling, or golf are popular choices,
10. Social dance with other less common possibilities such as ultimate
11. Badminton Frisbee, cycling, orienteering, speed-a-way, team handball,
12. Racquetball floor or field hockey, or modified lacrosse.
13. Bowling If several teachers are working together, students
14. Downhill skiing have several choices for leagues that are of interest to
15. Volleyball and pickleball them. The leagues vary in length from 3 to 4 weeks to 9 to
16. Coaching certification level-1 theory
10 weeks depending on student interest, facilities, and the
school schedule. Students have the opportunity to partic-
FIGURE 12 Austin O’Brien High School ipate in approximately 5 to 12 leagues in a year of physi-
adventure program cal education. The seasonal schedule for a school could
adhere to grading periods. For example, 6- or 9-week
The model uses the following six characteristics that grading periods could drive seasons for the leagues (see
make the sport education approach different from more Figure 13).
traditional approaches to physical education. All leagues include aspects of sports (Siedentop,
Hastie, & van der Mars, 2004; Bulger, Mohr, Rairigh, &
1. Sport education involves seasons rather than units.
2. Students quickly become members of teams
(affiliation).
3. There is a formal schedule of competition.
Seasonal Sport Education Schedule
4. There is usually a major culminating event.
5. Records are kept and publicized. Season Team Sports Individual Sports

6. Festivity is included to provide excitement, meaning, Autumn Flag football Tennis

and a social element. Cross country Archery
Table tennis
Each season begins with instruction and development
of team strategies according to the teams’ strengths and Early winter Volleyball Fencing
weaknesses. The teacher helps organize the class into Soccer Bowling
Badminton
teams and elect a student captain; then he or she instructs
Racquetball
team members about skill development. Teams take the
initiative to organize practice, decide on players’ positions, Late winter Basketball Fencing
and determine strategies for playing other teams. Students Swimming Bowling
assume more responsibility as the program evolves and Racquetball
they begin to understand its goals. Riflery
The program can be implemented in several ways,
Spring Baseball Badminton
depending on the situation and the comfort zone of the Softball Golf
teacher. It might be accomplished in a single class, with Track and field Archery
one teacher and one class. It could involve several classes
that meet during the same period of the day. It could also
FIGURE 13 Seasonal sport education schedule
be implemented with classes that meet during different
Data from Siedentop, Hastie, & van der Mars, Complete Guide to
periods of the day, with competition scheduled at a com- Sport Education, with permission from Human Kinetics Publishers.
mon time. Another implementation style involves practice Copyright © 2004.

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 CURRICULUM APPROACHES

Townsend, 2007). Leagues and rules of competition can be league play begins for each league; there are 2 match days
modified to ensure students are successful. For example, and 2 practice days. From the third through the seventh
volleyball and basketball leagues could have choices for weeks, students have 3 match days and 1 practice day per
three-on-three competition in addition to the five-on-five week. During the eighth week, there is a championship
format. There could be a boys’ league, girls’ league, or a tournament involving all 16 teams.
coed league. Participation is required for all students, and During match days, students participate in a warm-up
developmentally appropriate competition that is equated period followed by a timed match; the duration of the
is implemented. Students handle all roles in the units, match is determined by the length of the teaching period,
including coaching, scorekeeping, keeping statistics, man- for example, 22 minutes. All matches start and stop at the
aging equipment, and refereeing. The teacher’s role is to same time. There is a signal every 5 minutes for substitu-
ensure that the sport environment is safe and that stu- tions. Students referee their own games with those students
dents learn the values of fair play and equal competition not playing at the moment. Referees also keep score. The
as well as the skills, rules, and etiquette of the sport. winner of each match is the team with the most points at
Students are involved as coaches and instructors for their the final time signal. Standings can be kept in terms of total
teams. Students select uniforms, team names, starting points scored or win–loss records (or some combination of
lineups, substitution patterns, and practice arrangements the two). The teachers observe games and make notes for
and times. Records are kept and posted in public areas, individual players and teams in terms of skills and strate-
and awards are given for a variety of student accomplish- gies to be worked on at subsequent practice sessions. Team
ments in addition to winning games or matches. Research captains are responsible for seeing that a certain portion of
on this model has revealed that many students enjoy this practice session is devoted to those notes. In other practice
approach because they feel that there are more opportuni- sessions, all teams and players practice certain skills and
ties for socializing and having fun (Carlson & Hastie, strategies as directed by the teachers.
1997; Hastie, 2003). Many students point out the develop- Students get to choose a name for their team and
ment of leadership skills, and other students express an adopt a uniform (as long as it meets the standards set by
increased sense of belonging and trust with peers in the the teachers for physical education clothing). Each
model. Siedentop, Mand, and Taggart (1986) offer an ex- Monday, the league standings are posted along with other
ample (below) of using three-person teams in a volleyball items concerning the league. If team play in any league is
league setting. very unequal, the teachers and the four student represen-
tatives can, at the end of the first round of play, make per-
Three-Person Volleyball sonnel changes in teams to equalize competition for the
This model is for a middle or junior high school setting in second round.
which two teachers share classes that total 50 to 70 students.
Three-person volleyball is played with a junior-size volley-
ball, with a 7-foot net, and a 15-by-40 foot court. TACTICAL GAMES APPROACH
The class meets 4 days per week, and the volleyball The tactical games approach to teaching (Mitchell,
season is designed for 8 weeks or a total of 32 sessions. Oslin, & Griffin, 2006) is designed to promote interest in
With 64 students, this class has two volleyball leagues. One learning games, the understanding of game play, and the
league is for skilled players, and the other is for less-skilled ability to play games. It is based on a sequence of devel-
players. (Note that there are other legitimate ways of opmentally appropriate game-like learning activities that
dividing students for competition.) focus on tactical problems for students to solve first cog-
The first week is devoted to practice and instruction. nitively and then perform through skill execution. The
Four students of varying levels of skill are selected to assist basic assumption that drives the model is that students
the teachers in assigning students to teams. After 3 days of learn best if they understand what to do before they
observation, the students are assigned to teams, four stu- understand how to do it.
dents to each team. The teams are then assigned to two A vast majority of physical education curricula
leagues of eight teams each. On the fourth day of class, involve game teaching and participation, however, the tac-
students begin to receive instruction and practice as a tical aspects of game play are rarely taught. Even when
team. One teacher takes administrative responsibility for they are taught, a disconnect often exists between the game
each league. skills and game tactics. Many teachers teach skill in a very
During the second week, the students have 2 practice static setting or nonauthentic experience, making it diffi-
days and 2 scrimmage days. Scrimmage days allow teachers cult for students to respond appropriately to various sce-
to make sure that rules are understood and to teach referee- narios during game play. The development of tactical
ing as a skill. During the third week, double round-robin awareness or the ability to identify a tactical problem and

90
 CURRICULUM APPROACHES

Invasion Games Net/Wall Games Target Games Striking/Fielding Games

Basketball Badminton Golf Softball

Soccer Tennis Archery Baseball
Team Handball Pickleball Bowling Cricket
Ultimate Frisbee Racquetball Billiards
Lacrosse Volleyball
Flag Football
Floor Hockey
Rugby

FIGURE 14 Tactical games classification system

respond correctly during a game is essential to success in Each set of games has important tactical problems
game play. This approach emphasizes decision making and that are essential to solve to be successful in that activity.
understanding the application of skills within a game Figure 15 illustrates the tactical problems associated with team
context. handball and badminton. In order to match the tactical prob-
The tactical approach includes a games classification lem with students’ development level, an examination of the
system, specific tactical and sub-tactical problems, and lev- tactical complexity is essential. Some tactical problems can be
els of tactical complexity. The games classification system either too complex for novel students or too simple for more
identifies games into four distinct categories, each of which advanced performers. For example, a novice student may un-
have very similar tactical characteristics. Each category of derstand that dribbling and passing are essential to maintain
games encourages a transfer of learning within that group. possession of the ball in order to attack the goal but may have
The four games categories are invasion, net/wall, target, difficulty comprehending the need to time a run to avoid an
and striking/fielding. Invasion games, for example, share a off-sides trap. Tactical problems are presented when develop-
common goal of invading an opponent’s territory with the mentally appropriate.
hope of scoring on their goal. Figure 14 illustrates the game A sample tactical games lesson will start with an
classification system. initial game. For example, students participate in a 4 vs. 4

Tactical Problem Sub-Tactical Problems

Team Handball Scoring Maintaing possession of ball

Attacking the goal
Creating space in attack
Using attack in space

Preventing Scoring Defending space

Defending the goal
Winning the ball

Restarting Play Penalty Shot

Badminton Offense Creating space on opponents side of net

Winning the point
Attacking with a partner (doubles)

Defense Defending space on own side of net

Defending against attack
Defending as a pair (doubles)

FIGURE 15 Sample problem classification

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 CURRICULUM APPROACHES

ultimate game with a focus on maintaining possession. school physical education will survive only if it becomes
A series of questions would follow that lead students to more academically oriented (Buck, Lund, Harrison, &
discover essential aspects of maintaining possession and Cook, 2007). The argument is for more academic rigor in
lead to the practice task(s) that will follow. A few sample our physical education curricula.
questions with responses are listed below: Several variations for implementing concepts into a
curriculum are possible: (1) integrate the concepts into
Teacher: What was the purpose of that game?
regular activity-based units; (2) include several separate
Student: To keep possession as long as possible. units on concepts to supplement activity-based units; and
Teacher: What did you do to make this possible? (3) teach concepts only on special occasions, such as rainy
Student: Pass the Frisbee. days or shortened periods. Some argue that a curriculum
Teacher: Absolutely. What else did you have to do? based on concepts is easier to defend to a school board.
Other educators feel knowledge-based discussions divert too
Student: We had to get open to catch the pass. much time from promoting activity and physical skill devel-
Teacher: How did you do this? opment. Balancing these areas of emphasis is important
Student: We made fakes and cuts to create an opening. because instructional time for knowledge and skill is limited.
Teacher: How many teams had success getting open and If one area is emphasized, then another area has to be
maintaining possession? reduced or eliminated. Knowledge concepts are important,
but if the increased emphasis reduces time available for
Students: Very few teams had success.
physical skill development and physical activity time, these
Teacher: OK, today we are going to practice creating space important objectives may be slighted. Knowing about physi-
and getting open to receive a pass from our teammate. cal activities is not the same as experiencing them. If stu-
These questions set up the formal practice tasks for dents are going to incorporate activities into their lifestyles,
that day’s lesson. The questions lead students to discover they need an opportunity to gain knowledge and develop
what they need to do to be successful during the practice competency in several physical activities.
tasks and ultimately during game play. A sample practice
task may be a 3 vs. 1 passing activity that requires the
offensive players to create space and get open with one FITNESS EDUCATION
defender. This task may be extended by adding a second APPROACHES
defender. The lesson is completed by having students par- The fitness education idea is most consistent with the
ticipate in game play that reinforces the skills and tactics public health perspective of physical education and is an
practiced throughout the lesson. example of a knowledge concepts approach. This idea has
gained popularity in many universities, colleges, and high
KNOWLEDGE CONCEPTS schools (Corbin & Lindsey, 2007). The model focuses on
imparting physical fitness concepts to students. The theory
APPROACHES is that at some point in a student’s education, it is impor-
In a knowledge concepts approach, more emphasis is on tant to devote a course to the knowledge concepts related to
knowledge and cognitive understanding of the various the physical education objectives: is active, has knowledge,
sub-disciplines of physical education and kinesiology. values regular activity, and is fit. Evidence suggests that fit-
Students learn the how and the why of physical activity ness education courses promote knowledge, improve atti-
through involvement in problem-solving experiments. tudes about activity, and affect lifestyle activity patterns
There is less emphasis on doing activities in this scheme. later in life (Brynteson & Adams, 1993; Dale, Corbin, &
Students still spend time with activities in the gym and Cuddihy, 1998; Dale & Corbin, 2000).
on playing fields, but they also spend time in a classroom A popular fitness education approach is the Fitness for
with lectures, PowerPoint presentations, study guides, Life approach (Corbin & Lindsey, 2007). This approach to
worksheets, and videos similar to those a classroom teacher physical education and fitness development places instruc-
prepares in a more academic subject. There is time set tional emphasis on lecture, laboratory experiments, and
aside for laboratories designed to help students discover exercise programs for use in adulthood. This model uses the
important conceptual knowledge (see Figures 16 through HELP philosophy, which specifies the goal of promoting
19). Knowledge objectives become an important concern health for everyone with an emphasis on lifetime activity
in this approach. The rules, strategy, knowledge concepts, designed to meet personal needs. Lessons help students
and history of a sport or physical activity are discussed learn facts about fitness and physical activity so they can be
throughout each unit. There are experts who believe

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Basketball Dribbling Work Sheet

Student’s Name
Practicing, Observing, and Evaluating Basketball Dribbling

Dribbling skill in basketball can be observed in two different ways. One way is to look at the process of
performing the skill. This involves looking at the mechanics of performing the skill during the process. How
efficient was the performer in using his or her body to perform the skill? The second way to observe is to
look at the results or the product of the performance. How fast did the student dribble to half-court and
back? How fast did he or she dribble around the cones?

Use the checklist below and practice with a classmate. Watch him or her dribble a basketball and check each
component of the skill listed below.

1. Head is up and looking at the defenders. Yes No

2. Fingertips are used to control the ball. Yes No

3. Knees are bent and center of gravity is low. Yes No

4. Nondribbling hand protects the ball. Yes No

5. Height of the dribble is below the waist. Yes No

After each dribbling trial, explain to your partner how you evaluated each segment of the skill. Repeat the
process so that each of you has an opportunity to work on all elements of the the dribbling skill. After
working on the checklist of skill components, move on to dribbling around a set of cones to see how fast you
can dribble in and out of the cones. Use a stopwatch to record the time of each trial.

6. How did it feel to make corrections on your partner’s dribbling skill?

7. How did your partner feel about being corrected on the elements?

8. Can you explain the difference between the process and product of a physical skill?

9. Do you feel this helped you to understand and improve your dribbling skill?

FIGURE 16 Basketball dribbling worksheet

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Orienteering Skills Practice Sheet

1. Stand on the 50-yard line of the football field. Find north and write down what you are facing.

2. Stand at the east field-goal pole. Find 40° and write down what you are facing.

3. Start at the east 20-yard line. Take 20 paces west. What yard line are you standing on?

4. Shoot a bearing at the baseball batting cage from the west 40-yard line. What angle are you standing at?

5. Start at the trash can in front of the bleachers. Take 15 paces east. Where are you standing?

6. Stand at the east end zone of the football field. What is directly south of you?

7. Stand at the drinking fountain. Take 10 paces north. Where are you standing?

8. Face 40°, walk 40 paces. Add 120°, walk 40 paces. Add 120°, walk 40 paces. What shape am I?

9. Face 360°, then walk 20 paces. Turn to 90°, and then walk 20 paces. Turn to 180°, and then walk
20 paces. Turn to 270°, and then walk 20 paces. What shape am I?

10. Turn to 120°, then walk 30 paces. Turn to 240°, and then walk 30 paces. Turn to 360°, and then walk
30 paces. What shape am I?

11. Stand under the football scoreboard facing east. Shoot a bearing at the closest corner of the bleachers.
What is your bearing?

FIGURE 17 Orienteering skills practice sheet

Data from Jessica Richardson, Smith Junior High School, Mesa, Arizona, with permission.

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 CURRICULUM APPROACHES

Student’s Name:
Practice several overhand and underhand volleyball serves. Try putting different types of spins on both of the
serves. Complete the following questions:

1. Where do you have to contact the ball to make it spin to the right?

2. Where do you have to contact the ball to make it spin to the left?

3. Can you serve the volleyball with backspin toward you?

4. Can you serve the volleyball with topspin away from you?

5. Can you serve the volleyball with no spin?

6. Please explain where you must strike the volleyball in order to get the proper spin as described in
questions 3, 4, and 5.

7. Please describe the flight of the volleyball with the spins described in questions 3, 4, and 5.

8. How can these different spins impact your ability as a volleyball player?

9. Please relate this concept of spin to baseball, softball, racquetball, tennis, or basketball and give a specific
example of the use of spin in these activities.

10. What conclusion can you make about the use of force in creating spin on an object?

FIGURE 18 Volleyball serves: Problem-solving questions

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 CURRICULUM APPROACHES

Jump Bands Worksheet

Name Date
Partner
Group Members

Place a check beside each skill that your partner is successful in performing.
1. My partner can move the jump bands to the rhythm of the music.
2. My partner can move to the single foot pattern of in, in, out, out on one side or
both sides of the jump bands.
3. My partner can move to the double foot pattern of in, in, out, out.
4. My partner can dance from one side of the jump bands to the other using one of the methods
taught.

Answer the following questions.

5. Why are jump bands considered an excellent cardiovascular endurance activity?

6. Why is it critical to work together when using the jump bands in class?

7. How could the jump bands be used as part of a fitness circuit in class?

FIGURE 19 Jump bands worksheet

Data from Char Darst, Mesa Public Schools, Mesa, Arizona, with permission.

good consumers, program planners, and problem solvers. lifetime of regular activity. The Fitness for Life program
Students participate in both classroom activities and gym- answers the following questions:
nasium or outdoor fitness activities. They receive experi- ■ Why is physical activity important to every person?
ences with self-testing procedures in order to establish a
fitness profile. A variety of fitness activities and routines are ■ How should physical activity take place?
taught that can be done individually or in groups for a ■ What forms of physical activity are available?

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 CURRICULUM APPROACHES

Lifetime fitness
Level of independence
Lifetime activity

Self-planning
Level of decision making
Self-assessment of fitness and activity

Getting fit
Level of dependence
Doing activity and exercise

FIGURE 20 Stairway to lifetime fitness

Data from C. B. Corbin and R. Lindsey, Fitness for Life, 5th ed. (p. 14), with permission.
Copyright © 2005 by Human Kinetics Publishers.

The objectives for this approach are arranged in a technology (Wood, Fisher, Huth, & Graham, 1995). Gilbert
hierarchical order called the “stairway to lifetime fitness” High School, in Gilbert, Arizona, offers an elective “super
(Figure 20). The rationale is that if students climb the circuit” class using a fitness circuit (see Figure 21) devel-
lifetime fitness stairway, they will be more likely to be oped by the Universal Company in Iowa. Students work out
active throughout life. Information and activities are on the super circuit every other day and participate in life-
provided on a number of topics, including cardiovascu- time sports such as tennis, golf, and racquetball during
lar fitness, strength, endurance, flexibility, fat control, other days. Students take a Fitness for Life section of the
skill-related fitness, correct ways to exercise, and how class 1 or 2 days per week.
to plan an exercise program. Students learn to diagnose Many states have adopted a statewide requirement
and solve personal fitness problems. They have opportu- or a recommendation for a fitness concepts-type course
nities to develop exercise programs to remediate health to address many of the state standards for physical edu-
concerns. cation. In addition, several provinces in Canada and
Several options are available for incorporating Fitness the Department of Defense Dependent Schools world-
for Life into a school curriculum. Common alternatives are wide have added such a requirement or recommenda-
to offer a one- or two-semester program using the Fitness tion (Watson, Sherrill, & Weigand, 1994). A wide variety
for Life model. Some schools, such as Mainland High of curriculum and instructional materials are avail-
School in Daytona Beach, Florida, combine teaching able to teachers such as books for students, lesson
knowledge concepts with participation in a modern school plans for teachers, worksheets and study guides, vocabu-
fitness center equipped with the latest fitness machines and lary cards, activity cards, PowerPoint presentations,

FIGURE 21 Gilbert High School super circuit class

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 CURRICULUM APPROACHES

overhead transparencies, review questions, laboratory recently, a middle school version of the curriculum was
experiments, and test materials (Corbin & Lindsey, created (Corbin, Le Masurier, & Lambdin, 2007). Both
2007). The recommended content for a high school approaches are based on 2 days per week in the class-
Fitness for Life class is shown in Figure 22. More room and 3 days in an activity setting. Students learn

Discussion Topics

Table of Contents Self-Management/Group Discussion

Fitness and wellness for all Learning to self-assess

Safe and smart physical activity Building self-confidence
Benefits of physical activity Reducing risk factors
How much is enough? Choosing good activities
Learning self-management skills Setting goals
Lifestyle physical activity and positive attitudes Building positive attitudes
Cardiovascular fitness Learning to self-monitor
Active aerobics and recreation Finding social support
Active sports and skill-related fitness Building performance skills
Flexibility Building intrinsic motivation
Muscle fitness: basic principle and strength Preventing relapse
Muscle fitness: endurance and general info Managing time
Body composition Improving physical self-perceptions
Choosing nutritious food Saying “no”
Making consumer choices Learning to think critically
A wellness perspective Thinking “success”
Stress management Controlling competitive stress
Personal program planning Overcoming barriers

Activity-Based Topics

Fitness Focus Self-Assessment Activity

Starter program Exercise basics Skill/health-related fitness

Fitness games Fitnessgram 1 Safe exercise
Cooperative games Healthy back test Back-exercise circuit
Line exercise Posture Circuit workout
Fitness trail Fitnessgram 2 Elastic-band circuit
School stepping Walking test Walking for wellness
Aerobic dance Step test and mile run Cardiovascular fitness
Step aerobics Fitnessgram 3 Jogging principles
Orienteering Skill-related fitness The sports star program
Jump and stretch routine Arm, leg, and trunk flex Flexibility circuit
Partner resistance exercises Modified 1 rep max/grip strength Weight training
Homemade weights Muscular endurance Endurance circuit
Exercise circuit Skinfolds and height/weight charts Muscular fitness exercises
Jollyball Body measurements Cooperative aerobics
Rhythmical exercise Body comp/flex/strength Isometric exercise circuit
Cooper’s aerobics Cardio and muscular endurance Health and fitness club
Frisbee golf Signs of stress Relaxation exercises
Exercising at home Evaluating your personal program Performing your plan

FIGURE 22 Contents of a Fitness for Life class

Data from D. Dale, K. McConnell, and C. B. Corbin, Fitness for Life Lesson Plans, 5th ed., with permission. Copyright © 2007 by
Human Kinetics Publishers.

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 CURRICULUM APPROACHES

the concepts of healthy activity and apply these concepts within the physical education class environment. Em-
by designing fitness activities and self-assessing per- phasis on fitness and the development of sports skills and
sonal fitness. This program is compatible with the knowledge is reduced in order to accomplish the primary
Fitnessgram/ Activitygram (Cooper Institute, 2007) and goal of personal and social competence. Sports and phys-
the Physical Best materials from National Association ical activities are used as a means of accomplishing
for Sport and Physical Education (2005). The newest personal and social goals. The basic philosophy of the
edition has Web icons that direct students to a variety personal and social development approach is that per-
of Internet sites from the Fitness for Life site sonal and social problems in society have created situa-
(www.fitnessforlife.org). tions that require schools to offer this type of focus.
Another similar knowledge concepts approach to Professionals subscribing to this approach believe that
secondary curriculum focuses on the components of many students are disruptive and difficult to manage,
human health. The model is more comprehensive than making it the school’s responsibility to provide better
the fitness concepts approach. Units of instruction in personal and social development training. This approach
health and wellness include stress management, alcohol has been field-tested with troubled or alienated youth
and drug abuse, nutrition, weight control, physical fit- and general student populations over a 30-year period.
ness, coping skills, personal safety, environmental The approach has been used in many different forms
awareness, behavioral self-control, and problem- and with different terms for the various levels of
solving skills related to these specific topics. Health responsibility.
and wellness is viewed by many as an important area In one variation of this approach, students proceed
that should be an ongoing part of the educational through six developmental levels of social competence.
process throughout life. It is a preventive approach and Different students enter at different levels and proceed
expands the fitness concepts approach. To maintain upward through the steps. Students are encouraged to
health and wellness, students need requisite informa- rate themselves on each of the levels and compare their
tion and skills. Advocates of this program point to ratings with their teacher’s ratings (see Figure 23).
numerous health problems that abound in our society. Discussion between the teacher and students examines
A healthy lifestyle for all students is the major objective perceptions of how students are progressing. The
of this model. Both the health and wellness and the fit- following are examples of levels of personal and social
ness education models focus primarily on knowledge. development:
People who advocate these models find the emphasis
on knowledge to be an advantage because it adds credi- ■ Level 0: Irresponsibility Students do not partici-
bility to a program. The downside is the increase in pate and are totally unmotivated and undisci-
time spent on lecture and analysis, resulting in less plined. They interrupt and intimidate other
time for learning physical skills and promoting physical students and teachers. They make excuses and
activity. Students need information, but they also need blame others for their behavior. Teachers find it
successful encounters with physical activity and time difficult to manage or accomplish much with these
allotted for practicing and performing physical skills. students.
Determining exactly how much time should be spent ■ Level 1: Self-Control Students at the self-control
on knowledge acquisition and how much on physical level can control themselves without the direct
skill development is difficult. Schools using a concepts supervision of the teacher and do not infringe on
approach offer a balance of physical activity and knowl- the rights of other students or the teacher. They can
edge concepts. For example, a common approach is to begin to participate in class activities and enhance
offer several units on health activities (including fit- their learning.
ness) to supplement or complement physical activities
units. ■ Level 2: Involvement Level 2 involves student self-
control and desired involvement with the subject
matter of fitness, skills, and games. Students are
enthusiastically involved in the program without
PERSONAL AND SOCIAL constant prompting or supervision of the teacher.
RESPONSIBILITY APPROACH ■ Level 3: Self-Responsibility Students at Level 3 begin
Hellison (2003) developed a set of ideas and a curriculum to identify their interests and start to make choices
approach that focuses on enhancing social competence, within the parameters of the program. Motivation
self-control, responsible behavior, and concern for others and responsibility are characteristics of these stu-
dents. They start to take more responsibility and

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 CURRICULUM APPROACHES

Definition of Ratings Student Teacher

0 Little self-control
Date Rating Rating Comments
Not involved
Uses put-downs
Irresponsible
Disruptive
1 Under control, not
involved
Not participating
Not prepared
Nonproductive
2 Under control, involved
when teacher directed
Frequently off task
Needs prompting
Needs frequent reminders
3 Self-responsibility
Works independently
Self-motivated
Positive attitude
4 Caring
Cares about others
Involved with others
Sensitive to needs of others
5 Going “ beyond”
Displays leadership
Assumes more responsibility
Helps instructor

FIGURE 23 Social development checklist

explore options for their lives outside the program. involved with the teacher on decisions that will
This stage represents a start of their own identity. affect all students in the program. Students become
■ Level 4: Caring The caring stage has students moving coworkers with teachers.
outside themselves and showing concern for other
This model can be implemented in different ways
students and the teacher. Students are cooperative
depending on the specifics of the school situation and the
and helpful and show a genuine interest in the lives of
type of students. Hellison (2003) suggests an option that
others. There is a real concern about the world
uses a day-to-day consistency with the following five parts
around them.
to the lesson:
■ Level 5: Going Beyond The highest level is charac-
terized by student leadership and additional re- 1. Counseling time for connecting with students.
sponsibility for program decisions. Students get 2. An awareness talk about the responsibility levels.

100
 CURRICULUM APPROACHES

Self-Responsiblity Checklist

Name
Date
My Self Control
I did no name-calling
If I got mad, I tried to exert self-control
I didn’t interrupt when someone else was talking
My self-control was not that good today
My Involvement
I listened to all directions
I tried all activities
I worked even when I didn’t feel like it
My Self-Responsibility
I followed all directions
I did not blame others
I was responsible for myself
My Caring
I helped someone today in or out of class
I said something positive to someone today
I did not help anyone at all
Comments

FIGURE 24 Self-responsibility checklist

3. The physical activity lesson with integrated personal bench (where two students go to work out a problem),
and social discussions. journal writing by students, student checklists, student
4. A group meeting for students’ opinions. achievement records, and behavior contracts between
the student and the teacher. Many specific strategies have
5. Reflection time to self-evaluate personal and social been used and are available to the teacher for each of the
responsibility for the day (see Figures 24 and 25 for social development levels (0–5). For example, rubrics for
examples). assessment of students can be developed to provide stu-
Examples of strategies available to the teacher for dents with feedback or to grade them on their personal
implementing personal and social responsibility are and social responsibility in physical education classes
teacher talk, modeling, reinforcement, self-reflection, (see Figure 26). Finally, Figure 27 is a form that could be
reflection-in-action (snap judgment based on previous used with student personal development plans in Level 3
experiences), student sharing, sport court (small group (self-responsibility).
of students making a decision for the class), the talking

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 CURRICULUM APPROACHES

Self-Evaluation

Date
Self-control
H o w well d id y o u c o n tro l y o u r tem p er an d language today? 0 1 2
Effort
H o w h ard d id y o u try to d ay ? 0 1 2
Self-Coaching
Did you have a self-improvement or basketball goal and work on it today? 0 1 2
Coaching
Did you help others, do some positive coaching, or help make this a 0 1 2
good experience for everyone today?
Outside the gym
Self-c o n tro l? 0 1 2
Effort? 0 1 2
G o al-settin g ? 0 1 2
H elp in g o th ers? 0 1 2

One comment about yourself today:

FIGURE 25 Self-evaluation form

Data from D. R. Hellison, Teaching Responsibility through Physical Activity (p. 51), with permission from Human Kinetics Publishers. Copyright
© 2003 by Donald R. Hellison.

Responsibility Rubric

Consistently Sporadically Seldom Never

Contributes to own well-being:

Effort and self-motivation
Independence
Goal setting
Contributes to others’ well-being:
Respect
Helping
Leadership

FIGURE 26 Rubric for assessment of personal and social responsibility

Data from D. R. Hellison, Teaching Responsibility through Physical Activity (p. 111), with permission from Human Kinetics
Publishers. Copyright © 2003 by Donald R. Hellison.

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 CURRICULUM APPROACHES

My Personal Plan #1

1. Fitness: Choose at least one

My flexibility goal is .

My strength goal is .

My aerobic goal is .

Today in fitness I did .

2. Motor skills: Choose at least one skill from one activity

My basketball goal is .

My volleyball goal is .

My soccer goal is .

My goal is .

Today in motor skill development I did .

3. Choose one
The creativity/expressive activity I did was .

I spent my “pal time” with doing .

The stress management activity I did today was .

The self-defense activity I did today was .

4. During my Level III time

My respect for others was
good OK not OK

My effort was
high medium low

My plan was
my own somewhat my own not my own

My self-discipline in carrying out my plan was

good fair poor

I helped someone else.

Yes! A little No!

FIGURE 27 My personal plan #1

Data from D. R. Hellison, Teaching Responsibility through Physical Activity (p. 70), with permission from Human Kinetics Publishers.
Copyright © 2003 by Donald R. Hellison.

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 CURRICULUM APPROACHES

STUDY STIMULATORS Bulger, S. M., Mohr, D. J., Rairigh, R. M., & Townsend, J. S.
(2007). Sport education seasons. Champaign, IL: Human
AND REVIEW QUESTIONS Kinetics Publishers.
Casten, C. (2012). Lesson plans for dynamic physical education
1. List and explain the common organizing centers
for secondary school students (4th ed.). San Francisco:
for physical education curricula. Pearson/Benjamin Cummings.
2. Why do the authors advocate shorter units for Cooper Institute, Meredith, M., & Welk, G. (Eds.). (2007).
the middle school and longer units for the high Fitnessgram/Activitygram test administration manual
schools? (4th ed.). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics Publishers.
3. What are the advantages of offering choices to Corbin, C., LeMasurier, G., & Lambdin, D. (2007). Fitness
students in the physical education curriculum? for life: Middle school. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics
4. Discuss the unique features of the promoting Publishers.
physical activity/skill development approach widely Corbin, C., & Lindsey, R. (2007). Fitness for life (updated
used today. 5th ed.). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics Publishers.
Dale, D., & Corbin, C. (2000). Physical activity participation
5. How does the promoting physical activity/skill
of high school graduates following exposure to con-
development approach change from middle school ceptual or traditional physical education. Research
to high school? Quarterly of Exercise and Sport, 71, 61–68.
6. How does the tactical approach differ from the Dale, D., Corbin, C., & Cuddihy, T. (1998). Can conceptual
skill development approach? physical education promote physically active lifestyles?
7. List examples of culminating events in an outdoor Pediatric Exercise Science, 10, 97–109.
adventure curriculum approach. Ennis, C. (1993). Can we really do it all? Making curriculum
8. What is the fundamental goal of the sports edu- choices in middle and high school programs. In J. E.
cation approach? Rink (Ed.), Critical Crossroads: Middle and Secondary
9. Briefly describe and explain the “stairway to life- Physical Education (pp. 13–23). Reston, VA: NASPE.
Hastie, P. A. (2003). Teaching of lifetime physical activity
time fitness.”
through quality high school physical education. San
10. What tends to be the dilemma for teachers who Francisco: Pearson/Benjamin Cummings.
wish to emphasize both the teaching of knowl- Hellison, D. R. (2003). Teaching responsibility through
edge concepts and physical skills? physical activity (2nd ed.). Champaign, IL: Human
11. Provide the underlying rationale for the personal Kinetics Publishers.
and social responsibility curriculum. Jewett, A., Bain, L., & Ennis, K. (1995). The curriculum
process in physical education. Dubuque, IA: W. C. Brown
and Benchmark.
WEBSITES Mitchell, A. A., Oslin, J. L., & Griffin, L. L. (2006). Teaching
Action for Healthy Kids sports concepts and skills: A tactical games approach.
www.actionforhealthykids.org Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics Publishers.
National Association for Sport and Physical Education.
American Hiking Society (2004). Moving into the future—National standards
www.americanhiking.org for physical education (2nd ed.). Reston, VA: Author.
National Association for Sport and Physical Education (2005).
Fitness for Life Physical best activity guide: Middle and high school lev-
www.FitnessforLife.org els (2nd ed.) Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics Publishers.
Pangrazi, R. P., & Beighle, A. (2010). Dynamic physical
Physical Education Teaching and Curriculum Information education for elementary school children (16th ed.).
www.pecentral.com San Francisco: Pearson/Benjamin Cummings.
www.pelinks4u.org Parker, M., & Steen, T. (1988). Outdoor pursuits and physi-
www.pe4life.org cal education: Making the connection. Newsletter of
reach.ucf.edu/~pezone the Council on Outdoor Education, 30(1), 4.
Siedentop, D. (1994). Sport Education. Champaign, IL:
Project Adventure Human Kinetics Publishers.
www.pa.org Siedentop, D., Hastie, P., & van der Mars, H. (2004). Complete
guide to sport education. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics
Publishers.
REFERENCES AND Siedentop, D., Mand, C., & Taggart, A. (1986). Physical edu-
cation—Teaching and curriculum strategies for grades
SUGGESTED READINGS 5–12. Mountain View, CA: Mayfield Publishing Co.
Buck, M. M., Lund, J. L., Harrison, J. M., & Blakemore, Cook, Siedentop, D., & Tannehill, D. (2000). Developing teaching
C. L. (2007). Instructional strategies for secondary school skills in physical education (4th ed.). Mountain View,
physical education (6th ed.). Boston: McGraw-Hill. CA: Mayfield Publishing Co.

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Planning for Effective
Instruction
ESSENTIAL COMPONENTS OF
A QUALITY PROGRAM
▲ ▲

I. Organized around content standards

II. Student-centered and developmentally
appropriate
▲

III. Physical activity and motor skill develop-

ment form the core of the program
▲

IV. Teaches management skills and

self-discipline
▲ ▲ ▲

V. Promotes inclusion of all students

VI. Focuses on process over product
VII. Promotes lifetime personal health
and wellness
▲

VIII. Teaches cooperation and responsibility

and promotes sensitivity to diversity

NATIONAL STANDARDS FOR

PHYSICAL EDUCATION*
1. Demonstrates competency in motor skills
and movement patterns needed to perform
a variety of physical activities.
▲

2. Demonstrates understanding of movement

concepts, principles, strategies, and tactics as
they apply to the learning and performance
of physical activities.
3. Participates regularly in physical activity.
4. Achieves and maintains a health-enhancing
level of physical fitness.
▲

5. Exhibits responsible personal and social

behavior that respects self and others in
physical activity settings.
6. Values physical activity for health, enjoyment,
challenge, self-expression, and/or social *National Association for Sport and Physical Education
interaction. (NASPE), 2004.

From Chapter 5 of Dynamic Physical Education for Secondary Schools, Seventh Edition. Paul W. Darst, Robert P. Pangrazi, Mary Jo Sariscsany,
Timothy A. Brusseau, Jr. Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. Published by Pearson Benjamin Cummings. All rights reserved.
 PLANNING FOR EFFECTIVE INSTRUCTION

have misconceptions about the nature of physical educa-

Chapter Summary tion, and clarifying all aspects of the program limits fu-
ture problems.
Policies and procedures need to be defined prior to
planning for instruction. Such procedures give direc-
A quality physical education program requires that
tion to the program and offer the framework for policies and procedures are determined, communicated,
planning quality lessons for students. Pre-instructional and applied consistently to all students. To ensure consis-
decisions must be considered as part of planning a les- tency in the program, all members of the physical education
son that considers space, equipment, and a safe envi- department need to sit down and come to general agree-
ronment. Various stages of planning ensure quality ment on a number of issues. These issues not only guide the
instruction. In addition, the components of a three-
staff, they guide students and parents. Over time, the goal
part lesson plan ensure that students receive a bal-
anced approach to instruction. After a lesson has should be to design a set of written guidelines that are pre-
been presented, reflection is a necessary component sented to students on the first day of school and reinforced
of quality instruction. continually throughout the year. An excellent curriculum is
not effective without a well-developed set of policies and
Student Outcomes procedures and an ongoing revision process.
The physical education handbook should cover the
After reading this chapter, you will be able to:
following areas:
• Write and define policies and procedures that will
guide your physical education program. ■ Uniforms and dress requirements
• Describe the role of planning in preparing for ■ Attendance and participation
quality instruction.
• Understand how arousal impacts skill learning. ■ Excuses and makeup procedures
• Give meaningful skill feedback. ■ Showers and towels
• Identify the characteristics of effective practice ■ Locks and lockers
sessions.
■ Equipment
• List pre-instructional decisions that must occur
before the actual delivery of the lesson, including ■ Grading procedures
use of space, equipment, time, and pace.
• Articulate how students can become involved in
developing the learning experience.
UNIFORMS AND DRESS REQUIREMENTS
• Describe ways in which learning in the affective
Students should be encouraged to change into activewear
domain can be enhanced. for physical education classes. The comfort, safety, and
• Discuss the various parts of a meaningful unit plan. hygiene of uniforms selected by students are important.
Many schools still require a specific uniform and enforce
• Understand the rationale for the three compo-
nents of a lesson and describe the characteristics strict dress codes. Uniforms and dress codes can create
of each. problems and be a source of controversy. Students often
• Analyze and reflect on completed lesson plans. avoid physical education environments simply because of
a dress-code requirement, yet these same students will
admit they enjoy physical activities and would take a class
if no dress code existed. The benefits of having all students
dress alike may not be worth developing escape and avoid-
ance behaviors in students.
DEVELOP DEPARTMENTAL Controversy over uniforms and dress codes should not
POLICIES develop into a “make or break” issue. If the school favors a
After policies have been agreed on by faculty members dress code, a student committee can be formed each year
and administrators, a letter or handbook for students and to select a new uniform. Clothing companies can provide
parents should be created. The letter or small booklet several available options with school colors, emblems, or
should be brief, clear, and succinct and sent to all stu- mascots. Students can decide the uniform they desire or
dents, parents, and administrators. Discuss the informa- have the option of buying a different type of uniform.
tion in the letter with the class and ask students to discuss Several choices should be offered. Adolescence is a time of
it with their parents. Ask students to have their parents growing independence, and allowing students to select
read the guidelines, sign an approval form, and return it their physical education attire is not detrimental to the
within 1 or 2 days (Figure 1). Students and parents often accomplishment of program objectives. There are times

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Ovation High School Physical Education Department

Ovation, AZ

Dear Parents:
This booklet contains the policies and procedures of the physical education department. We would like you to
carefully read and discuss the program regulations with your son or daughter. These policies and procedures
are important for making the learning environment a pleasant experience for all students.
We desire to have all students leave physical education classes with a positive attitude and the urge to be
physically active throughout their lifetime. If you have any questions about the curriculum or the policies and
procedures of the department, please call me at 555-4724.
Please sign the slip at the bottom of the sheet and have your child return it to school.
Thank you.
Sincerely,

Physical Education Teacher

We have read the booklet and understand the policies and procedures.

Parent Student

Date

FIGURE 1 Sample Letter to parents regarding policies and procedures

when specialized clothing is necessary for certain activities, have the flexibility to make decisions that facilitate the
such as rock climbing or horseback riding. Aerobics, yoga, learning process of each individual in each situation.
and the martial arts often necessitate specialized clothing A department policy regarding students who cannot
for freedom of movement. afford a uniform or a change of clothes is necessary.
Another problem is the legality of an imposed dress Often, a special fund can be made available through
code. Some states stipulate that if a specific dress code is school fund-raisers. The parent–teacher association may
required, the school must purchase uniforms for those be able to provide funds through one of its projects.
students unable to do so. Dress codes can create prob- Sometimes used or unclaimed clothes can be cleaned and
lems for students with specific religious beliefs that worn by students who cannot afford to buy a uniform. A
forbid wearing gym attire. Other students may have policy on the laundering of gymnasium clothes is proba-
physical deformities or embarrassing conditions they bly one of personal choice, as is the laundering of regular
wish to keep covered. For example, a student who has a street clothes. If hygiene problems occur, students (and, if
severe case of acne on his back may not want to go swim- necessary, parents) can be confronted. Students should
ming without a shirt. identify their gym clothes with permanent ink or name
These problems reveal why a flexible policy on tags because of the numerous opportunities for mix-ups,
uniforms and dress requirements may be the best losses, or pilferage.
approach. The perceived advantages of a strict dress Teachers need to model appropriate attire for physical
code—developing discipline, school spirit, and coopera- activities. An active teaching role is certainly enhanced by
tion; enhancing the identification of teams; reducing appropriate dress, and students are strongly influenced by
discrimination against poorer or wealthier students; and the behavior of their teachers. It is difficult to defend
reducing unit cost of attire because of large orders—are teaching in blue jeans when students are not allowed to
seldom worth the problems generated. Teachers should participate in similar attire.

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Nevertheless, there must be policies for attendance,

✔Teaching Tip: Making participation, and excuses from class. A system that
allows students to earn positive reinforcers (e.g., points,
Exceptions activity time, privileges) for attending and participating
is an effective strategy. Too often, a negative or “chop”
Developing departmental policies is important,
because they communicate to others (parents,
system is used, in which students lose points or privi-
administrators, teachers, as well as students) your clear leges or receive lower grades for inappropriate behavior.
expectations for student behavior and participation. This approach creates a negative environment, while
But a word of caution: sometimes teachers take the the positive approach has the opposite effect. Students
easy way out by rigidly standing behind policies or can be awarded one point per day for attendance, one
procedures without considering why an exception point for dressing, and points for participating, rather
might be the best choice. Occasionally making an
exception to rules can be an effective way of commu-
than subtracting or cutting points for not attending and
nicating to students that you care about them and can participating.
understand all of the circumstances in a given situa- All medical excuses and notes from parents should
tion. So, be thoughtful, not inflexible—students be presented to the school nurse at the beginning of the
deserve your full consideration, and you should always school day rather than during class time. The nurse is a
listen carefully before deciding on how and when to health professional and is probably more objective than
enforce policies.
the physical educator to make decisions about medical
problems requiring special attention. If there is a ques-
tion about participation, the nurse should make a final
ATTENDANCE AND PARTICIPATION decision and send it to the physical education teacher. A
POLICIES form can be developed to facilitate this communication
If students enjoy physical education, there will be fewer (Figure 2). If students cannot participate for 3 consecu-
problems with attendance and participation. The overall tive days, it is common practice in most schools to rec-
curriculum and instructional procedures will have more of ommend they visit a physician. A physician’s report
an effect on students than policies and procedures on form (Figure 3) can be sent to the student’s doctor. This
attendance and participation. Some teachers spend so much type of form helps improve communication between the
time and energy on these latter concerns that they lose sight school nurse, the physician, and the physical educator.
of the importance of curriculum and instruction. Students Students need to understand that credit for physical
are more enthusiastic about physical education if a quality education is not awarded to people who cannot partici-
curriculum and an effective instructional program exists. pate in the class sessions.

School Nurse Excuse Form

Student Date

Please excuse the above-named student from physical education class for the following day(s):

The reason the student is excused is:

Thank you,

School Nurse

FIGURE 2 School nurse excuse form

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Physician’s Report Form

Date

Dear Dr.
The following student, , has requested that he/she be
excused from physical education activities. We request your help in designing a program that is appropri-
ate for this student’s physical condition. Our program offers a wide variety of physical activities. Please
complete the following information to assist us in developing an appropriate, personalized program.
Thank you for your time.

Sincerely,

Physical Education Department Head

1. Type of illness, injury, or handicap

2. Restrictions
3. Activities to be avoided
4. Duration of restriction
5. Other important information

6. Physician’s name
Address Phone
7. Signature Date

Please send form to: Person

School
Address

FIGURE 3 Physician’s report form

Students who have minor problems, such as being tired Students also have bad days, headaches, cramps, family
or having a sore throat, headache, or cramps, should be problems, and other concerns that affect their daily per-
handled on an individual basis. Some students can partici- formance. Sometimes students need a little extra encour-
pate with these problems, whereas others cannot. Teachers agement to participate; at other times, they may need a day
must become knowledgeable about the backgrounds and off. Teachers need to know their students so they have
personalities of their students. A policy that treats all stu- some basis for judging individual situations. In contrast,
dents the same is usually misdirected. Religious beliefs some teachers believe students are “cheating” if the student
relative to participating on various holidays or holy days does not want to participate on a given day. Initially, stu-
often result in students asking to be excused. This should dents should be given the benefit of the doubt because they
be handled individually through the school administration. may indeed have a problem. If the same student continues
If confusion arises about excuses related to minor illness to have participation problems, contact the parents or
or religious beliefs, students should be allowed to see the apply some alternative procedures.
school nurse for illnesses and a guidance counselor or Develop a policy for tardiness. Start each class at a pre-
administrator about preferences and beliefs. cise time, and let students know exactly what time the class

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begins. Excessive tardiness should be integrated into the Students complete one of the following assignments and
makeup policies and procedures for grades. turn it in to the instructor:

■ Read an article in the sports section of the news-

CLASS MAKEUP PROCEDURES paper and write a 1-page analysis (form provided).
Usually students have the right to make up missed classes ■ Read an article in any sports magazine and write a
because of excused absences. Try to focus the makeup 1-page analysis (form provided).
work on missed activities. Attending another physical ■ Read a short biographical sketch about a noted sports
education class is an option. Possibilities for makeup work figure and write a 1-page analysis (form provided).
can focus on knowledge activities, performance activities,
■ List and define 15 terms from any of the following
or spectator activities. Depending on the objectives of the
activities: basketball, field hockey, flag football,
lessons missed, some activities will be more valuable than
lacrosse, orienteering, physical conditioning, recre-
others. The following are examples that can be used in
ational games, running techniques, soccer, swim-
each area.
ming, team handball, or volleyball.
■ Diagram the playing area of any of the activities
listed previously.
✔Teaching Tip: Making Makeup ■
■
List and explain 10 rules from any sport.
Read a book related to a sport and write a 1-page
Work Count analysis (form provided).
Assigning makeup work is important because it ■ Choose a project (with teacher approval).
conveys to students the message that missing class
means missing important material. When you The form shown in Figure 4 can be used for student
assign makeup assignments, avoid associations that
reports on these knowledge activities.
might connote “busywork” or, worse, punishment.
It should be presented as a learning opportunity
that will benefit the students. It can be a positive
Makeup Work: Performance Activities
experience for both teacher and student if the Students who have missed performance activities might
makeup assignment is determined by collaboration be asked to participate in any of the following activities
after discussing the circumstances. and to write a 1-page analysis (form provided):

■ Run a mile for time or jog for 15 minutes.

■ Run a parcourse.
Makeup Work: Knowledge Activities
The following are examples of activities that could be ■ Ride a bike for 30 minutes.
offered to students who missed a knowledge activity. ■ Attend an aerobics class.

Student Report

Name
Date
Publication
Author
Major idea in the material:

Your opinion of the material:

What are the benefits of this material to you?

Parent or guardian signature

FIGURE 4 Knowledge analysis sheet

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Performance Analysis

Name
Activity
Date
Describe the activity you performed.

Explain the physical benefits of this activity.

What were your scores, time repetitions, and other pertinent data?

Parent or guardian signature

FIGURE 5 Performance analysis sheet

■ Lift weights for 30 minutes. Makeup Work: Spectator Activities

■ Play 18 holes of disc golf. Students observe one of the following events and write a
1-page analysis (form provided). Events can take place at the
■ Play one set of tennis.
middle or senior high school, community college, college, or
■ Play two games of racquetball. professional level. Any of the following event activities is
■ Play 18 holes of regular golf. acceptable: football, soccer, cross-country running, tennis,
volleyball, basketball, softball, baseball, wrestling, track and
■ Engage in a workout at a health club. field, swimming, and student choice (approved by instruc-
■ Choose an activity (approved by instructor). tor). However, students should be encouraged to make up
classes by engaging in physical activity rather than being a
The form in Figure 5 can be used for the analysis of spectator. Figure 6 is an analysis sheet that can be used for
the performance. reporting spectator activities.

Spectator Analysis

Name
Event
Date, place
Opponents
Final score
Type of offense and defense of each team:

How the scoring occurred:

Strengths and weaknesses of each team:

Your reactions to the event:

Parent or guardian signature

FIGURE 6 Spectator analysis sheet

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HYGIENE ISSUES them. Showering should not be an issue that turns young
Students should be encouraged, but not forced, to shower people away from a lifetime of physical activity. A little
after all vigorous activity sessions. Discuss hygiene and adult perspective goes a long way in creating positive
why showering is important. Students should understand attitudes among students.
the importance of developing lifetime health habits.
However, showering, like the uniform issue, should not Towels
evolve into a polarizing conflict. Many physical educators If showers are required, a policy on towels should also be
have developed avoidance behaviors in students because determined. A simple procedure is to have students bring
of inflexible or poorly managed showering policies. For towels from home along with their activity clothing.
example, a teacher required students to shower after every Students are then responsible for changing towels and
class, including golf, archery, and discussion sessions. uniforms on a regular basis. Mark names on the towels to
Showering is surely not necessary after every physical edu- minimize loss. Some districts provide students with towels
cation class. Other teachers limit students to 5 to 7 min- for physical education class. The towels can be purchased
utes to shower and change clothes. This is not enough by the school and laundered on a regular basis in school
time for students to dry their hair, change clothes, and facilities. This arrangement helps reduce mildew and odor
return to the classroom. Appearance is an important problems created by students leaving wet towels in their
aspect of personal development. Teachers who overlook lockers. Towels need to be checked out and in each day,
this fact often alienate students and stimulate adverse and a security system must be developed. This approach
reactions to physical education. requires extra work for teachers.
Analyze the nature of each lesson and the allotted time Another approach is to use a towel service company
schedule. Swimming, for example, requires more prepara- that provides freshly laundered towels on a daily basis. This
tion time at the end of class, whereas an archery activity approach is usually more expensive but easier to manage.
does not necessitate showering. Showering policies should Funding for a towel service can come from the school’s
be flexible so teachers can make appropriate exceptions for general budget, a student fee, a booster club project, or a
students. Many students are uncomfortable showering in physical education department project such as selling
front of peers because of menstruation, underdeveloped candy or sponsoring car washes. Each school district has
bodies, acne problems, deformities, or various other prob- fund-raising and budget procedures that need to be fol-
lems. Private showers can help alleviate this concern. lowed. The physical education staff can weigh the advan-
Teachers need to be sensitive to the fact that poorly tages and disadvantages of each towel supply procedure
planned and poorly administered showering and dressing before making a decision.
procedures can cause students to identify physical educa-
tion as a negative experience.
Give students a say in matters of personal health and Locker Room Supervision
cleanliness. If teachers make all of the decisions for stu- Some schools assign students a combination lock and a
dents, little is learned about making decisions in later life. small wire basket or metal locker for their activity
If students complain about peers who possess strong body clothes. A longer, larger locker is usually available for
odor, the matter will need to be discussed with the student street clothes during each activity period. Longer lockers
and, possibly, with his or her parents. Teachers should try commonly alternate with the shorter lockers throughout
to avoid incorporating showering and dressing behaviors the locker room. This helps spread students around the
into the grading system. entire area. Older students are usually assigned upper
Many schools are now using a policy that showering locker rows because they can reach them. A master list of
is optional for all students, particularly in the middle which student occupies which locker should be main-
school years. The wide-ranging levels of maturity among tained. This can be done with a student locker assign-
middle school students can lead to much embarrassment ment sheet. Problems such as forgotten combinations or
and teasing. If students choose to shower, policies should misplaced locks can be readily solved when the teacher
allow for that opportunity. In most cases, these students has a master list of combinations and the locker assign-
need to bring their own towels and be responsible for ment sheet.
seeing that they are laundered regularly. If students Supervision procedures for the locker room can be
choose not to shower, that is their choice and they arranged to ensure safety and theft prevention. The room
should be given the choice to select that option. Most should be locked during class time to prevent thefts.
students will shower when it becomes important to Teachers should walk through the locker room regularly

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to check for unlocked lockers and clothes and towels left doesn’t contain clear specifications, cheap and poorly made
out accidentally. This routine reduces loss caused by theft. equipment may be the end result. Check with other schools
In some situations, teacher aides can be hired to supervise to see what experiences they have had with specific equip-
the locker room, distribute towels, and help maintain ment. The cheapest price is not always the best deal.
management policies. Durability and longevity are especially important. Write a
justification that includes desired specifications so the
buyer understands the importance of meeting your needs.
EQUIPMENT Understand that buyers will accept the lowest price if there
Proper types of equipment in adequate amounts are a are no specifications, leaving you with equipment that may
must for quality programs. Students cannot learn vari- be unsatisfactory.
ous physical skills without proper equipment. Physical Using a multiyear approach for buying expensive
education departments need basketballs, tennis racquets, equipment is useful for negotiating with budget com-
and Frisbees, just as math and reading departments need mittees or school boards when a large amount of capi-
books, paper, and pencils. Students cannot learn to play tal is necessary for equipment. If several thousand
tennis without racquets and balls. In many instances, dollars are needed to add equipment for a new activity,
physical education departments are asked to get along it may be possible to implement the activity in phases
without proper amounts of equipment. A class of 35 stu- over a period of years. Student interest and willingness
dents needs more than five basketballs, six volleyballs, or to bring in personal equipment for particular activities
10 tennis racquets. Administrators need to be convinced is also an effective strategy for gaining administrative
that physical education is more than one or two games of support. Offering a cycling unit with each student
a specific activity. bringing in his or her own bicycle or offering golf
classes where students use their own clubs are effective
Equipment Purchasing strategies for generating student and administrative
An adequate budget is necessary for purchasing equip- interest in new activities. A word of caution, however: if
ment for the physical education program. The physical you find ways of creating new units without district
education budget needs to be separate from the athletic support, you may never get funded in the future.
budget. Coaches don’t like to share equipment they use for Administrators may assume that you can always solve
their athletic teams with the physical education program the funding issues.
and vice versa. Another source of equipment involves the physical
Equipment priorities should be based on student education staff, the maintenance department, or the in-
interest surveys and the number of students who will dustrial arts classes. Starting blocks, relay batons, soccer
use the equipment. If certain activities are offered more goals, team handball goals, and jump ropes are examples
frequently than others, equipment for these should be of equipment that can be constructed. Take care to ensure
a higher priority. The quality and price of equipment that all safety specifications have been met. Several books
should be studied carefully before making a purchase. and articles describe how to make homemade equipment
Usually, equipment orders will go out on bid. If the order (Pangrazi & Beighle, 2010a).

✔Teaching Tip: Equipment

Matters
Homemade equipment is usually a last resort and 2. Companies that manufacture standard equipment
should only be used with the approval of the adminis- assume liability if it is not constructed properly. So, if
tration. We do not advocate making your own you build your own equipment, you may be held
equipment for the following reasons: liable for any injuries that could occur while using it.
1. Self-constructed equipment is usually lower Young students with limited skills need quality equip-
quality and not up to code, and may convey to ment. Often, used and old equipment is handed down to
administrators the message that you don’t need the PE program. A high-quality physical education pro-
quality commercial equipment. gram should provide high-quality equipment for students.

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Physical education equipment can also be purchased jointly ment become bored, unmotivated, and troublesome for
with other schools, city parks and recreation departments, the teacher. How can students learn to dribble, pass, and
and the athletic department. Many districts, for example, shoot a basketball when they stand in line and take turns
jointly purchase free weights and weight machines for the sharing a ball with five or six other students? The goal of a
use of athletes, physical education classes, and adult com- program should be to provide every student with a piece
munity education programs. Joint purchases are an excel- of equipment. Productive learning time can thus be greatly
lent way to share costs and involve the entire community. enhanced.
This method can be used for purchasing tennis, racquetball,
badminton, volleyball, softball, basketball, and aerobic
GRADING PROCEDURES
dance equipment.
Grading is an important part of the policies and proce-
Storage, Distribution, and Maintenance dures described in the department handbook and should
of Equipment be determined and discussed with students during the first
An accurate equipment inventory should be completed at week of classes. Teachers within the department should
the beginning and the end of each school year. Records kept generally agree on the components and application of
year to year help determine the needs of the department and grading guidelines. If one teacher grades differently than
facilitate the purchasing process. Documenting the type and the rest, students will soon communicate to other students
amount of equipment lost each year provides information about the aberration. Parents should also be made fully
for improving security and distribution procedures. aware about how their children will be graded.
A storage area that is easily accessible to both male and
female teachers is desirable. The storage area should be
close to the teaching stations (e.g., the gym, fields, and MAKE PRE-INSTRUCTIONAL
courts). It is inconvenient to pick up and return equipment DECISIONS
to an area far from the station. The storage area should be Pre-instructional decisions are basic to the success of a
designed with labeled shelves, bins, and containers for all lesson. They are rather mundane, which causes many
pieces of equipment. All teachers, student leaders, and stu- teachers to forget to plan for them. However, they are as
dents who have access to the area need to cooperate fully in important as planning the content of the lesson. In fact, if
keeping the area clean and orderly. It is easy to become dis- this phase of the lesson is not carefully considered, it may
organized when many people are sharing equipment. be impossible to effectively present the content.
Transporting equipment to and from the teaching areas
requires that a variety of ball bags, equipment carts, and
portable ball carts are available. These will reduce the DETERMINE THE INSTRUCTIONAL FORMAT
amount of class time expended on equipment transport. How students are grouped for instruction is a decision that
Students can be given responsibilities for the movement of is made early in the lesson-planning process. More than one
equipment if they are trained properly. arrangement can be used in a single lesson. The objectives
Develop a system for using equipment that is not desig- and nature of the instructional experiences, plus the space
nated on the yearly curriculum. A sign-up and checkout list and equipment available, determine the type of grouping.
can be posted in the storage area along with the yearly There are three basic schemes, with numerous variations
sequence of activities. The department head or equipment and subdivisions.
coordinator is notified if any changes are made in the
schedule with regard to equipment. This prevents problems Large-Group Instruction
with teachers not having necessary equipment for their Large-group instruction demands that all students respond
classes. Equipment should not be loaned to outside groups to the same challenge, whether as individuals, partners, or
without following designated procedures. If equipment is members of a group. This format allows the teacher to con-
shared or loaned to other groups, it must be marked or duct the class in a guided progression. The single-challenge
identified with some regulation code to prevent losses or format is convenient for group instruction and demonstra-
mix-ups with equipment from other sources. tion because all students are involved in similar activities.
These decisions are all part of the ongoing process of Pacing is a problem with no easy solution, considering
implementing a quality physical education curriculum. effective instruction must be personalized to meet each
Equipment is part of a program’s lifeblood. Without ade- student’s needs. Student differences are recognized, yet the
quate equipment, the effectiveness of the teaching–learning assumption is made that a central core of activity is accept-
environment is reduced because students without equip- able for students of the same age.

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FIGURE 7 Students practicing at stations

Small-Group or Station Instruction provided. The most effective format is when students
In the small-group (or station) format, the class is divided work independently. It allows everyone to work on skills at
into two or more groups, each working on a different skill a comfortable rate. In addition, it allows students to select
or activity. Some system of rotation is provided, and the a variety of skills and activities based on their competency
students change from one activity to another (Figure 7). levels.
Dividing a class into groups for station teaching is valu-
able at times, particularly when supplies and apparatuses DETERMINE THE USE OF SPACE
are limited. This arrangement can save time in providing A common error is to take a class to a large practice area,
apparatus experiences because once the circuit is set, little give students a task to accomplish, and fail to define or limit
change in apparatuses is needed. The participants are the space in which the task should be performed. The class
changed, not the apparatuses. Some system of rotation is spreads out in an area so large it is impossible to communi-
instituted, with changes either by signal or at will. Some- cate and manage the class. The type of skills practiced and
times all stations are visited during a single class session, the ability of the teacher to control the class dictate the size
and in other cases, students make only a few station of the space. Delineating a small area for participation
changes per session. makes it easier to control a class because students can see
Class control and guidance may be a problem with and hear better. As students become more responsive, the
the small-group format, considering stopping the class to size of the area can be enlarged. Regardless of the size of the
provide instruction and guidance is not practical. Posting space, delineate the practice area. An easy way is to set up
written guidelines at each station can help students be cones around the perimeter of the area. Chalk lines, evenly
more self-directed. The instructions should include rear- spaced equipment, or natural boundaries can also serve as
ranging the station before moving on to the next. These restraining lines. Starting the lesson by having the class jog
measures preclude the teacher from dividing his or her within the delineated area is an excellent way to communi-
efforts over a number of stations. If a station has a safety cate to students the boundaries for participation.
hazard (e.g., rope climbing), the teacher may wish to A factor affecting the size of the practice area is the
devote more attention there. amount of instruction needed. When students are learn-
ing a closed skill (only one way to perform or respond)
Individual Skill Instruction and need constant feedback and redirection, it is impor-
In the individual skill format, students select their skills tant to stay near the instructor. Establish a smaller area
from a variety of choices and rotate at will to new skills. where students move for instruction and then return to
They can get equipment themselves or choose from pieces the larger area for practice.

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Available space is often divided into smaller areas to one activity while another is involved in an unrelated activ-
maximize student participation. An example is a volleyball ity. For instance, because of a shortage of racquets, one-half
game where only 12 students can play on one available of the class is involved in practice while the other half plays
court. In most cases, it is more effective to divide the area half-court basketball. This approach is less educationally
into two smaller courts to facilitate a greater number of sound and increases the demands made on the instructor.
students. Another approach is to use the peer review approach.
A related consideration when partitioning space is While one student practices the activity, a peer is involved in
safety. If the playing areas are too close together, players offering feedback and evaluation. The two share the equip-
from one area might run into players in the other area. For ment and take turns in practice and evaluation. The final
example, a softball setting is unsafe if a player on one field approach is to do what is most commonly done: design
can hit a ball into another play area. drills that involve standing in line and waiting for a turn.
This is least acceptable from an educational standpoint.
DETERMINE THE USE OF EQUIPMENT The initial setup of equipment depends on the focus
Inventorying equipment on a regular basis assures teachers of the lesson. For example, the height of the basket can be
know exactly what equipment is available and in working reduced to emphasize correct shooting form. The height
condition. The amount of equipment available impacts the of the volleyball net can be lowered to allow spiking prac-
structure of the lesson. For example, if there are only 16 tice. Nets can be placed at different heights to allow differ-
racquets for a class of 30, some type of sharing or station ent types of practice. Equipment and apparatuses can be
work will be necessary. modified to best suit the needs of the learner. There is
How much equipment is enough? If it is individual-use nothing sacred about a 10-foot basket or regulation-sized
equipment, such as racquets, bats, and balls, there should be ball. If modifying the equipment improves the quality of
one per student. If it is group-oriented equipment, such as learning, do it.
gymnastics apparatuses, there should be enough to ensure
waiting lines of no more than four students. Too often, DETERMINE THE USE OF TIME AND PACE
teachers use minimal equipment because they teach the A number of decisions related to time need to be made
way they have been taught. For example, a teacher is teach- prior to instruction. How time allotted for a lesson is used
ing volleyball and has plenty of volleyballs. Rather than influences instructional outcomes. The amount of time
have students practice individually against the wall or with allowed for fitness and skill development impacts what is
a partner, the students are divided into two long lines, and accomplished in a physical education program. For exam-
only one or two balls are used. Most of the time is spent ple, if a teacher decides to use 10 additional minutes per
waiting in line rather than practicing. Another reason for lesson for fitness development, the result will be an in-
not using adequate amounts of equipment is that teachers crease of nearly 30 hours of time devoted to physical fitness
get tired of moving it in and out so they organize activities during the school year.
that take one or two balls. The pace of a lesson is related to time. Skillful teachers
If the program lacks equipment, be cautious about know when to terminate practice sessions and move on to
accepting limited equipment without expressing concern new activities. Students become bored and begin to dis-
because many administrators believe that physical edu- play off-task behaviors if practice sessions are excessively
cators are always capable of “making do.” Communicate long. Knowing when to refocus on a different task is
with your educational leader regularly, and explain the important. In most cases, it is better to err on the short
importance of equipment for effective instruction. Ask side than to allow practice to continue to the point of
parent–teacher groups to help with fund-raising to fatigue and boredom. A rule of thumb is to refocus or
purchase necessary equipment. Math teachers are not change the task when five or more students go off task. If
expected to teach math without a book for each student, it is necessary to extend the length of the practice session,
and physical educators should not be expected to teach try the following:
without adequate equipment. When teachers settle for
less, they usually get less. 1. Refocus the class. Ask the class to observe another
How can you get by with a dearth of equipment? The student’s performance, or explain the importance
most common solution is to teach using the small-group of the skill and how it will help their game-time
format. This implies dividing students into stations where performance.
each group has enough equipment. For example, in a soft- 2. Refine or extend the task. Stop the class and ask
ball unit, some students practice fielding, others batting, them to improve their technique by focusing on a
others making the double play, and so on. Another approach phase of their performance. Try challenging them
is to divide the class in half and allow one group to work on with a more difficult variation. This approach

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redefines the challenge and is a more difficult they may be more sophisticated, such as videotapes, video-
variation of the skill they were practicing. tape recorders, or ball machines for tennis.
3. Stop and evaluate. Stop the class and take time to Instructional devices help impart more information
evaluate performance. Students can work with a and improve the motivational aspects of the class. Because
partner and check for key points. Emphasis is placed most public school environments have a large student-to-
on evaluating and correcting performance. Practice teacher ratio, it is difficult to find enough time for each
resumes after a few minutes of evaluation. student. A number of challenging and success-oriented
activities can be developed using instructional devices.
Pacing is affected depending on who directs the lesson: The following are examples:
teacher or student. When the teacher directs the pace, the
instructor controls timing, and students are expected to ■ In basketball, tape targets on a wall for various types
perform the task at the same time. Determining whether a of passes. Use a stopwatch to time students dribbling
presentation should be teacher or student paced depends through a course of boundary cones. Pictures, dia-
on the type of skill being taught. If the skill is closed in na- grams, and handouts can provide students with
ture, teacher pacing appears to be most effective. Teacher graphic information on various skills and rules.
pacing can be accompanied by verbal cues and modeled ■ In volleyball, hoops, jump ropes, or tape on the
behavior. It is effective for learning new skills because cues floor can be used as targets for setting, bumping, or
and visual imagery help learners develop a conception of serving. Extend a rope across the top of the net to
the pattern to be performed. Student pacing allows learn- help students hit serves above or beneath the rope
ing to progress at different rates. It is effective when open to ensure height, accuracy, or velocity. Videotapes
skills (variety of correct responses) are being learned and a are available to provide instruction for various vol-
variety of responses are preferred or encouraged. leyball skills.
■ In tennis, use empty ball cans as targets when work-
DETERMINE THE USE OF INSTRUCTIONAL ing on serves. A tennis ball suspended on a small
rope that can be adjusted up or down on a basket-
DEVICES ball hoop teaches students the “feel” of extending
Instructional devices include a variety of materials, equip- the arm for serves and overhead shots. A list of per-
ment, or people—any of which supplement, clarify, or formance objectives for partners can give direction
improve certain instructional procedures. These devices to a tennis class.
can be used to present information, stimulate different
■ In track and field, a student leader can run a station
senses, provide information feedback, restrict movements,
on low hurdles by timing heats and providing cor-
control practice time, or aid in evaluation and motivation.
rective feedback. A string stretched between two
The devices may be simple, such as targets taped on the
chairs can help students practice jumping for height
wall or cones to dribble around in basketball (Figure 8), or
in the long jump. Laminated diagrams of the release
angle of the shot put combined with a discussion can
give students important information.
■ In badminton, targets can be placed in various sec-
tions of the court. Suspend shuttlecocks on a light
rope to practice overhand shots. A rope suspended
on high-jump standards will force students to get
the proper height on clear shots.
■ In flag football, a punting station can use a goal-post
for height and accuracy, boundary corners for
placement accuracy, and a stopwatch for hang time.
A swinging tire or a hoop suspended from a tree or
goalpost can be used for passing accuracy, and bound-
ary cones can be used for passing distance.
Blackboards, magnetic boards, and overhead projec-
tors are useful for diagramming plays and defensive
strategy. Student leaders can supervise each station,
FIGURE 8 Using instructional devices record the completion of various skills, and provide
corrective feedback for each student.

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A creative teacher uses instructional devices in many of activities was used. In addition, proper progression of
different ways. These devices certainly do not replace the activities generates a feeling of confidence in students
teacher but help supplement the teaching–learning envi- because they feel they have the necessary background to
ronment. Effective teachers continually try to add devices perform adequately.
that motivate students, provide more feedback, or increase
practice attempts. Teachers with a limited budget can cre-
ate instructional devices with such basic components as a
TEACH EACH STUDENT AS
roll of tape, several ropes, string, and hoops. An extensive A WHOLE PERSON
budget does not always produce the best learning environ- When planning learning experiences, consider that people
ments. Students seem to enjoy the challenge related to are whole beings. They do not learn a new skill in the psy-
practicing with various types of instructional devices. chomotor domain without developing some allied cogni-
tive and affective outcomes. For example, if people are
CREATE A SAFE ENVIRONMENT taught a new soccer drill, they will wonder why they need
A safe environment is a prerequisite for effective teaching. to learn it. They are integrating the activity cognitively
Safety results from behaviors taught by the teacher. “Safety into their total selves. At the same time, they are develop-
first and everything else second” should be the motto of ing a related feeling about the skill (e.g., “I’m good at this
every teacher. It is possible a teacher will be removed from drill,” or “I’m never going to use this”).
the teaching profession if accidents occur because of Teachers can enhance the effectiveness of instruction
faulty planning and lack of foresight. More than half the by integrating educational goals in all domains. Tell stu-
injuries in schools occur in physical education classes; if dents why they are learning new skills or performing them
they result from poor planning and preparation, a teacher in a certain fashion. Learning in the cognitive area may
may be found liable and responsible for such injuries. involve knowing when to use a certain skill or how to cor-
rect errors in an activity. It involves decision-making based
on facts and information gathered from various sources.
Cognitive development emphasizes the importance of help-

✔Teaching Tip: Safety First ing students understand as contrasted to just “doing it
because I told you to” (Figure 9).
If you don’t think safety is important, check to see The performing arts (physical education, music, and
what activities have been eliminated from a school’s drama) offer a number of opportunities for affective do-
PE curriculum. All it takes to get an activity elimi- main development. There are many occasions to learn per-
nated is a few student injuries. Two or three injuries sonal responsibility, share, express feelings, set personal
will probably result in the elimination of a given goals, and function independently. Working as a team, learn-
activity. If you want the leeway required to try new
ing to be subordinate to a leader, and being a leader can be
and innovative activities, make sure you show your
administrators or supervisors the safety precautions taught. Teach the whole person. It is discouraging to hear
that will be implemented. teachers say, “My job is just to teach skills. I’m not going to
get involved in developing attitudes. That’s someone else’s
job.” Physical educators have an excellent opportunity to
Teachers are expected to foresee the possibility of develop positive attitudes and values. The battle may be
hazardous situations that result in student injury. Safety won, but the war lost if teachers produce graduates with
inspections should be conducted at regular intervals. Ap- good skill development and negative attitudes toward physi-
paratus that has not been used for some time should be in- cal activity and participation.
spected. Rules are only the beginning with students; safe Instructional effectiveness can be enriched by encour-
and sensible behavior needs to be taught and practiced. For aging students to improve their techniques or try to rem-
example, if students are in a gymnastics unit, they must re- edy problems they are having in skill performance. Offer
ceive instruction and practice in developing proper meth- students opportunities to help each other diagnose and
ods for absorbing momentum and force. It may be neces- improve techniques. Strategies for game situations can be
sary to practice safety, as in taking turns, spotting, and using developed through group discussions and planning. The
the apparatus as directed. point is to enrich and enhance learning situations so
An important way to assure safety is to assure curricu- students understand why they are being asked to learn in
lar presentations are written in proper progression. Injuries a specified manner. A golden rule does not have to be
are avoided if students perform only those activities for taught in every lesson, but little is learned if teachers fail to
which they are prepared. A written curriculum will reassure offer rationale and justification to accompany their skill
a safety committee or court of law that proper sequencing presentation.

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FIGURE 9 Checking for understanding

TEACH FOR COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT Responsibility is learned when students are allowed to
Involving students in organizing the content and imple- make decisions that affect their own and others’ futures.
mentation of the lesson can enhance cognitive develop- Decision making in school teaches students to learn from
ment. This is not to suggest that students decide what, their mistakes at a time when the consequences are not as
when, and how learning will take place, but rather they are severe if they make a poor choice. Responsibility training
involved in improving the structure of the learning tasks. involves allowing learners to make decisions after considering
The following are some of the advantages to involving the the alternatives. Allowing students to make choices should be
learner in the instructional process: done gradually by using some of the following strategies.

■ Learners usually select experiences within their 1. Limit the number of choices. This allows some con-
abilities and skill levels. trol over the ultimate outcome of the situation but
offers students a chance to help decide how the out-
■ When learners help make a decision, they accept
come will be reached. This may be a wise choice
some of the responsibility for learning. It is easy to
when learners have had little opportunity for deci-
blame others for failure if a learner is not involved in
sion making in the past. New teachers often have
some of the decisions. Personal involvement means
little understanding about their students and may
accepting the responsibility to make decisions and
want to select this method until they are more famil-
assure that such decisions are implemented.
iar with the class.
■ Most people feel better about an environment in
2. Let students modify activities. If used effectively, this
which they have input and control. Self-concepts
strategy allows learners to adapt the activity to suit
can be enhanced when learners help determine
their individual skill levels. Involving them in this
their destiny.
process can actually reduce student complaints that
■ When lessons fail because incorrect decisions were “It is too hard to do” or “I’m bored.” It becomes the
made, the learner shoulders some of the blame. This student’s responsibility to personalize the task.
helps develop decision-making skills that focus on Options allowed might be to change the rules, the
personal responsibility. equipment, the number of players on a team, or the
type of ball or racquet. Some examples are as follows:
Decision making and involvement in one’s learning
process are learned. Students need the opportunity to a. Using a slower-moving family ball rather than a
make decisions and be placed in a situation where they handball.
realize the impact of their decisions. The opportunity to b. Increasing the number of fielders in a softball
make incorrect as well as correct decisions is an important game.
part of the learning process. There is no decision making c. Lowering the basket in a basketball unit.
involved when correct decisions are the only conclusions d. Decreasing the length of a distance run or the
accepted and approved by the teacher. Soon, students be- height of hurdles.
gin to choose not to make decisions at all rather than risk 3. Offer open-ended tasks. This approach allows stu-
making an incorrect choice. dents the most latitude for deciding the content of the

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lesson. In this situation, they are given a task, and it is situations. Sometimes, teachers have the idea that caring
their responsibility to solve it. The teacher decides the for students indicates weakness. This is seldom the case.
educational end, and students decide the means. As Teachers can be firm and demanding as long as they are
students become adept in using this approach, they fair and considerate. To knowingly place students in an
can develop a number of alternatives. The following embarrassing situation is never justified.
are examples: Attitudes and values are formed based in large part on
a. “Develop a game that requires four passes before how students are treated by teachers and peers. When
a shot at the goal.” enhancing the affective domain, how one teaches is more
b. “Develop a floor exercise routine that contains a important than what one teaches. Students want to be
forward roll, backward roll, and cartwheel.” acknowledged as human beings with needs and concerns.
c. “How many games can you and your partner create They want to be treated in a courteous and nonderogatory
with one ball and one racquet?” manner. If teachers avoid trying to empathize with how
students feel, they teach without concern for others’ feel-
This problem solving approach has no predetermined ings. More often than not, the best way to discover how
answer. The technique is effective in helping students apply students feel is to ask them. The majority will be honest. If
principles they have learned previously to new situations. a teacher can accept student input, the result is an atmos-
Ultimately, the problem is solved through a movement re- phere that produces positive attitudes and values.
sponse guided by cognitive involvement.

ENHANCE THE AFFECTIVE DOMAIN PLAN FOR OPTIMAL SKILL

How each student feels about physical education has an LEARNING
impact on his or her level of motivation to be active
A major objective of physical education is to teach physical
throughout life. Little is gained if students participate in a
skill techniques. Students want to be physically educated. If
class yet leave hating it. It is possible to design experiences
they go to a math class, they expect to learn math. Students
that develop positive attitudes and values. When develop-
deserve an educational experience rather than a recre-
ing a lesson plan, evaluate its impact on the attitudes of
ational one, where playing rather than learning is the goal.
students. Will the planned lesson result in a positive expe-
When developing a lesson plan, the following points help
rience for students? Few people develop positive feelings
form the underlying foundation of the planning effort.
after participating in an activity where they were embar-
rassed or failed. Ponder some of the following situations
and the attitudes that might result: KNOW THE PURPOSE OF THE LESSON
The lesson should be designed to improve the skill per-
■ Think of a situation where the teacher asks everyone
formance of students so they are able to meet program
to run a mile. Overweight students are slowest and
standards. What is the purpose of the total program, the
run for the longest time, while the rest of the class
unit, and the lesson plan? If the lesson presentation does
waits for them to finish. These students cannot
not contribute to the learning and improving skills, it
change the outcome of the run even if they wanted to.
probably is a recreational approach rather than an edu-
Failure and belittlement occur every day. It’s a small
cational lesson. Lessons should contribute to positive
wonder they come to dislike running and exercise.
lifestyle changes that carry over to adulthood. Knowing
■ How might students feel who have been asked to program standards and desired outcomes (NASPE,
perform in front of the rest of the class even though 2004) and how instruction contributes to those out-
they are unskilled? For example, a student is asked to comes gives direction to the program.
dribble a soccer ball through a set of cones for a
timed performance. The added stress probably re-
INCLUDE INSTRUCTION AS PART
sults in a poorer-than-usual response. They may not
want to play soccer anymore. OF EVERY LESSON
■ What feelings do students have when asked to pitch Instruction is an observable action. There are many differ-
in a softball game and they are unable to throw ent ways to accomplish instructional outcomes, but all of
strikes? Might they do everything possible to avoid the methods demand instruction. Instruction can take
playing softball in the future? many forms, such as working individually with students,
evaluating a student’s progress on a mastery learning
Students need to know that teachers care about their packet, developing task cards, or conducting group instruc-
feelings and want to prevent placing them in embarrassing tion. Regardless of the method used, instruction must be a

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regular and consistent part of each lesson. Physical educa- UNDERSTAND AROUSAL
tion must go beyond the recreational aspects of activity and Arousal is the level of excitement stress produces (Schmidt &
be instructive in nature. A major problem with a recre- Lee, 2005). The level of arousal can have a positive or nega-
ational approach is that “the rich get richer and the poor get tive impact on performance of motor skills. The key to
poorer.” For example, if “the ball is rolled out” and students proper arousal is to find the “just right” amount. Too little
are left on their own for basketball games, skilled players arousal and youth are uninterested in learning. On the other
will handle the ball more and dominate less-skilled players. hand, too much arousal fills youth with stress and anxiety,
Unskilled students may feel pressure during competitive sit- resulting in a decrease in motor performance. The more
uations and find it difficult to think about technique and complex the skill, the more arousal can disrupt learning.
proper performance when they are concentrating on strat- On the other hand, if a skill is simple, such as running, a
egy and not making mistakes. greater amount of arousal can be tolerated without causing a
reduction in skill performance. Optimally, youth should be
INTEGRATE THE LESSON WITH PAST aroused to a level at which they are excited, confident, and
positive about participation.
AND FUTURE INSTRUCTION Competition affects the arousal level of students.
A sound secondary school physical education program When competition is introduced in the early stages of skill
should build on the foundation built by the elementary learning, stress and anxiety reduce the performer’s ability
school physical education experience. Many school dis- to learn. On the other hand, when competition is intro-
tricts lack adequate communication between elementary duced after a skill has been overlearned, it can improve the
and secondary program organizers. Each section may act level of performance. Overlearning a skill is performing it
autonomously, without regard for what is taught in other without having to think about technique. Because many
grades. Secondary curriculum planners should consider middle and high school youth have not overlearned skills,
elementary school program goals, activities, and teaching teachers should avoid highly competitive situations when
procedures. The transition from elementary to secondary teaching skills. For example, assume the objective is to
programs is smoother if learning activities and teaching practice basketball dribbling. Students are placed in
procedures progress with continuity. High school teachers squads to run a relay requiring that they dribble to the
who know the previous experiences of students in elemen- opposite end of the gym, shoot a basket, and return. The
tary and middle school programs can present instruction first squad finished is the winner. Instead of concentrating
that is not repetitious or too difficult because of lack of on dribbling form, students focus on winning the relay.
previous experience in the activity. They are overaroused and determined to run as quickly as
Well-planned lessons reflect a progression of activities possible. Dribbling is done poorly (if at all), the balls fly
between lessons. Skill development activities taught through- out of control, and the teacher is dismayed by the result.
out a unit help ensure that practice opportunities are sequen- In this case, the competitive situation overexcited those
tial and regular. An unacceptable but common approach is to youth who had not yet learned dribbling skills.
bunch all instruction into the first day or two of a unit. This
makes it difficult for unskilled students to develop motor
skills because there is little instruction and opportunity for GIVE MEANINGFUL SKILL FEEDBACK
skill feedback and correction after the start of the unit. Feedback is important in the teaching process because it
The philosophy of the teacher determines whether impacts what is being learned, what should be avoided, and
there is a plan for effective instruction. Do you believe how the performance can be modified. Skill feedback is any
that young people must learn on their own and that kind of information about a movement performance. There
responsibility for learning is solely the student’s? Or do are two types of skill feedback: intrinsic and extrinsic.
you believe that student and teacher share the responsi- Intrinsic feedback is internal and inherent to the perform-
bility of learning in an environment where both are ance of the skill and travels through the senses such as vision,
determined to reach educational outcomes? A teacher’s hearing, touch, and smell. Extrinsic feedback is external and
plan for skill development strongly affects student comes from an outside source such as a teacher, a videotape,
learning. If instructors fail to assume responsibility for a stopwatch, and so on. Feedback from the instructor should
teaching and refining skills, who will? be encouraging (or constructive), frequent, public (so all stu-
Helping students effectively learn physical skills requires dents benefit), and contingent on performance or effort.
that teachers understand a few basic principles of motor
learning. Teaching motor skills is not a difficult task when Knowledge of Results
teachers understand the basic tenets of proper performance Knowledge of results is extrinsic feedback given after a
techniques. skill has been performed. It involves information about

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the skill outcome so students know whether their attempts makes a lucky basket might believe the task was per-
were successful (or not). Knowledge of results provides formed correctly even though the technical points of the
information about an incorrect or unsuccessful perform- throw were performed incorrectly. The goal of physical
ance. Learners need feedback about outcomes so they can education is to teach skills correctly, with less emphasis
adjust the practice trials that follow. This type of feedback placed on the outcome of the skill performance. In con-
need not be negative, but rather a statement of fact telling trast, strong emphasis is placed on product (performance)
whether the skill performance resulted in a successful out- rather than process (technique) when young people
come. Often, there is little need for feedback because the choose to enter the competitive world of athletics.
task outcome is obvious, such as making a basket or A final point about knowledge of performance: allow
jumping a rope. time for performers to internalize feedback. Often, teachers
Knowledge of results originates externally from a give a student feedback and then ask that they “try it
teacher, peer, or successful performance of a skill, that is, again.” It is possible that the same mistake will be repeated
making a basket or getting a hit. External feedback is most because the student did not have time to internalize the
often delivered by the teacher to stimulate effective skill feedback. Also, the instructor may make the student tense
performance. Knowledge of results is critical in the early and reduce the effectiveness of their try. Offer knowledge
stages of learning motor skills. After performers start to of performance feedback and move to another participant.
master a skill, they can analyze their performance and Observe how students perform following your feedback.
develop a personal system of internal feedback rather than Follow up on your feedback at a later time. This allows stu-
depending on knowledge of results from a teacher or peer. dents a chance to relax, internalize the feedback, and mod-
ify future practice attempts.
Knowledge of Performance
This type of feedback is similar to knowledge of results in PROVIDE EFFECTIVE PRACTICE SESSIONS
that it is verbal, extrinsic in nature, and occurs after the Practice is a key part of learning motor skills. It is not
performance. Knowledge of results focuses on the out- enough that students receive the opportunity to practice;
come (product) of a skill, whereas knowledge of perform- they must practice with emphasis on quality of their me-
ance relates to the process (mechanics) of the skill chanics (practicing correctly). This section explains how to
performance. When using this type of feedback, refer to design practice sessions that optimize motor skill learning.
specific components of the learner’s performance. For
example, “I like the way you kept your chin on your chest Focus Practice on Process
during the forward roll,” or “That’s the way to step toward Practice can be focused in two directions—product or
the target with your left foot when throwing.” process. Product-based practice places emphasis on the
Knowledge of performance can increase a student’s desired outcome of skill performance. For example, when
level of motivation because it provides feedback about teaching hitting, reinforcement is offered only when the
improvement. Frustration often sets in when a student student hits the ball for a base hit. Process-based practice,
finds it difficult to discern improvement. Feedback provides however, has the teacher encouraging students to perform
a lift and a rededication to continued practice. Knowledge the skill correctly with little emphasis on the outcome.
of performance is a strong reinforcer, particularly when an This leads to a product–process conflict. Students who
instructor mentions something performed correctly. This think the teacher is only interested in the product may not
feedback motivates young people to repeat the same pat- concentrate on proper technique. Overemphasis on prod-
tern, ultimately resulting in improved performance. The uct or skill outcome decreases a student’s willingness to
most important aspect of this feedback is that it provides take risks and learn new ways of performing a skill. Focus
information for future patterns of skill performance. practice on correct skill technique when youth are in the
Make performance feedback short, content filled, and learning and practice phase of skill development.
concise. Explain exactly what was correct or incorrect (e.g.,
“That was excellent body rotation”). Concentrate on one Use Mental Practice Techniques
key point to avoid confusion. Imagine a performer who is Mental practice involves thinking about the successful per-
told, “Step with the left foot, rotate the trunk, lead with the formance of a motor skill in a quiet, relaxed environment.
elbow, and snap the wrist on your next throw!” Excessive The experience involves thinking about the activity and its
feedback confuses anyone trying to improve a skill. related sounds, colors, and other sensations. Students visual-
When working with students new to a skill, focus on ize themselves doing the activity successfully and at regular
knowledge of performance. Knowledge of results focuses speed. Images of failure should be avoided (Schmidt & Lee,
solely on the skill outcome and doesn’t consider whether 2005). Mental practice stimulates performers to think about
the skill was performed correctly. An unskilled youth who and review the activity they are to practice. Some experience

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or familiarity with the skill is requisite before the performer Another way to determine the length of practice ses-
can derive value from mental practice. Mental practice is sions is to examine the tasks being practiced. If a skill causes
used in combination with regular practice, not in place of it. physical fatigue, demands intense concentration, or has the
Before performing the task, prompt students to mentally potential to become tedious, practice sessions should be
review the critical factors and sequencing of the act. short and frequent, with an adequate rest pause between
intervals. Stop practice when students are bored or tired
Decide on Whole versus Part Practice and focus on a different activity until they regain their
Skills can be taught by the whole or part method. The enthusiasm to learn.
whole method refers to the process of learning the entire Practice sessions spread out over many days are usu-
skill or activity in one dose. The part method breaks down ally more effective than sessions crowded into a short time
a skill into a series of parts followed by combining the span. The combination of practice and review is effective
parts into the whole skill. For example, a simple gymnas- because activities can be taught in a short unit and prac-
tics routine might be broken into component parts and ticed in review sessions throughout the year. In the initial
put back together for the performance. stages of skill learning, it is particularly important that
Whether to use the whole or part method depends on practice sessions be distributed in this way. Later, when
the complexity and organization of the skills to be learned. success in skill performance increases motivation, individ-
Complexity refers to the number of serial skills (parts) or ual practice sessions can be lengthened.
components in a task. Organization defines how the parts
are related to each other. High organization means the Using Blocked and Random Skill Practice
parts of the skill are closely related to each other, making There are two basic ways to organize skill instruction. The
separation difficult. An example of a highly organized and first is blocked skill practice, where all the trials of one task
complex skill is throwing; it is difficult to develop proper are completed before moving on to the next task. Because
mechanics without going through the complete motion at blocked practice is effective during the early stages of
normal speed. A low-organized skill is a line dance, in learning a new skill, learners usually make rapid improve-
which footwork and arm movements can be rehearsed ment because they are practicing the same skill over and
separately. Generally, if the skills are high in complexity over. This success encourages learners to continue practic-
but low in organization, they can be taught in parts. If ing. However, there is a drawback to blocked practice. It
complexity is low but organization high, the skills must be makes learners believe they are more skilled than they
taught as a whole. A final consideration is the duration of actually are. When the skill is applied in a natural setting
the skill. If the skill is of short duration, such as throwing, where there are many variations of the skill, performance
batting, or kicking, teaching the skill in parts and at re- level is lowered. This creates an increased failure rate that
duced speed is probably counterproductive. Imagine try- may cause a decrease in motivation.
ing to slow down kicking a soccer ball while teaching it The other method is random skill practice in which the
part by part. The performer would find it impossible to order of task presentations is mixed and no task is practiced
develop proper pattern and timing. twice in succession. A classic study by Goode and Magill
When skill components are learned separately, give (1986) showed that random practice was the most effective
students time to practice putting the parts together. For approach to assure retention and transfer. When the pres-
example, in a gymnastics routine, students might perform entation of a task randomly varies from trial to trial, it cre-
the activities separately but find difficulty sequencing ates interference and it was theorized that this may lower
them because they have not learned how to modify each immediate performance but help retention and transfer of
activity based on the previous one. the skill. These studies were conducted in a laboratory set-
ting. Barreiros, Figueiredo, and Godinho (2007) reviewed
Determine Length and Distribution many studies looking at the interference effect in a “real life”
of Practice Sessions setting. In general, they found that results did not offer clear
Short practice sessions usually produce more efficient support for the interference effect. The authors suggest that
learning than longer sessions because they avoid both serial tasks with a high degree of complexity may be better
physical and mental fatigue (boredom). The challenge is to learned in high interference conditions.
try to offer as many repetitions as possible within short If random practice results in better skill retention, it
practice sessions. Use varied approaches, challenges, and may be related to mentally generating solutions. When the
activities to develop the same skill in order to maintain same task is practiced over and over, young people not
motivational levels. For example, using many different only become bored, they don’t think about the skill per-
drills maintains motivation but continues focus on the formance. Because the same motor program is used over
skills to be learned. and over to complete the task, little effort or thinking is

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required. In contrast, students using random practice for-

get the motor program used and have to consciously re-
create the solution to be successful. It is apparent that this ✔Teaching Tip: Plan for Success
area of teaching skills needs to be researched further. Planning is your roadmap to success. How can you
know what to teach if you don’t know where you
Offer Variable Skill Practice are going? The unit plan does a great job of showing
you what and when you are going to teach necessary
Motor tasks are usually grouped into classes of tasks. For
skills and activities. The lesson plan then shows how
example, throwing is a collection of a class of movements. you will accomplish the unit plan on a daily basis.
Throwing a ball in a sport can be performed in many dif- Make your lessons meaningful to you and others.
ferent ways, such as at different speeds, different trajecto- Many administrators believe that a lesson plan is only
ries, and varying distances. Even though throwing tasks are effective and useful when others (such as substitute
all different, the variations have fundamental similarities. teachers) can read and implement it.
Movements in a class usually involve the same body parts
using a similar rhythm, but they are performed with many
variations. These differences create the need for variable There are many different ways to write and organize
practice in a variable setting. units of instruction. Most plans contain the following ele-
Practice sessions should include a variety of skills in a ments, even though they may be titled differently or listed
movement class with a variety of situations and parameters in a different order.
in which the skill is performed. If a skill to be learned in-
volves one fixed way of performing it (a “closed” skill), such Objectives or Standards for the Unit
as placekicking a football or striking a ball off a batting tee, Objectives should be written before organizing the activities
variability is much less important. However, most skills are and experiences. The objectives state what the students are
“open,” and responses are somewhat unpredictable, which expected to know on completion of the unit. Make students
makes variability in practice important (e.g., catching or aware of what they are expected to learn. Objectives are usu-
batting a ball moving at different speeds and from different ally listed for the three learning domains. For example, what
angles). Motor skills should be practiced under a variety of cognitive understandings should students have, and will
conditions so students can respond to a wide variety of they be tested in these areas? What are the social and emo-
novel situations. tional concepts students should develop through participa-
tion in this unit? Finally, what skills, techniques, and game
strategies should be learned on completion of the unit?
DESIGN COMPREHENSIVE Many districts are now asking that teachers include the
national standards for physical education (NASPE, 2004)
UNIT PLANS into the unit and lesson plans. The standards give direction
Units of instruction offer a method for organizing and pre- to the entire physical education program and help clarify
senting activities over a stipulated period of time. Without what students should learn.
units, it is difficult to offer scope and sequence for various
instructional activities throughout the year. Units vary in Skills and Activities
length depending on the age and ability of students and the This section is the instructional core of the unit and is or-
design of the curriculum. Most units focus on physical ganized according to unit objectives. Specific skills to be
activity or movement forms, such as team sports, lifetime developed, drills to facilitate skill development, lead-up
sports, dance, or physical conditioning. However, some games to be taught, and culminating experiences are listed
units are developed to emphasize a concept or idea such as in this section. Scope and sequence are also integrated into
cardiovascular efficiency, body composition, flexibility, or this section to ensure a meaningful presentation. When
strength. activities are listed in proper sequence, instructionally
When unit plans are developed, a wide variety of sound and legally safe lessons are more easily written.
sources should be reviewed to ensure that the unit is com- Students and teachers may list the learning experiences as
prehensive. Units of instruction usually reflect a range of desirable student outcomes to ensure simple translation.
activities gathered from materials produced by experts.
Another plus of unit plans is that they give teachers a plan Instructional Procedures
for how instruction should proceed. This prevents frag- Instructional procedures determine how activities will be
mentation. An instructor with a coherent unit plan does presented to ensure the maximum amount of learning.
not simply teach from day to day and hope that everything
will somehow fit together by the end of the unit.

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Points included are instructional techniques, observations Dynamic Physical Education for Secondary School Students is
on the efficient use of equipment, necessary safety proce- an outgrowth of her creativity and planning. There are plans
dures, and teaching formations. for a wide-ranging set of units. For example, there are block
plans and lesson plans for units such as orienteering, archery,
Equipment, Facilities, and Instructional Frisbee golf, rock climbing, kickboxing, and weight training.
Devices The lessons are written in an easy-to-use format so teachers
Listing equipment and facilities needed for instruction makes can quickly implement some new and innovative approaches
it easy to quickly see what is available and whether other to their programs.
teachers are using these items or facilities for a unit being
taught concurrently. If facilities or equipment need to be Bibliography and Resources
prepared prior to the start of the lesson (e.g., lowering goals The bibliography contains materials used by students and
or deflating balls), this should be listed on the lesson plan. teacher. Students are given a list of materials they can
peruse if they desire more information. Location of mate-
Culminating Activities rials should be identified. Teachers may have a separate list
This section identifies how the unit will be concluded. and collection of resources they use for instruction. For
A tournament between selected teams, an intraschool example, pamphlets on nutrition or physical fitness, avail-
contest, or a school demonstration play day could be imple- able films, bulletin board materials, and textbooks could
mented. In any case, the unit should finish with an activity be included in the resource section.
that is enjoyable to students and leaves them with a positive The following outline is an example of a skeleton
feeling toward the unit of instruction. structure for designing unit plans.
Evaluation I. Title and grade level
The final section outlines how student progress is moni- II. Analysis and description of setting
tored. The instructor can carry out monitoring, or stu- A. Previous experiences and exposure to activity
dents can be given guidelines for self-evaluation. Written B. Limiting factors: class size, class organization,
tests can be administered to evaluate the knowledge mixed grades, facilities and equipment, period
gained through instruction. Skill tests can be selected to of day class meets
assess the level of performance and skill development. An C. Rationale for including the activity
attitude inventory can measure the impact of the unit on III. Objectives
the affective area of learning. A. General unit objectives (NASPE, 2004)
Another phase of evaluation involves asking students to B. Specific objectives
comment on the unit and its method of presentation. This 1. Psychomotor (physical performance)
should be done in writing (anonymously) rather than ver- skills
bally because some student comments may anger or belittle 2. Knowledge, rules, and strategies
the teacher. Student evaluations offer direction for modify- 3. Attitudes and values
ing the unit and making it more effective in the future.
IV. Organization
Suggested Weekly (Block Plan) Schedule A. Time (length of unit)
B. Space available
The purpose of a block plan is to distribute the activities of
C. Equipment and supplies
the unit into weekly segments. This gives the teacher a sense
D. Basic grouping of students
of timing and an indication of what should be taught and
E. Number of groups
when. A block plan alleviates problems such as insufficient
time to teach the desired activities or insufficient activities V. Content
to fill up the time frame. It eases the burden of writing les- A. Introduction of the activity
son plans because the material to be taught is identified and B. Rules
sequenced into a meaningful time frame. Daily lesson plans C. Skills (diagram all drills)
are developed by following the outline of the block plan. D. Activities and lead-up games
Figure 10 is an example of a block plan for a unit E. Skills tests
on racquetball. Professor Carole Casten, of California State F. Written tests
University (CSU-Dominguez Hills), designed a model high G. Block plan for entire unit
school program, and the information in Lesson Plans for H. Grading procedures
VI. References and resources

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 PLANNING FOR EFFECTIVE INSTRUCTION

Raquetball Block Plan

Introduction Review Review Review Review

What is racquetball? Grip, forehand, Serves, rules Forehand, backhand Back-wall shots
backhand Teach Teach Teach
Grips—ready position
Equipment Back-wall shots Court position Ceiling shots
Forehand stroke
Backhand stroke Teach Hinders Kill shots Passing shots
Class procedures Serves—Drive, Z Activities Activities Activities
Practice bounce and Lob Back-wall practice Performance objectives Ceiling games
hit Activities Serve practice or short game 1, 2, or 3 shots
Rule of the day Serves—practice Rule of the day Rule of the day
Bounce and hit
Rule of the day

Review Teach Review Review Review

Problem rules Cutthroat Problem areas Rules Kill shots
Serve strategy Doubles Activities Activities Activities
Court coverage Activities Performance objectives Performance objectives Rotation workup
Activities Performance objectives 5 and out Regular game
Accuracy drills 8-ball rally Ceiling games Cutthroat or doubles
Drive serve Rotation workup
Lob serve
Backhand
Backhand games
1 or 2 shots

Activities Review Written exam Activities Final performance

Performance objectives Rules, strategy, shots Performance objectives Objectives
Activities
Backhand games serves Performance objectives Tournament games
Regular game Cutthroat or doubles Review course
Activities Tournament games
Tournament games Objectives
Performance objectives
Final games
Tournament games
Return exam

FIGURE 10 Example of racquetball block plan

CREATE QUALITY LESSON PLANS Planning helps teachers present quality instruction and
The importance of lesson planning cannot be overempha- maintain meaningful interaction with students. Teachers,
sized. Instructors at the middle and high school level are, regardless of experience and ability, have many things to
at times, criticized for their lack of planning. A cycle of remember while teaching. When presenting a lesson, situa-
not planning often begins early in a teacher’s career when tions occur that are impossible to predict. For example,
student teachers observe master teachers doing little, if dealing with discipline problems; modifying lessons spon-
any, planning. The emphasis placed on developing mean- taneously; relating to students by name; offering praise,
ingful lesson and unit plans in professional preparation feedback, and reinforcement; and developing an awareness
courses appears unnecessary when a master teacher of teaching behavior patterns need to be done regularly. If
teaches without the aid of thoughtful planning. The be- the content of the lesson is planned, written, and readily
ginning teacher is unable to meaningfully judge the effec- available, greater emphasis can be placed on other equally
tiveness of the master teacher because of a lack of perspec- important phases of teaching.
tive and experience. The master teacher has taught the When planning a lesson, the skills and abilities of stu-
material for many years and has evolved a method of pres- dents need to be considered if success is going to be an inte-
entation through trial and error. It may be possible to gral part of the presentation. This understanding results in
present a lesson without planning, but the quality of any drills and activities that are challenging but not threatening.
lesson can be improved through research, preparation, Remember that an activity is challenging or threatening based
and a well-sequenced plan. on the student’s perception, not the instructor’s. An activity
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 PLANNING FOR EFFECTIVE INSTRUCTION

is challenging if the learner believes it is difficult but achiev- ■ Outcomes of the lesson should be listed. The out-
able. It is threatening if the learner perceives it to be impos- comes of the lesson are easier to reach when both
sible. The same drill could be challenging to some students the instructor and students know where they are
and threatening to others. Trying to sort out how students going. Outcomes can be written in brief form and
perceive various activities makes teaching a difficult task. stated clearly so that students know what they are
Regular success is necessary if students are expected expected to learn.
to enjoy an activity for a lifetime. An instructor can force ■ Because lesson plans are personal, they can be writ-
students to do just about anything within the educational ten in code. All information need not be written out
setting. If forced into activities that result in frequent fail- in longhand. For example, many teachers often
ure, students will probably learn to dislike or avoid them write their lesson plans on 4- by 6-inch cards, which
in the future. To give students lifetime skills and attitudes, can be carried easily and used with minimal dis-
monitor and adjust lessons regularly. Maintain sensitivity traction. The card contents reflect the instructor’s
to the learner’s perceptions and feelings, and teach with thoughts and planning, which have occurred before
concern for each student as an individual. the actual teaching session.
Lesson planning is unique to each teacher. The compe-
■ Time should be estimated for various activities
tency of the individual in various activities will determine
needed in the lesson. For example, the amount of
the depth of the lesson plan. More research and reading
time for roll call, a warm-up activity, fitness devel-
will need to be done for a unit in which a teacher has little
opment, and the lesson’s focus should be estimated.
experience. When a teacher is unfamiliar with a unit and
The time schedule need not be inflexible, but it
still refuses to plan, the quality of instruction is compro-
should be followed closely enough so that planned
mised. Solid planning helps overcome a lack of compe-
activities are taught.
tency and demonstrates the willingness to change and
learn new skills and knowledge. Planning increases the ■ Planning is an important phase of teaching. Few
effectiveness of the instructor. Regardless of the content, teachers instruct for more than 4 to 5 hours per day.
consider the following points when planning a lesson: If an 8-hour day is expected of other workers, in-
structors should use some of their remaining work
■ Learning physical skills takes practice and repetition. time for planning. Consider a comparison with
Each lesson should be organized to maximize the coaching. All successful coaches spend a great deal
amount of meaningful participation and to minimize of time planning, observing films, and constructing
the amount of teacher verbalization and off-task stu- game plans. The game may not last more than an
dent behavior. hour or 2, but many hours of planning take place
■ Practice combined with instruction and meaningful before the contest. Teachers of physical education
feedback ensures skill development. Instructional should recognize the need to spend time each day
sequences and procedures that increase the amount planning for 4 to 5 hours of teaching. The results of
of feedback in a lesson are part of the written lesson a well-planned lesson are rewarding to both stu-
plan. Key points to be learned may require regular dents and the teacher.
and specific feedback to ensure that correct learning ■ Successful experiences should be planned for stu-
patterns occur. dents. The plan should include enough challenge to
■ Lesson plans allow for differing ability levels of the stu- motivate and enough variety to maintain interest.
dents. Build a range of activities into each lesson plan A balance of safety and challenge is required in the
so that students can progress at varying rates, depend- school setting.
ing on their levels of skill. List the activities in progres-
sion to simplify presentation and enhance learning. MAJOR INSTRUCTIONAL COMPONENTS
■ Requisite equipment should be listed in the lesson OF THE LESSON
plan. This prevents the problem of being in the A daily lesson-plan format provides teachers and students
middle of a lesson only to find that needed equip- with a measure of stability. A consistent daily instructional
ment was not procured. The initial placement of format offers routine and structure. Lesson plans offer a
equipment and how it is distributed and put away systematic approach to teaching. When planning a lesson,
are tasks that are planned before teaching. the skills and abilities of students need to be considered if
■ Time needed for management activities can be min- success is going to be an integral part of the presentation.
imized with prior planning. List whether students This understanding results in drills and activities that are
are to be in small groups or partnered, the type of challenging but not threatening. In effect, because the least
formation required, and how these procedures will gifted students may find difficulty in learning, it is usually
be implemented. best to gear instruction based on the ability levels of such
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 PLANNING FOR EFFECTIVE INSTRUCTION

students. Students can get discouraged when they find could use the last part of the lesson for completing an
tasks too difficult to learn. The amount of time spent on activity. On the other hand, if students show they are ready
different parts of the lesson can be predetermined. Most for a new activity, it is often beneficial to introduce a coop-
lesson plans cover three or four parts: a warm-up activity, a erative or competitive game activity.
fitness component, and the lesson focus/game. Figure 10 is
an example of a racquetball from the accompanying lesson CONTENT OF THE LESSON PLAN
plan using task sheets (Casten, 2012).
Instructional Activities
Introductory (Warm-Up) Activity Specific skills and activities to be taught need to be listed
The introductory activity occupies 3 to 5 minutes of the in the lesson plan. These are listed in proper progression
total lesson. The purpose is to prepare students for activity. to ensure that instruction builds on previously learned
Students require a few minutes to become emotionally skills. Progression also helps ensure that activities are pre-
involved in the activity after sitting in classes. Introductory sented in a safe manner. The skills and related activities
activities require minimal organization and place demands need not be written out in detail. Write enough so it is
on large muscle movement. The activities may be an inte- easy to comprehend the activities when teaching.
gral part of the fitness routine or a separate entity. In either
Teaching and Organization Hints
case, the introductory activity is used to raise the heart
rate, warm up the body, and stretch the muscles in antici- A list of instructional procedures can help teachers concep-
pation of a fitness development activity. Teachers can tualize prior to the lesson what details need to be prepared,
change the introductory activity each week to add variety including how the equipment is organized, what formations
to the warm-up procedure. to use, key points of instruction to share with students, and
the specific feedback used. New instructional procedures
Fitness Development Activity can be recorded after a lesson and maintained for the next
Fitness activities take 15 to 20 minutes and focus on the time the lesson is taught.
development of physical fitness. Instruction centers focus Expected Student Outcomes
on developing major components of fitness, especially
Prior to the lesson, establish what students are expected to
flexibility, muscular strength and endurance, body com-
experience, learn, and perform. Curriculum objectives can
position, and cardiovascular endurance. A wide variety of
be listed to give direction to instruction. With careful
fitness routines are offered so students can learn to select
planning of expected student outcomes, teachers can offer
methods acceptable to them in adulthood. Graduating
a wide variety of experiences throughout the school year
from school knowing many ways to develop and main-
to help students develop in all domains—psychomotor,
tain physical fitness is a program objective that will allow
cognitive, and affective.
students to select lifetime fitness activities. A successful
experience in fitness activities is motivating and creates
positive attitudes.
REFLECT ON THE COMPLETED
Lesson Focus and Game or Closing Activity LESSON
The lesson focus and game activity is 25 to 30 minutes in Teaching is a full-time job. Teachers who excel and impact
duration depending on the length of the period. This is the lives of their students put a great deal of time and
the instructional part of the lesson, which emphasizes skill energy into their teaching. Obviously, all who teach physical
development, cognitive learning, and enhancement of the education work hard to accomplish goals. But, it is always
affective domain. This phase of the lesson contains skills easy to identify a truly outstanding teacher who seems to
to be taught, drills, and lead-up activities, all of which cul- gets students to perform at a high level. One of the elements
minate in games and tournaments. that is obvious among great teachers is their level of caring
In elementary schools, games are often played at the and thinking. They spend a great deal of time thinking
end of the lesson so students leave with a positive feeling about the lessons they have presented in order to find new
about physical activity. These games are often unrelated to and better ways to get students to respond. This process is
the lesson focus activity because students often desire a often referred to as reflection—the act of sitting back and
new and exciting activity to renew their enthusiasm. As asking the question, “How could I have done that better so
students mature into the middle and high school years, the students would learn more?”
game or closing activity is often an extension of the lesson Many things make teaching difficult (e.g., accommo-
focus. For example, in an orienteering lesson, students dating the weather, having to teach outside, having a limited
amount of equipment, not knowing how certain students

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 PLANNING FOR EFFECTIVE INSTRUCTION

Questions to Aid the Reflection Process

Planning Instruction
Did I prepare ahead of time? Mental preparation Was I alert for children who were having
prior to a lesson ensures continuity occurs in a trouble performing the activities and needed
lesson. some personal help? Youngsters want to receive
Did I understand the “whys” of my lesson? relevant but subtle help.
Knowing why you are teaching something will Did I praise youngsters who made an effort or
give you greater strength and conviction in your improved? Saying something positive to children
presentation. increases their desire to perform at a higher level.
Did I state my instructional goals for the lesson? Did I give sufficient attention to the personaliza-
Students are more focused if they know what they tion and creativity of each student? Everybody
are supposed to learn. feels unique and different and wants to deal
Did I plan the lesson so students can participate with learning tasks in a personal manner.
safely, such as creating safe areas for running, with Did I teach for quality of movement or just
no slippery spots, broken glass, objects to run offer a large quantity of activities in an attempt
into, and adequate room for striking activities? to keep students on task? Repetition is a
necessary part of learning new skills.
Equipment
Was my equipment arranged prior to class? Proper Discipline/Management
equipment placement reduces management time Did I teach students to be responsible for their
and allows more time for instruction and practice. learning and personal behavior? Students need
Did I use enough equipment to keep all students to learn responsibility and self-direction skills.
involved and assured of maximum practice Did I evaluate how I handled discipline and
opportunities? management problems? Did I preserve the self-
Did I notify the principal about equipment that esteem of my students during behavior correction
needs to be repaired or replaced? On a regular episodes? Did I yell out my corrective feedback
basis, do I record areas where equipment is for the entire class to hear? What are some ways
lacking or insufficient in quantity? Do I inform the I could have handled situations better?
principal of these shortcomings? Did I make positive calls home to reinforce
Did I select equipment that is appropriate for the students who are really trying and working hard?
developmental level of the students (e.g., proper
Assessment
size and types of balls, basketball hoop height,
Did I bring closure to my lesson? This gives
hand implements)?
feedback about the effectiveness of instruction.
Methodology It also allows students a chance to reflect on
Did I constantly move and reposition myself what they have learned. Did I ask for answers
during the lesson? Moving allows you to be close in a way that allows me to quickly check that
to more students so you can reinforce and help all students understand?
them. It usually reduces behavior problems. Did I evaluate the usefulness of the activities
Did I teach with enthusiasm and energy? Energy I presented? Did I make changes as quickly as
and zest rubs off on students. possible to ensure my lessons were improving
Did I try to show just as much energy for the last and better at meeting the needs of my
class of the day as I did for the first class of the students?
day? Did I work just as hard on Friday as I did at Did I communicate with teachers and the
the start of the week? principal about things that need to be improved
Did I keep students moving during lesson transi- or better understood? Did I leave my office and
tions? Did I plan my transitions carefully so little meet other teachers on a regular basis for the
time was needed to proceed to the next part of sake of goodwill and program support?
the lesson?

FIGURE 11 Questions to aid the reflection process

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 PLANNING FOR EFFECTIVE INSTRUCTION

will respond to your discipline techniques). There are no 9. Provide an example of a makeup assignment in
simple answers to be found. What works one time may not fitness that includes a knowledge, performance,
work the next. Some teachers like to put in an 8:00 to 3:00 and spectator task.
10. How are lower-skilled students shortchanged
day, and you better not be in their way when the “clock when most of the instruction is limited to the
strikes three.” These teachers will teach the same way and first 2 days of a unit?
the same thing year after year without change. It is often
said that these teachers have been “teaching 20 years and
have 1 year of experience.” That approach is the opposite of
WEBSITES
Unit and Lesson Planning
reflecting and trying to improve.
www.hcc.hawaii.edu/intranet/committees/FacDevCom/
Quality teachers find time to reflect on all the factors guidebk/teachtip/lesspln1.htm
related to their lessons. Most teachers admit that their first www.hcc.hawaii.edu/intranet/committees/FacDevCom/
lesson of the week is not as polished and effective as one guidebk/teachtip/lesspln2.htm
taught near the end of the week. A lesson taught during the www.hcc.hawaii.edu/intranet/committees/FacDevCom/
guidebk/teachtip/lesspln3.htm
first period of the week does not include all the finer points www.pecentral.org
learned through trial and error. Instruction improves when www.pelinks4u.org
teachers reflect on why some things worked and others www.pe4life.org
didn’t. Leave time at the end of the day to reflect and note www.masterteacher.com
ways the lesson can be improved. Try keeping a portfolio www.masterteacher.com/product
related to inspiration and insight you uncover during the
reflection process. Write down personal growth indicators
and situations that offer evidence you are growing profes-
REFERENCES AND
sionally. Continue to reflect and see it as a dynamic and SUGGESTED READINGS
ongoing process. Examine Figure 11 on the previous page Barreiros, J., Figueiredo, T., & Godinho, M. (2007).
European Physical Education Review, 3(2),195–208.
for a list of questions that aid the reflection process. Add Buck, M. M., Lund, J. L., Harrison, J. M., & Blakemore
other questions that are specific and related to your profes- Cook, C. L. (2007). Instructional strategies for second-
sional growth. ary physical education (6th ed.). Boston: McGraw-Hill.
Casten, C. M. (2009). Lesson plans for dynamic physical
education for secondary school students (6th ed.). San
Francisco: Pearson Benjamin Cummings.
Goode, S., & Magill, R. A. (1986). The contextual inter-
STUDY STIMULATORS ference effects in learning three badminton serves.
AND REVIEW QUESTIONS Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 57,
308–314.
1. Explain why students should not be allowed to Kelly, L. E., & Melograno, V. J. (2004). Designing the phys-
get physical education credit for band or athletics. ical education curriculum: An achievement based
2. Discuss the pros and cons of a dress code for phys- approach. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics Publishers.
ical education classes. National Association for Sport and Physical Education.
3. Discuss the difference between knowledge of (2004). Moving into the future: National standards
for physical education (2nd ed.). Reston, VA: Author.
results and knowledge of performance by using
Pangrazi, R. P., and Beighle, A. (2010a). Dynamic physical
an example involving volleyball or any other
education for elementary school children (16th ed.).
sport activity. San Francisco: Benjamin Cummings.
4. Which of the two practice schedules, blocked or Pangrazi, R. P. (2010b). Lesson plans for dynamic physical
random, can help minimize boredom for students? education for elementary school children (16th ed.).
Explain your choice. San Francisco: Benjamin Cummings.
5. What are the practical implications of physical and Rink, J. E. (2006). Teaching physical education for learning
mental fatigue on the planning of learning tasks? (5th ed.). Boston: McGraw-Hill.
6. What is the rationale for embedding a culminat- Schmidt, R. A., & Lee, T. (2005). Motor control and learn-
ing activity at the end of lessons and units? ing (4th ed.). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics
Publishers.
7. Other than purchasing new equipment, what are
Siedentop, D., & Tannehill, D. (2000). Developing teach-
two effective strategies programs can employ to
ing skills in physical education (4th ed.). Mountain
increase the amount of equipment available for View, CA: Mayfield Publishing Co.
instruction? Wuest, D. A., & Bucher, C. A. (2003). Foundations of phys-
8. What benefits are there to having students ical education, exercise science, and sport (14th ed.).
share in some of the decision-making processes? Boston: McGraw-Hill.

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Improving Instructional
Effectiveness
ESSENTIAL COMPONENTS OF
A QUALITY PROGRAM
I. Organized around content standards
II. Student-centered and developmentally
appropriate
III. Physical activity and motor skill develop-
ment form the core of the program
IV. Teaches management skills and
self-discipline
▲ ▲

V. Promotes inclusion of all students

VI. Focuses on process over product
VII. Promotes lifetime personal health
and wellness
▲

VIII. Teaches cooperation and responsibility

and promotes sensitivity to diversity

NATIONAL STANDARDS FOR

PHYSICAL EDUCATION*
1. Demonstrates competency in motor skills
and movement patterns needed to perform
a variety of physical activities.
2. Demonstrates understanding of movement
concepts, principles, strategies, and tactics as
they apply to the learning and performance
of physical activities.
3. Participates regularly in physical activity.
4. Achieves and maintains a health-enhancing
level of physical fitness.
▲

5. Exhibits responsible personal and social

behavior that respects self and others in
physical activity settings.
6. Values physical activity for health, enjoyment,
challenge, self-expression, and/or social *National Association for Sport and Physical Education
interaction. (NASPE), 2004.

From Chapter 6 of Dynamic Physical Education for Secondary Schools, Seventh Edition. Paul W. Darst, Robert P. Pangrazi, Mary Jo Sariscsany,
Timothy A. Brusseau, Jr. Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. Published by Pearson Benjamin Cummings. All rights reserved.
 IMPROVING INSTRUCTIONAL EFFECTIVENESS

self-worth is enhanced when a teacher listens and

Chapter Summary acknowledges his or her feelings and concerns.
This chapter presents effective methods for becoming
an active and connected teacher. Quality instruction
demands effective communication between teacher MAINTAIN STUDENT INTEREST
and student that can be enhanced by using instruc- A component of effective teaching is a learning environ-
tional cues, demonstrating, modeling, and providing ment that facilitates student learning and maintains inter-
meaningful feedback. An important part of teaching
est. Environmental and instructional planning ensure that
is to understand the personal needs of students,
which includes teaching for diversity and understand- students have an opportunity to learn skills in a positive
ing gender differences. setting. Active teacher supervision and instructional flow
helps students feel as though the teacher is involved and
Student Outcomes cares about the learning environment.
After reading this chapter, you will be able to:
• Identify various ways to stay connected with stu- USE ACTIVE SUPERVISION
dents, including using active supervision and
maintaining the flow of the lesson.
Observation of class performance is critical in ensuring that
students stay on task and practice activities correctly. This
• Speak effectively to a class using proper techniques.
requires supervision of students in an active manner—that is,
• Understand procedures needed to develop effec-
positioning oneself so that eye contact can be maintained with
tive instructional cues.
all students. Students have a tendency to stay on task if they
• Cite various ways to enhance the clarity of com-
munication between the teacher and the learner.
know someone is watching. This mandates staying out of the
center of the area. It is common for teachers to place students
• Effectively use instructional cues to facilitate stu-
dent learning.
in a circle and then stand in the center of the formation. Not
only is it impossible to see all students, but it is difficult for
• Describe demonstration and modeling skills that
facilitate an environment conducive to learning. students facing the back of the teacher to hear. Because stu-
dents cannot hear and there is little eye contact with half of
• Articulate strategies and techniques used to sup-
ply students with meaningful feedback regarding the class, control of the class is easily lost.
performance. Some teachers assume they must move to the same
• Teach effectively for diversity and gender differ- location in the teaching area when giving instructions
ences. because students listen only when they are on or near this
spot. Not only is this assumption incorrect, but it can
result in negative consequences. Students who choose to
exhibit deviant or off-task behavior usually move away
Competent teachers create a learning environment from the instructor. Because the teacher’s movement pat-
where students want to learn their physical potential terns are predictable, deviant students are farthest from
and receive personal and equitable treatment. Such an the teacher in a position that is difficult to observe. In
environment is created by a sensitive and caring teacher addition, it is possible the teacher may never move into
who fosters learning in all students. Teachers don’t treat certain areas, causing some students to believe the teacher
all students alike because all students are different. More does not like them. Active supervision requires the
often than not, students know they are unique, and each instructor to move around the perimeter of the area.
would like to be treated as a special individual. The Another reason for moving in an unpredictable manner is
challenge is to better understand what makes each stu- to keep students on task. For example, when using a num-
dent “tick.” ber of teaching stations, some teachers move from station
This section helps teachers develop a repertoire of to station in a predictable manner. Students may perform
teaching skills so they can better meet the needs of all stu- the tasks while the teacher is watching but move off task
dents in a class. Notice the word all in the previous sen- as soon as the teacher moves to the next station. Here’s the
tence. Many teachers help students who want to learn; bottom line: move in a random fashion so students can-
however, only the best teachers are capable of motivating not anticipate where you will be next.
students who don’t particularly like the subject matter. Active supervision demands movement and effective
This is the challenge: Teach all students regardless of their observation. If you develop a plan for reaching all students,
intrinsic desire to learn. A good place to begin is the skill they believe you are concerned about them. In addition, it
of listening. Few traits enhance the learning environment is important to place yourself in an optimum position to
more than effective listening by the teacher. A student’s observe skill performance. For example, if you are observing

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kicking, stand to the side rather than behind the student. A flow of a lesson and maintain student motivation to reach
judgment that needs to be made when observing perform- desired goals.
ances is how long to stay with a single group or student. If
you get overly involved with a student, the rest of the class Minimize Verbalization and Increase Activity
may move off task. On the other hand, if contacts are short It is easy to become engrossed in instruction and lose sight of
and terse, the student may not benefit from the interaction. student interest. Students enter class expecting to be involved
Learn to pace instructional feedback by giving one or two in activity. If a teacher spends 5 minutes with roll call fol-
pointers and moving to another student. lowed by 5 or 10 minutes of lecture, students lose interest
and motivation. Move the class first and give instructions
DEVELOP A PLAN FOR ACTIVE later. This gets students warmed up and ready to rest while
SUPERVISION listening. As a general rule, if instruction is going to take
longer than a minute or two, it should be broken into a
Beginning teachers often “look at students but do not see.”
number of short sessions. Alternating instruction with appli-
When teachers do not have a plan for actively supervising
cation of the information will keep students on task. The
behavior, they usually are not able to recall whether stu-
following are suggestions for effective instruction:
dents exhibited desired behaviors. To keep all students on
task, teachers need a plan for monitoring this behavior. A
1. Focus instruction on one or two key points. It is dif-
practical plan might be to scan the class from left to right
ficult to remember a series of instructions. Telling
at regular intervals and observe the number of students
students a number of points related to skill per-
performing the assigned task. When teaching a class of 25
formance leaves them baffled and frustrated. In a
to 35 students, it usually takes 4 to 6 seconds to scan an
series of points, most learners remember the first
entire class. If done faster, it is difficult to internalize the
and the last point. Placing emphasis on one or two
results of the scan. A number of variables can be evaluated
key points makes it easier for students to focus their
through systematic observation such as students respond-
concentration.
ing to a start or stop signal (response latency), key points
of skill performance, adherence to safety procedures, and 2. Refrain from lengthy skill descriptions. When in-
on-task performance. structions last longer than 30 to 60 seconds, students 6
An active supervision plan should include where to become listless because they can’t remember all of
stand for observation, how long to stay with each student, the input. Develop a pattern of short, concise pre-
and how to move through the instructional area. One sentations, alternated with practice sessions. Short
approach to ensure that all students receive personal contact practice sessions offer an opportunity to refocus on
is to check off the names of students addressed during the key points of a skill many times.
lesson. This can be done immediately after the lesson with a 3. Present information in its most basic, easy-to-
roll sheet or at a later time if the lesson is recorded. Often, understand form. If a class does not understand
teachers find they do not make regular contact with certain the presentation, you have failed, not your
students and make excessive contact with others. This leads students. Check for understanding to see if stu-
to feelings of favoritism or concern that “the teacher does dents comprehend the material.
not like me.” It is difficult to interact with all students in a 4. Separate management and instructional episodes.
single physical education lesson, but in a 1- or 2-week Consider a common approach often used to present
period, all students should receive feedback and attention. a new game: “In this game, we will break into
Teacher movement should be planned considering it groups of five. Each group will get a ball and form a
affects supervisory effectiveness. To facilitate learning to small circle. On the command ‘Go,’ the game will
move, divide the teaching area into four equal parts and set start. Here is how you play the game...” A lengthy
a goal of moving into each area a certain number of times. discussion of game rules and conduct follows.
Give instructions and reinforcement from all quadrants. A Because the instructions are long, students usually
nonparticipating student can be used to chart movement. forget what they were asked to do earlier. Or, they
think about whom they want in their group rather
MAINTAIN THE FLOW OF THE LESSON than the game rules. A better approach is to move
An important phase of effective instruction is pacing the the class into game formation (management) and
lesson to keep students interested in learning, yet not frus- then discuss the activity to be learned (instruction).
trated. The following points offer ways to improve the This serves two purposes: it reduces the length of
the episode, and it makes it easier to conceptualize
how the game is played.

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practice episodes when students become bored or fa-

✔Teaching Tip: Keeping tigued and begin to move off task. This is a signal for the
teacher to refocus on the same or a new goal. If most of
Kids Focused the students are not performing correctly after an in-
What are signs that you are losing control of a class structional episode, stop and restate the situation.
or they are losing interest in the lesson? Students al-
ways tip the teacher off with their off-task behavior.
One sign that it is time to refocus your lesson is a
rapid increase in unacceptable behavior. For exam-
DEVELOP EFFECTIVE
ple, students may chat with friends, stand around LISTENING SKILLS
and agitate others, talk about how they “hate” this
For most teachers, listening skills are more difficult to
activity, or clown around. These are clear signs that it
is time to refocus or change to another activity. learn than speaking skills. Instructors are taught to im-
Often, the easiest way to refocus is have the class part knowledge to students and have practiced speaking
stop what they are doing, put down their equipment for years. Many students view teachers as people who
and move around the area. Run and stop them a couple teach but do not care about their point of view. Poor
of times and then play a simple game for a minute or communication is usually caused by a breakdown in lis-
two. Always remember that the pace of the lesson is
tening rather than speaking. There is a lot of truth in the
your responsibility. If it isn’t going well, stop and refo-
cus. Don’t be stubborn and say something like, “We’re
adage, “People were given two ears and one mouth so
going to do this activity whether you like it or not.” they could listen twice as much as they speak.” The fol-
That is a way of telling them you don’t care about how lowing activities will help you become a more effective
they feel. listener.

1. Be an active listener. Effective listeners convince

the speaker that they are interested in what is
Maintain the Focus and Pace of Instruction
being said. Much of this is done through nonver-
It is easy to become derailed when an interesting event bal behavior such as maintaining eye contact,
occurs in class. Lesson plans are designed to guide the nodding the head in agreement, using facial
instruction toward desired objectives. When teachers con- expressions, and moving toward the speaker.
stantly allow students to “sidetrack” them and get them to Active listening shows students that their ideas
talk about subjects unrelated to instructional outcomes, and thoughts count and that they have some in-
goals may not be reached. Experienced teachers know put into their destiny.
some students will intentionally try to move them away
from the tasks at hand in order to participate in activities 2. Determine what the student is really trying to say.
they prefer. Effective teachers maintain their momentum Many students are not capable of clearly expressing
toward objectives, yet they are able to show interest in stu- their feelings, particularly if they have deep con-
dent ideas. Sometimes it is necessary to deviate from cerns. The words expressed may not clearly signal
planned objectives and take advantage of the “teachable what the student is feeling. For example, a teenager
moment.” However, this should be the exception, not the may say, “I hate PE.” In most cases, students do not
rule. Students know the teacher is responsible for guiding hate all phases of physical education; rather, it may
the content of the lesson, and they expect it. be that something more immediate is the problem.
Effective lessons flow in a consistent manner when they An effective response might be, “You sound upset;
are well-planned. There are many transitions during a les- are you having a problem you want to discuss?”
son: organizing students into groups, changing from one Asking about feelings makes students feel impor-
part of the lesson to another, and issuing and putting away tant and gives them an opportunity to clarify their
equipment. Transitions are an integral part of effective concerns. It also prevents the teacher from inter-
instruction. If a transition is excessively long, it interrupts nalizing a student’s emotion and responding in a
instructional momentum and students may begin to lose heated manner, such as, “I don’t care whether you
interest. Try to minimize time spent on transitions which, like it or not; get with it!”
in turn, leaves more time for practice and instruction. 3. Paraphrase what the student said. Paraphrasing is
Pace of instruction affects the flow of the lesson restating what was said to you, including the feel-
(Siedentop & Tannehill, 2000). How often should a ings detected, in your own words. For example, the
teacher break into practice sessions to clarify a point or teacher might respond, “Do I hear you saying that
refocus instruction? Usually, there is a natural break in you are frustrated and bored with this activity?” If

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the paraphrasing is correct, it makes the student feel reminder, it is not a threat if you are able to stop
validated and understood. If the interpretation is the misbehavior.
incorrect, the student has an opportunity to restate c. Ordering and commanding. If teachers appear to
the problem. In addition, it offers the teacher an be bossy, students begin to think they are nothing
opportunity to clearly understand how students more than pawns to be moved around the area.
perceive various situations. Try to develop patterns of communication that
4. Allow students to tell you how they feel. Teachers ask students to carry out tasks. Courtesy and
who listen to students learn about their feelings. politeness are requisites for effective teacher–
Let students know you will listen. If you are an student relationships. In addition, if teachers want
effective listener, you may hear things that are not to be treated with respect, they need to treat others
always positive. For example, students may tell you similarly.
honestly which activities they enjoy and which d. Interrogating. When there is a problem, such as
they do not. They may tell you how you made a fight between students, a common approach
them feel when you criticized them. This type of is to try and determine who started the fight
communication is constructive only if you are able rather than deal with the feelings of the com-
to accept it objectively and not be threatened by batants. Little is gained by trying to solve “who
the feedback. Such feedback can be important for started it.” Students usually shirk the blame and
improving instruction. Even though it may not be suggest that it was not their fault. A much bet-
a valid criticism of the program or procedures, it ter solution is to begin by acknowledging feel-
does offer opportunity for program and instruc- ings: “You know fighting is not accepted in my
tional improvement. A word of caution: if you class; you must have been very angry to place
find it difficult to accept such communication, it is yourself in this predicament.” This allows stu-
probably best to tell students that you prefer not dents to talk about their feelings rather than
to hear about it. Avoid such interaction with stu- place the blame on the other person. It also tells
dents if it affects your confidence or starts a con- them that even when they do something wrong,
frontation. the teacher cares about them.
6
5. Avoid situations that undermine effective com- e. Refusing to listen. This technique usually man-
munication. Certain types of verbal interaction ifests itself by saying, “Let’s talk about it some
convince students that the teacher is unwilling other time.” There are situations when this
to listen. These are some of the more common response is necessary. However, if it is always
examples: the case, students will begin to avoid interac-
a. Preaching or moralizing. This is often mani- tion with the instructor.
fested by telling others they “should know f. Labeling. In this situation, the teacher tells stu-
better than that!” Students will make mistakes dents, “Stop acting like fools,” or “You’re behaving
because they are immature and learning how like a bunch of animals.” This is not only degrad-
to behave. A big part of learning is making ing, but it also dehumanizes students. In most
mistakes and knowing how to avoid such situa- cases, labeling is done because teachers think it
tions in the future. Teachers who expect such will improve performance. In actuality, it is usu-
mistakes are not shocked by student misbehav- ally destructive and leaves a person with a nega-
ior and are able to deal with it in a rational tive feeling about the teacher.
manner. g. Sarcasm. This is frequently used as humor in
b. Threatening. Threats are often used to control day-to-day interactions among peers. Within
students. They are usually ultimatums given to the classroom, sarcasm is often misunderstood
students to terminate undesirable behavior, and can create hard feelings between the
even though the teacher knows they will be teacher and students. If the listener has to ask,
impossible to implement. For example, the “What did she mean by that?” it is clear that
threat “If you do not stop that, I’m going to kick the message was not understood as intended. It
you out of class” is difficult to enforce. Most is best to respond to students in a caring and
teachers are not in a position to expel students. If respectful manner. Sarcasm does not create the
students hear enough idle threats, they soon positive learning environment needed for stu-
learn to ignore and mock the teacher. As a dents to feel safe and accepted.

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to show students how a skill is similar (or dissimilar)

✔Teaching Tip: Relating to one learned earlier. Transfer of learning can be
optimized if students understand the relationship to
to Students their previous experiences. Using the inquiry teaching
If you are going to earn the respect of students, style can help students link past experiences to up-
you will have to develop a relationship with them. coming activities. Using questions based on this
Listening to them and responding in a caring man- teaching strategy can also provide opportunities for
ner is what it takes to earn respect. Why would a teachers to check for student understanding.
student respect a teacher who only prodded and
pushed them without concern for their feelings? 4. Present the material in proper progression. Teach
If you want students to talk with you openly, skills in the sequence in which they will be per-
remember to listen without judging the student. formed. There are exceptions where a teacher may
Too often, we try to teach a lesson when a stu- want to focus on a critical step first and then build
dent merely wants to talk. Trust is the foundation around it. For example, in dance, a teacher may
of respect—if a student trusts you, they will treat
teach step patterns and then put them together to
you with care because you are an important per-
son in their life. Effective teaching is all about re-
complete the dance. However, in most cases, the
lationships. You are able to teach students when progression should mimic the sequence of per-
they choose to cooperate and respect you. formance. Students assume that the order of activi-
ties is the correct progression.
5. Model correct and incorrect examples. Most adoles-
cents learn physical skills quicker by observing rather
COMMUNICATE EFFECTIVELY than listening. This mandates modeling desirable
WITH YOUR CLASS and incorrect examples. For example, students will
Many words can be spoken, but little is accomplished if stu- comprehend quicker if they are shown the correct
dents do not understand what has been said. Communi- way to pivot and one or two incorrect examples of
cation implies more than words; it assumes understanding pivoting. Often, teachers talk students through all
has occurred. The following points can enhance the effec- skills and movements. When possible, you should
tiveness of instruction: combine instruction with demonstration.
Demonstrate each skill in the playing area where stu-
1. Develop a stimulating speaking style. It is not nec- dents will practice (i.e., on the tennis court, in the
essary to be an outstanding speaker, yet it is impor- pool, on the track, and so on).
tant to be interesting and exciting. The chance for 6. Check for understanding. Monitor student under-
effective communication improves if students want standing through active responses to efficiently assess
to listen to a teacher. Use the voice effectively; alter instructional clarity. Asking a question and/or having
the intensity, raise and lower the pitch, and change students respond with an observable behavior allows
the speed of delivery. Use nonverbal behavior to the teacher to monitor effective communication. For
emphasize important points. In addition, keep dis- example, you might say, “Raise your hand if you
cussions short and to the point so that students are understand how to land correctly,” or “See me if you
willing to stop what they are doing and listen. do not understand how the game is played,” or “Show
2. Use a “teaser” to create interest. If a concept is me the triple threat position.”
somewhat difficult to comprehend, set the stage by 7. Separate management and instructional episodes.
briefly describing what is to follow and why it is Much emphasis has been placed on maintaining short
important. A teaser is a sentence or two that makes it episodes of communication and focusing on cues that
seem important to learn forthcoming information. are easily understood. Here’s a special point of atten-
The teaser usually tips students off that something tion: teachers often combine management activities
important to them will follow. This gets students with instructional activities. For example, during a
ready to listen so they don’t miss the first part of the presentation of a new game, the teacher says the fol-
discussion. Use current events to set the stage, such lowing: “In this game, we will break into groups of
as offensive or defensive strategies applied during five. Each group will get a ball and form a small circle.
the school’s recent basketball tournament. On the command go, the game will start. Here is how
3. Build on previous learning experiences. Whenever you play the game. ” At this point, a lengthy discussion
possible, try to tie the discussion to previous skills and of game rules and conduct is given. By this time, most
knowledge students have mastered. It can be effective students have forgotten the management behavior

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stated. First, move the class into the game formation are necessary to make it easy for you to accept con-
and then discuss the activity. This serves two pur- structive feedback? Excessive feedback may stress a
poses: it reduces the length of the episode and makes student and cause a reduction in performance. Offer
it easier for the class to conceptualize how the game is feedback in small doses. If you are going to suggest
played. In addition, it often causes students to start ways to improve performance, do so on a personal
thinking about whom they want for a partner instead basis and leave the student to practice without
of listening to the rules. Teach students one thing at a scrutiny. To ask students to change and then stand
time. Remember to “manage first, instruct second.” over them until they do so may cause resentment
and internal pressure.
3. Identify your feelings toward students. At times,
DEMONSTRATE A CARING teachers send mixed messages to students. They may
be unhappy with students because of situations unre-
ATTITUDE TOWARD STUDENTS lated to class performance yet unwilling to discuss the
The communication techniques a teacher uses will impact real issues. Instead, they respond with unkind feed-
how students feel toward them. Teachers who take a positive back about skill performance. Their negative feelings
approach to communication with students and establish a are transferred to the students regarding their per-
warm, caring environment are effective. A positive approach formance in class. This was not the teacher’s intent
to student motivation is recommended because of the long- but the result of pent-up feelings over an unrelated
term effects on both students and teachers. Teaching and issue. Students perceive negativity from a teacher.
learning are more enjoyable when students and instructors Take responsibility for communicating how you feel
look forward to participating in a positive environment. The (albeit negative), but make sure it is directed toward
positive approach enhances the overall motivation of both the undesirable behavior not the student as a person.
teachers and students.
Students often judge the quality of a teacher on attrib- 4. Accentuate the positive. When phrasing the instruc-
utes unrelated to the teacher’s knowledge of subject matter. tional points of a lesson, stress the positive. For
example, tell students to “Make a sharp cut,” rather
The teacher’s style of presentation can influence how stu-
than saying, “Don’t round off your cut.” An easy way 6
dents feel about physical education. Students eventually
tune out teachers who shout commands, speak like drill to emphasize the “why” of an activity is to say, “Do
sergeants, or repeat certain phrases (nagging). Students this because. . . .” If there are several different and
want to understand and be understood. The following acceptable ways to perform the movement patterns,
points are behaviors that will help students feel that you be explicit. Show students various ways and discuss
care about them. reasons for the differences. Students like to know the
correct technique, even if it is beyond their sphere of
1. Speak about the behavior of students, not about accomplishment. Explain only enough, however, to
their personal character. The following is an exam- get the activity underway successfully.
ple of speaking about a student’s behavior: “Talking 5. Speak precisely. Limit the use of open-ended direc-
when I am talking is unacceptable behavior.” Such tives, and substitute those with precise goals.
feedback identifies behavior that can be improved Instead of saying, “How many times can you . . .?”
on and avoids questioning the self-worth of the stu- or “See how many times you can . . .,” give students
dent. This approach helps students feel you are in- a definite target goal. Use directives like, “See if you
terested in helping rather than belittling them. In can . . . five times,” or “Show me five different ways
contrast, saying something like, “Why do you always you can . . . .” Ask students to select a reasonable tar-
have to act like a fool?” reflects on the student’s char- get goal. Using measurable and attainable goals is
acter and undermines his or her self-esteem. It is especially important when teaching students with
also nonspecific, making it difficult to determine disabilities.
what behavior concerns you. Identify the specific 6. Optimize speech patterns. Avoid sermonizing at
misbehavior followed by the type of behavior that the least provocation. Excessive reliance on certain
should be displayed. words and phrases, such as “okay,” “all right,” and
2. Put yourself in the student’s shoes. How would you the irritating “you know,” are unappealing to stu-
feel if someone embarrassed you in front of a class? dents. Many adolescents begin to listen for repeti-
How do you feel when you are inept and trying to tive speech patterns rather than listening to what
learn a new skill? These and other emotions often the teacher is expressing. Acquire a broad vocabu-
make listening difficult for youths. What conditions lary of effective phrases for indicating approval and

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good effort, and vary verbal patterns. There are

number of documents that show 100 ways to rein-
force students in a positive manner.
7. Conduct cognitive discussions in the classroom.
Whenever possible, lengthy discussions should be
held in the classroom for reasons of comfort and stu-
dent expectations. Students expect to move in the
activity area, whereas they have learned to sit and
interact cognitively in the classroom. Rules can be
explained, procedures and responsibilities outlined,
and formations illustrated on the blackboard. If dis-
cussions will last longer than 1 or 2 minutes, it is best
to place students in a comfortable setting and use
instructional aids such as multimedia presentations,
handouts, and videotapes.
8. Treat all responses to questions with dignity.
Respect students’ responses and opinions and avoid
humiliating a student who gives a wrong answer. Pass
over inappropriate answers by directing attention to
more appropriate responses. Or, tell students that
they have offered a good answer, but the question is
not the right one. Remind them to save the answer
and then go back to the students when it is correct FIGURE 1 Nonverbal reinforcement for
for another question. Refrain from injecting personal a job well done
opinion into the instructional question–answer
process. At the end of the discussion, summarizing
important points may be valuable. effective use of nonverbal behavior can increase the valid-
ity and strength of verbal communication.
When using nonverbal communication, consider the
customs and mores of different cultures. It is the teacher’s
USE NONVERBAL responsibility to learn how students respond to different
COMMUNICATION types of gestures. For example, Hmong and Laotian ado-
Using nonverbal communication is an important way to lescents may be touched on the head only by parents and
tell students about their behavior. Nonverbal communica- close relatives. A teacher who pats a student on the head for
tion is effective because it is interpreted by students and approval is interfering with the student’s spiritual nature.
often perceived as more meaningful than words. For The okay sign (touching thumb and forefinger) is an indi-
example, beginning teachers often have a difficult time cation of approval in the United States. However, in several
making their feelings align with their body language. They Asian cultures, it is a “zero,” indicating the student is not
may be pleased with student performance yet portray a performing properly. In many South American countries,
less-than-pleased message (e.g., frowning or placing hands the okay sign carries a sexual connotation. Teachers new to
on hips). Another common example occurs when teachers an area should ask for advice when expressing approval to
want to assert themselves and gain control of a class. They students from other cultures.
often place their hands in their pockets, stand in a slouched To make nonverbal behavior convincing, teachers can
position, and back away from the class. This nonverbal watch their behavior and then practice necessary modifica-
behavior signals anything but assertiveness and gives stu- tions. An effective method is to practice in front of a mirror
dents mixed messages. and display different emotions. Another is to work with
Nonverbal behavior can be used to praise a class effec- someone who does not know you well. If this person can
tively, including thrusting of a finger into the air to signify identify the emotions demonstrated by the nonverbal
“number 1,” giving a thumbs-up or a high five, shaking behavior, they most likely will be effective in a teaching situ-
hands, and so on (Figure 1). Nonverbal behavior can also ation. Using a videotape recorder is an effective tool for self-
be negative, including placing hands on the hips, holding analysis. Analyze yourself to see how you look when teaching
a finger to the lips, frowning, and staring. In any case, under stress, disciplining a student, or praising a class.

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DEMONSTRATE AND
MODEL SKILLS

Courtesy of the Mesa High School Physical Education Program, Mesa, AZ. With permission.
Most students learn faster if they see a demonstration of a
skill or technique. The adage “a picture is worth a thousand
words” holds true in physical education. Demonstrations
can illustrate variety or depth of movement, show some-
thing unique or different, point out items of technique or
approach, illustrate different acceptable styles, and show
progress. Another important reason for demonstrating is
to help develop credibility with students. For example,
many students may question whether a skill can be per-
formed until they see the teacher or another student do it.
Secondary school students are notorious for their “show
me” attitudes; a demonstration will help show that the skill
is in their range of abilities.

TEACHER DEMONSTRATION
Be sure the class can see and hear the performance.
Demonstrate the performance in the correct location; for
example, if the triple threat position for basketball is FIGURE 2 Teacher demonstrating for the class (I)
performed, the demonstration should be located in the
appropriate location at a basket. When explaining technique,
highlight key points of performance. Show the proper start-
ing position and verbalize the instructions from that point this activity.” If partner or small-group work is under-
on, or provide a more complete, point-by-point demonstra- taken, the same principle applies (Figure 2). 6
tion. Terminology should be clear and include the use of
visual words, such as “tabletop,” “belly button to the target,”
or “flat platform”; techniques should be demonstrated within IF YOU CAN’T DEMONSTRATE
the student’s skill level. The more complex a skill, the more Because of physical and skill limitations, some teachers
demonstration is needed. Questions can be raised during the cannot demonstrate. Few teachers can perform all physi-
demonstration, but avoid allowing the question–answer cal activities, so don’t feel like you have to be an expert at
period to take up too much time. Effectiveness of teacher every activity. Even a skilled teacher needs to devise a
demonstration depends on a combination of visual cues, backup plan when he or she is unable to offer an effective
proper location, and clarity of verbal instruction. demonstration. Through reading, study, and analysis of
movement, teachers can develop an understanding and
knowledge of the activities. Even if performing the activity
STUDENT DEMONSTRATION is impossible, study and understand how the activity is
Student demonstration is an effective teaching technique done. In addition, use videotapes or teaching signs to sup-
because it interjects the students’ ideas into the lesson. plement instruction.
Using students to demonstrate provides others with
opportunities to see one of their own performing the skill.
Involving students also demonstrates accountability of
the task.
FACILITATE LEARNING WITH
As students practice and move, the class can be INSTRUCTIONAL CUES
stopped for a demonstration. It is rarely acceptable to pick Instructional cues are words that quickly and efficiently
out a student and ask him or her to demonstrate in front communicate to the learner proper technique and
of the class without asking the student if he or she wants performance of skills or movement tasks. When learning
to demonstrate. A safe way to avoid embarrassing a stu- skills, young people need a clear understanding of critical
dent is to check his or her performance while the class is skill points. Students often understand mentally how to
engaged in activity. If the demonstration is unsatisfactory, perform a skill prior to successful application. Cues provide
you can quietly tell him or her, “That’s close to what I had students a clear mental and physical understanding of per-
in mind; let me see if I can find someone else who knows formance stages.

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Motor learning and cognitive understanding of a One way to examine the effectiveness of the cues is to
skill must be developed simultaneously. Sometimes, see if they totally communicate the skill. Have all the critical
teachers carefully plan skill and movement activities but points of batting been covered, or is the skill done
fail to plan for the instructional cues to be used during incorrectly in certain phases? In most skills, the performance
skill practice. The result may be a class that does not can be broken into three parts: preparing to perform,
clearly understand technique and points of performance. performing the skill, and following through. Focus cues on
When developing instructional cues, consider the one phase at a time because it is difficult for students to
following points. remember more. Descriptive words are most effective with
adolescents, particularly if they have an exciting sound.
Examples of this are “Snap your wrists,” “Twist the upper
USE ACCURATE CUES body during the follow-through,” or “Explode off the start-
If the cue is going to help the learner perform a skill ing line.” In other situations, make the voice influence the
correctly, it must be precise and accurate. It needs to lead effectiveness of the cue. For example, if a skill is to be done
the learner in the proper direction and be part of a com- smoothly and gently, the teacher can speak in a soft tone and
prehensive package of cues. All instructors have to teach ask students to “let the movement floooooow” or to “move
activities they know little about. Few, if any, teachers know smoooooothly across the balance beam.” Cues are most
everything about all activities. Textbooks and media aids effective when voice inflections, body language, and action
are available for reference. These resources delineate the words are used to signal the desired behavior.
key points of the skill (Fronske, 2008; Fronske & Wilson,
2002). Other options include asking other teachers who
have specific knowledge or videotaping an activity and
INTEGRATE CUES
analyzing points of performance where students have the Integrate cues to combine parts of a skill and to use words
most difficulty. In any case, cues are developed through that focus on the skill as a whole. These cues depend on
study, practice, and experience. Even a beginning teacher prior cues used during the presentation of a skill and assume
needs to possess ample learning cues for teaching prelimi- that concepts delineated in earlier phases of instruction were
nary experiences. correctly understood. Examples of integrating cues might be
the following:

USE SHORT, DESCRIPTIVE CUES “Step, rotate, throw.”

Sometimes cues are made more comprehensive and lengthy “Run, jump, and forward roll.”
than necessary. Many teachers teach as they were taught in “Stride, swing, follow through.”
high school. They remember a class where the teacher told
them everything they needed to know at the start of the unit Integrated cues are a set of action words that help
and let them practice without instruction for the rest of the students sequence and time parts of a skill. These cues are
period. This assumes students can comprehend a long list of reminders of the proper sequence of skills and the mental
instructions and correctly apply them to skills. If this is not images of the performance. Depending on the rhythm of
the case, students spend the rest of the unit performing skills the presentation, the cues can signal the speed and tempo
incorrectly. An incorrect motor pattern practiced for a long of the skill performance. In addition, they can serve as a
period is difficult to correct later. specialized language that allows the student and teacher to
To avoid confusing and overwhelming the learner, communicate effectively.
choose a small number of cues for each lesson. The cues
should be short and contain keywords. They should help
the learner focus on one phase of skill during practice. USE EFFECTIVE INSTRUCTIONAL
Integrating several small movement patterns into one FEEDBACK
explicit cue reduces the number of cues needed and their Effective teachers use instructional feedback to promote
length. For example, when teaching batting, a cue might student learning. Used properly, it can enhance a student’s
be “Squish the bug.” The purpose of this cue would be to self-image, improve the focus of performance, result in in-
rotate the hips and complete the follow-through. Other dividualized instruction, increase the rate of on-task be-
examples of hitting cues follow: havior, and improve understanding. Proper feedback can
be used to affect skill performance or the results of skill
“Step toward the target.”
performance. The following points offer direction for im-
“Keep your elbows away from your body.” proving the quality of feedback used in the instructional
“Shift weight from the rear to front foot.” setting.

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KNOW WHEN TO USE POSITIVE, an acceptable level. Feedback statements can be general,
specific, verbal, or nonverbal. Including a student’s first
CORRECTIVE, AND NEGATIVE FEEDBACK
name with the feedback is a meaningful way to help stu-
Most teachers use corrective feedback to alter student
dents realize the teacher is aware and sincere about their
performance. In most cases, unless a teacher focuses totally
skill development. The following are some examples of dif-
on mistakes and failures, negative feedback (e.g., “That was a
ferent types of feedback:
lousy throw”) is seldom used. Instead, corrective feedback is
used to focus on the incorrect part of the performance (or Corrective or Prescriptive
related behavior). Students usually expect this; however, if “Get the shot–put angle up to 42 degrees.”
corrective is the only type of feedback offered, students begin
“Bend your knees more and uncoil.”
to perceive it as negative. The danger of overusing corrective
feedback is that it creates a climate where students worry “Adjust your grip by spreading your fingers.”
about making errors for fear the instructor will embarrass or “Accelerate through the ball.”
belittle them. In addition, excessive correction may cause “Keep your wrists stiff and start the action with your
students to think that no matter what they do correctly, the shoulders.”
teacher never sees the positive aspect of their efforts.
“Transfer your weight as you contact the ball.”
Focus on the positive points of student performance.
This creates a positive atmosphere where students are will- Positive General
ing to accept a challenge and risk error or failure. Teachers “Good job.”
who use positive feedback usually feel better about their
“Way to go.”
students because they look for strengths in performance
and use this as a foundation for skill improvement. Many “Nice defense.”
physical education instructors rely heavily on corrective “All right, Jim.”
feedback, leading to the observation that they have a correc- “Very nice hustle.”
tion complex. Corrective statements are appropriate if the
“Interesting question, Mary.”
learning environment has a balance of positive and correc-
tive feedback. Siedentop and Tannehill (2000) recommend “Okay, class.” 6
that an educational environment have a 3:1 or 4:1 ratio of Positive Specific
positive feedback to corrective feedback. A higher ratio of
positive feedback enhances the overall positive atmosphere “Good angle of release.”
of the class. Because the use of corrective feedback comes “Perfect timing on the outlet pass.”
easily for most teachers, focus on increasing the amount of “Way to hit the soft spot in the 1-3-1 zone.”
positive feedback used. “Great job looking off the undercoverage.”
“That’s the way to vary your serves. It keeps them off
UNDERSTAND DIFFERENT TYPES balance.”

OF INFORMATION FEEDBACK “Karen, good job keeping your head down.”

Information feedback is given when students have com- Nonverbal Positive or Corrective
pleted a skill attempt. Feedback on the results of many skill Winking or smiling.
attempts is obvious as in the case of golf swings, basketball
Thumbs up or down.
shots, or baseball swings. It is inherent in the activity, and
students immediately know the results of the skill attempt. Pat on the back.
Feedback on the form or topography of skill behavior Clapping the hands.
is, however, difficult to attain. Feedback can easily be Facial gestures.
tied to the instructional cues developed for each skill
Making a “V” sign with your fingers, for “victory.”
performance. Using feedback that integrates skill cues
provides students with useful information on how well Shaking the fist.
they are performing a skill. Plan a variety of feedback options, including statements
Plan carefully for information feedback delivered in that use first names, specific positive information, and
classes. This should include determining the specific skill nonverbal messages. Variety is necessary to avoid satiation
behaviors you are trying to foster. The feedback should be and redundancy. Feedback should be directed at key
prescriptive in nature so that it helps eradicate errors. There points of the specific skill and appropriate to the student’s
are different ways to tell students they are performing at age and developmental level.

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GIVE FEEDBACK TO ALL CLASS MEMBERS the large class sizes frequently seen in physical education.
Teachers have many students in class and must decide on For example, have students work in groups of three where
the length of feedback episodes and the number of stu- one person serves as the coach and focuses on a second
dents to contact. It may depend on the skill being taught. student’s skill performance, while the third person is the
For example, if it is a skill students will learn quickly, support player passing the ball or rebounding. During the
movement from student to student will ensure there are no skill performance, the peer coach focuses on the cues previ-
major dysfunctions. This ongoing approach allows contact ously highlighted during the instructional part of the lesson
with many students during the lesson. In addition, it helps and shares feedback on the strengths and weaknesses of the
keep students on task because they know the teacher is skill performance. Students rotate through each position.
moving and watching the class regularly. The drawback to Feedback can be both oral and written and focuses on the
this approach is that little opportunity occurs for in-depth key points of the specific skill. (See Figure 3)
feedback. If skills are complex and refinement is a goal,
taking more time to observe students is more effective. KNOW WHEN TO USE GROUP
This means watching a student long enough to offer highly OR INDIVIDUAL FEEDBACK
specific and information-loaded feedback. The end result In school settings, much feedback is group oriented. The
is high-quality feedback to a fewer number of students. most common method is to stop and offer feedback to all
students. This is the fastest method, but it also allows the
most room for misinterpretation. Some students may not

✔Teaching Tip: Feedback Facts understand the feedback, while others may not listen
because it does not seem relevant to them. It can be effective
to direct feedback (positive only) to a student so the rest of
Feedback establishes the flavor of your class. Think
about it—if most of the feedback you deliver the class can hear it. This allows feedback to “ripple” through
throughout the day is corrective, will students want the class, offering instruction to the rest of the class. An
to listen to you? A positive comment can keep stu- example would be, “Sarah is hitting the tennis ball at its peak
dents on task, increase their confidence, and make when she serves.” Even with positive feedback, it is impor-
them want to be around you. tant to assure it does not embarrass the student for which it
Most students prefer feedback delivered to them is intended.
on a one-to-one basis. Even if the feedback is posi-
tive, many students are embarrassed when feedback
In addition, feedback should focus on the desired task.
is delivered in front of others, who may tease them For example, if students are asked to catch a batted ball in
later. The bottom line is that both positive and cor- front of their body, it clouds the issue if the teacher offers
rective feedback should be delivered personally. feedback on the quality of the return throw. If catching is the
Consequently, there is little time to stand around and focus, feedback should be on catching so that students
watch your class. Move around and interact with as continue to concentrate on that skill. An example of feedback
many students as possible.
in this setting is, “Watch the way Michelle keeps her body in
front of the ball when catching ground balls.” As a final
clarification, it is not necessary to have students watch other
students to accomplish the desired outcome. In fact, it is
Avoid Scrutiny after Feedback effective only if the performer is capable of showing the skill
When giving feedback to students, avoid close scrutiny of correctly. If this approach is used exclusively, less skilled (or
the student at the completion of your input. Students shy) performers will seldom have an opportunity to receive
become tense if a teacher tells them how to perform a skill feedback from the class. It can be just as effective to tell the
correctly and then watches to see if they do it exactly as class how well a student was doing and then move on, for
instructed. Students are willing to try new ways of perform- example, “Mike always keeps his head up when dribbling.”
ing if they are allowed to practice without being closely Offer feedback to students as soon as possible after the
observed by the teacher or class. In short, observe carefully, performance (see Figure 4). If the feedback is delayed, allow
offer feedback, move to another student, and recheck opportunity for immediate practice so students can apply
progress at a later time. the information. Little is gained and much lost if students
are told how to improve and then leave class without oppor-
Use Peer Feedback to Increase tunity for practice. Few, if any, students will remember the
Quality Performance suggestions. If the end of class is approaching, it is probably
Secondary students are capable of enhancing their under- best to limit feedback and work on situations that can be
standing of skill performance if they are given opportuni- practiced immediately. Other problems can be solved at the
ties to serve as peer coaches. Using peer coaches can address next class.

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Peer Feedback

Passer Coach

Practice Task: Three people: 1 passer, 1 shooter, 1 coach

The passer will pass four balls from the top of the key by using either a bounce pass or chest pass; the coach
will provide the passer with feedback based on the critial elements and cues listed below. Rotate roles after four
passes.

Goal: Effective layups using the correct form

Layup
Essential Elements:
(Reverse for left/right hand layup)
1. Carry the ball with the left hand in front and under the ball
2. Place the right hand on top and slightly behind
3. Carry the ball to shoulder and head height as the left foot pushes off
4. Lift the body with the right knee
5. Direct the ball to the backboard with right hand
6. Place the ball rather than throw against backboard
7. Follow through with the palm of the right hand high in direction of backboard
Cues:
• Scoop
• Lift (right/left leg)
• Flick to target (square on backboard)
Things my partner did well:
6
Things for my partner to focus on to help improve the layup:

FIGURE 3 Example of peer feedback to increase quality performance

CONSIDER THE PERSONAL students think and learn: race/ethnicity, gender, social
class, and ability. Multicultural education creates an
NEEDS OF STUDENTS educational environment in which students from a variety
If teaching only involved presenting physical activities to of backgrounds and experience come together to experi-
students, it would be a simple endeavor. The uniqueness of ence educational equality (Manning & Baruth, 2009).
each student in a large class is a factor that makes teaching Multicultural education assumes that children come from
complex and challenging. This section focuses on ways to different backgrounds and helps them make sense of their
make instruction meaningful and personal. Teachers who everyday lives. It emphasizes the contributions of various
make each student feel important impact the lives of their groups that make up our country and focuses on how to
students. Empowering students to take responsibility for learn rather than on what to learn.
their learning can be accomplished through positive interac- Current trends in growth in the United States are caus-
tions and acknowledgment of effort and improvement. ing changes in classrooms. Children previously excluded
Understanding the diversity of classes, allowing students from classes because of language, race, economics, and
to make educational decisions, and encouraging student abilities are now learning together. Teaching now requires a
creativity are some of the ways to make a lesson feel like it pluralistic mindset and the ability to communicate across
was “specifically designed for each student.” cultures. It is the responsibility of educators to teach chil-
dren to live comfortably and to prosper in this diverse and
TEACH FOR DIVERSITY AND EQUITY changing world. It is important that students celebrate
Multicultural education allows all students to reach their their own cultures while learning to integrate into the
potential regardless of the diversity among learners. Four diversity of the world. For most students, classroom inter-
major variables of diversity influence how teachers and action between teachers and students is the major part of

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lower expectations for ethnic minority youth. These low

expectations occur in interpersonal interactions and in
how students are placed in opportunities for enrichment
and personal growth. At-risk youth need a rich curriculum
that allows no room for failure and provides the necessary
Courtesy of the Mesa High School Physical Education Program, Mesa, AZ.

support for success.

Teachers have to know and educate themselves so they
better understand the needs of all students. Diversity implies
differences within and between cultures. Learning about
other cultures ensures that working with students will be
done with an increased understanding of the past experi-
ences each student has endured. When working with differ-
ent cultures, the focus should be on understanding the
culture and the individuals. This contrasts with learning
about a culture and then stereotyping them as “all the same.”
It is important to gather information about the cultures that
are diverse and different than the teachers. Teachers almost
With permission.

always teach like they have been taught and often with inad-
equate knowledge about other cultures. Fuller (2001) offers
FIGURE 4 Teacher demonstrating for the class (II) a number of questions to answer when working with a
different group or culture.

1. What is their history? Certainly few teachers can

multicultural education they will receive. Teachers can do a become experts in the history of all cultures they teach.
number of things to teach and value diversity. However, they can recognize and be familiar with
major events and important names within the culture.
1. Help students learn about the similarities and dif-
ferences between cultures. 2. What are their important cultural values? Different
cultures interact with and discipline students in dif-
2. Encourage students to understand that people from ferent ways. Ask parents and students how they
similar cultures share common values, customs, work with children and what values are particularly
and beliefs. important in their households.
3. Make children aware of acts of discrimination
3. Who are influential individuals in their group?
and teach them ways to deal with inequity and
Students will identify with local individuals who are
prejudice.
held in high esteem in their community. Teachers who
4. Help youngsters develop pride in their family’s are aware of these important people will have insight
culture. into their students by the role models they admire.
5. Teach youngsters ways to communicate effectively 4. What are their major religious beliefs? Many groups
with other cultures and races and with the other belong to similar religions that drive many of their
gender. beliefs. Often, many values of children in a commu-
6. Instill respect for all people regardless of race/ nity area will be driven by religious beliefs.
ethnicity, gender, social class, and ability. 5. What are their important political beliefs? Important
7. Help students understand that people learn differ- political issues are often discussed at home. By making
ently. an effort to learn about these issues, teachers show
they are interested in how their students live in their
8. Teach students strategies for dealing effec-
communities.
tively with diverse skill levels and creating equi-
table experiences. 6. What political, religious, and social days do they
celebrate? Students will discuss these important
How teachers perceive students strongly impacts stu- days and expect teachers to understand why they
dent performance. Teachers who effectively teach for celebrate them. Talking about these days with
diversity hold high expectations for all students, including students creates goodwill and makes students feel
ethnic minority children and youth. Teachers tend to have like their cultures are valued.

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Another way to facilitate student diversity during Allow all parties time to collect their thoughts and
group instruction is to vary teaching presentations. Stu- plan a response.
dents learn through a variety of styles, and each can differ ■ Make sure evaluations and grades are written in
widely. Some learn orally, others visually, and many others gender-neutral or gender-inclusive terms.
through firsthand experiences. Group instruction through
■ Encourage students to work with different partners
problem-solving/cooperative, reciprocal/peer, and guided
every day. Students need to get to know other stu-
discovery instructional strategies can be used to facilitate
dents in order to appreciate their differences.
a better understanding of diversity. Each strategy focuses
on clear interactions between small groups of students in ■ Invite guest speakers to class who represent diver-
order to answer a question, solve a problem, or achieve sity in gender, race, and ethnicity even if they are
a goal. Providing opportunities for students to engage in not speaking about multicultural or diversity
a mix of individual and interactive classroom tasks can issues.
deepen understanding of people from diverse backgrounds. ■ When students make comments that are sexist or
Group problem solving can develop skills such as team- racist, ask them to restate their ideas in a way that is
work, collaboration, and a basic understanding of diverse not offensive to others. Teach students that it is all
backgrounds. Some students learn easily through auditory right to express one’s opinion but not in an inflam-
methods, while others learn better using visual means. matory manner.
Cooperative learning offers students the opportunity to ■ Rotate leaders when using groups. Give all students
work together toward common goals and to feel positive the opportunity to learn leadership skills.
about the different contributions of each of the members
■ Developing a classroom environment free from
of the group. Diversity can also be increased through dis-
inequity in diverse settings will take preplanning.
cussion sessions. Using small groups or small-sided teams
Figure 5 will provide you some practice time to
provides a larger number of students to offer individual
think and develop specific strategies to address
perspectives, and this allows for a greater array of diverse
issues of diversity in a fair and equitable manner.
points of view. When students are involved in decision
making and leadership opportunities followed by facili- 6
tated discussions, increased attention and participation in
the learning process occur. The following teaching tips can
AVOID BIASES IN GENDER
help increase instructional effectiveness in a diverse setting: AND RACIAL DIFFERENCES
Teachers play a large role in how children learn to behave.
■ At the start of the school year (and at regular intervals Adults model gender-specific behaviors for children and
thereafter), speak about the importance of encourag- youngsters who, in turn, copy the behavior. Research
ing and respecting diversity. shows that teachers tend to treat boys and girls differently
■ When using group activities, insist that groups be (Banks & McGee Banks, 2010). For example, teachers pay
diverse with regard to race, gender, and nationality. more attention to boys and give boys more encourage-
■ Be aware of how you speak about different groups ment. Teachers give more praise for achievement to boys
of students. Do you refer to all students alike? Do and call on girls less often than they call on boys. Teachers
you address boys and girls differently? Develop a also respond to inappropriate behavior from boys and
consistent style for addressing all students regard- girls in different ways. Aggression is tolerated more in
less of their differences. boys than in girls. However, disruptive talking is tolerated
more in girls than in boys. Boys are reprimanded more
■ Encourage all students to participate in discussions.
than girls, and teachers use more physical means of disci-
Avoid allowing some students from certain groups
plining boys.
to dominate interaction. Use a random method of
The expectations a teacher has for boys and girls
picking students so all have an equal chance of con-
strongly impact how they interact with them. These expecta-
tributing.
tions are frequently based on stereotypes and social
■ Treat all students with respect and expect students expectations. For example, teachers expect boys to be more
to treat each other with dignity. Intervene if a stu- active and more precocious and not to be as good academi-
dent or group of students is dominating. cally. As a result, they pay closer attention to them, and when
■ When a difficult situation arises over an issue with they do well, they are more likely to get positive attention.
undertones of diversity, take a time-out and ask Girls, on the other hand, are expected to be more reserved
students to think about their thoughts and ideas. and to do well academically, so they tend to be overlooked
when they are doing “what they are supposed to do.” When

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Instructions: Respond to the following questions and develop an inclusive list of strategies.

1. Do I have a plan to handle negative comments based on race, gender, sexual orientation, skill abilities, and/or ethnic diversity?
Write down any comments you have heard and list possible strategies for addressing these comments that will ensure the
development of a positive learning environment.

2. Do I systematically select students to demonstrate, speak, or lead?

List the type of strategies you would use to ensure that all students have opportunities to interact with other students, demonstrate,
express their opinions, and serve as a captain or squad leader.

3. Do I use equitable language, pictures, activities, and instructional tools?

List the terms you can use to address students; develop task cards, bulletin boards, and study guides; and check selected activities for
skill or gender biases.

4. Will my interactions with students be rated as inclusive, neutral, and equitable?

Make audio or video recordings of your verbal interactions with students and colleagues for equity and diversity.

5. Do I ensure that all students have an opportunity to be selected and work with different individuals on a regular basis?
Develop strategies that ensure all students have several opportunities to be selected; rotate partners, teams, and individuals selected
to demonstrate or lead in a way that is equitable and not based on stereotypes or gender bias.

6. Do my teaching style, strategies, and teaching content present opportunities for all students to learn and participate equitably?
Identify strategies that will assess your teaching styles based on student success across diverse student populations.

FIGURE 5 Developing an equitable learning environment in diverse settings

they misbehave, teachers see this as an aberration and are ■ Design programs that ensure success in coeduca-
more negative to the female than they might be to the male. tional experiences. Boys and girls can challenge
This is a common, yet unacceptable, pitfall among teachers. each other to higher levels if the atmosphere is
It takes a concerted effort to overcome these biases. Some positive.
teachers believe that girls aren’t able to perform at a level ■ Don’t use and don’t accept students’ stereotypical
similar to boys, even though research shows otherwise. comments, such as, “You throw like a girl.”
Particularly in elementary school, differences in strength,
endurance, and physical skills are minimal. It is common for ■ Include activities in the curriculum that cut across
teachers to harbor their own gender beliefs and expectations typical gender stereotypes, such as rhythms are for
that may directly or indirectly affect their interactions with girls and football is for boys.
boys and girls as well as their expectations of appropriate ■ Arrange activities so the more aggressive and skilled
and inappropriate behaviors. Therefore, it becomes even students do not dominate. Little is learned if stu-
more critical to develop an effective physical education envi- dents are taught to be submissive or play down
ronment that helps all youngsters find success when teachers their abilities.
become aware of how specific behaviors can impact students ■ Arrange practice sessions so all students receive
and address them in a positive and equitable manner. Using equal amounts of practice and opportunity to par-
the following teaching behaviors minimizes stereotyping by ticipate. Practice sessions should not give more
gender: practice opportunities to the skilled while the
unskilled stand aside and observe.
■ Reinforce the performances of all students regard- ■ Expect that boys and girls will perform as well as
less of gender. they can. Teacher expectations communicate much
■ Provide activities that are developmentally appro- about a student’s ability level. Students view them-
priate and allow all students to find success. selves through the eyes of their teacher.

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REFERENCES AND
STUDY STIMULATORS SUGGESTED READINGS
AND REVIEW QUESTIONS Banks, J. A. (2009). Teaching strategies for ethnic studies
(8th ed.). Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
1. Describe the types of behaviors teachers exhibit
Banks, J. A., & McGee Banks, C. A., Eds. (2010). Multicultural
when they actively supervise their students. education issues and perspectives (7th ed.). Hoboken,
2. Discuss the importance of developing a plan for NJ: John Wiley & Sons.
actively supervising students. Bennett, C. L. (2011). Comprehensive multicultural education:
3. Discuss the strategies available to teachers to ef- Theory and practice. (7th ed.). Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
fectively manage the need to individualize in- Buck, M. M., Lund, J. L., Harrison, J. M., & Blakemore Cook,
struction. C. L., & (2007). Instructional strategies for secondary
4. List and briefly explain four ways in which good physical education (6th ed.). Boston: McGraw-Hill.
teacher-to-student communication can be un- Cushner, K. H. (2006). Human diversity in action:
Developing multicultural competencies for the class-
dermined.
room (3rd ed.). Boston: McGraw-Hill.
5. Discuss the importance of teachers matching
Fronske, H. (2008). Teaching cues for sport skills for sec-
their nonverbal expressions with their words. ondary school students (4th ed.). San Francisco:
6. Give an example of a physical skill that has a dis- Benjamin Cummings.
tinct rhythm and provide a possible cue. Fronske, H., & Wilson, R. (2002). Teaching cues for basic
7. What are the problems of overusing corrective sport skills for elementary and middle school stu-
feedback? dents. San Francisco: Benjamin Cummings.
8. Discuss the teacher’s dilemma between attend- Fuller, M. L. (2001). Multicultural concerns and classroom
ing to all students and providing in-depth feed- management. In C. A. Grant & M. L. Gomez, Campus
back to individual students. and classroom: Making schooling multicultural
(pp. 109–134). Upper Saddle River: Prentice Hall.
9. Discuss the influence of teachers’ perceptions re-
Koppelman, K., & Goodhart, L. (2008). Understanding
garding cultural and ethnic differences on their
human differences: Multicultural education for a
ability to be successful at teaching diverse diverse America. (2nd ed). Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
groups of students. Manning, M. L., & Baruth, L. G. (2009). Multicultural
education of children and adolescents (5th ed.).
Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
WEBSITES Pang, V. O. (2005). Multicultural education: A caring-centered, 6
reflective approach (2nd ed.). Boston: McGraw-Hill.
Activity Cues
Pangrazi, R. P. (2010). Dynamic physical education for ele-
www.pecentral.org/climate/monicaparsonarticle mentary school children (16th ed.). San Francisco:
Communication Benjamin Cummings.
Rink, J. E. (2010). Teaching physical education for learning
www.crs.uvm.edu/gopher/nerl/personal/comm
(6th ed.). Boston: McGraw-Hill.
www.nonverbal.ucsc.edu
Schmidt, R. A., & Wrisberg, C. (2008). Motor learning and
www.bizmove.com/skills performance (4th ed.). Champaign, IL: Human
Elements of Instruction Kinetics Publishers.
www.humboldt.edu Siedentop, D., & Tannehill, D. (2000). Developing teach-
ing skills in physical education (4th ed.). Mountain
Enhancing Teacher Effectiveness View, CA: Mayfield Publishing Co.
www.hcc.hawaii.edu/intranet/committees/FacDevCom/ Tiedt, P. L., & Tiedt, I. M. (2010). Multicultural teaching:
guidebk/teachtip/enhance A handbook of activities, information, and resources
(8th ed.). Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
Multicultural Education Wardle, F., & Cruz-Janzen, M. I. (2004). Meeting the needs
www.ncrel.org/sdrs/areas/issues/educatrs/leadrshp of multiethnic and multiracial children in schools.
www.inclusiveeducation.ca Boston: Allyn & Bacon.

147
148
Teaching Styles
ESSENTIAL COMPONENTS OF
A QUALITY PROGRAM
I. Organized around content standards
II. Student-centered and developmentally
appropriate
▲

III. Physical activity and motor skill develop-

ment form the core of the program
▲

IV. Teaches management skills and

self-discipline
V. Promotes inclusion of all students
▲

VI. Focuses on process over product

VII. Promotes lifetime personal health
and wellness
▲

VIII. Teaches cooperation and responsibility

and promotes sensitivity to diversity

NATIONAL STANDARDS FOR

PHYSICAL EDUCATION*
1. Demonstrates competency in motor skills
and movement patterns needed to perform
a variety of physical activities.
▲

2. Demonstrates understanding of movement

concepts, principles, strategies, and tactics as
they apply to the learning and performance
of physical activities.
3. Participates regularly in physical activity.
4. Achieves and maintains a health-enhancing
level of physical fitness.
5. Exhibits responsible personal and social
behavior that respects self and others in
physical activity settings.
6. Values physical activity for health, enjoyment,
challenge, self-expression, and/or social *National Association for Sport and Physical Education
interaction. (NASPE), 2004.

From Chapter 8 of Dynamic Physical Education for Secondary Schools, Seventh Edition. Paul W. Darst, Robert P. Pangrazi, Mary Jo Sariscsany,
Timothy A. Brusseau, Jr. Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. Published by Pearson Benjamin Cummings. All rights reserved.
 TEACHING STYLES

Different teaching styles and models have been used suc-

Chapter Summary cessfully in secondary school physical education classes
(Mosston & Ashworth, 2002; Metzler, 2005; Rink, 2006;
The purpose of this chapter is to explore the variety of
instructional styles that exist and how they can be used
Buck, Lund, Harrison, & Blakemore, 2007; Siedentop &
to enhance instruction. There is no one best style for Tannehill, 2000). Professionals label and categorize styles
all situations. Each style has advantages that will be in many ways. Many of the labels overlap and can be
effective depending on the type of students, specific confusing to the beginning teacher. A teaching style is an
activities, desired objectives, and various conditions. instructional strategy used to organize the educational
The teaching styles covered in this chapter include environment. Using a particular style of teaching pro-
the direct style, task (station) style, mastery learning
vides direction for presenting information, organizing
style, individualized style, cooperative learning style,
and inquiry style. Direct instruction, as a teaching practice, providing feedback, keeping students engaged
style, is probably the most common approach used in in appropriate behavior, and monitoring progress to-
the secondary schools. It can be effective depending ward selected goals or objectives. Teaching styles are
on the learning outcomes to be accomplished and defined in terms of the teacher’s planning and setup of
how it is implemented. The task style of instruction the environment, the teacher’s approach during the les-
involves selecting and arranging tasks for students to
son, the students’ responsibilities during the lesson, and
practice in specific learning areas called stations.
Students usually rotate through each learning area in expected student learning outcomes.
small groups and work on the preselected tasks. The There is no single “best” universal teaching style. Even
mastery learning style takes terminal target skills and though educators endorse their favorite approach, evi-
divides them into progressive sub-skills. Individualized dence does not suggest that one style is more effective
styles of teaching use learning packets, resource cen- than another. A repertoire of styles that can be used with
ters, and self-paced learning activities. Cooperative
different objectives, students, activities, facilities, and
learning places students in groups with common
goals. Students are interdependent in order to achieve
equipment is the mark of a master teacher. In addition,
group goals. The inquiry model of instruction focuses a teacher may decide to combine various styles during
on the process of instruction rather than the product the course of one unit or even one lesson. Making the
of instruction. Students are placed in situations where most appropriate choice of teaching styles is a crucial
they have to inquire, speculate, reflect, analyze, and decision that should be given much thought. The follow-
discover. Guided discovery is an inquiry style of instruc- ing variables have to be considered before an appropriate
tion in which the teacher leads students to discover
one planned solution to a given problem. Problem
style can be selected:
solving is another inquiry style. With this style, stu-
dents are led to the discovery of multiple correct ■ Specific student learning outcomes based on state
answers to a problem. There is mounting evidence and district standards, as well as daily objectives of
from teacher effectiveness research indicating that the lesson, such as physical skills, physical fitness,
many teaching styles can be effective if certain charac- knowledge, and social behaviors.
teristics are present in the teaching situation.
■ The nature of the activities involved such as tennis,
Student Outcomes volleyball, swimming, or fencing.
After reading this chapter, you will be able to: ■ The nature of students, including individual char-
• Discuss the specific areas where an instructional acteristics, interests, developmental level, socio-
style provides direction for the teacher. economic status, motivation, and background.
• Explain in detail the characteristics of an effective ■ The total number of students in the class.
educational environment as indicated by current
teacher effectiveness research. ■ The equipment and facilities available such as ten-
nis racquets and courts.
• Plan and teach an appropriate secondary school
physical education lesson using each teaching style ■ The abilities, skills, and comfort zone of the teacher.
discussed.
• Describe the advantages and disadvantages of Instructional effectiveness is enhanced by the selection
each teaching style. and implementation of various teaching styles. Both teach-
• Give examples that illustrate when a particular ers and students maintain interest and enthusiasm when a
teaching style should be used. variety of styles are used. Too often, a favorite teaching
• Discuss the reasons why a physical education style becomes the norm. Perhaps the use of a different
teacher should be able to use a variety of instruc- teaching style in an appropriate setting would improve the
tional strategies. learning environment for students and teachers. A new or

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 TEACHING STYLES

Inquiry
Task Mastery Learning Cooperative (Guided Discovery
Direct (Station) (Outcomes) Individualized (Reciprocal) and Problem Solving)

Teacher Centered Student Centered

FIGURE 1 Continuum of teaching styles

modified teaching style is not a panacea for all the ills of Because the teacher controls student activities, this style
every school environment or setting, and a teaching style is offers greater control and class management. For a be-
not selected without considering all variables. Different ginning teacher with new students, large classes, or high
styles do, however, offer advantages in certain situations. A rates of inappropriate student behavior, the direct style is
teacher who has developed a quality instructional program an excellent choice until he or she becomes more famil-
can keep the program exciting by implementing various iar with the classes.
teaching styles. When using this teaching style, the teacher provides
Teachers can use combinations of styles in a lesson or instruction to either the entire class or small groups, guid-
unit plan; they do not have to adopt just one style at a time. ing the pace and direction of the class. Direct instruction
Mosston’s continuum of teaching styles (Mosston & is followed by guided practice so errors can be corrected.
Ashworth, 2002) identifies a teacher-centered approach at Guided practice is then followed by independent practice
one end of the spectrum and a student-centered approach that is supervised by an actively involved teacher. Students
at the other. A continuum of teaching styles based on the spend most of class time engaged in appropriate subject
degree of teacher control exercised in a lesson is shown in matter. Specific learning outcomes are communicated to
Figure 1. Although the continuum appears to work in a students, and much time is devoted to practice while the
linear direction, where the teacher controls learning at one teacher actively supervises and provides frequent feed-
end and the student at the other, each of the teaching styles back. Even though instruction is direct, it should be con-
is designed to enhance the learning of all students. A lesson ducted in a positive and supportive manner. 8
using a particular teaching style or one that uses multiple A common model of direct teaching begins with the
styles must have student learning outcomes as its end teacher explaining and demonstrating skills to be devel-
product. It is best to remember that students are the key oped. Students are organized into partners, small groups,
participants and recipients of each style. or squads for practice. As students practice, the teacher
moves around the area, correcting errors, praising, scold-
ing, encouraging, and asking questions. On the signal
DIRECT STYLE to stop, students gather around the teacher for evaluative
The direct teaching style is sometimes looked on with comments and a redirection toward another skill.
disfavor by some teachers because they identify it with The teacher serves as the major demonstrator, lecturer,
Mosston and Ashworth’s (2002) command style, in motivator, organizer, disciplinarian, director, and error
which all actions performed by students are commanded corrector.
by a teacher signal or demonstration. However, the direct A direct teaching style emphasizes instruction in
teaching style has more flexibility and variations than a controlled class environment that ensures safety.
the command style. Direct teaching style, like any other Although the teacher is in direct control of the learning
type of instruction, can be effective or ineffective de- outcomes and pace of the activities, emphasis is placed on
pending on how it is used and administered. It is effec- minimizing the amount of time students passively watch,
tive for teaching beginning levels of physical skills and listen to a lecture/demonstration, or wait in line. Learning
fitness activities such as aerobic routines and martial for all students must be an impending result of the direct
arts. When activities present an inherent hazard or dan- teaching style. Students need to be active, participate at a
ger, such as fencing, archery, or rock climbing, high level of success, and experience a variety of practice
instruction needs to be well organized and activities opportunities that support learning outcomes. Higher-
highly supervised. It is the teacher’s responsibility to di- skilled and lower-skilled students are hindered when
rect all learning outcomes and facilitate the timing and learning activities are too easy and unchallenging or too
selection within each lesson. Students are given little difficult, resulting in repeated failure. Offer enough
freedom until they understand the hazards and demon- options to cover various ability levels. Direct instruction
strate responsibility. The direct style may also be effective provides limited opportunities for student choice, social
in situations where student discipline is a problem. interaction, and self-pacing.

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 TEACHING STYLES

TASK (STATION) STYLE be signaled with preset time intervals controlled by the
teacher or music. For example, students may be given 5 min-
Student skill levels differ widely in physical education
utes to work at stations that have four or five predetermined
classes. This range of ability must be addressed if students
tasks. A cue (music stopping) or signal (whistle, drumbeat)
are to achieve a high level of success. In order to provide to rotate to a new station is given after time has elapsed. An
opportunities for success, the task or station style of teaching option is to allow students to pace themselves and monitor
can provide students with challenging yet appropriate tasks. their progress. Providing students with task sheets contain-
When teachers encounter large classes, the task style pro- ing a series of activities and variations based on difficulty is a
vides multiple activity areas and addresses the problem of means for developing ownership of learning. Students
minimal equipment and supplies. complete the tasks selected and continue to another station.
Task style teaching focuses on arranging and presenting There is more freedom with this style as compared to
learning tasks at several learning areas or stations. Students the direct approach because students work individually on
rotate between learning stations to work on assigned tasks. the tasks. Student accountability and ownership of his or
At each station, students have a number of tasks to learn and her learning can be developed through the task style.
practice. They work on the tasks without specific teacher Worksheets, content development, and peer coaching can
directions. Moving students from one station to another can be integrated at each station (see Figure 2).

Baseball or Softball Skill Station Task-style Worksheet

1. Fielding Ground Balls

a. One partner will roll or hit, and the other will field the ball. Switch after the allotted time. Distance will increase as the fielder
becomes highly successful.
b. The hitting partner will also assess the fielder based on the critical elements listed below and use the cues to assist your partner.

Critical Elements:
a. Position feet so the body is centered toward the incoming ball.
b. Lower the hips to position the glove to the ground.
c. Focus the eyes on the ball and the throwing hand over the mitt and in position to trap the incoming ball.
d. Extend the arm with the mitt and follow (with your eyes) the ball into the mitt.

Cues for feedback:

a. Center the ball.
b. Keep hips down.
c. Watch the ball into your hand.

Partner Assessment:
1. Where were most of the mistakes made?
2. What area needs to improve?
3. What can you do to help your partner improve?

2. Leading Off and Stealing a Base

a. One player acts as the pitcher while the other takes a lead from first base. The base runner must “read” the pitcher in order to get
a good start. The pitcher watches the runner to assess performance based on the critical elements listed below. Feedback is given
using the specified cues. Switch positions after the allotted time.
Critical elements:
a. Begin in a comfortable “ready” position with both feet a shoulder-width apart and both knees bent. Place hands out in front of
the chest with the arms slightly bent.
b. First, swing the arms. Swing the left arm toward the desired base and pump back the right arm. Simultaneously plant the left foot
and thrust the right foot forward.
c. Keep the body low and the knees bent while initiating the first explosive movements toward the base.

FIGURE 2 Example of a task-style worksheet for baseball or softball skill stations

152
 TEACHING STYLES

Cues for Feedback:

a. Bend the knees; keep the feet wide
b. Explode toward the other base, out not up.
c. Drive forward using the arms.

Partner Assessment:
1. Were the knees bent?
2. Did your partner stay loose and in a ready position?
3. Did your partner swing his or her arms and stay low through the first steps of stealing (explode)?
4. Give suggestions for two specific areas.
3. Throwing to a Target (second to first)
a. Two players will practice throwing from a second base position to first base. Distance will be extended after five successfully
completed throws.
b. A third player will begin the task by throwing a grounder from home plate to the second-base person, throwing to the first-base
side. After five successful completions players will rotate from first base, to home plate, to second base.
Critical Elements:
a. Gather the ball as in the fielding task. Pivot and step with the nondominant foot toward the target, and aim at the desired target.
b. Extend the arm, releasing the ball.
c. After releasing the ball, follow through by allowing the arm to swing freely.
Cues for feedback:
a. Gather.
b. Step. 8
c. Extend.
d. Follow through.
Partner Assessment:
1. Did he or she step toward the target?
2. Was the throw on-line?
3. Did he or she follow through?
4. Where did most of the throws end up and why?

FIGURE 2 (continued )

Some teachers are uncomfortable with the task style opportunities to be responsible for their learning. Students
because there appears to be less order and control often need time to adjust to the increased freedom, flexibil-
compared to direct instruction. Visually, the task style ity, and opportunities to make decisions, but the end result
appears more chaotic because students are engaging in a is better self-management skills. The task style is flexible in
variety of activities at the same time. With proper plan- terms of its use across the curriculum. This style can
ning, organization, and supervision, however, teachers can be used for aspects of skill development, fitness engage-
effectively order and manage the environment. In fact, a ment, social interactions, and cognitive learning. Design,
well-organized lesson relieves the teacher of some organi- planning, and implementation of appropriate task stations
zational duties during in-class participation. Task style are the only aspects that limit the use of this style.
teaching is motivating to students because of the variety This instructional style allows teachers to move off
and levels of learning tasks. Having multiple tasks repre- center stage and away from being the central figure in the
senting low to high levels of challenges at each station instructional process because students assume more
provides opportunities for students to select activities that responsibility. Teachers become agents of feedback and
match their comfort zones. Junior and senior high students facilitate learning by visiting various learning stations and
enjoy opportunities to select activities and demonstrate interacting with students who need help with tasks.
learning to themselves and others. Students are provided Predetermined cues become the focus of the feedback and
153
 TEACHING STYLES

interactions. Less time is spent directing and managing the ■ Avoid tasks that demand excessive risk and possible
entire group and more time is focused on learning. This injury.
approach does require preparation time for planning and ■ Tape task cards on the wall, strap them to boundary
designing tasks that meet the needs of all students. Tasks cones, or place them on the floor if students can
must be designed that provide all students with a high level avoid stepping on them. Another alternative is to
of success and accountability. During the lesson, teachers give students a copy of the tasks on a sheet of paper
may need to use strong supervision and active movement that they carry from station to station. Task sheets
skills to facilitate on-task behavior and learning at all of the can be maintained by students and taken home for
different stations. Teachers who stand in one spot or move practice after school.
in ways that keep them from seeing all of their students
may face tough managerial tasks. Adequate facilities, ■ Write the tasks so they are easy to comprehend. Use
equipment, and instructional devices are necessary to keep keywords or phrases that students have learned pre-
students productive and working on appropriate tasks. viously. Effective task descriptions using both words
Consider the following guidelines when selecting, writing, and pictures explain what to do and how to do it
and presenting tasks for secondary school physical educa- (see the examples in Figure 3). Check to see if stu-
tion classes: dents understand the tasks and are able to practice
unsupervised. In situations where there are reading
■ Select tasks that cover the basic skills of an activity. or language barriers, pictures and/or symbols can
■ Select tasks that provide students with success and clarify the tasks students are to perform.
challenge. Tasks should be designed for the appro- ■ Incorporate a combination of instructional devices
priate ability range of the students. High-skilled that add feedback, variety, and challenge to the envi-
students should be challenged, and the low-skilled ronment. Examples of such devices include targets,
students should be successful. cones, hoops, ropes, and stopwatches.

Basketball Tasks

Dribbling Tasks (What to do) Dribbling Cues (How to do)

1. Standing—right and left hand—25 times 1. Fingertips
2. Half speed—right and left hand—baseline to midcourt 2. Lower center of gravity
3. Full speed—right and left hand—baseline to midcourt 3. Opposite hand in front
4. Around the cones—25 seconds 4. Eyes on opponents

Ball Handling (What to do)

1. Around head—left and right—5 times each
2. Around waist—left and right—5 times each
3. Around each leg—left and right—5 times each
4. Figure 8 around legs—10 times
5. Hand switch between legs—10 times
6. Bounce between legs and switch—10 times
Jump Shots (What to do) Jump-Shot Cues (How to do)
1. 3 ft away—right angle, center, left angle 1. Straight-up jump
2. 9 ft away—right angle, center, left angle 2. Wrist position
3. 15 ft away—right angle, center, left angle 3. Elbow position
4. 20 ft away—right angle, center, left angle 4. Slight backspin on ball
5. Follow-through
Passing Skills (What to do) Passing Cues (How to do)
Strike the target from 8 ft, 10 ft, 12 ft, 15 ft 1. Use your peripheral vision—do not telegraph.
1. Chest—10 times 2. Step toward target.
2. Bounce—10 times 3. Transfer your weight to the front foot.
3. Overhead—10 times 4. Aim for the numbers.
4. One hand overhead (baseball)—10 times

FIGURE 3 Basketball tasks

154
 TEACHING STYLES

Figure 3 shows a list of basketball tasks with to work on tasks with a partner or friend is a form of coop-
descriptions of what to do and how to perform each erative learning under the auspice of “social aspects.”
task. Task lists can be printed on one or two cards at Arrange tasks so students find success and challenge by
each station. offering a progressive arrangement of experiences, from
■ Include individual and/or peer assessment sheets to in- simple to complex with small steps along the way. Allow stu-
crease accountability and student learning (Figure 4). dents to progress at their own speed through the activities,
challenging themselves by choice. As they build a backlog of
Task style instruction can be used with a variety of success, learning activities become more challenging.
grouping patterns. Students can work alone, with a partner, An effective instructional approach using learning
or in a small group. Partner or reciprocal pattern is useful stations for soccer follows. The soccer field practice area is
with large classes, limited amounts of equipment, and with arranged with four learning stations and learning out-
skills where a partner can time, count, record, or analyze the comes written on a card at each station. Students spend
skill work. For example, one student can dribble through a 3 to 5 minutes working on the activities designed to
set of cones while the other is timing and recording. In a achieve the outcomes at each station and rotate to the next
group of three students, one student might bump a volley- station. Station activities are arranged so students experi-
ball against the wall while another analyzes the form with a ence success quickly and frequently at first and then are
checklist and the third records the performance. Being able challenged by later tasks. Student learning outcomes can

Peer Feedback

Assessment:

Passer ___________________________________ Coach ___________________________________

8
Practice Task: Three people: 1 passer, 1 shooter, 1 coach

The passer will pass four balls from the top of the key, by using either a bounce pass or chest pass; the coach will provide the passer
with feedback. Rotate roles after four passes.

Goal: Effective layups using the correct form

Layup
Essential Elements:
(Reverse for left-handed layup)

1. Carry the ball with the left hand in front and under the ball.
2. Place the right hand on top and slightly behind.
3. Carry the ball to shoulder and head height as the left foot pushes off.
4. Lift the body with the right knee.
5. Direct the ball to the backboard with the right hand.
6. Place the ball rather than throw it against the backboard.
7. Follow through with the palm of the right hand high in the direction of the backboard.

Cues:
• Scoop.
• Lift.
• Flick to target (square on backboard).

Things my partner did well:

Things for my partner to focus on to help improve the layup:

FIGURE 4 Peer assessment basketball layup

155
 TEACHING STYLES

be changed daily or repeated depending on the how the Mastery learning as an instructional strategy is useful in
class progresses. Points earned through successful comple- a number of ways. First, students move at an individualized
tion of the learning outcomes can be used to signal a pace and master preliminary skills needed for the desired
degree of competency in the area. learning outcome. This style is well-suited for students who
are low-skilled or have disabilities. It also provides home-
MASTERY LEARNING work, when necessary, enabling students to work during
their spare time on areas needing improvement. Mastery
(OUTCOMES-BASED) STYLE learning can be outlined as follows:
Mastery learning is an instructional strategy that breaks
down a complex skill (terminal outcome) into a series of 1. The target skill or outcome is divided into sequenced,
smaller and progressive sub-skills. The assumption is that progressive units.
when the sub-skills are learned, the desired terminal out- 2. Prerequisite competency is evaluated.
come will be reached. Each of the sub-skills becomes the 3. Performance objectives for each of the successive
focus of learning. Sub-skills are usually written as objec- learning units are established.
tives that must be mastered to achieve the target outcome.
4. Informal progress testing can be done by the
Sub-skills must be mastered at a high level of success (usu-
performer to determine readiness for more formal
ally 80 to 90 percent correct) and contain all the critical
testing by the teacher or a peer (see Figure 6 for an
elements, as determined by the cues, before students
example of this in tennis).
attempt more complicated tasks (see Figure 5 for an
example of this in hockey). 5. When a student has determined his or her readi-
Complexity of the skill determines the number of ness, testing by the teacher determines pass or fail
sub-skills. If mastery is not achieved, corrective activities for a particular sub-skill. A student who passes the
are offered so students have the opportunity to learn from task moves up to the next learning outcome.
alternative materials, peer tutoring, or any type of learning 6. If the student is unable to pass the particular sub-
activity that meets personal preferences. For an in-depth skill, practice continues, incorporating alternative
discussion of mastery learning, see Lawrence, Lawrence, or corrective measures designed by both the teacher
and Samek (2006). and student.

MASTERY LEARNING
OUTCOMES-BASED WORKSHEET
Hockey
Slap Shot Practice
• Work in pairs to develop skill (must receive the pass from your partner) once you know how to correctly perform a slap shot.
Practice the slap shot, focusing on the cues and checking that the shot is being performed appropriately according to the
cues listed below.

• Each performer must have mastery of the skill before he or she moves on to the higher-level assessments listed below.

• Each of you will take turns being the coach/teacher, and the performer will suggest to you when he or she is ready to move to
the next level based on success rate of both the skill performance and the outcome of the performance.

• If he or she does not complete each level of the assessment at the minimum standard, he or she must stay with that level
and continue to practice until criteria are successfully met.

Slap Shot Assessment (use spots to mark the appropriate distances)

• From 6 feet away, right angle, center, left angle, three out of four times, receive pass from partner, and shoot between cones.

• From 12 feet away, right, center, and left, four out of six times, receive pass from partner.

Cues: One hand high, one hand low, elbow at right angle (on take back), puck low and fast—extend to waist

FIGURE 5 Example of mastery learning outcomes-based worksheet for hockey

156
 TEACHING STYLES

Yes No % Correct

Ready Position

Hips to net 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Racquet between belly button and chest 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Medium body posture 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Execution

Racquet taken back 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Feet to the ball 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Swing low to high 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Follow-through

Finishes by shoulder 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Return to ready position 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

FIGURE 6 Readiness checklist for performing a tennis forehand

8
A mastery learning breakdown for soccer skills follows. the right and then the left foot, and use no more than
Proficiency of the skill and the ability to successfully use the two foot touches to control the ball.
skills in a modified soccer game are target outcomes. 5. With a partner tossing the ball, trap four of five
Accomplishing the outcomes ensures that students have a shots using the chest method.
basic level of competency in dribbling, trapping, kicking,
heading, and making throw-ins. Kicking Tasks
6. Kick the ball to a partner who is standing 10 yards
Dribbling Tasks
away five consecutive times using the right and
1. Dribble the soccer ball under control a distance of left side of the foot after trapping and controlling
20 yards three consecutive times, keeping the ball the ball from your partner using no more than
within a running stride each foot touch. three foot touches; the ball remains below the
2. Dribble the soccer ball under control through against knee.
a “shadow” defender over a distance of 30 yards while 7. Repeat task 6 using the instep kick. Loft the ball to
jogging or running. your partner; the ball should be above the knee as it
3. With a partner, pass the soccer ball back and forth travels.
under control while in a running motion for a dis- 8. Against a “shadow defender” and from a partner
tance of 50 yards two consecutive times. Maintain pass, kick four of five shots that enter the goal
control by keeping the ball between your knee and in the air from a distance of 20 yards using an in-
the ground and using no more than three foot step kick from both the right, left, and middle of
touches before you pass. the goal.

Trapping Tasks Heading and Throw-In Tasks

4. An advancing player will trap the soccer ball success- 9. From a partner toss, head three consecutive
fully when it is rolled by a team partner from 10 yards balls in the air at a height of at least 10 feet in a
away, four of five times, using the instep method with soft arch.

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 TEACHING STYLES

10. Beginning with a partner toss, head six consecutive order. A hierarchical analysis of spiking a volleyball might
balls back and forth with a partner, resulting in a look like the following:
soft arch to the ball. 1. Preliminary movements
11. Make four of five throw-ins from out-of-bounds a. Knees bent and feet slightly staggered
into a hula hoop placed 15 yards away; keep your
b. Eyes tracking ball from setter
back foot on the ground.
c. Beginning movements starting from 8–10 feet
behind the net approaching from an angle
DESIGNING MASTERY LEARNING d. Body aligned with ball so no adjustments need
UNITS OF INSTRUCTION to be made in air, square to the net
The first step in designing any type of mastery learning unit 2. Backswing/recovery
is deciding what is to be learned. This procedure is called
a. Directional step with opposite foot is taken to ball
content analysis (Siedentop & Tannehill, 2000)—a technique
for determining all aspects important to student learning b. Hitting side foot is swung even with guidance foot
outcomes. There are two types of content analysis. First, there c. Body is gathered to jump with bent knees
is procedural analysis, which is simply creating a list of all the d. Arms start in front and are swung to behind
sub-skills that must be performed for an event to be consid- body in extended position
ered successful. Students can work on these sub-skills in any 3. Force producing movements
particular order, and the order of the sub-skills does not have
a. Heels are planted and jump is generated off both
an impact on a student’s ability to complete the overall task.
feet, straight up, with extension of hips, knees,
This can be thought of as a “to do” list without priority for
and ankles
any of the components on the list. A procedural analysis of a
social dance unit might look like the following: b. Arms are swung forward and extended upward
c. Striking arm is cocked with elbow higher than
1. Procedure for asking a partner to dance
shoulder
a. Hello, my name is ________. May I have this d. Elbow is extended, and wrist is flexed to contact
dance? ball downward
2. Procedure for accepting an invitation to dance 4. Critical instant
a. Thank you. My name is ________, and I would a. Contact of ball occurs between heel and lower
like to have this dance with you. palm of hand
3. Escorting dance partners to and from the dance floor b. Ball is contacted slightly above center
a. Asking c. Contact with ball is slightly above head in front
b. Extending/accepting elbow of contact shoulder
c. Bow and curtsy d. Contact with fingers is over the top of ball
4. Dance steps 5. Follow-through
a. Fox-trot a. Contact arm moves through the ball from the
b. Waltz shoulder
c. Swing b. Wrist snaps after contact, and arm continues to
d. Tango opposite hip
e. Cha-cha c. Player lands on toes with feet a shoulder-width
5. Participating in a social dance apart
a. Filling out a dance card d. Knees bend to absorb impact and maintain balance
Although this list looks like it follows a progression, This list provides teachers and students with a learning
none of the tasks are relevant to learning the next one, and progression that is ordered and followed for optimal learn-
students can learn and work on any task independent of the ing. Performing these types of analyses on all aspects of the
others. In contrast to this approach is another type of con- curriculum is crucial for matching student learning out-
tent analysis called hierarchical analysis. In this type of analy- comes with students’ developmental levels for optimal stu-
sis, teachers produce a sequential chain of events that define dent success. Teachers have the autonomy to decide what
a particular skill or event. This type of analysis often is used their definition of success is and which sub-skills students
in describing the learning components of a physical skill must master. Determining how the sub-skills must be per-
because the components must be learned in the proper formed in order to reach the student learning outcomes
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 TEACHING STYLES

based on an appropriate match between sub-skill and stu- A volleyball mastery unit approriate for high school
dent’s developmental levels is required. It is a good idea to students is shown in Figure 8. All students must accom-
review references to determine how it should be done if you plish the core objectives, but students can choose
are unsure or lack sufficient knowledge about certain aspects from optional objectives. Figure 9 is for a flag football
of the content. unit that can be implemented with middle school
Another way to use mastery learning is to develop units students. It follows the same format as the volleyball
of instruction. Such instructional units have been used suc- unit, with core and optional performance objectives.
cessfully in secondary schools for many activities, including Performance objectives listed focus primarily on
badminton, volleyball, soccer, tennis, racquetball, aquatics, physical skills rather than on cognitive activities. Teachers
and gymnastics. Middle and high school students are gradu- may want a specific combination of cognitive and physical
ally given opportunities to make decisions and control their skills to be built into the unit. For example, the unit could
practice behaviors. This type of instruction is effective with provide a balance of learning outcomes related to team-
physical activities that require the development of individual work, participation, physical skills, and cognitive activi-
skills (e.g., volleyball passes, forehands, backhands). ties. Mastery learning style provides teachers and students
the flexibility of choice and allows opportunities to select
activities that match students’ developmental level.
Developing Instructional Units
for Mastery Learning USING MASTERY LEARNING UNITS
The following steps define the process for OF INSTRUCTION
developing instructional units for mastery When using mastery learning units, students need to
learning: understand the learning outcomes, performance activi-
1. Define the specific tasks or behaviors in ties, and the importance of self-direction. Units are given
observable, measurable terms (e.g., volleyball to students so they can explain them to their parents,
passes, badminton clears, tennis serves, and work on the objectives at home in their free time, or keep
soccer kicks). records of their performance at school. Students have to 8
2. Clearly specify the final learning outcomes respect how involvement in this strategy is different from
for the end of the unit and final goals such other instructional strategies. Some students take longer
as performing two successful forearm passes to adapt and become comfortable with this instructional
during game play add realism. format. Students may need experience controlling the
pace of their learning, and it is important to be actively
3. Develop a monitoring and measuring/assess- engaged in the learning process by monitoring student
ment system. Skill rubrics provide a clear un-
progress, developing personal and peer assessments, facil-
derstanding of how skills will be assessed and
itating the pace of the learning experience, and designing
when mastery is achieved (Figure 7). In addi-
activities that demonstrate student progress toward
tion to teacher assessment, peer assessment
selected learning outcomes. Explain and demonstrate
and self-assessment should be encouraged.
expected outcomes to students in the learning areas
4. Develop meaningful learning outcomes that where they will be practicing. Introduce various instruc-
consider the various parameters of successful tional devices and targets. Arrange the gymnasium or
performance. These include speed, strength, playing field with learning areas for specific objectives,
endurance, accuracy, and consistency. For such as the dribbling area, passing area, shooting area, or
example, have students hit serves between ball-handling area.
the net and a rope strung 10 feet higher than A rotational scheme can be incorporated using small
the net. The serves must land in bounds and groups placed at learning stations. Depending on class size,
10 feet or less from the back line. This ensures multiple stations supporting the same learning outcomes
both speed and accuracy. Combinations can
also be developed in similar sequences as
those performed in game play.
5. Arrange performances in a progressive se-
quence so students can experience success
quickly and frequently. As students build a
backlog of success, the tasks will become
more difficult and challenging.

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 TEACHING STYLES

Features
Control Foot Contact Visual Focus Balance
Levels of Learning

Always contacts the Always appropri- Always watches The body is in

ball so that it stays ately uses the opponents with the balance with a
Exceeding within 3–4 feet of inside and outside head looking up. smooth flow to the
self. of both right and dribbling pattern.
left feet.

Most often contacts Often uses both Often watches The body is most
the ball so that it inside and outside opponents with the often in balance.
Accomplished stays within 3–4 of feet. head looking up The dribbling
feet of self. Often uses both Looks at feet. pattern is some-
right and left feet. occasionally. times uneven.

Sometimes contacts Sometimes uses Sometimes looks The body is

the ball so that it both inside up at opponents. sometimes in balance.
stays within 3–4 and outside of feet. Looks at feet often. The dribbling pattern
Developing feet of self. Sometimes uses both is very uneven.
right and left feet.

Rarely contacts the Rarely uses both Rarely looks up at The body is out of
ball so that it inside and outside opponents. Looks at balance most of the
Emerging stays within of feet. Rarely uses feet most of time. The dribbling
3–4 feet of self. both right and the time. does not have a
left feet. pattern.

FIGURE 7 Skill rubric for soccer dribbling: Personal and/or peer assessment
(Data from Joleen Bailey, City University of New York, Cortland. Printed with permission. )

may be needed to prevent overcrowding and allow students that combines teacher and peer monitoring (see Figure 10
continued control of their learning and practice pace. An for an example of this in racquetball). Peers monitor easy-
alternative is to allow students to rotate to any learning area to-interpret outcomes, while the teacher monitors more dif-
they need to practice. A variety of grouping patterns ficult ones. A third method allows students to privately
(individual, partners, or small groups) can be used depend- monitor their progress in attaining specified learning out-
ing on available facilities, equipment, objectives, and student comes (see Figure 11 for an example of this in snorkeling).
choice. Consider the amount of freedom, flexibility, and Teachers can experiment with several monitoring ap-
choice students can handle and yet be productive. It is best proaches depending on the activity, the number of learning
to start with a small degree of freedom and then gradually outcomes, the students’ abilities, the size of the class, and the
increase choices and options as students get used to self- available equipment and facilities.
selection and monitoring their learning.
Successful completion of learning outcomes can be
monitored by the teacher, peers, or individually. If class INDIVIDUALIZED STYLE
size is small and the number of outcomes is small, the Learning packages that incorporate a learning laboratory– re-
teacher may be able to do all of the monitoring. Otherwise, a source center are used in the individualized style. An example
combination of procedures is recommended. Student of a learning center is shown in Figure 12. Individualized
involvement in the monitoring process enhances their style is based on student-centered learning through an in-
understanding of learning expectations and increases their dividualized curriculum. Students select the level of profi-
level of personal responsibility. Students can use a perform- ciency they want to pursue and proceed at their desired
ance chart to monitor learning outcomes at each practice rate of learning. Learning packets with objectives, study
station or carry a master list from station to station. Another guides, learning activities, and assessment procedures are
approach is to develop a performance sheet for each student developed as independent study guides. Students work

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 TEACHING STYLES

Volleyball

Core Objectives
Forearm Pass (Bump)
1. Bump 12 consecutive forearm passes against the wall at a height of at least 10 ft.
2. Bump 12 consecutive forearm passes into the air at a height of at least 10 ft.
3. Bump 10 consecutive forearm passes over the net with the instructor or a classmate.

Overhead Set Pass

4. Hit 15 consecutive set passes against the wall at a height of at least 10 ft.
5. Hit 15 consecutive set passes into the air at a height of at least 10 ft.
6. Hit 12 consecutive set passes over the net with the instructor or a classmate.

Serves
7. Hit 3 consecutive underhand serves into the right half of the court.
8. Hit 3 of 4 underhand serves into the left half of the court.
9. Hit 3 consecutive overhand serves inbounds.

Attendance and Participation

10. Be dressed and ready to participate at 8 a.m.
11. Participate in 15 games.
12. Score 90% or better on a rules, strategies, and techniques test (2 attempts only).

Optional Objectives
1. Standing 2 ft from the back line, bump 3 of 5 forearm passes into an 8-ft circle surrounding the setter’s position. The height must be
at least 10 ft, and the ball must be thrown by the instructor or a classmate.
2. Bump 3 of 5 forearm passes over the net at a height of at least 12 ft that land inbounds and not more than 8 ft from the backline.
3. Standing in the setter’s position, hit 3 consecutive overhead sets at least 10-ft high that land in a 5-ft circle where the spiker would
be located. The ball will be thrown by the instructor or a classmate. 8
4. Hit 3 of 5 overhead passes over the net at least 12-ft high that land inbounds and not more than 8 ft from the backline.
5. Standing in the setter’s position, hit 3 of 5 back sets at least 10-ft high that land in a 5-ft circle where the spiker would be located.
The ball will be thrown by the instructor or a classmate.
6. Volley 12 consecutive times over the net with the instructor or a classmate by alternating forearm passes and overhead passes.
7. Alternate forearm passes and overhead passes in the air at a height of 10 ft or more for 12 consecutive times.
8. Spike 3 of 4 sets inbounds from an on-hand position (3-step approach, jump, extended arm, hand contact).
9. Spike 3 of 5 sets inbounds from an off-hand position.
10. Recover 3 consecutive balls from the net. Recoveries must be playable (8-ft high in the playing area).
11. Hit 3 consecutive overhand serves into the right half of the court.
12. Hit 3 of 4 overhand serves into the left half of the court.
13. Hit 3 of 5 overhand serves under a rope 15-ft high that land in the back half of the court.
14. Officiate at least 3 games, using proper calls and signals.
15. Coach a team for the class tournament. Plan strategy, substitution, and scheduling.
16. Devise and carry out a research project that deals with volleyball. Check with the instructor for ideas.

FIGURE 8 Example of volleyball mastery learning

independently on objectives, view videotapes and slides, Teaching using the individualized style follows five
work on computer software, look at overhead materials, basic steps:
read books and articles, and prepare for the assessment
procedure. Assessment usually progresses from self to 1. Diagnosis. Preassessment is done to determine the
peers and finally to the teacher. This approach requires that student’s current level of cognitive knowledge and
teachers develop learning materials and procedures for psychomotor skill.
supervising the distribution and return of those materials. 2. Prescription. Individual students begin at a level
related to their performance on the initial assessment.

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 TEACHING STYLES

Flag Football

Core Objectives
Passing Tasks
1. Throw 10 passes to the chest area of a partner standing 10 yd away.
2. Throw 3 of 4 consecutive passes beyond a target distance of 20 yd.
3. Throwing 5 passes, knock over 3 targets from a distance of 10 yd.
4. Throw 4 of 6 passes through a tire from a distance of 10 yd.

Centering Tasks
5. With a partner 5 yd away, execute 10 over-the-head snaps to the chest area, using correct holding, proper rotation,
and follow-through techniques.
6. Facing the opposite direction from a partner, 5 yd away, execute a proper center stance with feet well spread and
toes pointed straight ahead, knees bent, and two hands on the ball. Snap the ball back through the legs for 10 consecutive times.
7. Perform task 6 but move back 10 yd.
8. Center snap 4 of 6 times through a tire a distance of 5 yd away.

Punting Tasks
9. With a partner centering the ball, from a distance of 10 yd away, punt the football using proper technique to another set of
partners 15 yd away 3 consecutive times.
10. Perform task 9 but at a distance of 20 yd.
11. Punt the ball 3 consecutive times within the boundary lines of the field and beyond a distance of 20 yd.
12. Punt the ball 3 consecutive times for a hang time of 2.5 sec or better (use stopwatch).

Catching Tasks
13. With a partner, run a “quick” pass pattern and catch the ball 2 of 3 times (5–7-yd pattern).
14. With a partner, run a 10–15-yd “down and in” pass pattern and catch the ball 2 of 3 times.
15. With a partner, run a 10–15-yd “down and out” pass pattern and catch the ball 2 of 3 times.
16. With a partner, run a 5–7-yd “hook” pattern and catch the ball 2 of 3 times.

Attendance and Participation

1. Be ready to participate in football activities 5 min after the last bell rings each day.
2. Use proper locker-room behavior (will be discussed or posted) at all times.
3. Score at least 90% on a written test (2 attempts only).

Optional Objectives
1. Attend two football games (flag or regular) during the grading period.
2. Throw 3 of 4 passes through a tire from a distance of 10 yd.
3. Throw 3 of 4 passes through a tire from a distance of 15 yd.
4. Throw 3 of 4 passes through a moving tire from a distance of 10 yd.
5. Throw 3 of 4 passes through a moving tire from a distance of 15 yd.
6. Catch 2 passes in a game.
7. Intercept a pass in a game.
8. Write a 1-page report on a fiction or nonfiction book related to the topic of football.

FIGURE 9 Example of flag football mastery learning

3. Development. All students receive a learning pack- 5. Reinforcement. As students complete the learning
age that guides them toward successful completion packages, accomplishments are recorded. New
of the predetermined criterion level. Students pro- packages are prescribed, and teaching is given for
ceed to the next learning level after successful com- key points of the material.
pletion of the preceding level.
Individualized instruction offers the following advantages:
4. Evaluation. Each student receives a final evaluation
by a peer or the teacher after completing the steps ■ Students, parents, and administrators know
in the learning package. Evaluation includes both exactly what is expected and accomplished by
cognitive and psychomotor skills. students.

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 TEACHING STYLES

Performance Objectives: Beginning Racquetball

Name

Class
Instructor Member
Checked Checked

1. Stand approximately 6 ft from the back wall and in the center of the
court. Bounce the ball against the sidewall and hit 3 of 4 shots below the
white line with a forehand shot.
2. Perform objective 1 but hit 3 of 5 balls with the backhand shot.
3. Hit 3 of 5 power serves that land within 2 ft of the sidewall and are
otherwise legal.
4. Hit 3 of 4 lob serves within approximately 3 ft of the sidewall that do
not bounce out from the back wall more than 8 ft.
5. Stand approximately 6 ft from the back wall, bounce the ball against
the back wall, and hit 3 of 4 shots below the white line on the front
wall with a forehand shot.
6. Perform objective 5 but hit 3 of 5 balls with the backhand shot.
7. Hit 3 of 4 diagonal or “Z” serves that hit the front, side, floor, and opposite
side, in that order. (The ball may hit but need not hit the backwall for the
serve to be effective.)
8. Hit 3 of 4 Scotch serves or “Scotch toss” serves that hit the front, side, floor,
back, and side, in that order. This is similar to the “Z” serve in execution, 8
except that the ball hits the back wall after bouncing on the floor.
9. Return 3 of 4 serves hit to you by the instructor. (One of each of the
following will be used: power, lob, diagonal, and Scotch.)
10. Execute 3 of 4 attempts at “3-hit drill.” (Instructor will explain in detail.)
11. Execute 3 of 4 attempts at “4-hit drill.” (Instructor will explain.)
12. Hit 3 of 5 ceiling shots with a forehand shot. The ball will be thrown or hit
by instructor and must be returned to the ceiling, front wall, and floor, in
that order.

Note: Entry into ladder tournament is contingent on completion of any 8 of the 12 objectives. To receive a grade
of A for the class, you must exhibit proficiency in all 12 objectives.
Objectives 1–8 may be checked by a class member; however, the instructor may spot-check any objectives at
his or her discretion.
Objectives 9–12 will be checked by instructor. Performance objectives may be tested in courts 1 and 4.

FIGURE 10 Performance objectives for racquetball

■ Self-direction enhances the motivational level of most ■ Students have some choice concerning the group-
students. ing arrangement of skill practice (e.g., alone, with a
■ Students at most competency levels find success partner, or in a small group).
and challenge with objectives. ■ Students accept a large degree of responsibility for
■ Students progress through the learning outcomes at learning.
their own rate. ■ Teachers have more freedom to give individual
■ Students can choose and sequence learning activities. attention and offer feedback.

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 TEACHING STYLES

Snorkeling

Use of FACE MASK

Mark the date that each performance objective is met.

1. Adjust face mask strap to your head size.

2. Apply saliva to face mask—rub all around face plate; do not rinse (fog preventive).
3. Vertical tilt: Fill mask with water and hold to face without strap. In chest-deep water, go
under in vertical position and by tilting head backward, away from chest, push against
upper edge of mask and exhale gently. Completely clear mask 3 of 5 attempts.
4. Horizontal roll: Fill mask with water and hold to face without strap. While in a horizontal
position, roll onto left shoulder, push gently with right hand against side of mask, and exhale
gently. Completely clear mask 3 of 5 attempts.
5. Repeat objective 3 with strap around back of head.
6. Repeat objective 4 with strap around back of head.
7. In 6 ft of water, submerge to bottom of pool by pinching nostrils and gently exhaling into
mask until you feel your ears equalize. Successfully equalize pressure in 4 of 5 attempts.
8. In 9 ft of water repeat objective 7.
9. Repeat objective 3 in deep water.
10. Repeat objective 4 in deep water.
11. Throw mask into shallow water, submerge, and put on mask. Complete vertical tilt clear in
one breath, 4 of 5 attempts.
12. Throw mask into shallow water, submerge, and put on mask. Complete horizontal roll clear
in one breath, 4 of 5 attempts.
13. Follow objective 11 in 6 ft of water.
14. Follow objective 11 in 9 ft of water.
15. Follow objective 12 in 6 ft of water.
16. Follow objective 12 in 9 ft of water.

FIGURE 11 Example of snorkeling mastery learning

Wall charts
Listening, Listening, Reading
viewing, viewing room
computer area
PRACTICE AREAS

Teacher
Practice Diagnose Practice
areas Prescribe areas Chalkboard Resource
Evaluate area

PRACTICE AREAS

Overhead Small-group
viewing Videotape discussion
viewing area
Wall charts

FIGURE 12 Organization of a learning center

From R. P. Pangrazi, Dynamic physical education for elementary school children (13th ed., p. 44). Copyright © 2001 by Allyn & Bacon. Reprinted with permission.

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 TEACHING STYLES

Problems to be solved when using the individualized learned and social interaction criteria expected within each
approach include the following: team are developed by the teacher prior to student imple-
mentation. Selected content allows students to develop and
■ Performance outcomes are time consuming to apply appropriate and successful solutions through applica-
write and require constant revision. tion and refinement (trial and error). Problem-based learn-
■ A monitoring and assessment system needs to be ing provides opportunities for members of each team to
developed that is efficient and reliable yet streamlined. creatively develop, select, and implement a variety of strate-
■ Instructional devices are necessary to provide vari- gies for solving each problem.
ety and feedback. These increase the setup and take- The following roles can be assigned to group members:
down time of each class for the teacher. ■ A performer who does the skills or tasks.
■ Teachers and students may need practice time to get
■ A recorder who keeps track of statistics, trials, or
used to the contract format. Changing to an indi-
key points made by the group.
vidualized format will require time for adjustment.
■ A coach who provides feedback to the performer or
times practice trials.
COOPERATIVE LEARNING STYLE ■ A presenter who communicates key points to the
Cooperative learning places students in groups to work rest of the class.
together toward common goals using problem-based ■ A motivator who encourages and provides positive
learning (PBL). Through cooperative learning activities, feedback to all group members.
individuals achieve outcomes that are beneficial in solv-
ing predetermined problems through group interaction Students should switch roles often, and stated group
and participation. Student work is arranged so there is tasks should be organized so they proceed from simple
interdependence in the achievement of group goals but to complex. Teachers observe and facilitate team mem-
also an accountability procedure for all individual mem- ber participation so all members contribute. Selected
bers of the group (Johnson, Johnson, & Holubec, 1993). content activities require the knowledge and effort of all 8
When cooperative strategies are used appropriately in group members. While each member may contribute
diverse settings, students can develop a better under- based on his or her personal strengths and abilities, if
standing of how their peers’ skill levels differ from their one student is allowed to dominate and direct the team,
own. Social gains develop in the areas of communica- other members may feel their contributions are not nec-
tion, compromise, and acceptance of diverse ideas. essary to complete the task. Students must understand
Learning outcomes are achieved through group interac- that all members of the team are needed, even if in vary-
tions including participation through different roles ing amounts of involvement. Students can be provided
such as performer, observer, recorder, or evaluator. with personal and team assessments that highlight
Physical educators can impact students in a positive way expectations while a team member is attaining the
in the social, cognitive, and psychomotor areas by using selected tasks (Figure 13), and they can convey these
cooperative learning formats. expectations to team members and provide the teacher
Teachers who want to foster constructive relationships with levels of contribution made by each team member.
among students and improve skills and knowledge use Cooperative learning tasks can include cognitive or psy-
cooperative learning strategies. Emphasis is placed on group chomotor skills.
outcomes rather than on individual outcomes. Students are The following are examples of class activities that can
placed in groups or teams and are given an opportunity to be used with the cooperative learning style:
work together to solve problems in a team approach. Groups
are usually heterogeneous (i.e., containing a mix of skill ■ Make teams responsible for developing a warm-up
level, knowledge, socioeconomic level, race, and gender). or physical fitness routine appropriate for a specific
Small teams with two to five students participate in an effort sport (e.g., rugby, water polo). Each member of
to successfully complete the goal. The focus is on working the team can focus on a different component of fit-
together with peers rather than competing against them. ness as he or she addresses each sport or activity
Students learn that the problems cannot be solved without (e.g., upper body flexibility, abdominal strength,
the cooperation of their peers. All members of the group cardiovascular efficiency, upper body strength, or
must reach established goals and success is determined when lower back flexibility).
individuals work with each other to complete their assign- ■ Ask each member of a team to be responsible for
ments through cooperation and participation. Content to be teaching others a skill that is a part of a sport unit

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 TEACHING STYLES

Using a check mark, rate the following expectations based on your involvement today.

Always Sometimes Never

Listened when others offered ideas

Accepted others’ ideas without disagreement or questioning

Congratulated team members’ efforts

My teammates would agree I was a team player

Give examples(s) that support why you rated yourself as you did for each category

FIGURE 13 Team member expectations: A sample self-evaluation

and a specific offense or defense. For example, in emphasize each of the key points of the skill.
floor hockey, team members teach dribbling, passing, Examples of student roles are drill planner, director
slapshots, setting a pick, using a give-and-go, or play- of the drill, coach for the skill points, and recorder
ing a defensive position. of the attempts and successful trials.
■ Teams develop a dance that includes a variety of
Student learning is enhanced when team members
dance steps or skills. Each member of the team is re-
depend on their peers for both individual and team
sponsible for incorporating the specific skills into
success. Students can develop many of the behaviors and
the routine. Ask each dance team to teach other
leadership skills needed to create a positive learning envi-
teams their routines.
ronment. Cooperative learning also reflects the social
■ Set up a class tournament in a sport unit such as behaviors and patterns expected of individuals in the
volleyball. Each team is responsible for some aspect working environment. As students learn to problem solve
of the tournament such as creating tournament as a member of a team, they can develop an appreciation
brackets, producing media guides, training and as- for the benefits of shared successes. The old adage “two
sessing scorekeepers and game officials, reporting heads are better than one” reflects the added knowledge
each team’s statistics, announcing game play-by- potential available to solve a task.
plays, and analyzing team strategy for offense or
defense. Roles are switched on a regular basis.
■ Students develop a small group stunt or routine
RECIPROCAL TEACHING STYLE
and then teach another team the same stunt during Mosston and Ashworth (2002) describe a similar style
a tumbling unit. Another example is to have an they label reciprocal. Reciprocal teaching is a form of
“expert” from each team get together with “experts” cooperative learning because several students are involved
from other teams for a short clinic on a particular with different roles such as a doer, retriever, and observer.
stunt. These experts then return to their teams and The primary difference between the two styles is that in
teach the stunt. reciprocal teaching, it is not crucial that all students walk
away with the same learned outcomes. Students have
■ Team members modify or redesign a sport or activity more freedom to work at their own level and receive
to make it more inclusive or success oriented, allow- appropriate feedback on their performance rather than on
ing for more team member participation and success. a group performance. Figures 14 and 15 are examples of
Using a larger ball, more bounces, a lower net, and a reciprocal style sheets that can be used with badminton
larger goal are examples of game modifications. and soccer. Doers are the performers, and observers are
■ Teams work with a study sheet that focuses on three watching and providing feedback to the doers. Retrievers
to five key elements of a skill, such as serving in vol- are returning the balls for more trials. Tossers are helping
leyball or tennis. Teams design several drills that with the setup of the drill.

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 TEACHING STYLES

Name Style B C D

Class

Date

Partner

Badminton—forehand overhead clear

To the students: This task is performed in groups of three: doer, tosser, and observer.

The tosser: Throw a high, clear service to the doer.

The doer: Practice the forehand overhead clear 10 times.
The observer: Analyze the doer’s form by comparing the performance to the criteria
listed below. Offer feedback about what is done well and what needs to
be corrected.
Rotate roles after each inning of 10.

8
Task—Criteria:
1. Backswing taken with racket, as if to throw it.
2. Left side of the body turned to the net as weight shifts to back leg.
3. Shuttle struck overhead but in front of body, with arm fully extended. Racket head
contacts bird from below.
4. Body weight put into shot, as weight shifts onto front leg. Strong wrist action.
5. Follow-through in direction of intended flight of bird.

FIGURE 14 Reciprocal style sheet for badminton forehand overhead clear

From M. Mosston and S. Ashworth, Teaching physical education (4th ed., p. 83). Copyright © 1994 by Allyn &
Bacon. Reprinted with permission.

INQUIRY STYLE students toward one or more final solutions. This is called
The inquiry style is process oriented, rather than product the “ask, don’t tell, principle.” The steps follow a sequence
oriented. A student’s experience during the process is con- and are arranged logically so students can move from one
sidered more important than the final outcome or solu- step to the next after a certain amount of thinking. Each
tion. Students experience learning situations that require step should not be too large or small to prevent students
them to inquire, speculate, reflect, analyze, and discover. from becoming frustrated or bored. An open instructional
They are cognitively active in this type of instruction. environment is one that allows students opportunities to
Teachers guide and direct students—rather than com- openly communicate and feel comfortable experimenting
manding or telling—thus allowing students to discover and inquiring without fear of failure.
their own answers and solutions. Some educators believe inquiry methods of instruction
Teachers are responsible for stimulating student cu- should play a more prominent role in educational methodol-
riosity about the subject matter. A combination of ques- ogy (Mosston & Ashworth, 2002). They posit that students
tions, problems, examples, and learning activities leads need opportunities to inquire, solve problems, and discover,

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 TEACHING STYLES

Name Style B C D

Class

Date

Partner

Soccer—long throw-in
Work in groups of three—doer, retriever, and observer. Doer executes the task 10 times to a distance
of approximately 15 yards. The retriever returns the ball, while the observer offers feedback to the
doer by comparing the performance to the criteria listed below.

Criteria:
1. Both hands are used as ball is swung to point A behind the head.
2. Player takes one or two quick steps forward to gain momentum.
3. Body is bent backward, with a slight bend at the knees.
4. A whipping action of the body and a forceful straightening of legs develops thrust.
Note: Both feet must stay on the ground until ball is released, and it must be thrown in the
direction the thrower is facing.

FIGURE 15 Reciprocal style sheet for soccer long throw-in

From M. Mosston and S. Ashworth, Teaching physical education (4th ed., p. 95). Copyright © 1994 by Allyn & Bacon.
Reprinted with permission.

instead of primarily experiencing approaches that emphasize Once students acquire these skills, inquiry helps foster
listening, absorbing, and complying. Arguments have been higher-level thinking skills such as application, integration,
made to expand the focus of physical education methodol- refinement, and other examples of critical thinking.
ogy to include the inquiry style. Proponents of this style Application and best practice can frequently be discovered
believe that it enhances students’ ability to think, improves using inquiry related to problem solving. Most beginning
creativity, creates a better understanding of the subject teachers are practiced in telling students information
matter, enhances self-concept, and develops lifelong learning rather than fostering critical thinking. It is a complex skill
patterns. Students develop ownership of the answers and so- that needs time and training to develop and should be con-
lutions. Students who actively engage in solving the problem sidered when choosing these styles. Depending on the situ-
are more likely to remember at a later date. Some educators ation, these methods offer advantages when learning about
argue that students who do not experience inquiry methods cognitive issues. The inquiry style offers teachers another
may become dormant, unchallenged, and unused. teaching tool in their repertoire of skills.
Inquiry is used when students have a basic under-
standing of sports and games. Teachers can use this style GUIDED DISCOVERY (CONVERGENT)
to help students understand when to apply certain skills. The inquiry style in physical education is generally charac-
What to do when they don’t have the ball, the best place to terized by two approaches: guided discovery (or convergent)
be to receive a pass, and how to split the defense are just a and problem solving (or divergent) (Mosston & Ashworth,
few examples of what teachers can use to develop areas of 2002). Teachers using guided discovery lead students
critical thinking necessary to be successful in game play. If through a series of preplanned tasks in order to guide stu-
students do not have basic understanding and application dents toward a specific solution (convergent) or an effective
of motor skills, the inquiry style may not be successful. solution (divergent). Activities are designed so that students
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 TEACHING STYLES

reach the answer desired by the teacher. Guided discovery PROBLEM-SOLVING (DIVERGENT) STYLE
can be used to help students discover knowledge about some The second inquiry style involves a divergent approach,
of the following: rather than converging on one solution. Students move
■ Court coverage strategies that prevent scoring in through a series of experiences and attempt to devise as
tennis, badminton, racquetball, and handball. many acceptable solutions to the problem as possible. Many
times, these activities are posed in terms of a student chal-
■ Effective angles of release for distance throwing
lenge where teachers give students an opportunity to solve
with the shot put, discus, football, and softball.
problems or activities in different ways. Assessment of learn-
■ Batting stance and foot pattern alterations for hit- ing takes place through demonstration. Encourage students
ting the baseball or softball to the open space in to be creative and develop unique solutions while analyzing
various fields or through the gaps in the infield. the pros and cons of each solution. This style is useful for dis-
■ Specific offensive strategies for scoring in the key cussions and assignments dealing with values, social issues,
depending on the defenders and the type of defense. wellness concepts, and controversial topics related to sport
and physical education. Honesty in sports, cooperation with
■ Dribbling techniques in soccer used to fake out a
teammates, competition, violence in sports, amateur versus
defender and advance the ball down the field.
professional sports, athletes taking drugs to improve per-
■ When to use a give-and-go in certain situations to formance, arguing with officials, women participating in
advance the ball in a game of team handball. sports, and masculine and feminine roles are examples of
■ A person’s center of gravity and momentum’s role topics that can be researched, explored, discussed, and
in performing activities in gymnastics such as the debated in a physical education class.
balance beam or the side horse. Wellness is an area that lends itself to the problem-
solving approach. Many different approaches and meth-
It is possible to arrange the learning environment for ods can be used for maintaining good health. Students
these activities in many different ways. Give students an can learn to solve their personal fitness problems with
activity that asks them to solve a problem, ask a series of physical activity programs that are personalized to meet
questions, and then have students participate in several their needs. Problem-solving approaches are also useful 8
learning activities based on their answers. After allowing in resolving the issues of proper diet and weight control.
students to practice using their solutions and strategies, Stress reduction, alcohol and drug abuse, and tobacco use
hold a brief discussion to see if they have grasped the ap- are areas that can be addressed effectively with problem-
plication of the strategies. The following are examples of solving techniques.
learning activities: When using this style, the teacher is responsible for cre-
■ In basketball, students analyze and determine the ating an open environment where students are encouraged
best offensive solution when a defender is playing to explore all aspects of these controversial topics. Books,
tight defense. Often, the best solution is to fake a articles, movies, interviews, questions, and discussions are
shot and then drive to the basket. If the defender is possibilities for accumulating and sharing information.
playing off them, the offensive player should shoot Students are encouraged to gather information and weigh
the ball. Students should have the opportunity to all alternatives before making a decision. A teacher’s opin-
practice defense playing tight and off the ball as ion does not carry more weight or emphasis than student
well as the opportunity to reverse roles and play of- opinion. An effective strategy for starting the problem solv-
ing involves using a “trigger story.”
fense. This gives them a chance to discover differ-
Problem-solving approaches are useful when physical
ent solutions.
skills can be performed or developed in more than one way.
■ In soccer, students can experiment with long and Students are allowed to experiment briefly with these skills
short passes with defenders in certain positions. to determine which approach is most effective. In this exam-
Long, high passes are necessary to get the ball over a ple, an individualized style and a divergent style would work
defender, whereas quick, short passes that stay on nicely in combination. In many cases, a skill can be adapted
the ground are necessary to keep the defender from for certain situations. Some examples are the batting stance
intercepting the ball, and they are easier for a team- in baseball, golf grips and swing, putting grip and stroke,
mate to receive and trap. starts for sprints, high-jumping technique, and training
■ In the shot put and discus throws, students might methods for distance running. A problem-solving style can
experiment with various release angles to see how also be used to develop routines for gymnastics, including
they affect the flight and distance of the throws. The many different ways to correctly perform on pieces of appa-
objective is to discover the best angle of release for ratus. Students can experiment with different ways to mount
maximum distance. the equipment, make various turns or swings, travel across

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 TEACHING STYLES

the equipment, and perform dismounts. In team sports, stu-

Stories to Prompt Student Discussion dents design offenses that work against a particular defense
Using Critical Thinking and defenses that will work against a specific offensive
■ You and your partner are involved in a strategy. A basketball defender can experiment with options
tightly contested golf match with another against a taller or quicker player. Students can also deter-
pair of students. Your partner hits his drive mine their options against opponents in various individual
into the woods. While you are getting ready sports. In racquetball, several serves can be used to counter
for your second shot, you turn and see your an opponent’s strong forehand or extreme quickness. If a lob
partner kick his ball out of the woods into serve does not work, maybe a power serve or a Z-serve will
an area where there is a clear shot to the be more effective.
green. His kick was not visible to either of
your opponents. What would you do in this TEACHING STYLES AND
situation?
■ You are playing on a Pop Warner football
STUDENT LEARNING
team. During the game, you make an aggres- Teaching styles were developed as a means to produce stu-
sive, yet legal tackle on your opponent’s best dent learning. Teachers may lose sight of why things need
running back. The running back receives a leg to be taught in a certain manner, and information about
injury as a result and has to be carried off the different teaching styles may seem overlapping and confus-
field. Your teammates cheer and praise you ing. A teaching style may be selected based on constraints
for injuring the star player. Your coach also such as space and equipment, but in reality this decision
praises you when you come off the field. still is made because it allows for the development of an
What should you do? environment better suited for learning. Teachers are
encouraged to remember the following when it comes to
■ At a bicycle motocross race, you hear a father teaching styles and student learning:
criticizing his 5-year-old daughter for losing
the championship race. The daughter is cry- ■ One style does not cover all situations. All styles
ing. You hear the father say to the mother, offer various strengths and obstacles in a physical
“She has to learn to compete. That’s what education setting. The list for choosing a style
life’s all about.” How do you react? should be regularly reviewed to ensure that the cor-
■ You are coaching a freshman volleyball team. rect style is used for the situation.
The game is close, and everyone is excited. The ■ A combination of styles can be an effective way to
mother of a member of your team is being reach more students. When choosing a teaching
obnoxious. She yells mean things at players on style, one does not need to choose just one and
both teams, at the coaches, and at the officials. design the entire lesson’s experiences around it. By
During a time-out, the referee comes over and using different styles for different parts of a lesson or
says, “Can’t you do something about her?” unit, it may be possible to provide better learning
What would you do? opportunities for students.
■ Your team is warming up when the referee ■ Student diversity is an issue that faces every teacher,
walks in. Everybody recognizes him. He refer- and the use of various teaching styles may appeal to a
eed the last game that you lost because he diverse group of students. Student diversity includes
called a foul every time you moved. A mem- ethnicity, socioeconomics, language, gender, ability,
ber of your team says loudly, “Not him or learning styles. With this amount of diversity, one
again!” What would you say? teacher may not be able to meet the demands of all
■ Right after the fourth game of the season, students. Allowing for different teaching styles where
which your team just lost by four points, you students take on some of the instructional roles may
are walking out of the locker room when you allow diversity issues to be met. Certain styles are
hear a parent say to a player on your team, better suited for different learning styles, language
“Boy, did you embarrass me tonight. You skills, and so on. By using a variety of styles, there is a
were terrible!” How would you react in this greater chance of reaching more students.
situation? ■ A teacher’s abilities should be considered when
choosing a style. Teachers often choose a style because

170
 TEACHING STYLES

literature states that it would be effective in a specific

situation. If it works for the teacher, that is the style A Tactical Framework
of choice; however, if the teacher feels uncomfortable,
the lesson will suffer regardless of the style used. It
Modified game
is best to use each style in small amounts until there is (Guided Discovery)
a comfort level that shows students a teacher is con- 1
fident and comfortable. This may be the most crucial
decision when selecting a teaching style.

Questioning
A FRAMEWORK FOR USING (Inquiry)
2
MULTIPLE TEACHING STYLES
Middle and high school students should be moving from
teacher-dependent learning toward independent learning
styles. Providing students with multiple opportunities to Structured practice
create an understanding of how to be successful in physical (Direct)
movement can support progress toward such independ- 3
Strategy Skill
ence. Multiple teaching styles encourage students to make
decisions and problem solve. In Teaching Games for
Understanding (TGFU), authors Griffin and Butler (2005)
and later Mitchell, Oslin, and Griffin (2006) developed a Modified game
student-centered approach to learning game play. This (Refinement)
framework builds on the use of a modified game approach 4
using guided discovery and inquiry styles to develop tactical
understanding and skill development. Within this frame- 8
work, teachers are encouraged to be facilitators of learning
and focus activities using a discovery-based approach. Each Closure
step of the framework is shown in Figure 16. (Inquiry)
Step one of the framework is the application of a mod- 5
ified game in which students play and discover the solution
to a task that allows the best strategy to surface. The solu- FIGURE 16 Tactical framework using multiple
tion could be understanding specific skills or using a spe- teaching styles
cific strategy. An example of a modified game of 3-on-3
basketball would be how to score multiple times from should lead students to identify that a basketball layup is the
inside the basketball key and below the last hash mark. Each most effective shot to use from inside the key. If the teacher’s
game is developed with specific rule modifications that help goal focused on a specific strategy, the questions would lead
focus students’ play toward discovering the correct solution students toward identifying setting screens or a give-and-go.
(as predetermined by the teacher). Using this problem, the Once students have a clear understanding of which
rules state that players may not dribble the basketball, all skill or strategy allows for successful accomplishment of the
passes must be either a chest or bounce pass, players may problem defined in step 1, students move on to practice ei-
not hold the ball for more than 3 seconds, all shots must be ther the skill or strategy in a game-like situation (step 3).
made inside the key and below the last hash mark (block), For instance, if the solution was to get team players open,
and defense cannot “reach in.” then practice would focus on the give-and-go. Each team
Step two of the framework is then completed after would select one side of the basket, one player would be
students have had an opportunity to play the game (step 1). placed at the top of the key with the ball, one player would
Questions are used to guide the students toward the correct be on the wing, and the third member would be a defender
responses. For instance, a teacher may ask students: “How on the point player only (levels of defense start from a
was your team able to score from inside the key?”; “How did shadow level to competitive as players improve). The point
you try to get ahold of the ball?”; “How did you help your passes the ball to the wing and then cuts to the basket to
teammates get the ball?”; or “What was the best way to shoot receive the ball and attempt a layup (with no dribble). Key
the ball from inside the key?” Focusing on a specific skill phrases such as scoop, lift, and flick can be used to focus on

171
 TEACHING STYLES

the layup technique. If the focus is the give-and-go, phrases tion of what was learned in step 3) engage learners in under-
can include fake, cut, and target hand. standing and refinement of skills and/or strategies through
Active engagement is the key to learning and refining active learning. Students can apply previously learned skills
a task. Step 4 has players returning to a modified game to and knowledge to solve the problem designed for step 1.
re-apply the skill or strategy after practice. By playing the Students are actively engaged in each stage, and the teacher
game after practice, students should have a better under- facilitates student learning. This is an excellent example of
standing of which skill to use, when to use it, and why. how teachers “ask and don’t tell” and illustrates instructional
During closure, teachers can use inquiry to affirm that practices that are indirect. Students are able to understand
students understood and were able to apply the solutions why certain skills and strategies are used in certain situa-
they developed and practiced. tions, and the new content, skills, and knowledge have
Students are actively engaged in this multiple-stage meaning. Applying multiple teaching styles within a specific
process that applies multiple teaching styles (see Figure 17). framework based on TGFU can enhance students’ long-
Steps 1 and 2 shown in Figure 16 apply forms of guided term understanding and retention.
discovery-based learning (divergent and convergent), while
steps 3 (direct instruction) and 4 (application and integra-

The Framework
DYNAMIC INSTRUCTION:
ELEMENTS COMMON TO
ALL STYLES
PROBLEM SOLVING
Regardless of the teaching style used, an effective learning
environment can be identified by a set of instructional
behaviors that occur regularly. These behaviors do not
describe a specific method or style and provide significant
room for individual approaches to teaching content. The
focus is less on what the teacher does and more on what
INQUIRY
students are doing. For example, any style of teaching that
produces high rates of student engagement and positive
attitudes toward the subject matter is considered an
effective learning environment. Evidence from teacher
effectiveness research (Siedentop & Tannehill, 2000)
indicates that regardless of the teacher’s instructional style,
ACTIVE LEARNING an educational environment is most effective when the
CONCEPT CONTENT following elements are present:

■ Students are engaged in appropriate learning activi-

ties for a large percentage of class time.
■ Effective teachers use class time wisely. Little time is
APPLICATION
wasted on noninstructional activities such as taking
attendance, dressing, checking lunch tickets, or tak-
ing yearbook photos.
■ Teachers plan carefully and insist on appropriate
learning activities that deal with the subject matter.
REFLECTION ■ Effective teachers make sure students use class time
to receive information and practice skills.
■ The learning atmosphere is success oriented with a
positive, caring climate.
■ Appropriate social and organizational behavior
REFINEMENT needs to be supported by teachers.
■ Students are given clear objectives and receive high
rates of information feedback from the teacher and
FIGURE 17 Multiple teaching style framework the environment.

172
 TEACHING STYLES

■ Class activities should be arranged so students spend STUDY STIMULATORS

large amounts of time on the required objectives.
AND REVIEW QUESTIONS
■ Activities should be meaningful, with a clear tie to 1. Discuss the various factors that should be consid-
the class objectives. ered when choosing a teaching style.
■ Positive and corrective feedback should be available 2. Explain why problem solving is not a good
from the teacher. approach to teaching rock climbing.
3. Provide an overview of what teachers need to
■ Peers and instructional devices are used to provide do from a planning perspective to effectively use
feedback. the task style of teaching.
4. Discuss the attractive features of mastery
■ Student progress is monitored regularly, and stu-
learning.
dents are held accountable for learning in physical 5. What is the main focus of a teacher’s monitoring
education. effort when using mastery learning?
■ Records are kept relative to various objectives. 6. Explain the various roles of students in the coop-
erative learning style.
■ Students know exactly what is expected of them 7. Discuss the various criticisms that have been
and how the expectations are tied to the accounta- voiced about inquiry styles of teaching.
bility system. 8. Develop a short “trigger story” with a focus on
ethical behavior in sport.
■ Students are rewarded for small steps of progress 9. Why should a teacher develop a large repertoire
made toward larger goals. of teaching styles?
■ Effective teachers are efficient managers of stu- 10. Discuss the dynamic instruction elements com-
mon to all styles.
dents. Students move from one learning activity to
another smoothly and without wasting time.
■ Time-saving procedures are planned and imple- WEBSITES
mented efficiently. Physical Education Teaching and
■ Students spend little time waiting during class tran- Curriculum Information
(styles information)
8
sitions.
www.pecentral.com
■ Equipment is organized to facilitate smooth transi-
www.pelinks4u.org
tions. www.pe4life.org
■ Attendance procedures, starting and stopping pro- www.reach.ucf.edu/~pezone
cedures, and instructional procedures are all tightly Research for Education and Learning
organized with little wasted time. www.mcrel.org
■ Students spend a limited amount of time waiting in Research on Teaching Physical Education
line or participating in other unproductive behaviors. www.UnlockResearch.com
■ Effective environments are characterized by high Teaching Styles and Learning Styles
rates of time engaged in subject matter. www2.ncsu.edu/unity/lockers/users/f/felder/public
■ Physical education is activity based, and students
need to spend class time doing the activity, not
waiting for an opportunity. REFERENCES AND
■ Teachers are organized with high, but realistic SUGGESTED READINGS
expectations for student achievement. Buck, M. M., Lund, J. L., Harrison, J. L., & Blakemore, C. L.
(2007). Instructional strategies for secondary school
■ Structured learning activities should challenge physical education with NASPE: Moving into the
students. future (6th ed.). Boston: McGraw-Hill.
Byra, M., & Jenkins, J. (2000). Matching instructional tasks
■ Expect students to learn, and hold them account- with learner ability: Teaching style E. Journal of
able for their progress. Physical Education, Recreation, & Dance, 71(3), 26–30
Casten, C. M. (2009). Lesson plans for dynamic physical
■ Teachers are enthusiastic about what they are education for secondary students (6th ed.). San
doing and are actively involved in the instructional Francisco: Pearson Benjamin Cummings.
process. Dyson, B., & Grineski, S. (2001). Using cooperative learn-
ing structures in physical education. Journal of
■ Active involvement means active supervision, Physical Education, Recreation, & Dance, 72(2), 28–31.
enthusiasm, and high interaction rates with students.

173
 TEACHING STYLES

Ernst, M., & Byra, M. (1998). What does the reciprocal style of Mitchell, S. A., Oslin, J. L., & Griffin L. L. (2006). Teaching
teaching hold for junior high school learners? Journal of sport concepts and skills: A tactical games approach
Physical Education, Recreation, & Dance, 55(1), 24–37. (2nd ed.). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
Griffin, L. L., & Butler, J. (2005). Teaching games for un- Mosston, M., & Ashworth, S. (2002). Teaching physical
derstanding—Theory, research, and practice. education (5th ed.). San Francisco: Benjamin
Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. Cummings.
Johnson, D. W., Johnson, R. T., & Holubec, E. J. (1993). Pangrazi, R. P. (2007). Dynamic physical education for ele-
Circles of learning: Cooperation in the classroom (3rd mentary school children (15th ed.). San Francisco:
ed.). Edina, MN: Interaction. Benjamin Cummings.
Kelly, L., & Melograno, V. J. (2004). Designing the physical Rink, J. E. (2006). Teaching physical education for learning
education curriculum. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. (5th ed.). Boston: McGraw Hill.
Lawrence, C. M., Lawrence, G., & Samek, L. S. (2006). Siedentop, D., & Tannehill, D. (2000). Developing teach-
Organizing classrooms for small-group instruction: ing skills in physical education (4th ed.). Mountain
Learning for mastery. Lanham, MD: Rowman & View, CA: Mayfield Publishing Co.
Littlefield Publishing Group. Torp, L., & Sage, S. (1998). Problems as possibilities: Problem-
Metzler, M. W. (2005). Instructional models for physical based learning for K–12 education. Alexandria,
education (2nd ed.). Scottsdale, AZ: Holcomb VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum
Hathaway Publishers. Development.

174
 Management
and Discipline

From Chapter 7 of Dynamic Physical Education for Secondary Schools, Seventh Edition. Paul W. Darst, Robert P. Pangrazi, Mary Jo Sariscsany,
Timothy A. Brusseau, Jr. Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. Published by Pearson Benjamin Cummings. All rights reserved.
 Management
and Discipline
ESSENTIAL COMPONENTS OF
A QUALITY PROGRAM
I. Organized around content standards
II. Student-centered and developmentally
appropriate
III. Physical activity and motor skill develop-
ment form the core of the program
▲

IV. Teaches management skills and

self-discipline
V. Promotes inclusion of all students
VI. Focuses on process over product
VII. Promotes lifetime personal health
and wellness
▲

VIII. Teaches cooperation and responsibility

and promotes sensitivity to diversity

NATIONAL STANDARDS FOR

PHYSICAL EDUCATION*
1. Demonstrates competency in motor skills
and movement patterns needed to perform
a variety of physical activities.
2. Demonstrates understanding of movement
concepts, principles, strategies, and tactics as
they apply to the learning and performance
of physical activities.
3. Participates regularly in physical activity.
4. Achieves and maintains a health-enhancing
level of physical fitness.
▲

5. Exhibits responsible personal and social

behavior that respects self and others in
physical activity settings.
6. Values physical activity for health, enjoyment,
challenge, self-expression, and/or social *National Association for Sport and Physical Education
interaction. (NASPE), 2004.

176
 MANAGEMENT AND DISCIPLINE

and self-directed manner. Management strategies also

Chapter Summary involve modifying and maintaining desirable behavior as
well as decreasing undesirable behavior.
This chapter covers many ways of teaching class
organization skills through physical activity. Emphasis Successful teachers effectively manage student behavior.
is on a positive and constructive approach to moving Management skills may vary among teachers in emphasis
students quickly into instructional settings. Responsi- and focus, but collectively they characterize quality teaching.
ble behavior is an important part of teaching, and Effective teachers make three assumptions: 1) teaching is a
students are expected to know what acceptable profession, 2) students are in school to learn, and 3) the
behavior is and how to resolve conflict in a nonphysi-
teacher’s responsibility is to facilitate student learning. These
cal manner. Preventing behavior problems is always
more important than dealing with problems after assumptions indicate that instructors will teach a range of
they occur. Organizing an environment that offers a students, including those who readily accept instruction and
behavior management component helps students those who do not. Competent teachers maintain faith in
become good citizens. Much discussion and instruc- students who have not yet found success and expect them to
tional advice is given to maintain and increase desir- do so eventually. The majority of students in a class are rela-
able behavior while decreasing undesirable behavior
tively easy to teach, but making appreciable gains among
at the same time. Finally, when all else fails, behav-
ioral correction techniques must be implemented.
low-aptitude and indifferent students is the mark of a great
A number of strategies are offered, from reprimands teacher.
to behavior contracts.

Student Outcomes STRIVE FOR A

After reading this chapter, you will be able to:
• Manage a class by delivering instruction efficiently
WELL-MANAGED CLASS
and moving students into instructional settings A well-managed class occurs when teacher and students
quickly. assume dual responsibility for reaching targeted learning
• Teach students responsible behavior by using goals. Presentations and instructional strategies match stu-
responsibility-development techniques and conflict dents’ development levels. Teacher’s application of instruc- 7
resolution. tional styles, more than the characteristics of a particular
• Create a behavior plan and establish rules and teaching style, determines how and what students learn.
consequences to minimize behavior problems. Effective class management and organizational skills create
• Increase desirable behavior by using social rein- an environment that provides students with opportunities
forcers effectively. to learn free from discord. Effective teachers have the abil-
• Decrease undesirable behavior by designing a ity, skills, and strategies to prevent problems before they
behavioral response plan. This includes a range of occur and create a learning environment where little time
teacher behaviors including reprimands, removal
is spent dealing with deviant behavior.
of positive consequences, and behavior games.
A teacher’s behavior and personal conduct does not
• Avoid the use of criticism when interacting with
students.
occur in a vacuum. Students reflect the personality, out-
look, ideals, and expectations of their teacher. Teachers
• Know when to resort to punishment (rarely) to
stifle undesirable behavior. should examine and reflect on their personal habits and
attitudes to see if their behaviors could negatively impact
students. Effective teachers model the behavior expected of
their students. This means moving quickly if the request is
Management and discipline are requisite and integral to that students hustle. It implies listening carefully to stu-
effective instruction. Management will be referred to as dents or performing required tasks and fitness activities
techniques and strategies for moving, organizing, and from time to time. Modeling desired behavior strongly
grouping students for instructional purposes. Effective impacts students. The phrase “Your actions speak louder
management results in reduced discipline problems and than your words” is true because students often make judg-
enhanced opportunities for students to develop indi- ments about teachers based on their nonverbal behaviors.
vidual responsibility, independence, and personal moti- Too often, physical education teachers model nonactive
vation. Discipline in this text is defined as dealing with behaviors and are viewed as authoritative figures carrying a
unacceptable behavior and behavior that disrupts the clipboard, using a whistle, and ordering students to do
flow and continuity of teaching and learning. Manage- things they themselves are unwilling to do.
ment minimizes discipline problems by building a frame- Effective instruction and management can help stu-
work that positively influences students in an efficient dents become more capable and self-sufficient, offering

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 MANAGEMENT AND DISCIPLINE

experience to promote success and develop a positive self- content per instructional episode allows them to focus
concept. Teachers who make clear expectations for learn- clearly on stated goals and attain a better understanding.
ing and behavior develop classes that function with little This is not to suggest that information should not be
wasted time or disruptions. Lessons run smoothly and are delivered to students, but the “tell-it-all-at-the-start” style
characterized by instructional routines students expect should be replaced by integrated instruction: input, prac-
and follow. A productive class setting is work oriented and tice, feedback. New units of instruction can be introduced
on task, yet relaxed and pleasant. The next section shows using an interactive instructional period involving
how to organize and move a class quickly and effectively. questions, modeling, and short periods of practice.
Beginning with 30 minutes of instruction on the first day
followed by student practice or play results in limited
USE EFFECTIVE CLASS understanding of the new content. Engage students
ORGANIZATION STRATEGIES through activity and build interest and understanding.
Successful teachers quickly organize students for instruc- Middle school and high school students are anxious
tion. Efficiently moving and organizing students requires to move and, as a result, may not hear all the instruc-
understanding of various techniques and strategies, tional information. An effective strategy is to manage
coupled with student acceptance of those techniques. If a first prior to giving instructions. If students are to be in
class is poorly managed, the result is a lesson with exces- groups of two or a small team, divide them quickly using
sive time wasted on nonlearning-oriented tasks. Students the “when before what” technique. This technique is also
appreciate a learning environment that is organized and effective to get students ready for skill practice or game
efficient, allowing for a maximum amount of class time play. Tell students when to perform before stating what.
to be devoted to learning and practicing skills. For example, “When I say ‘Start,’ I’d like you to get a
Management techniques can be seen as skills that stu- partner . . .” or, “When I say ‘Go!’ I want you to jog over
dents need to practice and learn. Viewing class manage- and get a volleyball and practice volleying against the
ment strategies in this light makes it easier to understand wall.” When you have finished giving necessary instruc-
that students need time to develop classroom management tions, students start on the word, “Go.” Because the
skills. Just as students need time to improve physical skills, keyword is not given until all directions have been
they will need repeated practice of management routines. issued, students must be attentive.
A simple statement such as, “It appears we have forgotten
how to freeze quickly. Let’s practice,” is a constructive way
to remind students of expected behavior. Regardless of STOP AND START A CLASS CONSISTENTLY
the educational setting, effective teachers have students Starting and stopping activity during a class ensures valu-
practice management skills in order to reach expected able time will be spent learning and practicing, not wait-
behavior outcomes. ing or performing off-task behaviors. Effective teachers
will select start and stop signals that ensure students
respond in a timely fashion. Pick a consistent signal that
ALTERNATE INSTRUCTION all students can easily hear to stop a class. It does not
AND PRACTICE EPISODES matter what the signal is, as long as it always means the
Student disinterest during the teacher’s instruction same thing: “Stop quickly.” A basketball lesson may pro-
frequently occurs when the instruction is delivered as a duce a high level of noise as compared to tumbling and
long and involved technical monologue. Little learning may need a loud signal such as a whistle. Music can also
occurs when students don’t listen or have forgotten most be an effective stop signal during quieter activities. For
of the information. Information regarding skill perform- instance, when the music stops, students know they are to
ance often includes a list of items to complete: because stop and listen. Stop signals are important because they
people usually remember the first and the last point, most may have to be used for safety purposes (e.g., a student
students are only able to integrate and concentrate on one injury). Including a visual signal (such as raising the hand
or two points following the instructional episode. Ins- overhead) with the audio signal is effective because some
tructions should be specific and rarely last longer than students may not hear the audio signal if they are
30 to 45 seconds. Deliver instructions in small doses, engrossed in activity or are hearing impaired. Avoid
focusing on one or two points at a time. An effective confusion by using a different start signal from the stop
approach is to alternate short instructional episodes with signal. Voice signals can frequently be used to start the
periods of activity. Have students model what was just class. Reinforcement of students’ responses to start and
emphasized, such as how to hold the racket, stand in ready stop signals ensures that students know classroom expec-
position, or follow through. Minimizing the amount of tations and are held accountable. If students do not

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respond to the signal to stop, take time to practice the Errors in instructional planning can create situations
procedure and reinforce students when they perform where students finish early and become off task waiting
management behavior properly. Often, skill performance to see what is next. Activities need to support choice and
is reinforced regularly, but correct management behavior to allow students to guide themselves in learning new
is not. Behavior that is not reinforced will not be per- tasks. Specifying the number of repetitions offers an end
formed often. in sight; some students will finish early, while others may
It is reasonable to expect 100 percent compliance talk and move at a slow pace. Anytime the numbers
when asking students to stop. If some students stop and of repetitions are stipulated, completion time will vary
listen to directions and others do not, accountability is lost. among students. Here is an example: instructions are
Students quickly begin to wonder why they have to stop given to students to practice chipping 20 golf balls. Obvi-
but other students don’t. Scanning the class to see if all ously, the speed at which students will carry out this task
students are stopped and ready to respond to the next set will differ. A better approach is to give students an
of directions provides teachers with needed information, amount of time to complete the task. When time is up,
confirming that all students are prepared to listen and instruction moves on to the next task. This approach is
ensures that the stop signal is clear and students know similar to station teaching where students work for a
what is expected of them. Teachers who settle for less than specified amount of time. This also has the side effect of
full attention will soon have a class that ignores stop teaching students to maximize the amount of practice
signals. Students must be held accountable for responding they get in a certain amount of time. Certainly, this is a
appropriately to an instructor’s expectations. lesson students can use throughout life to “make the most
Many variables affect a class’s rate and speed of of their time.” Another option is to have additional tasks
response. The nature of the activity, the students’ motiva- for students to complete when they finish early. However,
tional level, their feelings about the teacher, the time of this may be seen negatively if some students perceive they
day, and the weather are a few examples. Teachers control have to do more than others because they were efficient
some of these variables, while others are fixed. A positive, in completing the previous task. Repetition and refine-
success-oriented atmosphere helps decrease response ment determine the amount of skill learning that takes
time. Positive teacher reactions focused on appropriate place, so the more repetitions, the better. 7
student managerial behaviors are effective. Examples of
such responses include the following:
GROUP STUDENTS EFFECTIVELY
1. “Way to go class—everyone dressed and ready in Physical education requires moving students into small
4 minutes.” groups and instructional formations on a regular basis.
2. “Carmen, great hustle back to your squad.” Simple techniques can be used to accomplish this in rapid
3. “Thank you for getting quiet so quickly.” fashion. For example, using a technique such as “toe to toe”
teaches students to find partners quickly. The goal of this
4. “Look at squad 1 line up quickly.” activity is to get toe to toe with a partner as fast as possible.
5. “Hey, I’m impressed how quickly you all got in Other challenges may include having students find some-
position.” one their approximate height or to touch fists with a part-
6. “Way to stop on the whistle; thank you.” ner. Students without a partner go to the center of the
teaching area (marked by a cone or spot and called the
“friendship spot”) and find someone else without a partner.
EXPEDITE INSTRUCTIONAL TRANSITIONS This gives students a designated spot to locate a partner as
Instructional transitions involve a change in instructional opposed to feeling unwanted and running around the area
focus that, in turn, demands a reorganization of the class. searching for (or avoiding) a partner. Emphasis is placed on
Discipline problems frequently occur during transitions, finding a partner within two giant steps rather than looking
often because disorganization creates time to stand around for a favorite friend or snubbing someone. When students
and visit with peers while students wait for the next task. are asked to find a partner, they frequently stay near a
Instructional momentum is lost, and teachers often become friend; if a different mix is needed, then have students find a
frustrated when students must be redirected. Students will different partner each time “toe to toe” is called.
also stray off task when the activity lasts longer than is Many activities require the class to be divided in half
desirable. Transitions can add to the pace of the lesson for skill practice. An efficient way to achieve this is to
when they result in effective flow of instruction. Transitions have students get toe to toe with a partner. One partner
are planned episodes and should be written and thought then takes a knee while the other remains standing.
out in a manner similar to instructional content. Those standing are asked to go to one side of the area,

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while those kneeling move to the other side. This strat- When different techniques are used frequently to form
egy divides partners into opposing sides and can address groups, students accept this as a regularly occurring rou-
the problem that may arise when friends select each tine and will know that they will be expected to work with
other. A quick game of rock-paper-scissors can be used a variety of people for short periods of time. Students will
to designate which person in a pair will get equipment, also learn that working with a variety of classmates pro-
go to a specific side, or be captain. vides opportunities to work with individuals they might
Another technique that is effective when the goal is not otherwise get to know. This practice can contribute to
quickly placing students into small groups is to signal a positive learning environment.
(whistle blasts or loud hand claps) a certain number of An effective approach for moving a class into a single-
times. Students form groups that correspond to the num- file line or circle is to have students run randomly
ber of signals and sit down to signify that they have the throughout the area until a signal is given. On the signal
correct number in their group. Students who can’t find a “fall in,” students continue jogging (in the same direction
group in their immediate vicinity go to the center of the as the teacher) while moving toward the perimeter of the
area and find the needed number of members. The use of area and fall in line behind someone until a circle is
hand signals (e.g., three fingers,) to show the size of the formed. This exercise can be done while students are run-
desired group can be an effective way to signal the class to ning, jogging, skipping, or walking. As long as students
move into small groups. continue to move behind another person, a circle forms
Upon entering the facility, students also can be given automatically.
a piece of paper or a token with a number or color. While
the music is playing, they will exchange the paper with
USE SQUADS TO EXPEDITE
several different people. When the music stops, they must
find the person or people in the class with the same num- CLASS ORGANIZATION
ber or color. This technique can be used to select partners Some teachers find that placing students into squads helps
or teams. Using hula hoops of various colors can be them manage a class effectively (Figure 1). Squads offer a
another fun and effective approach to creating small place for students to assemble, a way to group students
groups. Similar to musical chairs the music plays and into prearranged teams of equal ability, and a method to
when stopped students will quickly place a foot into the expedite learning students’ names.
closest hula hoop with other people to form the desig-
nated number (e.g., groups of three, four, or five). All stu- Home Base and Station Teaching
dents must find a hoop and place one foot inside, but the Creating a home base is a way of using squads to facilitate
number cannot go above the designated number. Hoops the management of students in a variety of educational
can be color-coded, and the red hoop will join a blue settings. Place a number of marking spots around the area
hoop, green will join yellow, and purple will join white. that corresponds to the number of squads. Upon the

FIGURE 1 Students in squads

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LEARN STUDENTS’ NAMES

Guidelines for Forming Squads Learning the names of students not only personalizes
The following are guidelines for using instruction, it makes it much easier to manage students.
squad formation to maximize teaching Praise, feedback, and correction go unheeded when stu-
effectiveness. dents are addressed as “Hey, you!” Develop a system that
1. Avoid selecting squads or groups in a manner helps expedite learning student names. One approach is to
that embarrasses a student who might be memorize three or four names per class period. Use a note
chosen last. In all cases, avoid using an card to help recognize each student by name at the start
“auction” approach where student leaders and throughout the period. At the end of the period, iden-
look over the group and visibly pick those tify the students again. Once the first set of names has
whom they favor. been memorized, a new set can be learned. At the start of
class when the meeting occurs, those names learned pre-
2. Establish a designated location where stu-
viously can be reviewed and new students identified. It is a
dents are to assemble into squad formation.
good practice for teachers to tell students they are trying
On signal, students move to the designated
to learn their names. Asking students to say their name
area, with squad leaders in front and the rest
before performing a skill or answering a question can help
of the squad behind.
learn students’ names. Once students’ names are learned,
3. Use squads to provide opportunities for leader- precede instructional questions or skill performance feed-
ship and following among peers by appointing back with the student’s name (e.g., “Rudy, it’s your turn
squad leaders. Examples of leadership activities to try it”).
are moving squads to a specified location, Another effective way to learn names is to take a pho-
leading squads through exercises or introduc- tograph of each class in squads and identify students by
tory activities, and appointing squad members keying names to the picture. Identification is easier with
to certain positions in sport activities. Rotate students in squads because they will be in the same loca-
squad leaders every 2 to 3 weeks so all tion. Before the start of each class period, teachers can
students have an opportunity to lead. continue to develop learning student names by identifying 7
4. Consider predetermining the composition of a few students’ names already learned and a few that still
squads. It may be important to have equal need to be learned. Setting personal goals based on calcu-
representation of ability levels on each squad. lating the percentage of students whose names have been
Squads can also be used to separate certain learned each period ensures teachers are accomplishing
students so they don’t have the opportunity this effective management technique.
to disrupt the class. To ensure students get
to work with all students in the class, change ESTABLISH CLASS PROCEDURES
squad members on a regular basis. In most
AND EXPECTATIONS
cases, an even number of squads should be
formed. This allows the class to be broken Students enjoy the sense of security that comes from
quickly into halves for games. knowing what to do from the time they enter the instruc-
tional area until they leave. A number of procedures need
to be handled routinely. The following are situations that
arise often and need to be planned for ahead of time.
command “home base,” squad leaders move to the nearest
marking spot, and their respective squad members line up Motivating Students to Dress
behind them. Once this basic skill is learned, it can be used for Activity Quickly
to facilitate instruction. For example, prior to the start of Students must change into activity clothes in locker rooms
the lesson, station teaching signs and a marking spot are located some distance from where attendance will be taken.
put out around the perimeter of the area. Students com- This can lead to a rather slow and unorganized start.
plete the initial parts of the lesson. When instruction at Students also dress at different rates and enter the activity
the stations is about to start, the teacher calls out “home area at different times. Inappropriate activity can occur
base,” and squad leaders hustle to a marking spot at each when the students who have dressed quickly are waiting for
of the stations. The result is a rapid transition; a squad of slower students to arrive. This dressing time difference also
students at each station is ready to begin. This activity can means that students are in two different and separate places,
also be used to split the class in half by placing an equal both of which require supervision. How a lesson starts
number of marking spots in each half of the area. often determines how a lesson finishes (good start—good

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finish). A positive approach is to allow students who dress students are beginning the first class activity. Regardless of
quickly to participate in activities they enjoy until the entire the method used, the technique should save time and foster
class is assembled. This gives students a reason to change student self-management qualities.
quickly because they know they will have time to partici-
pate in activities they enjoy. It is effective to allow students Closing a Lesson
to select things they like to do from a list of safe activities A regular routine for closing the lesson is beneficial.
(e.g., shooting baskets, juggling objects, passing/catching Closure provides opportunities to check for student
Frisbees). Developing an award system for individuals or understanding of the day’s lesson, review material for the
squads is another effective way to expedite the dressing next day, or record achieved outcomes. For example, ask
process. “Free time” points are awarded each time indivi- the class to verbally identify (or physically demonstrate)
duals or all squad members are dressed and ready to partic- the key points of a skill learned during class, give the results
ipate by a specific time. When positive reinforcement is of games being played, or discuss new ideas learned during
provided, the responsibility for getting students ready can a strategy session. Closure can also be used to prepare stu-
shift from the teacher to students. dents for the next lesson, for example: “Tomorrow we will
apply the skills you learned today in a game setting.” It is
Dealing with Nonparticipation also a good time to have discussions related to quality
Identifying students who are not to participate in the lesson efforts and willingness to work on independently. Closure
should be done in a consistent and efficient manner. A rou- may be done while lined up at the door, in closed squad
tine that addresses this issue is effective when the decision for formation, or while kneeling in a semicircle. Time must be
nonparticipation is made by someone (nurse or classroom provided for closure related to the instructional content as
teacher) other than the physical education teacher before stu- well as a procedure for students to leave the teaching area.
dents arrive at the lesson area. If a school nurse is not avail-
able, a written policy approved by the school administrator
should be in place. This prevents a situation where the physi- USE EQUIPMENT EFFECTIVELY
cal education teacher encourages students to participate even Today’s physical education is characterized by every stu-
though they are not supposed to do so. A note from the dent having a piece of equipment for practice and skill
school nurse listing student’s name, health problem, and development. Acceptable teaching practices ensure that
reason why he or she must sit out or take part in modified students spend limited time waiting for a turn to practice
activities should be presented to the physical education and perform expected skills. Having a specific routine for
teacher. This information is accepted at face value, thus avoid- placement of equipment during instruction can reduce
ing questioning students to determine what the problem is off-task behavior and lack of attention. Placing the equip-
and what the solution should be. Because most teachers are ment in a home position avoids the problem of students’
not health agents, they are not qualified to determine which striking one another with the equipment, dropping it,
students should participate based on a health problem. A stu- or practicing activities when they should be listening
dent with a note from home or a physician should never be (Figure 2). To avoid students playing with the equipment
allowed to return to participation without parental permission. when it is placed on the floor, ask them to put down the
equipment and take a large step away from it. For
Taking Roll Call example, hockey sticks are placed on the floor, basketballs
Roll call (attendance) is a daily routine that could lead to between the feet, and jump ropes folded in half and
students becoming bored. While waiting to participate they placed behind the neck.
may begin to socialize or get involved in horseplay, resulting Distribution of numerous pieces of equipment in
in a class getting off to a noisy and disorganized start. An large classes can reduce the amount of time students
effective method for taking attendance each day helps have to develop and understand skills and create more
reduce time spent in management of behavior problems. An time spent in noninstruction. Therefore, it is necessary
effective technique is to use squads and squad leaders. Each to distribute equipment to students as quickly as possi-
squad leader reports any absentees to the teacher orally or by ble, yet in a safe manner. When students have to wait for
filling out an attendance sheet. Another approach is to paint a piece of equipment, time is wasted and behavior prob-
numbers on the floor and assign each student a number. lems occur. A common practice that often results in
A teacher or a student leader can quickly glance through the many students waiting is to assign leaders to get the
numbers and record any absentees. Posting a sign-in sheet equipment for their squad. A better and faster method is
for attendance, which students quickly initial, can also be to have the equipment placed around the perimeter of
effective. Another approach is to check attendance while the practice area (see Figure 3).

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 MANAGEMENT AND DISCIPLINE

Following clear instructions and a predetermined sig-

nal, students acquire a piece of equipment, take it to their
personal space, and begin practicing an assigned task. This
approach takes advantage of the natural urge to try the
equipment and reinforces students who procure equip-
ment quickly. Equipment is put away using the same
routine. Placing equipment in the middle of the area in
one container and telling students to “run and get a ball”
Courtesy of the Mesa High School Physical Education Program,

creates an unsafe situation as well as wastes valuable time.

Regardless of the method used to distribute equipment,
clearly state what students are to do with the equipment
once they take it to their personal space. If safety is not an
issue, it is best to get students engaged immediately. Asking
students to hold the equipment until everybody is ready
may reinforce students who lag behind. Having students
start practicing immediately can act as a prompt to those
Mesa, AZ. With permission.

students who are slow responders.

FIGURE 2 Home position for equipment TEACH RESPONSIBLE

during instructional periods
STUDENT BEHAVIOR
Physical education should be a positive experience for all
students. To create a learning environment that ensures
students will experience the benefits of physical education,
students must accept that they are mutually responsible for 7
contributing to a positive learning environment. Increased
emphasis on teaching responsible behavior to students has
been placed with teachers. A basic premise for learning
responsible behavior is that it must be planned, taught, and
reinforced. Responsible behavior takes time and practice to
learn, much like any other skill. Don Hellison (2003) devel-
Courtesy of the Mesa High School Physical Education Program, Mesa, AZ. With permission.

oped strategies and programs for teaching responsibility to

older students. Hellison suggests there is a hierarchy of
responsible behavior. The focus in this section is on the
idea that there are different levels of responsible behavior
that can be learned. Teaching responsible behavior described
here involves five levels of behavior. Each is defined in the
following text, accompanied by examples of typical student
behavior at each level. One point to note is some teachers
take issue with identifying a level as “zero.” If that is a prob-
lem, renumber the levels or letter them. The important
point is the process of trying to behave at a higher level of
responsibility.

LEVELS OF RESPONSIBILITY
Level 0: Irresponsibility
FIGURE 3 Placement of equipment around Level 0 students are unmotivated and undisciplined. Their
the perimeter of the activity area will save time behavior includes discrediting other students’ involvement
distributing equipment and interrupting, intimidating, manipulating, and verbally or
physically abusing other students and perhaps the teacher.

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 MANAGEMENT AND DISCIPLINE

Behavior examples include the following: Level 4: Caring

Students behaving at this level are motivated to extend
■ At home: Blaming brothers or sisters for problems;
their sense of responsible behavior by cooperating, giving
lying to parents
support, showing concern, and helping.
■ During free time: Calling other students names; Behavior examples include the following:
laughing at others
■ At home: Helping take care of a younger brother or
■ In physical education: Talking to friends when the
sister or a pet
teacher is giving instructions; pushing and shoving
when selecting equipment ■ During free time: Asking students who they don’t
know or who feel left out to join them in play
Level 1: Self-Control ■ In physical education: Helping someone who is
Students at this level do not participate in the day’s activity having trouble; helping a new student feel welcome;
or show much mastery or improvement. These students working with all students; showing that all people
control their behavior enough so they do not interfere with are worthwhile
the other students’ right to learn and the teacher’s right to
Responsible behavior is taught using a number of
teach.
strategies. Posting the levels of responsibility in the teaching
Behavior examples include the following:
area provides a continuous reminder. Each level of behavior
■ At home: Keeping self from hitting a brother or sister must be explained and acceptable behaviors identified.
even though angry Middle and high school students can actively engage in this
process. Opportunities to identify examples in their own
■ During free time: Not getting angry at others because
lives can be shared with small peer groups and a list of
they did something to upset them
acceptable behaviors developed and posted for levels 2, 3,
■ In physical education: Waiting until an appropriate and 4. After students have received an introduction to
time to talk with friends; having control and not responsible behavior, reinforcement of desired behavior and
letting behavior of others bother them redirection of inappropriate behavior can begin. A two-
pronged approach is used: (1) catch students using respon-
Level 2: Involvement sible behavior and reinforce them; and (2) redirect students
These students show self-control and are involved in the behaving at level 0 by asking,“At what level are you perform-
subject matter or activity. ing, and what level would be more acceptable?” An example
Behavior examples include the following: is the following discussion between teacher and student:
When a student is behaving at level 0, an open dialogue (see
■ At home: Helping with chores around the house Figure 4) with the student in a nonconfrontational and
■ During free time: Visiting with friends; participating nonadversarial manner.
in a game Teacher feedback forms the core of the responsibility
■ In physical education: Listening and performing an approach; however, there are many strategies for increasing
activity; trying an activity even if it isn’t a favorite;
participating in an activity without complaining
Teacher: “Tyler, it looked like you were making fun of someone.”
Level 3: Self-Responsibility Student: “But, I wasn’t making fun of anyone!”
T: “Maybe you don’t see it that way. But if you were making fun,
Level 3 students take responsibility for their choices and
what level of behavior would it be?”
for linking these choices to their own identities. They are
S: “Zero?”
able to work without direct supervision, eventually taking
T: “Yes. Is that really the way you want to be with other students?”
responsibility for their intentions and actions.
Behavior examples include the following: S: “Not really.”
T: “If you were at level 0, why do you think it would be good to
■ At home: Cleaning up without being asked move to a higher level?”
■ During free time: Taking the initiative to involve S: “Maybe moving to up a level shows you have good self-control
even if someone else makes you mad or if you don’t like that
others in activities person.”
■ In physical education: Following directions; practic-
ing a skill without being told; trying new activities FIGURE 4 An open dialogue with a student behaving at
without prompting level 0

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responsible behavior in the instructional setting. Strategies they choose to play, fitness activities they select, and
that can be used: friends they choose. Discussing how to make mean-
ingful choices is an important phase of learning to
■ Model desirable behavior. Interact frequently with make responsible choices.
students to encourage responsible behavior. Students
do not care about how much a teacher knows until
CONFLICT RESOLUTION
they know how much a teacher cares. Youth should
be treated with dignity and respect and teacher Conflict between students often occurs, resulting in
should follow through with responsible actions and aggression and violence. Almost 30 percent of youth in
words. In return, expect students to treat teachers the United States (or over 5.7 million) are estimated to be
and others with dignity and respect. involved in bullying as either a bully, a target of bullying,
or both. In a recent national survey of students in grades
■ Use reinforcement. Give students specific feedback 6–10, 13 percent reported bullying others, 11 percent
about the quality of their behavior. If corrective feed- reported being the target of bullies, and another 6 percent
back is given, make sure it identifies the desired level said they bullied others and were bullied themselves
of behavior. When reinforcing desirable behavior, be (Nansel, et al., 2001). Nobody wants to create a world
specific in identifying why the behavior is desirable where the strong dominate and the weak live in fear and
and conveying that such acts are appreciated. In submission. Conflict is a part of daily life, and students
some cases, identifying a student as a “super citizen” need to understand that it is necessary to deal with con-
or give a “happygram” for special behavior reinforces flict in an effective manner. Students can learn ways to
appropriate behaviors. respect others’ opinions and feelings while maintaining
■ Allow student sharing. Offer student opportunities their own worth and dignity.
to give their opinions about responsible behavior. There are a number of ways to solve conflicts, but the
Students’ feelings and perceptions are important. most common methods identified involve three types
Students can identify ways to encourage higher of behavior—dominating, appeasing, and cooperating.
Students who use the dominating style are often unsure
levels of responsible behavior. They can also brain-
about their standing in the group. They want things to be
7
storm to identify consequences of high- and low-
level behavior. Another practice is to ask students to done in their way but are afraid others will reject them.
give examples of responsible behavior at different They often lack confidence and try hard to get others to
levels. Allow time for students to share how they accept their way of doing things. Youth who are appeasers
feel when someone uses a high- or low-level beha- lack confidence but want to be accepted by others. They
vior around them. do not like conflict and are willing to put down their feel-
ings in order to placate others.
■ Encourage goal setting. Help students set goals for
Neither the dominating nor the appeasing approach is
the responsible behavior they want to exhibit. This
effective for solving conflicts in the long run. No one likes to
can be done at the start of a lesson by asking stu-
be dominated or placed in the position of having to appease
dents to tell a partner the level of behavior they
others. Conflict resolution can help students learn to solve
want to use today. At the end of the lesson, partners
conflicts in a peaceful manner with no apparent losers. This
evaluate each other to see if the behavior was exhib-
approach takes a cooperative approach to solving problems.
ited. Examples of behaviors are listening, hustling,
Such an approach often builds positive feelings between
following directions, being courteous, and compli-
students and leads to better group cohesiveness. The follow-
menting others.
ing are steps typically followed to resolve conflicts (Gordon
■ Offer opportunities for responsibility. Give students & Brown, 1996). If youth are experienced at conflict resolu-
responsibility in a class setting. Being a group leader, tion, they may be able to carry out the steps without
team captain, referee, scorekeeper, rule maker, or instructor intervention.
dispute arbitrator encourages students to exhibit
high-level behavior. Because responsible positions 1. Stop the aggressive behavior immediately. Separate
affect other students, effective leaders have to behave students in conflict immediately and give them an
responsibly. opportunity to cool down. A pre-designated cool
■ Allow student choice. Realize responsible behavior is down area is an excellent place to send students to
best learned when students make choices. The natural relax and calm down.
consequences of self-selected choices are often the 2. Gather data about what happened and define the
best teachers. Students can make choices about games problem. Find out what happened, who was involved,

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and how each person feels about the conflict. Open effective strategies. Developing a plan of attack for dealing
the discussion with a feeling-oriented statement such with problems offers a sense of confidence and peace of
as,“You must have really been angry to get involved in mind. Phase one of an effective behavior management plan
a fight.” This allows students to talk about their emo- is beginning the year on a proactive and positive note.
tions and the incident. Developing a comprehensive behavior management app-
3. Brainstorm possible solutions. Keep in mind that roach is a systematic way to deal with problems that affect
brainstorming is a nonjudgmental process where all all teachers and are generally ranked as the most serious
solutions are accepted regardless of their perceived concerns of teachers and parents.
value. Encourage the students to think of as many
options as possible by asking open-ended questions, CREATE A BEHAVIOR PLAN
such as “How could we solve this problem?” and FOR YOURSELF
“What other ways could we deal with this?” The old adage “know thyself” is never more important than
4. Test the ideas generated through brainstorming. when having to manage a class of students. The one thing to
Ask a question such as, “What solutions might work assume is that management and discipline skills will be
best?” Help students understand the implications of needed regardless of what age or type of class is being taught.
the solutions and how the solutions can be imple- How a teacher responds to misbehavior (see Figure 5) will
mented. Accept solutions that may differ from your make a huge difference in how students respond to the
way of solving the problem. teacher. Generally, there are three ways a teacher communi-
5. Help implement the plan. Walk students through cates to students when various types of misbehavior occur.
the solution so they develop a perception of the
■ Passive communicator. A passive teacher “hopes” to
approach. Guide them through the steps by asking,
make all students happy in order to avoid being up-
“Who goes first?” or “Who will take the next step?”
set. Passive means trying to avoid all conflict and
As the solution is implemented, there may be a
please others. Directly or indirectly, the passive
need to change it, which can be agreed on by the
teacher is constantly saying, “Like me; appreciate
involved students.
what I do for you.” Many passive teachers want to
6. Evaluate the approach. Observe to see that the plan be perfect so everybody will like them and hope
is accomplishing the desired outcome. Encourage that students will behave perfectly. When students
students to change the plan if necessary. behave like students and go off task, Mr. Passive be-
Conflict resolution processes takes practice and time. comes upset and angry. A common pattern is for
Teachers who take time to develop students’ conflict reso- the passive teacher to let behavior slide until he or
lution skills live with the knowledge that they are teaching she “can’t take it anymore.” Then he or she loses
students to solve problems without violence or excessive composure and lashes out at the class in anger.
emotion. An objective approach to resolution is needed. When the anger subsides, Mr. Passive now wants to
Facilitating the conflict resolution process demands certain make up again and restarts the cycle of letting
teacher behaviors including empathetic listening to both things go and “blowing up.”
parties, exploring both sides of the problem, and students Passive teachers often turn over their power to
feeling that the process was equitable. Blame is not assessed students, particularly the least cooperative stu-
in this process. Placing blame encourages defensive student dents. For example, they will say things like, “We
behaviors. Students must trust that the process will be fair
and objective and that they will receive a fair shake if they
deal with the issue cooperatively. Many questions arise when teachers assume responsibility
for a class. What will your response be? Here are some key
points to consider:

IMPLEMENT A PROACTIVE • How will you respond when misbehavior occurs?

• Will you be threatened, angry, sad, or unmoved?
BEHAVIOR MANAGEMENT • What types of behaviors might set you off or anger you?
APPROACH • How will you control your emotions?
Many class management and discipline problems can be • How do you usually behave and respond to students when you
prevented through anticipation and planning. Anticipating are angry or stressed?
the types of problems that might occur and having a plan
for dealing with them provide the backdrop for developing FIGURE 5 How would you respond?

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are not going to start until everyone is listening!” will not develop much empathy for their instructor.
Interpreted concretely, students may hear, “This is A good rule of thumb is this: any statement about
great. We don’t have to start until we are finished the other person rather than telling them how you
with our conversation.” Passive teachers also ignore feel will give your communication an attacking and
unacceptable behavior and hope it will disappear. aggressive flavor.
Ignoring seldom causes behavior to disappear; ■ Assertive communicator. An assertive teacher does
rather, such behavior often becomes worse over not beg, plead, or threaten. Rather, the approach is
time. Passive teachers often make threats but never straightforward and focused on feelings and expec-
follow through with them. For example, this tations. An assertive person is not afraid to say
teacher might say, “If you do that one more time, what he or she wants and does not worry about
I am going to call your parents.” When there is no what others will think of him or her. A teacher who
follow-through or it is impossible to follow through, wants to be liked is quite concerned about what
the words are empty and meaningless and students students think of him or her. An assertive teacher
soon learn to disrespect the teacher. Another com- wants what is best for students and doesn’t worry
mon trait of a passive teacher is to ask questions about what they think. Assertiveness comes across
that will result in information that is meaningless, to students as a “no-nonsense” approach that needs
for example, “What did you do that for?” or “Why to be carried out. It is clear and direct, and it is
are you doing this?” or “Don’t you know better concrete (requires little interpretation to carry
than that?” These questions do not elicit useful out). For example, an assertive teacher might say to
information, and the teacher’s frustration level is a student who has been talking out of turn, “It
elevated as a result of students “I don’t know” bothers me when you talk while I am talking.” You
responses. are expressing your feelings and making the unac-
■ Aggressive communicator. An aggressive teacher ceptable behavior clear. Following that statement
wants to overpower others by coming on strong. with an assertive statement that expresses the
Aggressive instructors feel it is a competition, and desired behavior: “That is your second warning; I’d
they must win at all costs whenever communica- like you to stop immediately,” places great empha- 7
tion occurs. A common trait with aggressive com- sis on clarity without anger. Emotion is not part of
municators is that they use the word “you” all the an assertive response because it turns assertion
time. Statements containing “you” keep students into aggressiveness.
feeling defensive and attacked. Examples include, An excellent way to make messages more
“You never listen to me; you are always the one in assertive is to make them using the word “I” instead
trouble; you are the problem here; you are always of “you.” Talking about personal feelings and emo-
talking.” Aggressive responders often have all the tions will make the messages sound much more
answers and express others’ viewpoints (which are reasonable and firm, for example, “When you are
often wrong). For example, they may say, “You playing with your equipment while I am talking, it
think that because you did that in your other class, bothers me and makes me forget what I planned on
you can do it in my class.” No one knows what saying. Please leave your equipment alone when I
another is thinking and it serves no purpose to talk.” Such messages identify the behavior that is dis-
communicate this way. ruptive or annoying, offers how the teacher feels,
Aggressive communicators often use the words and directs the student to behave in a proper man-
“always” and “never.” These words are labeling ner. An excellent reference on discipline is Conscious
words. They make students feel as if they are bad Discipline (Bailey, 2001). This is a valuable reference
people who always behave in certain ways or never if you are unsure of how to become an assertive
do anything right. Words that generalize and label communicator.
create communication problems and can result in
alienation rather than respect. Aggressive communi- A key element to effectively managing students is being
cators often see students as personally attacking aware of the influence of certain behaviors when disciplin-
them and focus on labeling the other person rather ing students. Teachers can become angry when students
than dealing with the behavior. Often, they don’t seriously misbehave, or feel threatened, and some teachers
reveal how they feel about things and are unwilling may behave in a tyrannical manner. A teacher’s behavior
to express their own thoughts and feelings. If stu- plan is a reminder of how to behave when student misbe-
dents never know how a teacher feels, it is likely they havior occurs. (See Figure 6)

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Limit the number of rules to three to five rules. More

1. Maintain your composure. Students don’t know your trigger rules make it difficult for students to remember all the
points unless you reveal them. If you lose your temper students
may lose respect for you and regard you as an ineffective
details and make the teacher appear overly strict. Numerous
teacher. rules also make students rule specific. A student may choose
2. Acknowledge your feelings when student misbehavior to chew gum in the gym room because the school rule is
occurs. Do you feel angry, threatened, challenged, or fearful? “no gum chewing in the halls or classrooms.” When stu-
How do you typically respond when a student defies you? dents become rule specific, they often fail to think about
Know and understand yourself. right and wrong and only follow stipulated rules. Rules are
3. Design a plan for when difficult feelings arise. When you guidelines for desired behavior rather than negative state-
feel anxiety building because of student misbehavior, use a ments telling students what they can’t do. Consider the
calming approach such as counting to 10 before responding, following points when designing rules:
or take five deep breaths, or avoid dealing with the student
misbehavior until you feel your emotions are under control.
■ Select major categories of behavior rather than a
4. Know your options for dealing with the challenging multitude of specific rules.
behavior. Talking meaningfuly with students is best done after
class if it is going to take more than a few seconds. Options to ■ Identify observable behavior. This makes it easy to
use when you have only limited time include discreetly warning determine whether a person is following a rule and
the student, removing the student from class, or sending does not involve subjective judgment.
another student for help if a situation is severe or escalating.
■ Make rules reasonable for the age level of students.
The best rules are those that cut across all ages and
FIGURE 6 Steps for developing a personal teacher
situations.
behavior plan
■ Try to limit the number of rules to three to five.
DETERMINE RULES AND PROCEDURES ■ State rules briefly and positively. It is impossible to
write a rule that covers all situations and condi-
FOR THE SCHOOL YEAR tions. Make the rule brief, yet broad. An important
Rules are an expected part of the school environment. Most part of teaching is to get students to think about the
teachers want students to be respectful to them and other ethical implications of the rule rather than seeing it
students. It is not unreasonable to expect students to behave. as someone telling them what they can’t do.
If teachers can’t manage students, teachers can’t teach. In
fact, most school administrators judge teacher effectiveness
by how well students are managed. Managing students is a COMMUNICATE THE CONSEQUENCES
necessary and important part of teaching; in fact, it is a req- OF MISBEHAVIOR
uisite to the delivery of content. When creating rules, select When rules are broken, students have to learn to accept the
general categories rather than specific behavior. For exam- consequences of their behaviors. A sign of a mature student
ple, the rule “respect your peers” includes many things, from is the willingness to accept the consequences of improper
not physically abusing someone to not swearing. Post rules behavior. Immature students argue, try to place the blame
in the teaching area where all students can easily read them. on others, or refuse to accept the need for such rules. List
and post the consequences of misbehavior in a prominent
place in the teaching area. Discuss the rules with students to
General Rules for a Physical Education ensure they understand and see the necessity of having be-
Classroom havior guidelines. Be sure to apply rules and consequences
consistently to ensure no students are punished excessively
■ Stop, look, and listen. This means stopping on
or unfairly. For example, if a teacher likes one student more
signal, looking at the instructor, and listening
than another, this may inadvertently punish each student
for instructions.
differently for the same misbehavior. This leads students to
■ Take care of equipment. This includes caring believe the teacher is unfair. Giving students a say in the
for, distributing, gathering, and using equip- development of rules and consequences helps them create
ment properly. an environment in which they feel some sense of owner-
■ Respect the rights of others. This includes ship. When consequences have been mutually agreed on,
behavior such as not bothering others, teachers have no need to feel upset, disappointed, or angry
respecting their equipment, and not fighting when students are held accountable for breaking the class
and arguing. rules. This process reduces anger and guilt so both teacher
and students feel better about each other.

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IMPLEMENT YOUR MANAGEMENT PLAN the best of their abilities, they probably will do so. On the
A number of things can be done during the first few weeks other hand, if teachers act like they don’t care whether
of teaching to ensure classes begin successfully. This is a they try to achieve to the best of their abilities, some stu-
time to communicate expectations in a positive manner dents will do as little as possible.
that leaves students with a good first impression. A mean-
ingful start leaves students feeling confident and excited Use Activities That Involve the
about the experience. Consider the following points. Entire Class
To minimize class management problems, select instruc-
Develop Awareness and tional activities that keep the entire group involved in
simultaneous activity. As rapport is developed with a class,
the Ability to Co-Process
different styles of teaching and class organization can be
Teachers have to be aware of what is going on in their used. It is usually better to use a more direct style of teach-
class if they are going to be effective managers. It is com- ing in the first few weeks of teaching. This allows a teacher
mon to find beginning teachers who don’t even see stu- to view the entire class and see how students respond to
dents misbehaving or going off task. Research done years the educational setting. Less directed teaching styles and
ago (Kounin, 1970) found that the quality of “withitness” varied organizational schemes are usually implemented
and “overlappingness” were common traits of effective after class management skills have been developed and
teachers. Withitness is defined as the ability to be aware of students have shown the ability to work independently.
what is going on in class regardless of what you are doing Station teaching, peer teaching, and other approaches are
or teaching. Kounin described overlappingness (being most effective when the teacher and students feel mutual
able to process many things at once in an effective man- respect.
ner [co-process]) as a critical trait of effective teachers.
What this means is that teachers have to do many things Give Positive Group Feedback
at once. It is not a profession for those who have a single
Positive feedback delivered to a class develops group
goal in mind and tend to be able to concentrate on one
morale and points the class toward common goals. Classes
thing at a time. Rather, teachers have to see how students
should learn to view themselves as units that work together 7
are behaving regardless of what is being taught. “Spinn-
and are rewarded when they meet group goals. Students
ing many plates at one time” is a descriptive catchphrase
have to work within groups as adults, so learning about
for an effective teacher.
group cooperation and pride in accomplishment helps
ensure a smoothly running class and prepares them for
Be a Leader, Not a Friend adulthood.
Students want a teacher who is a knowledgeable, person-
able leader. They are not looking for a friend; in fact, Discipline Individually and
most students feel uncomfortable if they perceive that a Avoid Group Negative Feedback
teacher wants to be “one of them.” Communicate to stu- When negative feedback is delivered, it should be done pri-
dents what they will learn during the semester, but don’t vately and personally to individual students. Few people
be a part of their personal discussions. There must be a want to have negative comments delivered globally for oth-
comfortable distance between teachers and students. This ers to hear. In addition, never punish all students for the
is not to say that teachers shouldn’t be friendly and car- behavior of a few misbehaving students. This approach
ing; it is important to be concerned about students as leads to resentment and contrary results. If the entire
long as the concern is expressed in a professional manner. group is criticized, there is a strong possibility of losing the
Being a leader means knowing it is the teacher’s charge to respect and admiration of students who were behaving
direct a class and being responsible for what is learned properly.
and how it is presented. Student input is important, but
ultimately, it is the teacher’s responsibility to lead a class Avoid Feedback That Offers
to desired objectives. the Possibility for Backlash
Some verbal types of interactions work in the short
Communicate High Standards term but cause long-term and negative consequences.
Students respond to expectations. If students are expected The following types of feedback often work immediately
to perform at high levels, the majority of them will strive but cause greater problems over time. If students grow
to do so. A common but accurate expression is, “You get resentful, they will become deviant when the teacher is
what you ask for.” If students are expected to perform to not around.

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Examples of Counterproductive Feedback ■ Labeling. Labeling is characterized by telling

■ Preaching or moralizing. A common example students, “Stop acting like babies” or
of moralizing is telling students they “You’re behaving like a bunch of loonies.”
“should know better than that!” If they On a personal level, this may sound more
actually knew better, they might not have like, “You’re always the problem in this
behaved in an unacceptable manner in the class.” This is degrading and dehumanizing
first place. Students make mistakes because to students. Often, labeling is done with the
they are inexperienced and learning as they intent of improving performance. In
go. Part of learning is making mistakes. Correct actuality, it is usually destructive and leaves
mistakes in a quiet and caring manner. students with negative feelings.

■ Threatening. Threats are ultimatums

intended to terminate undesirable behavior,
even though you know you cannot carry
Giving Clear and Specific Instructions
them out. For example, “If you don’t stop
that, I’m going to kick you out of class,” Students may misbehave because they don’t
sounds tough but is usually impossible to understand the instructions. Keep directions
enforce. If students hear numerous idle targeted and brief and use the following
threats, they’ll start to tune out and their guidelines:
respect will wane. ■ Give instructions and then proceed immedi-
ately with the activity.
■ Ordering and commanding. If teachers sound
too bossy, students begin to feel like they are ■ Monitor the group to see if a majority of
nothing more than pawns to be moved students don’t perform correctly. If more
around. Ask students firmly but respectfully to than half of your students appear unsure or
carry out tasks. Courtesy and politeness are req- confused, it is time to stop the class and
uisites for effective teacher–student reinstruct.
relationships. ■ If students are focused and listening, yet still
confused when it is time to participate, it is
■ Interrogating. When there is a problem (for time to monitor and adjust.
example, an argument between students),
an initial reaction is to try and figure out who
started the argument rather than deal with
the feelings of the students. Little is gained MAINTAIN AND PROMOTE
by trying to solve “who started it.” Try calmly
saying, “You know loud arguing is not accept- ACCEPTABLE BEHAVIOR
able behavior in my class. You must have been Managing student behavior is an ongoing task. A class of
very angry to place yourself in this situation.” students is really a group of individuals, each of whom
This encourages students to talk about their must be uniquely treated and understood. Some teachers
feelings rather than place blame on others. It question the importance of instructional discipline.
also communicates a caring and concerned Teaching discipline allows students to learn effectively
attitude toward students even when they without encroaching on the rights of others. Productive
misbehave. societies are based on freedom hinged to self-discipline.
Americans have much personal freedom as long as they do
■ Refusing to listen. This commonly manifests not encroach on the rights of others. In similar fashion,
itself as “Let’s talk about it some other time.” students can enjoy freedom as long as their behavior is
At times, such as during instruction, this consistent with educational objectives and does not pre-
response is necessary. However, if you always vent other students from learning.
refuse to listen, students will avoid interac- Most students choose to cooperate and participate
tion and believe you don’t care. positively in the educational setting. In fact, learners are
(cont.) largely responsible for allowing the teacher to teach. No
one can be taught who chooses not to cooperate.

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Effective management of behavior means maintaining Physical Expressions

an environment in which all students have the opportu- Smiling Winking
nity to learn. It is a teacher’s responsibility to fashion a Nodding Clenched fist overhead
learning environment where all students learn and feel Thumbs-up Clapping
comfortable. Students who choose to be disruptive and
Physical Contact
off task infringe on the rights of students who choose to
Handshake High five
cooperate. If a teacher has to spend a great deal of energy
working with students who are disorderly, students who An early step is to identify the social reinforcers that
want to learn are shortchanged. different age students find acceptable in the school setting.
This section provides a plan for modifying and As students mature, they become much less willing to
maintaining desired student behavior. The overall accept certain types of reinforcers. To pick out individual
approach is two pronged and straightforward: (1) increase students for praise in front of peers may embarrass them
levels of desired behavior, and (2) eliminate or reduce or make them feel uncomfortable. With such students, it is
undesirable behavior by focusing on a positive and con- best to deliver praise on a personal basis whenever possi-
structive approach that teaches students responsible ble to avoid any negative spin. Some students may not
behavior. want to be touched even to the point of receiving a high
five, and those of the opposite sex may interpret a hug or
INCREASE DESIRED BEHAVIOR pat on the back incorrectly. If unsure of how students will
Behavior followed by appropriate positive reinforcement react, it is best to ask the school administrator to define
will occur more often in the future. This principle is a the social reinforcers that are acceptable and to which stu-
key for increasing desired behavior. The strength of this dents respond positively.
simple principle is that it focuses on positive and desired Effective use of social reinforcers requires giving
educational outcomes. A critical component of increas- praise and making positive statements. Many teachers feel
ing desired behavior through reinforcement is that such uncomfortable when learning to administer positive rein-
behavior must occur. For example, if a student often forcement to students because such behavior feels inau-
makes negative comments about her peers, it may be a thentic. A common complaint from teachers learning how 7
difficult and slow process because reinforcement can to reinforce is, “This is not who I am; students will know
only be given when a positive comment is made. Arrang- I am a fake.” Any change in communication patterns feels
ing the environment is often necessary to stimulate the uncomfortable at first. Trying new ways of communicat-
desired behavior to be reinforced. Some suggested ideas ing with a class requires a period of adjustment. New pat-
discussed in detail later in the chapter are to use the terns of praise and reinforcement often feel contrived and
Premack Principle, use behavioral contracts, use failure- insincere. (Fortunately, students don’t know the difference
proof activities, and prompt students for the desired because they don’t know who you “really are.”) There is no
behavior. Key points for increasing desired behaviors lie way to avoid discomfort if you want to improve your
in deciding what to use as reinforcers, selecting those teaching effectiveness. Teachers unwilling to experience
that effectively reinforce individuals, and properly using this initial period of uneasiness will not improve. Assum-
the reinforcers. ing that patterns of speech learned during youth and into
college are naturally suited for teaching is false. Teachers
Social Reinforcers are made, not born, and success is found through hard
With secondary school students, it is best to use social work and dedication. If practiced regularly, new behav-
reinforcers to increase desired behavior. Teachers and par- ioral patterns soon become a natural part of a teacher’s
ents most often use this class of reinforcers such as praise, interactions in a short time.
physical contact, and facial expressions to acknowledge Praise is most effective when it identifies and rein-
desirable and acceptable behavior. The following are forces specific behavior. This contrasts with general
examples of reinforcers that can be used with students in a statements, such as “Good job” or “You are an excellent
physical education setting: performer.” General and nonspecific statements do not
communicate to students what was done well, leaving
Words of Praise the student to guess what you had in mind. If the stu-
Great job Nice going dent guesses incorrectly, he or she may actually think he
Exactly right I really like that job or she is being reinforced for a behavior deemed unac-
Perfect arm placement That’s the best one yet ceptable. To improve the specificity and effectiveness of
Way to go Nice hustle feedback, describe the exact behavior to be reinforced.

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At the same time, do not make feedback judgmental in analyzing the likes and dislikes of students, teachers can
nature. Describing behavior identifies the specifics of develop a set of activity reinforcers that work.
performance and makes no judgment about the individ-
ual as a whole. Judging the person, however, is general The Premack Principle
and often criticizes the individual as a whole instead of Teachers often unknowingly use the Premack Principle
the desired behavior. Compare the following: (Premack, 1965) to increase desired behavior. The princi-
ple states that when a high-frequency behavior (preferred)
Describing: “I saw your forward roll, Eric; your is contingent on completion of a lower-frequency beha-
head was tucked just right.” vior (less desirable), it is likely to increase the occurrence
Judging: “That’s a good try, but I think you can do of the lower-frequency behavior. This implies that when
better the next time.” the less desirable behavior is completed, a more desirable
behavior is allowed. An activity that students enjoy is used
In the first example, Eric is identified by name, and
to increase the occurrence of an activity that students are
a specific behavior he performed is reinforced. In the
reticent to perform.
second situation, it is impossible to identify what is good,
Learning activities can be planned using the Premack
and it leaves the student with an empty feeling. In most
Principle, sometimes referred to as “Grandma’s law,” or
cases, if a question can be asked about delivered praise
“Eat your spinach; then you may have dessert.” Teachers
or criticism (e.g., what was good, or how can it be per-
can arrange the environment so that students must spend
formed at a higher level), the feedback is open to misin-
a certain amount of time completing a certain number of
terpretation. To increase desired behavior, verbally or
attempts at a less popular activity before they can gain
physically describe what makes the performance effective,
access to a preferred activity. For example, seventh-grade
good, or noteworthy. This reinforces the student and
students would have to complete the nine skill objectives
communicates to the rest of the class the performance
shown in Figure 7 before being allowed to participate in a
expected by the instructor.
three-on-three class tournament. Objectives focused on
skill development demand practice and are less favorable
Extrinsic Reinforcers activities, while the three-on-three tournament is the
Social reinforcers are by far the best method when chang- favorable activity.
ing or maintaining student behavior. However, there are It is best to select reinforcing activities related to the
times when the teacher’s ability to reinforce behavior physical education class setting. In some situations, when
intrinsically is seriously compromised. For example, a new student motivation and interest are low, teachers may
or substitute teacher has not established a relationship choose to use reinforcements outside the physical educa-
with students. Students have to value and respect a teacher tion area. These might include enjoying free time, talking
before their social reinforcers become meaningful and with peers, or going to a sporting event. Such rewards are
filled with value to students. In this case, extrinsic rein- harder to defend educationally but may be necessary in
forcers may have to be used. For example, free time that extreme situations.
allows students to participate in their choice of activities
can be used as reinforcement. One of the best ways to Extrinsic Reinforcers: A Word of Caution
identify activities students want to do is to ask them. Give The question here is whether to use extrinsic reinforcers
a quick informal poll of two or three choices. When stu- on a regular basis with students to shape their behavior.
dents get to vote and choose an activity that is reinforcing Consider the example where the physical education
to them, it is usually accepted by the entire class. Free time teacher gives points that lead to a special day of free activ-
usually ranks highest among middle and high school stu- ity. Students in this setting earn points when they wear
dents’ preferences. Some examples of activities that might the proper uniform, get to class on time, and behave
be used to reinforce a class are free time to practice a skill, properly. An increase in desirable behavior through a
the opportunity to play a game, the chance to act as a reward given when a specified number of points are
teacher’s aide, the chance to be a teacher in a cross-aged earned is the goal. This strategy suggests that students
tutoring situation, or the opportunity to be a team cap- will choose to perform the desired behavior because they
tain. Prudent use of free time as a reinforcement can get want to earn points and ultimately receive the reward.
students to participate in a self-selected activity. However, if students find themselves in a setting where
Access to novelty activities, competitive games, and points are not assigned, they may be less motivated to
class tournaments can be used as reinforcers. Frisbee games behave in a desirable manner. It is quite possible that stu-
such as golf, baseball, Guts, and Ultimate are recreational dents will see little “payoff ” in behaving properly because
activities that may be highly desirable for some classes. By they do not receive any reward for their behavior. This

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The following skills must be completed before you are eligible to play 3-on-3.

Dribbling
1. Dribble the ball several times consecutively with control against a “lukewarm defender.”
2. Advance the ball walking toward the basket while dribbling the ball with control.
3. Advance the ball running forward toward the basket from half court while dribbling the ball with control.
Passing (with a partner)
4. Make accurate chest passes to a partner cutting toward the basket from a wing position.
5. Make accurate bounce passes to a partner cutting toward the basket from a wing position.
6. Make accurate overhead passes to a partner cutting to the basket from a low-post position.
Shooting
7. Make consistent layups from the preferred side using a three-step approach.
8. Make consistent set shots from inside the key using appropriate “base, elbow, extension, follow-through.”
9. Make consistent set shots from the perimeter of the key using appropriate.“base, elbow, extension, follow-through.”

FIGURE 7 Basketball skill objectives

may result in their level of internal motivation and self- Usually, verbal cues are used to maintain the pace of
discipline being undermined. Evidence suggests that the lesson, increase the intensity of the perform-
overuse of extrinsic rewards can decrease a student’s ance, or motivate students to stay on task.
intrinsic motivation (Greene & Lepper, 1975; Whitehead 3. Nonverbal cues. Many physical cues are given
& Corbin, 1991). Limiting the use of extrinsic reinforcers through body language to communicate concepts
to situations where social reinforcers are ineffective is rec-
ommended. Extrinsic reinforcers should be removed as
such as “hustle,” “move over here,” “great perform- 7
ance,”“quiet down,” and so on. When teaching skills,
soon as possible so student’s motivation levels are based nonverbal physical cues can prompt students by
on personal satisfaction as a result of accomplishment. moving them into proper position, helping them
Nothing is more rewarding to most students than to through the correct pattern, or placing body parts in
accomplish a goal they didn’t think possible. Learning proper alignment.
doesn’t get any better than when students are motivated
to perform for their own personal reason resulting in true Prompts should not be used to the point where stu-
intrinsic motivation. dents will not perform without them. Prompts should be
removed so behavior becomes self-motivated. This
PROMPT DESIRED BEHAVIOR process is called fading and involves gradual removal of
Prompts are used to remind students to perform desired the prompt. Use prompts at opportune times to increase
behavior. They encourage the development of new pat- the occurrence of desired behavior. Prompts should be
terns of behavior. There are a number of ways to prompt unobtrusive and should be used to stimulate the behavior.
students in the physical education setting. The most com- For example, when students are not staying on task, a
mon are the following: teacher could give students a long lecture (longer than
30 seconds often becomes a lecture) about the importance
1. Modeling. A desired behavior is modeled by the of staying on task. However, this approach is time con-
teacher or another student, with the expectation suming and overreactionary. It is not suited to repetitive
that students respond in similar fashion. For exam- use and is ineffective in the long run. Select a cue that is
ple, placing a piece of equipment on the floor when short and concise and closely linked to the desired skill.
stopping the class will remind the class to do like- In addition to these points, be sure the prompt iden-
wise. Modeling is an effective prompt for desired tifies the desired task. For example, if prompting the class
behavior because students often emulate a teacher to “hustle” and it is not linked to the desired behavior,
they respect. there may be confusion. Some students may think the
2. Verbal cues. This is a common method of prompt- prompt means to perform the skill as fast as possible;
ing and involves using words such as hustle and keep others may think they should stop what they are doing
going. Students are reminded of desired behavior. and hustle to the teacher. Link the prompt to the desired

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behavior in a consistent manner to ensure students students from learning. Discipline teaches students what
clearly understand the meaning of your prompt. behaviors are appropriate in the teaching–learning situa-
tion. Discipline is used when attempts to increase desirable
SHAPE DESIRED BEHAVIOR behavior have failed.
Shaping techniques can be used to build new and desired
behavior. When desired behavior does not exist, shap- KNOW YOUR OPTIONS FOR DEALING
ing—which uses extinction and reinforcement—is used to
WITH UNACCEPTABLE BEHAVIOR
create new behavior. Shaping tends to be slow and ineffi-
cient and is used only if prompting is not possible. Two One of the more important things for a teacher to know is
principles form the foundation for shaping behavior. what options are available when students behave in an
unacceptable manner. What is acceptable and unacceptable
1. Differential reinforcement is used to increase the in dealing with a student who has misbehaved? A surpris-
incidence of desired behavior. Responses that ing issue for most beginning teachers is that there are many
reach a predetermined criterion are reinforced, options for stopping student misbehavior. Check with
while behaviors that do not meet the criterion are administrators and fellow teachers to see what they use
ignored (extinction). An example of this principle and/or accept for dealing with student misbehavior. Then
involves asking a class to put their equipment decide the order in which those behavior response steps are
down quickly. Students should put the equipment to be administered. What follows are some general steps
on the floor within 5 seconds; using differential that most school districts allow when dealing with inap-
reinforcement, reinforce the students whenever propriate behavior. Each of these steps is described in
they meet the 5-second criterion and ignore their detail later. The first three steps assume the student can
performance when it takes longer than 5 seconds. work with the teacher, and the last three steps are based on
2. The criterion that must be reached for reinforce- needing outside help to rectify the situation. It is always
ment to occur is increased. In this step, a shift is best for the teacher to try and handle the discipline first
made gradually toward the desired goal. For exam- before involving parents or administrators. Suspending
ple, if the desired behavior is for the class to become students ultimately doesn’t solve the problem between
quiet within 5 seconds after a signal has been given, it teacher and student.
might be necessary to start with a 12-second interval. 1. Ignore or gently reprimand the behavior. Minor dis-
Why the longer interval? In all likelihood, it is not ruptive behavior can often be ignored, or use the fol-
reasonable to expect that an inattentive class will lowing to get students to behave in acceptable ways:
quiet down quickly. If a 5-second interval is selected
initially, there is a strong possibility that students will ■ Look in the direction of the student to terminate
be frustrated by the lack of success. In addition, this the behavior.
stringent standard of behavior will not be achieved ■ Use a quiet reprimand to “get back on task.”
often, resulting in few opportunities to reinforce the ■ Use a quiet warning delivered personally so it is not
class. This may result in a situation in which both within earshot of other students.
teacher and the class feel they have failed. To avoid ■ Quietly remind a student to get back on task.
this possibility of failure, gradually move toward the
desired terminal behavior. In this case, start with If a student behavior is ignored, it may continue and
12 seconds until the class performs as desired. Next, result in lost patience, and could result in a teacher
shift to a 10-second interval and ask the class to per- behavior that actually reinforces the misbehaving
form to this new standard. The process is gradually student. The caution here is to make sure the behav-
repeated until the terminal behavior is reached. ior can be ignored over time or use the least forceful
reprimand.
2. Give a time-out. The purpose of this step is to gently
DECREASE UNACCEPTABLE and quietly remind the student in an unobtrusive
BEHAVIOR manner.
Society is based on personal freedom hinged to self- ■ Use for minor behavior that is not a serious issue
discipline. Individuals have freedom as long as they do not and doesn’t bother others.
encroach on the rights of others. In similar fashion, stu- ■ Use a quiet and personal warning and send a stu-
dents can enjoy freedom as long as their behavior is consis- dent to time-out until he or she is ready to return
tent with educational objectives and does not prevent other and behave properly.

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3. Remove student from the activity. This step occurs more effective approach is in-school suspension,
for behavior that occurred earlier but has not which takes away all the free time the student has.
stopped as requested. Removing the student from his or her familiar
■ The student is asked to leave class and sit on the side environment separates them from an environment
somewhat out of sight from the rest of the class. that is filled with a number of reinforcers and
issues that get in the way of learning. A student can
■ Used when the behavior occurs a number of times
also be reassigned to another teacher’s class if there
or has escalated in seriousness.
appears to be an obvious conflict with the teacher.
■ Student’s behavior is not to be discussed outside of Suspension is a complex method for dealing with
class and it remains an issue between the teacher misbehaving students because it involves parents,
and student. other teachers, other school administrators, and
4. Make a phone call home. This approach is taken legal ramifications. Preventing behavior from esca-
when the misbehavior occurs a number of times lating must be done at earlier levels in the sequence
and the previous steps are not effective. Phoning of discipline alternatives.
parents or guardians is a step that must be carefully
considered. Many parents do not want to hear IDENTIFY ACCEPTABLE AND
negative reports and may feel it is the school’s
UNACCEPTABLE BEHAVIOR
responsibility to handle their youngster. Depending
on how the parents react, this step could actually An important step in behavior control is to decide exactly
backfire. For example, a parent may severely punish which behaviors are acceptable and which are unacceptable
the youngster at home, resulting in the student in the learning environment. These can be listed in a hand-
blaming the teacher for the punishment he or she out and discussed with students at the beginning of the
received at home and take it out on the teacher. year. The list should be posted in the locker room and in the
Behavior might actually get worse rather than bet- gymnasium and sent to parents and administrators. How
ter. Before calling parents, talk to administrators teachers react to student behavior plays a powerful role in
and other teachers to find out whether calling home managing student behavior and establishing a positive 7
will be an effective approach. learning environment. There should be a personal plan in
place for responding to different types of misbehavior.
5. Send student to the principal. This step must be Determine specific student behaviors that will be praised,
thought about carefully before being invoked. As a reprimanded, or ignored. Each teacher should develop a list
result of sending students to the principal, it may of specific student behaviors and accompanying reactions.
appear the teacher is not capable of dealing with stu- An instructor’s list might look like this:
dent behavior. When a student is sent to the principal’s
office, the principal may have a brief discussion with Behavior to Behavior to Behavior to
the student but internally think the teacher is the Praise Reprimand Ignore
problem. Because administrators are not emotionally
Listening Arguing Talking out
involved, a student’s misbehavior may not be viewed
in the same way as the teacher resulting in very little Following Embarrassing Raising a hand
being accomplished. If this approach is used: directions others Snapping
Hustling Interrupting fingers
■ Communicate to the principal ahead of time
Being on time others Showing off
about what is going on in class and describe the
misbehavior. Dressing Going off task Constantly
properly Talking during asking
■ Another approach is to call the office and tell the
instructions questions
principal’s secretary what has happened. This will
help the principal get tuned in to the problem and
will make it difficult for the student to say that
Negative student behavior is often reinforced by the
“nothing” happened.
teacher and the peer group. For example, assume a student
misbehaves and the teacher publicly reprimands the stu-
6. Suspend or reassign the student. Student suspen- dent. The friends of the student will laugh at the situation.
sion from school is not possible in some states and Unfortunately, peer laughter is reinforcing to this student,
school districts. This is a serious issue, and totally and the behavior occurs more often in the future. When
suspending a student may actually give a student an undesirable behavior is not seriously distracting, ignor-
who dislikes school exactly what he or she wants. A ing it and showing a positive reaction to a simultaneously

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occurring appropriate behavior is effective. If necessary, as there is no violation of the rights or dignity of the
explain to the students that they also should ignore the student. Just as teachers need to know what reinforces stu-
student’s inappropriate behavior. In this way, the misbe- dents, they need to know what a negative experience is for
having student does not receive attention from either the students who misbehave.
teacher or peers. Behavior correction is designed to teach students
how to behave properly rather than to punish them.
USE BEHAVIOR CORRECTION TECHNIQUES There should be no punitive measures involved. Focus on
Behavior correction techniques can be used to decrease natural consequences that occur when students behave
undesirable behavior after positive reinforcement has improperly. When students are disciplined, they can
failed. Using positive reinforcement to increase desired respond in a negative manner, causing class disruption.
behavior is done with the hope that it will replace negative The following steps help prevent teacher–student conflict
behavior. A rule of thumb to follow before correcting in front of the class.
behavior is to reinforce the desired behavior twice. For 1. Do not reprimand the student publicly. Putting
example, assume a student keeps talking while the other down a student in front of the class is never produc-
students are listening properly. Reinforce the students who tive and can stir up resentment toward the teacher.
are behaving correctly. Often, the misbehaving student Assign the class a task to perform, this allows 10 to
will emulate those being reinforced in order to receive 20 seconds for talking with the student privately.
similar positive feedback. If not, the use of corrective feed- Simple and quick reengagement in the activity they
back is warranted. See Figure 8 for a checklist of the the just completed keeps the class engaged as the situa-
main points found in this discussion. tion is discussed with the misbehaving student.
Corrective Feedback (Reprimands) 2. Isolate the student during the discipline session.
Corrective feedback should be specific and have a clear Discipline a student where others can’t hear what
meaning. Timing is important and the corrective state- you are saying. The problem is a private matter be-
ment is most effective when issued as near to the misbe- tween the teacher and the student. Often, a couple
havior as possible. Just as positive reinforcement should of students may misbehave together. Separate them
be delivered immediately following the desired behavior, and deal with their behavior one on one.
so should negative consequences. Negative consequences 3. Address the behavior, not the person. Ask that the
can be anything the student does not want or need as long behavior be stopped rather than telling a student,

Corrective Feedback Checklist

Make a positive statement to the class.

Use proximity—move to the area of deviancy.
Get the entire class involved in a physical activity (preferably moving around the area or using a piece of equipment).
The class should be unaware that a warning is being delivered.
Quietly, individually, and unemotionally deliver the statement redirecting the student (warning).
— State the behavior that needs to change (the student is okay; it is the behavior that needs changing).
— State how to correct the behavior.
— Avoid visual confrontation with the student.
— Move away.
— Never touch the student.
Say something positive to another student or to the class to help you refocus on the positive things going on in class.
Give the student a chance to change the behavior.
— Go back to the student to positively reinforce progress toward the desired behavior.
— Remember that shaping the correct behavior will take time.
— Reinforce even small steps in the right direction.

FIGURE 8 Checklist for delivering corrective feedback

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“You are always causing problems in this class.” are unfair if they are more severe with one student
Avoid general and negative statements related to the than another. In addition, a student penalized for
personality of the student. a specific misbehavior should receive the same
4. State the position once; repeat it once if the student penalty for a later repetition.
doesn’t understand. Don’t argue or try to prove a ■ Make sure students understand the consequences of
point. Take no more than 10 to 15 seconds to tell their misbehaviors before the penalties are imple-
the student what unacceptable behavior occurred mented. This avoids applying penalties in an emo-
and describe the acceptable behavior. For example, tional, unthinking manner. If students know what
“Luis, you were talking while I was talking; I need the consequences will be, they are making the choice
you to listen when I am explaining things.” If the to accept the consequences when they choose to
discussion continues for more than 10 seconds, the misbehave.
rest of the class may start to lose control, and it ■ At times, it is helpful to chart a student’s misbeha-
turns into a lecture rather than a correction. vior to see if the frequency is decreasing.
5. Walk away after conveying the desired behavior.
■ Regardless of the method used, if the behavior is not
Eyeballing students after they have been repri-
decreasing or is increasing, change methods until a
manded is confrontational. To get back on track
decrease in frequency occurs.
positively reinforce one or two other students.
6. Never threaten or bully the student. These actions Time-out
build resentment and may cause greater problems In time-out students are removed from a positive (rein-
at a later time. Don’t be sarcastic. Instead, state forcing) situation. It is similar to the penalty box in an ice
clearly what is desired from the student in terms of hockey game. If a student is behaving inappropriately, he
acceptable behavior. or she is asked privately to go to the time-out area. The
7. Avoid touching the student when correcting area should be far enough away from the class to avoid
behavior. Even if the intentions are positive, it the ridicule of peers but close enough to be within the
can send mixed messages. Some students don’t supervision of the teacher. The area can be specifically 7
want to be touched and will aggressively pull away designated in the gymnasium, or it can be an area in an
and make a scene in front of the class. outside field, such as under a tree, on a bench, or in a
8. Reinforce acceptable behavior. Be vigilant in looking baseball dugout.
for the desired behavior because reinforcing such Being placed in time-out should communicate to
behavior will cause it to occur more often in the students that they have disrupted the class and must be
future. removed so that the rest of the class can participate as
desired. Students can also use the time-out area as a
Removal of Positive Consequences “cooling-off ” spot that they can move to voluntarily if
This is a common approach used by parents; so many they are angry, embarrassed, or frustrated. If students
students are already familiar with it. The basic approach have been placed in the time-out area for fighting or
is to remove something positive from the student when arguing, they should be placed at opposite ends of the
misbehavior occurs. For example, students give up some area so the behavior does not escalate. In addition, it can
of their free time because of misbehavior. They lose be mandated that they stay in their own half of the gym-
points related to a grade. They are not allowed to partici- nasium until the next meeting of the class. This prevents
pate in an activity that is exciting to them. For removal of the possibility of continued animosity.
positive consequences to be effective, make sure students Time-out does not stifle misbehavior if the student
really want to participate in the removal activity. It receives reinforcement for being there. Time-out means
wouldn’t work to keep a student out of a game if the stu- receiving no reinforcement. If class is a negative experience
dent didn’t like the game. A few key principles should be for students, taking them out of class is not a punishment
followed when using this technique: and may be a reward. Class must be enjoyable and rein-
forcing to students and having a student sit out of class
■ Make sure the magnitude of the removal fits the may result in an experience that is reinforcing to him or
crime. In other words, students who commit a minor her. For example, the student who is sent to the office gets
infraction shouldn’t have in-school suspension for a to avoid activity while visiting with friends who come into
week. the office. Notoriety can be achieved among peers for sur-
■ Be consistent in removal among all students and viving the office experience and being able to tell others, “It
with the same students. Students believe teachers doesn’t matter one bit what that teacher does to me.” Don’t

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put students in time-out and then let them sit on the side 1. Identify a single behavior that needs to be changed,
of the gymnasium, watching peers participate. Being a improved, or strengthened. Don’t pick more than
spectator is more reinforcing than participating in class ac- one behavior as it will make it much more difficult
tivities for some students. One of the ways to avoid this to monitor change and may decrease the student’s
problem is to penalize students for nonparticipation chance for success.
(when they are in time-out). This means they will lose 2. Identify a behavior that will be substituted for the
credit for that day, and it will impact the grade they earn in behavior to be modified.
class. Placing a student in time-out can be effective when
used appropriately. Time-outs are to be used infrequently 3. Determine what positively reinforces the student.
and seen as a punishment which should be equal for all Have a discussion with the student to see what is
students. If time-out consequences are ineffective, calling reinforcing.
the parents for a conference with the principal and teacher 4. Decide whether a negative reinforcer (see the fol-
may be an effective last measure. Student participation in lowing section) is needed to give momentum to the
educational endeavors should be seen as a privilege, and change process.
those who choose to disrupt the learning of others ulti- 5. Develop a plan for getting the desired behavior
mately lose their privileges. This process attempts to teach to occur (see Prompt and Shape Desired
students that they are not bigger than the system—that Behavior). This will generate a behavior that can
rules pertain to all. be reinforced and used to replace the undesir-
able behavior.
IMPLEMENT A BEHAVIOR CHANGE PLAN 6. Put the plan into effect and set a time frame for
Changing behavior is possible but a slow process. Teachers evaluation of the plan. Decide what modifications
want to change behavior quickly and on the spot, and at are needed to make the plan more effective. This
times, they make incorrect decisions because they don’t modification may demand a different set or sched-
have time to think out an effective solution. In-class mis- ule of reinforcers or negative consequences. If an
behavior can be temporarily stopped, but it may often go entirely different plan is needed (because the
unchanged for the future. Understand that change will behavior hasn’t decreased or changed), make such
require action that must be planned and repeated a num- changes and proceed.
ber of times. The following steps can be used to develop a
7. Continue evaluating and modifying the plan.
plan for changing behavior.

CREATE BEHAVIOR CONTRACTS

Consequences for Unacceptable Behavior A behavior contract is a written statement specifying
certain student behaviors that must occur in order to
First Misbehavior earn certain rewards or privileges. Students and teachers
■ Warn the student quietly on a personal basis. sign the contract generated after a private conference to
■ Use a gentle reminder to refocus the student. decide on the appropriate behaviors and rewards. Letting
the students make some decisions dealing with the con-
Second Misbehavior tract is often useful.
Behavior contracts may be a successful strategy for
■ Quietly ask the student to go to the time-out
students with difficult behavior problems. Make every
area until he or she is ready to participate
attempt to use rewards that occur naturally in physical
properly.
education class (such as Frisbee play, fitness games, and
■ Specify an amount of time or tell them to small sided sport games). In some cases, however, differ-
remain there until they are given permission ent types of rewards may have to be used. For example, a
by you to return. student who is interested only in rock music and motor-
cycles could be allowed to spend some time reading,
Third Misbehavior writing about, or discussing one of these topics. As
■ Send the student to time-out for the remain- behavior improves and the student’s attitude becomes
der of the period and inform them that they more positive, the rewards are switched to physical edu-
will lose points for nonparticipation. If the cation activities. A contract is gradually phased out over
behavior continues, the student should lose time as the student gains control of his or her behavior
free-time privileges. and demonstrates the ability to participate in a regular
class environment.

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Behavior Contract

I. Class Preparation Points

A. Attendance 1
B. On time 1
C. Properly dressed 1
II. Social Behavior
A. Showering 1
B. Lack of inappropriate behaviors 5
Cursing
Fighting 9 points per day
Disrupting (36 points per week)

During Friday’s class, points may be exchanged for time in aerobics, weight training, Frisbee,
or basketball.

I agree to these conditions.

Student

Teacher

FIGURE 9 A sample behavior contract 7

Contracts can be written for a small group of stu- a part of the communication process among stu-
dents or for an entire class with similar problems, but dents, teachers, parents, administrators, and counselors.
teachers must be careful about setting up a reward system Referral forms are effective tools for documenting
for too many students. Separate systems can become too student behavior. One disadvantage is that the approach
complex or time consuming to supervise properly. is time-consuming. However, there are few shortcuts to a
Contracts are best used with a limited number of stu- well-disciplined class. The following is a four-step
dents. An example of a behavior contract that can be used approach for dealing with behavior that is difficult and
with an individual, a small group, or an entire class of continuous.
students is shown in Figure 9.
Step 1. Initiate an informal, private conference between
the teacher and student, focusing on the behavioral
DEAL WITH SEVERE MISBEHAVIOR aberration. An agreement should be reached regarding
the consequences of future behavior.
At times, corrective behavior techniques don’t work.
Many strategies may have been tried with a student with Step 2. Check with other teachers and administrators
little success. At this time, teachers must go beyond their to see if a telephone call to the parents will help the
own resources. As a note of caution, all the previous situation. As discussed earlier, it might not, depending
techniques have assumed that a teacher is working indi- on the situation. The nature of the call home should
vidually to solve the problem. This is the first and best be to find solutions for the existing problem; focus the
approach. It is easier to send the student to the office and conversation on soliciting help and advice rather than
ask someone else to solve the problem. Unfortunately, denouncing their youngster. Alienating the parents
this does not solve the problem between the student and may make it even more difficult to deal with the stu-
the teacher. The steps listed here assume that all other dent. During the phone discussion, ask the parents if
avenues have been tried and were unsuccessful. they would like to participate in a conference with
Most secondary schools have some type of discipli- their youngster, the school counselor, and yourself.
nary referral form for severe problems. The form is used Step 3. Schedule a conference with the teacher, parents
to keep an accurate record of behavioral problems and is (if they are willing), student, and principal or counselor

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to discuss the problem and develop a plan for changing was asked to increase criticism from 5 times in 20 min-
the behavior. A written copy of the plan should be dis- utes to 16 times in 20 minutes, more off-task behavior
tributed to all people involved. was demonstrated. On some days, the percentage of off-
Step 4. If necessary, use severe disciplinary actions, such task behavior increased to more than 50 percent. The
as these: point is, when attention is given to off-task behavior and
no praise is offered for on-task accomplishment, off-task
a. Loss of privileges: Privilege losses could include access
behavior increases dramatically. Criticism shows results
to the cafeteria, clubs, athletics, or dances. Parents are
(students respond to the request of the criticism), but
notified in writing about the procedures used.
students do not change. Students are reinforced (they
b. In-school suspension: Students are sent to a desig-
receive attention from the teacher) for their off-task
nated area with a supervisor who enforces strict rules
behavior. In addition, because their on-task behavior is
and guidelines for schoolwork.
not praised, it decreases, resulting in the opposite of what
c. Short- and long-term suspensions from school: Suspen-
is desired.
sion from school for 3 to 10 days, depending on the
severity of the behavior and the student’s history.
Strict policies and procedures are arranged and fol-
lowed carefully to ensure due process. Parents must MAKE PUNISHMENT
be notified in writing as to the steps that have been A LAST RESORT
followed.
A difficult question is whether punishment should be
d. Expulsion: The final step used in extremely severe
used in an educational setting. Punishment can have neg-
instances is expulsion. The principal initiates the
ative side effects because fear is the primary motivator.
action with a letter to the student and parents. An
Consider the long-term need for punishment. If the long-
official action from the Board of Education may be
term effects of using punishment are more beneficial than
required to expel a student. Due process and appeal
not using it, it is unethical not to use punishment. In other
procedures must be used and made available to the
words, if a student is going to be in a worse situation
student.
because punishment was not used to deter self-destructive
behavior, it is wrong not to use it. It may be necessary to
punish a student for protection from self-inflicted harm
USE CRITICISM CAUTIOUSLY (e.g., using a certain apparatus without supervision).
Criticism must be used with caution and judgment. Punishment may be needed to teach students not to hurt
Criticism is often used with the belief that it will others. Punishment in these situations can cause dis-
improve the performance of students. Scolding and criti- comfort to the teacher and student in the short run, but
cism are often the behavior control tools of choice it may allow the student to participate successfully in soci-
because they give the impression that the results are ety later.
effective and immediate. Usually, misbehavior stops and Most situations in the educational setting do not
assumed the situation has been rectified. Unfortunately, require punishment because they are not as severe as those
this is not always the case. Criticism and punishment described previously. A major reason for avoiding punish-
lend a negative air to the instructional environment and ment is that it can have undesirable side effects. When
have a negative impact on both student and teacher. The students are punished, they learn to avoid the source of
old saying “It hurts me more than you” is often the Use Criticism
case. punishment. It forces them to be more covert in their
Many teachers feel uncomfortable when they must Cautiously
criti- actions. They spend time finding ways to be devious with-
cize or punish students. It makes them feel as though out being caught. Instead of encouraging students to
they cannot handle students and that the class is incorri- discuss problems with teachers and parents, punishment
gible. This feeling of incompetence leads to a destructive teaches them to avoid these individuals for fear of being
cycle where students feel negative about the instructor punished. Another side effect is that it teaches students to
and the instructor feels negative about the class. In the be aggressive toward others. Students who have been phys-
long run, this is one of the most debilitating effects of ically or emotionally punished by parents act in similar
criticism and punishment. fashion to others. The result is a student who is secretive
As mentioned earlier, another negative aspect of crit- and aggressive with others—certainly less than desirable
icism is that it does not offer a solution. In a study by traits. Finally, if punishment is used to stop certain behav-
Thomas, Becker, and Armstrong (1968), a teacher was ior, as soon as the punishment stops, the behavior will
asked to stop praising a class. Off-task behavior increased return. Thus, little has been learned; the punishment has
from 8.7 percent to nearly 26 percent. When the teacher just led to short-term change.

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If it is necessary to use punishment, remember the KNOW THE LEGAL

following points:
CONSEQUENCES OF EXPULSION
1. Be consistent and make the “punishment fit the If serious problems occur, discuss the problems with the
crime.” Students quickly lose respect for a teacher classroom teacher and principal. Many times, deviant
who treats others with favoritism. They view the behavior is part of a larger, more severe problem that is
teacher as unfair if punishment is extreme or un- troubling a student. A cooperative approach may provide
fair. Peers quickly side with the student who is an effective solution. A group meeting involving parents,
treated unfairly, causing a class morale problem for classroom teacher, principal, counselor, and physical
the instructor. education specialist may open avenues that encourage
2. Offer a warning signal (as discussed previously). understanding and increase productive behavior.
This may prevent excessive use of punishment as Legal concerns involving the student’s rights in disci-
students often behave after receiving a warning. In plinary areas are an essential consideration. While minor
addition, they probably view the teacher as caring infractions may be handled routinely, expulsion and
and fair. other substantial punishments can be imposed on stu-
dents only after due process. Student rights issues are
3. Do not threaten students. Offer only one warning. complicated, and most school systems have established
Threats have little impact on students and make guidelines and procedures for dealing with students who
them feel that you cannot handle the class. One have been removed from the class or school setting.
warning gives students the feeling you are not look- Students should be removed from class only if they are
ing to punish them and are fair. Follow through; do disruptive to the point of interfering with the learning
not challenge or threaten students and then fail to experiences of other students and if all other means of
deal with the behavior. altering behavior have not worked. Sending a student out
4. Follow the misbehavior with the punishment as of class is a last resort and means that both teacher and
soon as possible. It is much less effective and more student have failed.
often viewed as unfair when it is delayed. 7
5. Punish softly and calmly. Do not seek revenge or be
vindictive. If responsible behavior is expected from
students, make sure you reprimand and punish in a STUDY STIMULATORS
responsible manner. Studies (O’Leary & Becker, AND REVIEW QUESTIONS
1968) show that soft reprimands are more effective
1. Explain how effective class management and
than loud ones. discipline are related.
2. Discuss how the teaching of management skills
In addition, try to avoid having negative feelings is similar to the teaching of physical skills.
about a student and internalizing student misbehavior. 3. What would be an appropriate strategy to use if
Being punitive when handling deviant behavior destroys students do not respond to a signal to stop?
any chance for a worthwhile relationship. Misbehavior 4. Design a motivating strategy aimed at encour-
aging students to dress quickly and immedi-
should be handled in a manner that contributes to the
ately enter the gym.
development of responsible, confident students who 5. Briefly describe Hellison’s hierarchy of responsi-
understand that people who function effectively in society ble behavior.
must adjust to certain limits. Forget about past bouts of 6. Why should class rules be stated in more general
deviant behavior and approach the student in a positive terms?
fashion at the start of each class. If this is not done, stu- 7. List and explain the negative consequences of
dents are labeled, making behavioral change more teacher comments that students interpret as
preaching or threatening.
difficult. Students may also learn to live up to the teacher’s 8. Briefly explain and give a practical teaching
negative expectations. application of the Premack Principle.
If punishment is used, make sure that only those 9. List and explain two essential characteristics of
students who misbehaved are punished. Punishing an effective praise.
entire class for the deviant behavior of a few students is 10. Why should prompts be gradually faded out?
unfair and may trigger undesirable side effects. Students 11. Provide three examples of the strategy called
“removal of positive consequences.”
become hostile toward those who caused the loss of priv-
12. Explain the negative consequences of using ver-
ileges, and this peer hostility lowers the level of positive bal criticism.
social interaction with the deviants.

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 MANAGEMENT AND DISCIPLINE

WEBSITES Hellison, D. (2003). Teaching responsibility through physi-

cal activity (2nd ed.). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics
Classroom Management Publishers.
www.glencoe.com/sec/teachingtoday Jones, V., & Jones L. (2010). Comprehensive classroom
www.honorlevel.com/techniques management: Creating communities of support and
www.inclusiveeducation.ca solving problems (9th ed). Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
Kounin, L. S. (1970). Discipline and group management in
Discipline
classrooms. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.
www.disciplinehelp.com
McBride, R. (1992). Critical thinking—An overview with
www.pecentral.org/climate/disciplinelinks
implications for physical education. Journal of Teaching
Management Styles in Physical Education, 11, 112–125.
www.education.indiana.edu/cas/tt/v1i2 Nansel, T.R., Overpeck, M., Pilla, R.S., Ruan, W.J., Simons-
Morton, B., & Scheidt, P. (2001). Bullying behaviors
Responsibility Materials among US youth: Prevalence and association with
www.teachinglearning.com psychosocial adjustment. JAMA, 285(16), 2094–2100.
Nelson, J. (1996). Positive discipline. New York: Ballantine.
O’Leary, K. D., & Becker, W. C. (1968). The effects of inten-
REFERENCES AND sity of a teacher’s reprimands on students’ behavior.
SUGGESTED READINGS Journal of School Psychology, 7, 8–11.
Paese, P. (1982). Effects of interdependent group contin-
Bailey, B. A. (2001). Conscious discipline. Oviedo, FL: gencies in a secondary physical education setting.
Loving Guidance, Inc. Journal of Teaching in Physical Education, 2(1), 29–37.
Beane, A. (1999). The bully free classroom. Minneapolis:
Premack, D. (1965). Reinforcement theory. In D. Levine
Free Spirit Publishing.
(Ed.), Nebraska symposium on motivation. Lincoln:
Canter, L., & Canter, M. (1997). Assertive discipline: Positive
University of Nebraska Press.
behavior management for today’s classroom. Santa
Siedentop, D., & Tannehill, D. (2000). Developing teach-
Monica, CA: Lee Canter and Associates.
ing skills in physical education (4th ed.). Mountain
Charles, C. M. (1989). Building classroom discipline (3rd ed.).
View, CA: Mayfield Publishing Co.
New York: Longman.
Curwin, R. L., & Mendler, A. N. (1988). Discipline with dig- Thomas, D. R., Becker, W. C., & Armstrong, M. (1968).
nity. Washington, DC: Association for Supervision and Production and elimination of disruptive classroom
Curriculum Development. behavior by systematically varying teachers’ behavior.
Darst, P. W., & Whitehead, S. (1975). Developing a contin- Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 1, 35–45.
gency management system for controlling student Whitehead, J. R., & Corbin, C. B. (1991). Effects of fitness
behavior. Pennsylvania Journal of Physical Education test type, teacher, and gender on exercise intrinsic
and Recreation, 46(3), 11–12. motivation and physical self-worth. Journal of School
Gordon, A., & Brown, K. W. (1996). Guiding young Health, 61, 11–16.
students in a diverse society. Boston: Allyn & Bacon. Wolfgang, C. H. (1996). The three faces of discipline for
Greene, D., & Lepper, M. R. (1975). Turning play into work: the elementary school teacher. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
Effects of adult surveillance and extrinsic rewards on Xiang, P., McBride, R., & Guan, J. (2004). Children’s motivation
students’ internal motivation. Journal of Personality in elementary physical education: A longitudinal study.
and Social Psychology, 31, 479–486. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 75(1), 71–80.

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Improving Instruction
Systematically
ESSENTIAL COMPONENTS OF
A QUALITY PROGRAM
I. Organized around content standards
II. Student-centered and developmentally
appropriate
▲

III. Physical activity and motor skill develop-

ment form the core of the program
▲

IV. Teaches management skills and

self-discipline
▲ ▲

V. Promotes inclusion of all students

VI. Focuses on process over product
VII. Promotes lifetime personal health
and wellness
VIII. Teaches cooperation and responsibility
and promotes sensitivity to diversity

NATIONAL STANDARDS FOR

PHYSICAL EDUCATION*
1. Demonstrates competency in motor skills
and movement patterns needed to perform
a variety of physical activities.
2. Demonstrates understanding of movement
concepts, principles, strategies, and tactics as
they apply to the learning and performance
of physical activities.
3. Participates regularly in physical activity.
4. Achieves and maintains a health-enhancing
level of physical fitness.
▲

5. Exhibits responsible personal and social

behavior that respects self and others in
physical activity settings.
6. Values physical activity for health, enjoyment,
challenge, self-expression, and/or social *National Association for Sport and Physical Education
interaction. (NASPE), 2004.

From Chapter 9 of Dynamic Physical Education for Secondary Schools, Seventh Edition. Paul W. Darst, Robert P. Pangrazi, Mary Jo Sariscsany,
Timothy A. Brusseau, Jr. Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. Published by Pearson Benjamin Cummings. All rights reserved.
 I M P R O V I N G I N S T R U C T I O N S Y S T E M AT I C A L LY

DEFINING EFFECTIVE
Chapter Summary INSTRUCTION
The chapter will establish that teaching is a skill that
can be improved by using a systematic, data-based Effective instruction is a broad and general term that can
approach in an ongoing manner. Teachers can iden- be defined many ways. Simply put, it is probably best
tify areas that need to be modified and improved characterized by what students learn through contact
and develop a system of self-evaluation to improve with a teacher. The goal of an instructor is to teach new
the instructional process. The methods of system- skills, refine previously learned skills, change attitudes,
atic observation include event recording, duration and leave students with a positive feeling about what
recording, interval recording, and planned activity
checks (plachecks). Evaluation is kept simple by
they have learned. If students do not learn, instruction
focusing on one specific area at a time. Attempting has not occurred. Some teachers feel they are successful
to record and change too many behaviors frustrates if they teach students all the key points of skill perform-
and confuses teachers. Areas that teachers can evalu- ance. If, in spite of the presentation of key points, stu-
ate include practice time, instruction time, class dents do not perform differently than they did prior to
management, response latency, student perform- the skill analysis, instruction was ineffective.
ance, instructional feedback, student contacts, and
A common saying in education is “students learn
active supervision. After mastering the simple single
behavior systems in this chapter, teachers may want when teachers teach.” This is probably true if teachers are
to use one of the combination systems explained effective in their teaching methods. On the other hand,
later in the chapter for looking at multiple teaching learning is not guaranteed. Teaching effectively demands
and student behaviors. that positive changes in behavior occur. The changes
may be attitudinal, skill oriented, or knowledge based.
Student Outcomes Regardless of the learning domain affected, learning
After reading this chapter, you will be able to: occurs and teaching is effective only when observable
• Discuss the problems of evaluating instruction by changes result. Think about it: if noticeable changes in
using checklists and rating scales. students do not occur, how can teachers say they have
• Explain the advantages of self-evaluation concern- taught effectively? This speaks to the need for systematic
ing instruction in physical education. evaluation of instruction.
• Describe the use of the specific systematic obser-
vation methods.
• Define specific teacher and student behaviors that IMPROVING TEACHING SKILLS
are part of an ongoing evaluation scheme. Teaching is learned just like any other skill. If you want
• Set up a systematic observation plan for analyzing to learn to play racquetball, you practice racquetball.
a specific teaching or student behavior. Most people who have learned sport skills have followed
• Complete a self-evaluation and set future goals the process of setting goals, diagnosing their prob-
for instructional improvement.
lems, prescribing methods for improving, and evaluating
• Complete an evaluation of a taped or live lesson their progress. This approach is needed to improve
and make recommendations for improvement.
teaching skills as well. To learn to teach, a cyclical process
must occur: teach, analyze the results, prescribe changes,
and evaluate progress made. It is not enough to listen,
Few professionals question the need for trying to im- read, and observe. Active participation in teaching is
prove instructional effectiveness. Most teachers want to necessary.
be respected for their ability to impart knowledge and The second part of improving teaching skills requires
change behavior patterns of their students. University that teachers do more than teach. Many teachers have
classes in teacher education strive to impart teaching taught the same thing for years without changing. They
skills to students. Those students who become effective have not incorporated new skills and ideas into their
instructors have one thing in common: they are moti- teaching methods. This results in a teacher who is stag-
vated to improve and excel. It is not enough, however, to nant and unchanging. What if athletes never tried to
be motivated. Motivation without proper teaching skills change or use newly discovered techniques? Quite likely
leaves teachers in a predicament. They want to change they would not remain competitive. When teachers fail to
and grow but do not know what needs to be changed update their techniques, the public may believe they do
and learned. Therefore, a systematic approach for evalu- not care about being effective.
ating instruction is advocated so teachers can assess Practice and improvement goes hand in hand.
when they are improving or need to improve. Teachers need to evaluate their performances so they

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know whether they are improving or becoming stagnant. process offers little or no quantification. It is possible
Ask teachers you know whether they are better teachers the supervisor will forget what the quality of the first
this year as compared to last year. If they say yes, ask them lesson was compared with the present teaching episode.
to prove it. If they can’t give you anything more than a In this situation, evaluating whether improvement has
belief that they are better, you probably have found tea- occurred is next to impossible.
chers who have never used the process of systematic Checklists and rating scales are used as evaluation
instructional improvement. tools and give the appearance of an objective, quantified
method (Figure 1). However, rating scales are unreliable
and become more so when the number of rating points
EXPLAINING THE NEED FOR is increased. Scales and checklists are open to a wide
GOALS AND FEEDBACK spread of interpretation, depending on who is perform-
ing the evaluation. Most evaluations that use checklists
Teachers need goals aimed at improving their teaching
and rating scales are subject to the impressions and
effectiveness. Establishing goals and not evaluating
opinions of the evaluator.
them is like driving down a highway without a map.
This lack of objectiveness indicates the need for a
How can you know when you have reached your goals if
systematic method of observing teaching effectiveness.
you do not establish some method of evaluation? Goals
Siedentop and Tannehill (2000) have developed a num-
and feedback need to be developed concurrently. It
ber of systematic methods for teacher evaluation and
is necessary to have an objective way of evaluating
research. These techniques have led to increased educa-
whether teachers have improved. This is feedback: infor-
tional research in the area of pedagogy. This chapter dis-
mation gathered for the purpose of modifying future
cusses methods that are systematic in nature and feasible
responses.
for self-evaluation of instructional effectiveness.
Feedback about teaching can be used to guide impro-
Methods described here use systematic observation
vement in instructional methods. Assume you have a goal
for self-improvement. Lacy (2011) offers a variety of
of improving volleyball skills. For comparative purposes,
additional ideas for using systematic observation for
you want to try teaching the volleyball set using a recipro-
self-improvement as a beginning or novice teacher. If the
cal teaching method for instruction. You allow half the
reader chooses to conduct research projects/studies and
class to teach a friend the set while you teach the other
to look at this area more in-depth, in addition to the
half using a teacher-centered, direct style of instruction.
Lacy text (2011), Developing Teaching Skills in Physical
After a week of practice, you evaluate the performance
Education (Siedentop & Tannehill, 2000) is an excellent
level of the volleyball set. Comparing the reciprocal style
resource. This current chapter shows how systematic
versus the direct style generates feedback about the effec-
evaluation can be implemented in a typical school set-
tiveness of the method.
ting and in the athletic settings at the school primarily at
This example illustrates goal setting and data gath-
the beginning level.
ering related to instructional outcomes. Later in the
chapter, systematic approaches for improving instruc-
tion will be discussed. All the approaches involve
setting goals and establishing a database of information EVALUATING EFFECTIVE
to see if they were accomplished. Learning to col- TEACHING
lect meaningful data about teaching is necessary for
What should be evaluated in the teaching process? Three
improvement.
major areas can be observed and evaluated. The first is
teacher behavior, which includes evaluation of areas
such as teacher movement, instruction presentation, the
EXPLAINING THE NEED FOR praise-to-criticism ratio, use of first names, and the
SYSTEMATIC EVALUATION length of instructional episodes. Focus is on the perfor-
Instruction has most often been evaluated using inexact mance of skills managed by the teacher. The responsibi-
and insensitive methods such as intuition, checklists, lity for performing behaviors in this category rests solely
rating scales, and observation. Over time, these methods with the teacher.
have proven relatively ineffective for improving the The second category of observable behavior is stu-
quality of instruction. The use of intuition relies on the dent behavior. Examples of student behavior are the rate
expertise of a supervisor who observes the instructor, of deviant behavior, the amount of time students stay
recommends changes, and reinforces the result. Impro- on task, the number of students on task, the number of
vement is difficult to identify because the evaluation practice trials students receive, and the amount of time

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Student Activity Grade

5 4 3 2 1 Comments

1. Use of language

2. Quality of voice

3. Personal appearance

4. Class management

5. Presentation and teaching techniques

6. Professional poise

7. Enthusiasm, interest

8. Adaptability, foresight

9. Adequate activity
10. Knowledge of subject

11. Appropriate use of student help

12. Demonstration (if any)

13. Progression (if applicable)

14. General organization

General evaluation
5–Superior
4–Above average
3–Average
2–Below average
1–Poor
Evaluating Teacher

Date

FIGURE 1 Example of a rating scale

students are engaged in physical activity. These variables product of learning. How students learned is not the
can be evaluated through direct observation; they link issue; if they learned is the concern. On the surface, this
to student learning more closely than teacher behavior seems to many teachers the only important evaluative
variables. Note that these behaviors are process area. Either students learn the skill or they don’t. If they
oriented—emphasis is placed on increasing or decreas- learn the skill, teachers have taught. However, things are
ing the occurrence of student behavior rather than not always so simple. It may be that students have
measuring the actual performance of a skill. learned the skills but leave physical education with a
Another important indication of learning is done negative attitude toward activity. What would be gained
by the evaluation of student skill performance, knowl- if students learned skills they never wanted to use again?
edge, and attitudes toward physical activity and physical What about unskilled students? Can they ever find suc-
education. This third category focuses primarily on the cess in physical education classes?

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The best evaluation system includes behavior from behavior occurs in terms of minutes and seconds. Time
all three of the above categories. It is important to look is the measure used in this type of recording. As with
at teaching behavior. It is also necessary to evaluate how event recording, duration recording does not have to be
students respond in a class setting. If both teachers and done for an entire lesson. Representative sampling of
students are demonstrating effective behavior patterns, three or four bouts of observation, 3 minutes per bout,
the evaluation of skill performance is appropriate. All can be used to generalize about the entire session.
three areas are interrelated, and all three need to be These data are usually converted to percentages so
evaluated. comparisons can be made from lesson to lesson. This is
done by dividing the entire observation time into the
amount of time devoted to the specific observed behav-
INTRODUCING METHODS FOR ior. For example, if activity was observed for 20 minutes
SYSTEMATICALLY OBSERVING and the student was active for 10 of the 20 minutes, the
result would be 50 percent. This would be expressed as
INSTRUCTION “50 percent of the total time was spent in activity.” This
Instruction can be systematically observed using a variety approach is used to identify the duration of certain
of methods to gather information. The instruments are behaviors such as practice, managerial, or instructional
easy to use. A key is to clearly define the area to be evalu- behaviors.
ated. Definitions should be written and followed to make
the data meaningful. The methods require little more than INTERVAL RECORDING
pencil, paper, video recorder, and stopwatch. A videotape
Interval recording analyzes behavior patterns for short
recorder can add the dimensions of replay and privacy,
periods of time. When conducting interval recording,
which are especially important for the beginning teacher.
intervals should be 6–12 seconds, with one interval for
observing and the other for recording. If a teacher used
EVENT RECORDING 6-second intervals during a 1-minute session, five inter-
In simplest terms, event recording involves noting how vals would be devoted to observing and five to recording
many times an event occurs during a specified time the results. According to Siedentop and Tannehill
period. Event recording identifies the frequency with (2000), it is important to have at least 90 data points
which certain behavior occurs. It measures the quantity (observe–record = 1 point) to establish the validity of
of events, not the quality. For example, event recording the technique. This would generate 100 data points in
might be defined as the number of times a teacher inter- 20 minutes using 6-second intervals.
acts with students or the number of times a positive Data generated from this technique are usually con-
statement is made. A teacher might tally the number of verted to a percentage of the data points in which the
practice attempts students receive after a skill has been behavior occurred. If, for example, the behavior
introduced or the number of times the class is asked occurred in 40 of 100 data points, the figure is 40 per-
to stop and come to attention. Event recording results cent. Percentages can be compared lesson to lesson. A
are usually divided by the number of minutes in the simple way to keep track of intervals is to wear a recorder
evaluation session to give an event rate per minute. This headset that “beeps” every 6 seconds. The observer can
enables the teacher to compare lessons that involve dif- alternate between observing and recording with each
ferent content or teaching styles. signal. This technique is reliable, particularly when the
To lessen the time needed for analysis, use a sam- intervals are short, and it can be used to record instruc-
pling technique. For example, if the lesson is 30 minutes tional time, managerial time, academic learning time,
long, four bouts of recording—each lasting 2 minutes at and other types of observable behavior.
evenly distributed points in the lesson—reduce the bur-
den of recording and yield representative results. Any PLACHECK RECORDING/GROUP
observable behavior of teachers, students, or between
TIME SAMPLING
teachers and students can be recorded when the behavior
has been clearly defined. Placheck (planned activity check) recording is similar
to interval recording in that behavior is observed at dif-
ferent intervals. This technique is used to observe
DURATION RECORDING group behavior. At regular intervals during a lesson, the
While event recording offers insight into the frequency observer scans the group for 10 seconds. The scan
of certain behavior, duration recording reveals how long begins at the left side of the instructional area and

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moves to the right side, taking note of which students gathered from an audiotape, or is a videotape necessary?
are not on task. The observer makes one observation Is the instructor willing to let others gather the infor-
per student and does not go back or change the deci- mation, or does the teacher believe it is important to
sion, even if the student changes behavior during the keep the data confidential? These and other questions
10-second interval. determine what areas the teacher is willing to evaluate.
The technique is used to identify student effort, In most cases, the teacher is least threatened by self-
productive activity, and participation. It is usually best evaluation techniques and more willing to change when
to record the less frequently occurring behavior to speed it is not required by outside authorities. Another advan-
counting. For example, if the teacher is interested in tage of self-evaluation is that teaching behavior changes
identifying the percentage of students involved in the least when outside observers are not present. Self-
assigned activity, recording the number of students evaluation techniques can better reveal actual patterns
who are not participating is easier. Intervals should last exhibited in day-to-day teaching.
10 seconds and be spaced randomly throughout the At this time, what do you see as the advantages of
lesson. There should be eight to 10 observation inter- using systematic observation compared to using tradi-
vals. Again, signals to observe can be recorded on a tape tional methods of evaluating teaching? How well do you
recorder at random intervals to cue the observer. This understand these procedures? How can these procedures
technique will yield information concerning the behav- help you develop as a teacher/coach?
ior of the group, thus it is referred to as group time
sampling.
IMPROVING THE QUALITY
SYSTEMATICALLY OBSERVING OF INSTRUCTION
Quality instruction results when an effective teacher
FOR SELF-IMPROVEMENT implements a well-planned lesson. Successful teachers
Each teacher has different strengths and weaknesses and have learned how to do this over a period of years
different concerns for improvement. The approach used through a somewhat inefficient method of trial and error.
for systematic observation directed at self-improvement Unfortunately, sheer experience does not guarantee an
varies greatly from teacher to teacher. Instructors decide outstanding teacher—there are many experienced yet
which variables they want to evaluate and determine mediocre teachers. A key to improving teaching ability is
the best possible way to record and monitor the data. experience coupled with meaningful feedback about the
Evaluating one area at a time is usually best. Trying to teacher’s performance.
record more than one variable at a time may be frustrat- Teachers may find it difficult to find someone capa-
ing and confusing. It may also confound the picture by ble of offering evaluative feedback appropriate for
making it difficult to decide how to change the teaching the physical education environment. Principals and
behavior in question. curriculum supervisors may be too busy or may not
After deciding which behavior needs to be changed, possess skills necessary for systematically observing
a plan for meaningful evaluation is developed. Identi- teaching behavior. This accentuates the importance of
fying the behavior that affects the desired educational learning to self-evaluate. Teachers have long been told to
outcome is necessary, as well as deciding which method talk less, move more, praise more, learn more names,
of observation to use. A coding form is developed to and increase student practice time—primarily without
facilitate recording the data. Coding sheets should be documented methods of measurement. This section
specific to each situation and suited to the teacher. Areas shows a number of teacher and student behaviors that
on the sheet can provide for recording the teacher, the are observable and measurable. The data can be gath-
date, the focus and content of the lesson, the grade level ered by the teacher, by teaching peers, or by selected
and competency of the students, the duration of the students.
lesson, and a short description of the evaluation proce- Take a do-it-yourself approach to evaluation. Feed-
dure. The sheets should be consistent for each type of back gained in the privacy of one’s office is easier to
behavior so the instructor can compare progress through- digest and less threatening. Teachers can set personal
out the year. goals and chart their performance without others know-
Deciding what behavior will be recorded depends on ing. When teachers evaluate their teaching procedures,
the instructor’s situation. For example, can the data be they are usually willing to change. This attitude con-
gathered by students who are not participating? Can trasts with a resistant attitude when principals or depart-
another teacher easily gather the data? Can the data be ment heads impose external evaluation.

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INSTRUCTIONAL TIME tional episode begins and stop the watch when
The educational process requires that teachers instruct. instruction ends. Record the episode on the form,
The throw-out-the-ball approach is nothing more than clear the watch, and be ready to time the next
leisure time activity in a school setting. Instructors instructional episode. An alternative method is
need to know the amount of instruction they offer stu- to record the lesson using an audiotape recorder
dents. Instructional time refers to initial demonstra- and rerun the tape at the end of the day. Esta-
tions, cues, and explanations to get students started on blish a criterion for identifying the difference
an activity. This time deals directly with physical educa- between instructional and management episodes.
tion content. 3. Total the amount of time spent on instruction.
Find a meaningful balance between instruction and 4. Convert the amount of time to the percentage
practice. An observer can tally the number of instruc- of lesson time devoted to instruction by dividing
tional episodes and the length of each episode occurring the length of the lesson into the time spent on
in a daily class. At a later time, the average length of in- instruction. The average length of an instructional
struction can then be evaluated as well as the propor- episode can be determined by dividing the total
tion of the lesson used for instruction. Instructional instructional time by the number of instructional
episodes should be short and frequent with an attempt episodes. Figure 2 is an example of a recording
made to limit episodes to 45 seconds or less. form.
How to Determine Length of Instruction
1. Design a form for duration recording. CLASS MANAGEMENT EPISODES
2. Have a colleague or a nonparticipating student Effective teachers efficiently manage students. Manage-
turn on the stopwatch every time an instruc- ment time is when no instruction or practice is taking

Instructional Time

Teacher Charlene Darst Observer B. Pangrazi

Class 1st period Grade 10 Date and time 3/22–9:05
Lesson focus Golf Comments 1st class meeting of unit
Starting time 9:15 End time 10:00 Length of lesson 45 min

15 10 8 35 17 1:03 31 9 8
14 21 10 21 43 7 3:19 25

Total instructional time 8 min 56 sec

Percent of class time devoted to instruction 19%
Number of episodes 17 Average length of episodes 31.5 sec

FIGURE 2 Sample form for instructional time

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Management Time

Teacher Don Hicks Observer Connie Pangrazi

Class 5th period Grade 10 Date and time 11/7–2:05
Lesson focus Frisbee Comments

Starting time 2:13 End time 2:50 Length of lesson 37 min

55 10 21 1:15 19 18 55 33 16
43

Total management time 5 min 45 sec

Percent of class time devoted to management 15%
Number of episodes 10 Average length of episodes 34.5 sec

FIGURE 3 Sample form for management time

place. Management occurs when students are moved into 3. Total the amount of management time and divide
various formations, when equipment is gathered or put it by the length of the period to compute the per-
away, and when directions are given about these tasks. It cent of management time during the lesson.
also includes taking roll, keeping records, recording fit- 4. Total the number of episodes and divide this number
ness scores, and changing clothes. Figure 3 is an example into the amount of time devoted to management to
of a form for duration recording using a stopwatch. find the average length of a management episode.
Understanding the amount of time used for class
management, and the length and number of episodes, is
useful. The number of episodes and the length of each RESPONSE LATENCY
can be recorded by an observer. These data are useful for Response latency is the amount of time it takes a class to
analyzing how much lesson time is devoted to the area respond to commands or signals. It occurs when instruc-
of management. A high percentage of management time tions are given to begin practicing an activity or to stop
can indicate an inefficient organizational scheme or stu- an activity. An observer can evaluate the amount of time
dents’ slow response to explanations. that elapses from the moment a command is given to
start or stop an activity to the moment when the students
How to Determine Length of Management Time
actually begin or stop. The amount of time that elapses is
1. Design a form that gathers the data desired (see response latency. An accompanying criterion needs to be
Figure 3). set for the percentage of students expected to be on task.
2. Record the lesson with a video recorder. Time the It is reasonable to expect 100 percent of the students to
length of each management episode, and record respond to the command. If less than 100 percent of the
each episode in a box on the form. class is expected to respond, a gradual loss of class control
can occur. The average amount of response latency can be

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calculated so the instructor can set a goal for improving How to Determine Length of Response Latency
student behavior. A certain amount of response latency 1. Develop a form for gathering the data (see Figure 4).
should be expected. Few groups of students stop or start
2. Have a nonparticipating student or colleague time
immediately, and most instructors have a strong feeling
the response latency each time the class is asked to
about the amount of latency that they are willing to
stop or start. The clock should run from the time
tolerate. After more than a 5-second response latency,
the command to stop is given until the next com-
teachers usually become uneasy and expect the class to
mand is given, or until the class is involved in pro-
stop or start.
ductive behavior. For example, the teacher gives the

Response Latency

Teacher Paul Darst Observer Reid Wilcox

Class 5th period Grade 9 Date and time 2/5–12:45
Lesson focus Team Handball Comments

Starting time 12:50 End time 1:33 Length of lesson 43 min

Starting Response Latency

3 12 17 5 5 11 18 9 7
11 3 5 6 14

Stopping Response Latency

12 13 8 18 5 5 14 12 11
3 10 19 18 17

Total amount of starting response latency 2 min 6 sec

Percent of class time devoted to response latency 4%
Number of episodes 14 Average length of episode 9 sec
Total amount of stopping response latency 2 min 45 sec
Percent of class time devoted to stopping response latency 6%
Number of episodes 14 Average length of episode 11.8 sec

FIGURE 4 Sample form for response latency

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command to stop the activity and return to squads recording for practice time. The goal is to increase the
(watch is started). Students stop the game and amount of time students receive for meaningful prac-
slowly return to squads. The teacher waits until all tice. A teacher could increase the amount of practice
students are sitting quietly before giving the next time by using more or different equipment, selecting
direction (watch is stopped). Starting and stopping drills that require a minimum of standing in line, or
response latency are two separate behaviors and streamlining the amount of verbal instruction. There
should be recorded separately. are many ways to increase and improve activity time
3. Add up all of the episodes of response latency (in and practice time depending on the unit and the teach-
seconds) and then divide this by the total number ing environment.
of seconds in the observation. This gives you the
percentage of response latency. How to Evaluate Practice Time
4. Identify the number of response latency episodes 1. Design a form for collecting the data (see Figure 6).
and divide this number into the total amount of time 2. Have a nonparticipating student or colleague iden-
logged for response latency to calculate the average. tify students who will be used for the evaluation.
These are the students that the evaluator will
PRACTICE AND ACTIVITY TIME observe to see when they are involved in practice
To learn physical skills, students must be involved in and for how long.
meaningful physical activity. Physical education pro- 3. Turn on the stopwatch when the students are
grams deal with a finite amount of scheduled time per engaged in practice activity, and record the interval
week. High-success, engaged time with motor activities is of practice.
defined as Academic Learning Time-Physical Education
4. Total the amount of time for student practice (in
(ALT-PE). ALT-PE is defined as activity where students
minutes) and divide it by the length of the lesson.
are practicing skills in a setting that enables them to expe-
This will compute the percent of practice time in a
rience success. Learning is related to the amount of time
given lesson.
students are involved in productive, on-task activity. In a
well-regarded school district, the average amount of
activity time per 50-minute period was only 9–12 min- STUDENT PERFORMANCE
utes. Evidence shows teachers can significantly increase
Some classes have a greater percentage of students per-
the amount of ALT-PE for students. This component of
forming at optimum levels than others. Reasons for this
physical education classes has been studied in many ways
vary. A class may be poorly motivated, have difficulty
and with many different instruments (McKenzie, 2005;
understanding instructions, or be out of control. In any
Randall & Imwold, 1989).
case, instructors can evaluate the percentage of students
To evaluate activity or practice time, duration
who are performing in a desired manner. This can be
recording is an effective procedure. A student or fellow
accomplished by using the placheck observation tech-
teacher can observe a lesson and time the intervals when
nique. Examples of areas that can be evaluated are
students are involved in practicing skills. The chart in
students performing the stipulated activity, productive
Figure 5 is an example of the results of a duration
behavior, effort, and interest in the activity. Once base-
line data are gathered, teachers can strive to increase the
Teacher: Debbie Massoney percentage of students involved in the desired observ-
School: Jason Junior High able behavior.
Inactive,
Off Task, How to Calculate Student Performance
Parts of the Lesson Practicing Listening
1. Design a form for recording the desired data.
Figure 7 is an example of a form that can be used
Introductory activity 2.5 min 1.0 min
for placheck observation. The example can be
Fitness development 11.5 min 2.5 min
Lesson focus 15.0 min 7.5 min
used to identify three different areas of student
Total 29.0 min 11.0 min performance.
2. Place 8–10 audio signals (whistles) at random inter-
FIGURE 5 Results of a duration recording for vals on a tape recorder to signal when a placheck
practice time should be conducted.

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Practice Time

Teacher Eugene Petersen Observer P. W. Darst

Class 2nd period Grade 8 Date and time 11/15–9:15
Lesson focus Basketball Comments Week two
Starting time 9:25 End time 10:00 Length of lesson 35 min

35 10 2:04 25 29 1:39 17 55 34
43 1:55 1:01 33 10 10 18 1:17 4:50
24 39 31 34

Total practice time 20 min 13 sec

Percent of class time devoted to practice 57.8%
Number of episodes 22 Average length of episodes 55.1 sec

FIGURE 6 Sample form for collecting data on practice time

3. Scan the area in a specified and consistent direction Praise and Criticism
from left to right every time the tape-recorded sig- When students are involved in activity, teachers deliver
nal sounds. The class is scanned for 7 to 10 seconds feedback dealing with student performance. This feedback
while the number of students who are not engaged can be positive and constructive, or negative and critical. It
in the desired behavior is recorded. is easy to measure the occurrences of praise and criticism.
4. Convert the data to a percentage by dividing the The occurrences can be tallied and evaluated at the end of
total number of students into the average number the day. Calculate the number of instances and the ratio of
of unproductive students and multiplying the result positive-to-negative comments. Using these data, begin to
by 100. Eight to 10 plachecks spaced randomly set goals for increasing the number of comments per
throughout a class period will yield valid informa- minute and modifying the ratio of positive-to-negative
tion about the conduct of the class. comments. A teacher can expect to average one to two
comments per minute with a positive-to-negative ratio of
3 or 4 to 1.
INSTRUCTIONAL FEEDBACK
The feedback teachers offer to students influences instruc-
tional effectiveness. It is possible for instructors to analyze General Versus Specific Feedback
their interaction patterns and set meaningful goals for Feedback given to students can be specific or general.
improvement. Few teachers enter the profession with the Comments like “Good job,” “Way to go,” and “Cut that
ability to communicate with clarity. The process of chang- out” are general in nature. General feedback can be
ing communication behaviors can create discomfort and either negative or positive and does not specify the
concern but will ultimately pay rewarding dividends. behavior being reinforced. In contrast, specific feedback
Evaluation in the following areas can create improvement identifies the student by name, mentions the behavior
in feedback delivery. being reinforced, and can be accompanied by a valuing

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Student Performance

Teacher Bob Pangrazi Observer Norma Pike

Class 2nd period Grade 12 Date and time 1/26 – 9:20
Lesson focus Weight Lifting Comments

Starting time 9:28 End time 10:12 Length of lesson 44 min

Active/inactive

On task/off task 5 4 12 7 8 5
9 2 1 8

Effort/noneffort

Number of plachecks 10
Total number of students in class 33
Average number of students not on desired behavior 6.1
Percentage of students not on desired behavior 18%

FIGURE 7 Placheck observation of student performance

statement. An example is, “Michelle, that’s the way to creates a positive feeling in a class. Sometimes, however,
keep your head tucked! I really like that forward roll!” teachers use this type of feedback to such an extent that it
To evaluate this area, teachers can tally the number becomes a habitual form of communication (e.g., “good
of general and specific feedback instances. Considering job, nice serve”). These comments do not identify specific
both types of feedback can be negative or positive, this desirable behavior and may be ignored by students. It is
can also be counted. Using first names personalizes the also possible that an undesirable behavior may be rein-
feedback and directs it to the right individual. Total the forced when feedback is general.
number of times first names are used. The number of
valuing statements can also be monitored. Divide the Corrective Instructional Feedback
totals in all of the categories by the length of the lesson Effective teachers coach students to higher levels of per-
(in minutes) to render a rate per minute. Figure 8 is an formance. This involves giving performers meaningful
example of a form that can be used to tally the feedback corrective feedback. Corrective feedback focuses on
behaviors described in this section. improving the performance of the participant. Teachers
Positive feedback should be specific whenever possi- should ignore poor performances if students are already
ble so students know exactly what it was they did well. An aware of them. Corrective instructional feedback is spe-
instructor might say, “Your throw to second base was cific whenever possible, so performers know what it is
exactly where it should have been!” This type of feedback they must correct. An example of corrective instructional

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Instructional Feedback

Teacher Observer

Class Grade Date and time

Lesson focus Comments

Starting time End time Length of lesson

Interactions unrelated +
to skill performance –

General instructional +
feedback –

Specific positive instructional feedback

Corrective instructional feedback

First names

+
Nonverbal feedback
–

Ratio + to –/nonskill related

Ratio + to –/skill related

FIGURE 8 Sample form for tallying feedback behaviors

feedback might be, “Your throw to second base was too How to Tally Instructional Feedback and Related
far to the left of the base! Try to throw the ball directly Behaviors
over the base.” This type of feedback tells the student 1. Design a form to collect the data. Figure 8 is an ex-
what was incorrect about the skill attempt and how the ample of a form that can be used.
skill should be performed.
2. Record a lesson for playback and evaluation at a
Nonverbal Feedback later time.
Much performance feedback can be given nonverbally. 3. Mark the data to be analyzed. Analyze one category
This is certainly meaningful to students and may be at a time when beginning. For example, analyze
equal to or more effective than verbal forms of commu- the use of first names during the first playback,
nication. Examples of nonverbal feedback that could and then play the tape again to evaluate corrective
occur after a desired performance are a pat on the back, feedback.
a wink, a smile, a nod of the head, the thumbs up sign, 4. Convert the data to a form that can be generalized
and clapping the hands. Nonverbal feedback can also be from lesson to lesson (e.g., rate per minute [rpm],
negative: frowning, shaking the head in disapproval, rate per lesson, or ratio of positive-to-negative
walking away from a student, or laughing at a poor interactions).
performance.
It is possible to tally the number of positive and nega- Active Supervision and Student Contact
tive nonverbal behaviors exhibited by a teacher. A student Contact and active supervision are important in main-
or another instructor can do the tallying. Students may be taining students’ involvement with learning tasks (van der
better at evaluating the instructor in this domain because Mars, Vogler, Darst, & Cusimano, 1994). Contact means
they are aware of what each of the instructor’s manner- moving among and offering personalized information
isms means. feedback to the students. To evaluate student contact,

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Teacher Movement—Active Supervision and Student Contact

Teacher Danny Marcello Observer Ken Coyle

Class 5th period Grade 9 Date and time 3/17 – 1:05
Lesson focus Volleyball Comments

Starting time 1:15 End time 2:01 Length of lesson 46 min

M P I
M
M P
M P I I
P
I I P P
P I

M
M M
P
P P
M
I
P P I

M = management activity, I = instructional activity, P = practice time

Total number of moves 28

Number of moves (I) 8 (M) 8 (P) 12
Average number of moves per min. .6

FIGURE 9 Sample form for recording active supervision and student contact

count the number of times an instructor interacts with a are deviant or less competent move away and become dif-
student. This type of feedback differs from total class ficult to observe.
interaction and demands that the instructor have keen These problems can be decreased by actively moving
insight into each student’s behavior and particular needs. throughout the teaching area. Teacher movement can be
Related to this area is teacher movement and super- evaluated by dividing the teaching area into quadrants
vision. Instructors often have a particular area in the and tallying the number of times the instructor moves
gymnasium from which they feel comfortable teaching. from quadrant to quadrant. A tally is made on the form
Before instruction begins, the teacher moves back to this only if the teacher speaks to a student or to the class as a
area. The teacher’s movement pattern causes students to whole while in the quadrant. Do not tally when the
drift to different areas, depending on their feeling about teacher merely passes through a quadrant.
the activity or the instructor. Students who like the Another measure is the amount of time a teacher
instructor will usually move closer, whereas students who stays in a quadrant. Teachers should try to spend the
dislike the teacher or are uneasy about the activity may same amount of time in each teaching quadrant. The
move away from the teacher or to an area where they are length of time can be recorded on the form in relation-
less visible. This results in a configuration where compe- ship to where the teacher stands. At the end of the lesson,
tent performers are near the instructor, and students who analyze the amount of time spent in each quadrant. This

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 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Notes:

Wu M Wu M Wu M F

9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

M P I P M I

17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24

G M I G M I

25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32

G M I END

Note: Only report School Name: Porter MS

Total (secs.) Percent
data from the shaded Teacher Name: Davis
Instruction: ____________
200 ____________
10.8
box in your report Observer: Name: Vasquez
Management: ____________
240 ____________
12.9
Warmup: ____________
160 ____________
8.6 Date of Lesson: 2-14-07
Fitness: ____________
500 ____________
26.9 Date of Obs: 2-16-07
Technique: ____________
60 ____________
3.2 Practice Focus: Guarding
Game: ____________
700 ____________
37.6
Video? / Live?
TIME CATEGORY DEFINITIONS:
Instruction (I): Time devoted to transmitting information regarding subject matter content (i.e., rules, technique, tactics, strategy, etiquette, history, etc.)

Mgm’t (M): Time devoted to organizational activities as well as class business unrelated to the lesson.
I M P R O V I N G I N S T R U C T I O N S Y S T E M AT I C A L LY

Warm-up (Wu): Time devoted to routine execution of physical activities whose purpose is to prepare individuals for engaging in further activity, but not designed
to alter the state of the individuals on a long-term basis.
Fitness (F): Time devoted to activities whose major purpose is to alter the physical state of the individual in terms of strength, cardiovascular capacity,
or flexibility.
Techn. Pr. (P): Time devoted to the practice of gross-motor or sport skills or chains of skills, and strategy outside the applied context with the primary goal of
technique development.
Game (G): Time devoted to the application of skills and strategies in a competitive setting.

FIGURE 10 Completed class time management analysis form

Data from van der Mars, H. (2007). Unpublished material. Arizona State University-Polytechnic, Mesa, Arizona.

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Based on the observation you just completed, respond to the following questions.
Your responses to these questions will become the basis for your profile report, so
be thoughtful and complete.

Answer immediately following your video analysis!

1. The results of this assessment serve as appropriate supporting eivdence for which NASPE Beginning
Teacher Standard(s) (BTS)?

2. Defend your choice. Why is this evidence appropriate to show that you are meeting this particular
BTS?

3. Judge the quality of the evidence you collected (i.e., does this evidence reflect “unacceptable-,”
“acceptable-,” or “target-” level performance on your part).

4. How did you collect the data?

5. What contributed to or hampered the success of your lesson related to this observation?

POSITIVES:

AREAS FOR FURTHER DEVELOPMENT:

FIGURE 11 Reflective observation comments

can be difficult if the teacher is an active mover and does How to Quantify Active Supervision
not stay in the same quadrant for very long. and Student Contact
Another suggested technique is to code the type of 1. Develop a coding form similar to the one in
teacher behavior that occurs each time the instructor Figure 9.
moves into a new quadrant. For example, an “M” might
signify management activity, an “I” might indicate instruc- 2. Ask a nonparticipating student or a colleague to
tional activity with the entire class, and a “P” might stand videotape the lesson so that you can evaluate it
for practice time interactions with individual students. later.
This tally reveals the number of these three types of 3. Evaluate the data by calculating the number of
instructor interactions with students and where the moves per lesson and the number of moves that
teacher moved to conduct the different types of class or involved instruction, management, and practice
individual interactions. interactions.

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Observation 2 Of 4 Teacher name: L. Swansen

Date of lesson: 4-3-07 Observer Name: T. Brown
Date of Obs.: same Lesson Content: 1. Team Wu
2. Team Conditioning
Video / Live Obs. 3. 3 v. 2 (Ball Mgm’t)
4. Campetition Games 6–7

DEFINITIONS:
Elapsed Time: The time during the lesson during which the signal occurred.

Response Latency: Time from the teacher’s signal until students are quiet and in “home position.” If the teacher starts with
direction before attention is established (e.g., continued movement/chatting), record that duration and
circle that number.

Teacher Reaction: Teacher’s reaction to students’ performance on freezing in “home position” and getting quiet.

Can be: Positive (+): “Thanks for freezing so quickly.”

No reaction (O): No comment . . . On to new directions.
Neg./Corr. (–) “You should be doing better on those freezes.”

RECORD ONLY THOSE SIGNALS THAT YOU USED TO START NEW INSTRUCTIONS!!

Signal Elapsed Time Response Teacher

(Min:sec) Latency Reaction
(sec)

Sample > 3 4:40 8 – COMMENTS:

1 :56 7 0
2 5:33 6 +
3 12:48 12 –
4 21:14 4 +
5 21:43 2 0
6 31:58 6 +
7 42:18 7 +
8 44:56 4 +
9

10

Data Summary:
Average Response Latency 6 Sec
Teacher Reactions: Positive: 5 (total #) 62.5% of total
Negative: 1 (total #) 12.5% of total
No reaction: 2 (total #) 25.0% of total

FIGURE 12 Completed signal for attention analysis form

Data from van der Mars, H. (2007). Unpublished materials. Arizona State University-Polytechnic, Mesa, Arizona.

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Based on the observation you just completed, respond to the following

questions.Your responses to these questions will become the basis for your
profile report, so be thoughtful and complete.

1. The results of this assessment serve as appropriate supporting eivdence for which NASPE
Beginning Teacher Standard(s) (BTS)?

2. Defend your choice. Why is this evidence appropriate to show that you are meeting this
particular BTS?

3. Judge the quality of the evidence you collected (i.e., does this evidence reflect “unacceptable-,”
“acceptable-,” or “target-” level performance on your part). Defend your choice!

4. How did you collect the data?

5. What contributed to or hampered the success of your lesson related to this observation?

POSITIVES:

AREAS FOR FURTHER DEVELOPMENT:

FIGURE 13 Reflective observation comments

After reading all of the above, you should now see These techniques are very valuable to teachers and
how these beginning techniques and forms can help coaches, from junior high school through senior high
teacher/coaches self analyze their teaching and coaching school. All teachers and coaches should take a critical
situations. For example, a kickboxing teacher using the look at their teaching techniques and how they organize
health club model can look at the students in his or her their classes, and practice seeing how students and ath-
class and determine how many use the proper form for letes are doing with the skills. There are many ways to
jabs and kicks during the lesson focus, a junior high improve the learning environment for all participants.
school teacher can look at the positive and corrective
statements made to students during weight training
practice, and a soccer coach can review the number of
OBSERVATION SYSTEMS FOR
active and inactive athletes during a segment of a soccer RESEARCH AND SUPERVISION
practice session. These techniques can be used with both After practicing these introductory observation systems
large and small classes. The athletic coach in all sports that focus on one or two teaching behaviors, more
can use them to analyze both practices and games. sophisticated systems can be used that focus on multiple

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Directions: Each time one of the behaviors occurs, place a tally in the appropriate coding box. At the end
of the observation, figure the total frequencies and rate per minute for each observed behavior.

Beh. 1 Beh. 2 Beh. 3 Beh. 4 Beh. 5 Beh. 6

1st Name I with demo I w.out demo +Beh. Feedb.
llll llll llll llll llll llll llll llll l
llll llll llll llll llll ll
llll llll llll
ll

Total: 47 Total: 4 Total: 22 Total: 11 Total: Total:

(47/33) (4/33) (22/33) (11/33)
Rate**: 1.42 Rate**: .12 Rate**: .66 Rate**: .33 Rate**: Rate**:

**Rate = total freq/length of obs. in min. NOTE: Technique- or tactics-related feedback and/or prompt totals
should be divided by the total class time spent in activity.

Use of student first name when interacting Teacher name: P. Martinez

Beh. 1 def.:
Date of class: 4-26-07
Instructional task statement accompanied w. a demo Date of obs.: 4-27-07
Beh. 2 def.:
Lesson content: Wu: over/under
Instructional task statement not accompanied w. a demo Fitn.: Squad Ldr.
Beh. 3 def.:
Skill: Throw/Catch
Beh. 4 def.: Positive reaction (verbal) on students’ class conduct. Game: Fastest Tag.
Length of obs.: 33 min
Beh. 5 def.:
Observation: 4 of 6

Video? / Live?
Beh. 6 def.:

FIGURE 14 Completed event recording form

Data from van der Mars, H. (2007). Unpublished materials. Arizona State University-Polytechnic, Mesa, Arizona.

teaching or multiple student behaviors. Some systems videotape of the lesson. The first letter of each segment of
include the simultaneous observation of teacher and stu- the lesson is coded as it occurs. A line is drawn across the
dent behaviors. Many instruments have been field-tested timeline when the segment ends and a new segment begins.
in middle and senior high school settings for research A total number of seconds is recorded for each segment, and
and supervision purposes. The more sophisticated sys- the percentage of each segment is calculated for the lesson.
tems require more practice time in order to code data The back of the form (Figure 11) is used for reflective analy-
that are valid and reliable. sis of various teaching skills and to focus on the National
Association for Sport and Physical Education (NASPE)
CLASS TIME MANAGEMENT Beginning Teaching Standards.
ANALYSIS FORM
Teachers can use the Class Time Analysis Form shown in SIGNAL FOR ATTENTION ANALYSIS FORM
Figure 10 (van der Mars, 2007) to look at multiple segments The Signal for Attention Analysis Form shown in Figure 12
of class time. Six segments of class time and corresponding (van der Mars, 2007) can be used to analyze a teacher’s sig-
definitions of each are listed on the front of the form. nals for attention, the student’s response latency, and the
Duration recording can be used in a live setting or from a teacher’s reaction to the students’ behavior. The data show

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Based on the observation you just completed, respond to the following

questions. Your responses to these questions will become the basis for your
profile report, so be thoughtful and complete.

Answer immediately following your video analysis!

1. The results of this assessment serve as appropriate supporting eivdence for which NASPE
Beginning Teacher Standard(s) (BTS)?

2. Defend your choice. Why is this evidence appropriate to show that you are meeting this
particular BTS?

3. Judge the quality of the evidence you collected (i.e., does this evidence reflect “unacceptable-,”
“acceptable-,” or “target-” level performance on our part)

4. How did you collect the data?

5. What contributed to or hampered the success of your lesson related to this observation?

POSITIVES:

AREAS FOR FURTHER DEVELOPMENT:

FIGURE 15 Reflective observation comments

teachers how many signals were used, the time when the sig- teacher focus on his or her behaviors and skills that need
nals occurred in the lesson, how long the response latency extra analysis and attention. It also gives the teacher some
lasted, and the teacher’s reaction to the situation. Average choice in developing a personal growth plan for his or her
lengths of time for the response latencies and the percent- skills and teaching situation. The back of the form
ages of the teacher’s reaction behaviors can be calculated. (Figure 15) is the same as the back of the previous two
The back of the form (Figure 13) has the same questions for forms and should be used in a similar manner.
reflective analysis of the involved teaching skills.

Event Recording Form OREGON STATE UNIVERSITY MS-PETE

The Event Recording Form shown in Figure 14 (van der SUPERVISION CODING FORM
Mars, 2007) gives the teacher the opportunity to select six This coding form (van der Mars, 2007), shown in
different teaching behaviors to be analyzed in the lesson. Figure 16, can be used by school principals, college
For example, the teacher could select positive feedback, or school district physical education supervisors, or
corrective feedback, nonverbal behavior, idiosyncratic athletic supervisors for specific supervision of student
behaviors, or mention of first names. This data helps the teachers, beginning or advanced teachers, coaches, or

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Observer: Stevens Date: 4-12-07 Activities: Wu / Sc. Hunt / U-Frisbee 4 v 4

Teacher: J. Lopez School: Mesquite J. H Grade: 8 # in class: 43
Time started: 9:30 Time Ended: 10:15

TIME ANALYSIS
Activity: Time spent on having students engage in technique practice, scrimmage, game play, fitness, or other motor activities related
to lesson obj.
Management: Time spent on organizational activities as well as class business unrelated to the lesson.
Insruction: Time spent on transmitting information regarding subject matter content (e.g., rules, technique, tactics, strategy, etiquette,
history.)

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

M A M A M A M I MA
GTS 1 GTS 2

9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

GTS 3 GTS 4 GTS 5

HR

17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24

M I M A
GTS 6 GTS 7 GTS 8
Teams of 4 4v4
Games
25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32

M I M
GTS 9 GTS 10
Rotate
teams
4 v 4 Games
33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40

A M
GTS 11 GTS 12 GTS 13

40 00
TIME IN: Total Obs. Time: _____:_____ 14.2
(M) __________% 11.7
(I) __________% 74.2
(A) __________%
340 secs 280 secs 1780 secs
TEACHER INTERACTIONS
Technique focus rpm Tactics focus rpm Behavior focus rpm
Prompts llll 5 / 29.7 .17 llll llll llll lll 18 / 40 .45
Questions llll llll llll ll 17 / 29.7 .57
Gen ++ Fb lll 3 / 29.7 .10 llll llll llll llll .67
Sp. ++ Fb llll llll llll llll llll .84 llll llll ll 12 / 40 .30
SP. Cor. Fb
1st Names llll llll llll llll llll llll llll llll lll 43 / 40 rpm: 1.08

ATTENTION SIGNAL OPPORTUNITY TO PRACTICE (technique trials)

Signal Latency (secs) T. Response (+ – 0) Student +++ —
1 3 + Lo-Skill llll lll
2 6 + Med skill llll llll ll llll l
3 10 0 Hi-skill llll ll lll
4 12 – Sp. Needs ll lll
Gen. = General, Fb = Feedback, Sp. = Specific, Cor. = Corrective, T. = Teacher

FIGURE 16 Completed Oregon State University MS-PETE supervision coding form

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 I M P R O V I N G I N S T R U C T I O N S Y S T E M AT I C A L LY

Arizona State University Observation Instrument (ASUOI)

Date 11-15 Coach Darst Sport Basketball Observer Lacy

Categories Time Time Total RPM Percentage

Use of first name lllll lllll llll lllll lllll lllll l 30 1.5 12.9

Preinstruction lllll ll 7 .35 3

Concurrent instruction lll l 4 .2 1.7

lllll lllll lllll lllll lllll lllll lllll lllll
Postinstruction lllll lllll lllll ll
lllll lllll lllll lllll 81 4.05 35.1
llll

Questioning llll ll 6 .3 2.6

Physical assistance ll lll 2 .1 .9

Positive modeling lll llll 7 .35 3
Negative modeling ll l 3 .15 1.3
Hustle lllll lllll lllll lll 18 .9 7.8

Praise llll lllll l 10 .5 4.3

Scold lll llll 7 .35 3

Management lllll lllll lllll lllll lllll lllll lllll llll 46 2.3 20
lllll ll

Uncodable ll l 3 .15 1.3

Silence lll llll 7 .35 3

Total 119 112 231 11.55

Comments Preseason Practice–20 minutes total observation

FIGURE 17 Completed ASUOI event recording sheet

Data from Analyzing Physical Education and Sport Instruction by P. Darst, D. Zakrajsek, and V. Mancini (Eds.), 1989.
Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics Publishers. Copyright 1989 by P. Darst, D. Zakrajsek, and V. Mancini. Reprinted with
permission.

researchers focusing on the teaching of physical education behavior. Finally, there are sections on the teacher’s atten-
classes. The form is much more sophisticated than the pre- tion signals (see form in Figure 12) and the students’
vious forms because multiple teaching and student behav- opportunities to practice according to the students’ skill
iors are analyzed concurrently during the same lesson. level. This is a great supervision form for final student
Specific definitions for all categories and teacher/ teaching observations, growth plan reports for first-year
student behaviors need to be learned and practiced by teachers, or research on teaching/coaching environments.
supervisors and the teachers. The form includes a timeline
analysis for activity, management, and instruction (see the
Class Time Management Form in Figure 10). A section for
ARIZONA STATE UNIVERSITY
teacher or coach interactions with students on prompts, OBSERVATION INSTRUMENT
questions, general positive feedback, specific positive feed- The Arizona State University Observation Instrument
back, specific corrective feedback, and first name use is (ASUOI) is an observation system that focuses on 14
included (see Figure 8). These teacher/coach interactions categories of teacher behavior (Lacy & Darst, 1989). The
are looked at according to the focus on technique, tactics, or system has been expanded and modified several times to
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Arizona State University Observation Instrument (ASUOI)

1
12 14 14 7 4 13 4 14 10 ⁄12 4 3 14 5 14 5 14 14
1
12 14 14 12 4 13 10 14 ⁄10 11 4 14 14 14 14 14 14 14
12 14 14 12 6 12 14 14 14 9 6 14 14 14 14 4 11 14
1
13 14 14 11 4 12 14 14 14 2 4 ⁄3 14 4 13 4 4
1 1 1
12 14 ⁄3 ⁄3 7 12 ⁄10 14 14 2 5 4 14 4 14 10 4
12 3 5 4 14 12 9 14 14 14 14 4 12 14 14 4 4
1
⁄5 4 14 6 14 2 9 14 14 14 14 5 12 14 14 14 14
1
2 4 14 4 14 2 6 14 Rest 14 5 14 12 ⁄9 14 14 14
1 1
2 14 4 4 14 2 7 14 ⁄10 14 14 14 12 14 ⁄2 14 10
2 14 4 14 14 14 7 14 14 14 10 9 14 14 2 14 4
1 1
7 14 4 14 14 14 3 ⁄3 14 14 14 4 ⁄4 14 14 14 4
1 1
2 ⁄10 9 14 14 14 4 14 12 14 14 7 4 ⁄6 3 14 14
1 1 1
7 9 7 14 14 ⁄11 4 14 12 ⁄4 14 14 8 4 14 ⁄10 14
1 1
⁄5 10 8 14 14 4 14 14 12 ⁄4 14 14 7 4 4 14 14

Coach Claxton Date 4–15 Observer Lacy

School Grand Canyon H. S. Sport Tennis (varsity boys)

Comments Record (10 min) – Rest (2 min) – Record (10 min)

Midseason – Day after match.

Behavior Codes
1. Use of first name 5. Questioning 10. Praise
2. Pre-instruction 6. Physical assistance 11. Scold
3. Concurrent 7. Positive modeling 12. Management
instruction 8. Negative modeling 13. Uncodable
4. Post-instruction 9. Hustle 14. Silence

FIGURE 18 Completed ASUOI interval recording sheet

Data from Analyzing Physical Education and Sport Instruction by P. Darst, D. Zakrajsek, and
V. Mancini (Eds.), 1989. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics Publishers. Copyright 1989 by P. Darst,
D. Zakrajsek, and V. Mancini. Reprinted with permission.

create an instrument that is sensitive to the instructional 4. Post-instruction—Information or feedback given

category of behavior. The system can be used with event to students after a skill attempt.
or interval recording. 5. Questioning—Questions asked about skills, strate-
The teacher behaviors include the following: gies, or assignments.
1. Use of First Name—Using a student’s first name or 6. Physical Assistance—Manually moving a student’s
nickname. arms or legs to get them into the proper position or
2. Pre-instruction—Information given to students prior to move through the proper range of motion.
to participation such as explaining a skill, drill, or 7. Positive Modeling—Teacher demonstration of the
strategy. correct way to perform a skill.
3. Concurrent Instruction—Specific instructional cues 8. Negative Modeling—Teacher demonstration of the
or prompts given during practice or playing time. incorrect way to perform a skill.
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Arizona State University Observation Instrument (ASUOI)

Number Percentage
Categories of intervals of intervals

1. Use of first name 18 7.5

2. Preinstruction 11 4.6
3. Concurrent instruction 8 3.3
4. Postinstruction 34 14.2
5. Questioning 8 3.3
6. Physical assistance 4 1.7
7. Positive modeling 8 3.3
8. Negative modeling 2 0.8
9. Hustle 8 3.3
10. Praise 12 5.0
11. Scold 8 3.3
12. Management 19 7.9
13. Uncodable 4 1.7
14. Silence 114 47.5
Total 240 100

FIGURE 19 Completed ASUOI recording worksheet

Data from Analyzing Physical Education and Sport Instruction by P. Darst, D. Zakrajsek, and
V. Mancini (Eds.), 1989. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics Publishers. Copyright 1989 by P. Darst,
D. Zakrajsek, and V. Mancini. Reprinted with permission.

9. Hustle—Teacher statements intended to intensify Figure 17 is an example of a completed event recording

the efforts of the students. sheet for a basketball session. The behaviors can be to-
taled, a rate per minute established (RPM), and a spe-
10. Praise—Verbal or nonverbal compliments or state-
cific percentage for each behavior calculated. Figure 18
ments of acceptance.
is an example of an interval recording sheet for ASUOI.
11. Scold—Teacher behaviors that express displeasure A 5-second interval is used, and the appropriate number
with the students, which can be verbal or nonverbal. assigned to the behavior is entered in the block. If a stu-
12. Management—Teacher behaviors that focus on dent’s first name is used with a behavior, then a 1 is en-
organizational aspects of a class such as lining up, tered with the number of the other behavior, such as
taking attendance, and rotating between stations. 1/10 to show a first name with a praise. The number of
intervals for each behavior is tallied, and a percentage
13. Uncodable—Behavior that does not fit into the determined (see Figure 19).
remaining categories. Teachers use feedback from this instrument to
14. Silence—Teacher behavior used with interval record- analyze and set goals for their teaching behaviors in the
ing and focuses on periods of time where the teacher various categories. Examples of behavior teachers ana-
is monitoring without any verbal interactions. lyze include use of the various instructional categories,
praise-to-scold ratios, management procedures, or hus-
The event recording procedure involves placing a tle behaviors.
tally within a behavior category as the behavior occurs.

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www.pelinks4u.org
www.pe4life.org
STUDY STIMULATORS www.reach.ucf.edu/~pezone
AND REVIEW QUESTIONS Self-Assessment/Reflection
1. Discuss the stages involved in the systematic www.utexas.edu/academic/cte/getfeedback/selfref
process of improving your teaching skills. Video as Assessment Tool
2. Define feedback and goal setting in the context www.teaching.berkeley.edu/bgd/videotape
of improving your teaching skills.
3. Describe the major shortcomings of evaluation
techniques such as rating scales and checklists. REFERENCES AND
4. List and discuss the three major areas of the SUGGESTED READINGS
teaching–learning process that can be defined,
Darst, P. W., Zakrajsek, D. B., & Mancini, V. H. (Eds.).
observed, and evaluated. (1989). Analyzing physical education and sport in-
5. A teacher completed a self-assessment and deter- struction (2nd ed.). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics
mined that there was 50 percent of class time Publishers.
spent in activity, during which the rate of skill- Lacy, A (2011). Measurement and evaluation in physical
related feedback was 1.3 per minute. Which ob- education and exercise science (6th ed.). San Francisco:
servation techniques did the teacher employ? Benjamin Cummins.
6. List and discuss four student behaviors that are Lacy, A., & Darst, P. (1989). The Arizona State University
best assessed using event recording. Observation Instrument (ASUOI). In P. W. Darst, D. B.
7. Explain the fundamental difference between Zakrajsek, & V. H. Mancini (Eds.), Analyzing physical
event recording, duration recording, and placheck education and sport instruction (2nd ed., pp. 369–377).
recording. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics Publishers.
8. Why do the authors advocate that teachers McKenzie, T. L. (2005). System for Observing Fitness
engage in self-evaluation as opposed to assess- Instruction Time (SOFIT) procedures manual. Unpub-
ment only by a principal? lished manuscript, San Diego State University.
9. Explain what is meant by “the teacher has a Randall, L., & Imwold, C. (1989). The effect of an interven-
praise-to-scold ratio of 3:2.” tion on academic learning time provided by preser-
vice physical education teachers. Journal of Teaching
10. Discuss the reasons why it is important that
in Physical Education, 8(4), 271–279.
teachers continuously move throughout the en-
Siedentop, D., & Tannehill, D. (2000). Developing teaching
tire teaching area.
skills in physical education (4th ed.). Mountain View,
11. Explain how activity time or practice time is dif-
CA: Mayfield Publishing Co.
ferent from ALT-PE.
van der Mars, H. (2007). Instructional analysis Forms.
12. Why do teachers at all levels of experience need
Unpublished materials. Arizona State University-
to evaluate their instructional behaviors? Polytechnic, Mesa, Arizona.
van der Mars, H., Vogler, W., Darst, P., & Cusimano,
WEBSITES B. (1994). Active supervision patterns of physical edu-
cation teachers and their relationship with student
Assessment Ideas
behavior. Journal of Teaching in Physical Education,
www.pe.central.org/assessment/assessment 14(1), 99–112.
Physical Education General Information and Assessment Welk, G. (2002). Physical activity assessments for health-
Ideas related research. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics
www.pecentral.com Publishers.

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228
 Assessment,
Evaluation,
and Grading

From Chapter 10 of Dynamic Physical Education for Secondary Schools, Seventh Edition. Paul W. Darst, Robert P. Pangrazi, Mary Jo Sariscsany,
Timothy A. Brusseau, Jr. Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. Published by Pearson Benjamin Cummings. All rights reserved.
 Assessment,
Evaluation,
and Grading
ESSENTIAL COMPONENTS OF
A QUALITY PROGRAM

Courtesy of the Mesa High School Physical Education Program, Mesa, AZ. With permission.
▲

I. Organized around content standards

II. Student-centered and developmentally
appropriate
▲

III. Physical activity and motor skill develop-

ment form the core of the program
IV. Teaches management skills and
self-discipline
V. Promotes inclusion of all students
▲ ▲

VI. Focuses on process over product

VII. Promotes lifetime personal health
and wellness
VIII. Teaches cooperation and responsibility
and promotes sensitivity to diversity

NATIONAL STANDARDS FOR

PHYSICAL EDUCATION*
▲

1. Demonstrates competency in motor skills

and movement patterns needed to perform
a variety of physical activities.
2. Demonstrates understanding of movement
concepts, principles, strategies, and tactics as
they apply to the learning and performance
of physical activities.
▲ ▲

3. Participates regularly in physical activity.

4. Achieves and maintains a health-enhancing
level of physical fitness.
5. Exhibits responsible personal and social
behavior that respects self and others in
physical activity settings.
▲

6. Values physical activity for health, enjoyment,

challenge, self-expression, and/or social *National Association for Sport and Physical Education
interaction. (NASPE), 2004.

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grading can be means of accountability that inform par-

Chapter Summary ents and the public on how well their child’s school is
achieving. Similarly, students are much less willing to
This chapter offers a broad overview of assessment,
evaluation, and grading techniques. This chapter will accept a grade in physical education if it is not grounded
address assessment, evaluation, and grading issues for on principles similar to those in other academic areas.
the psychomotor (physical), cognitive (knowledge), Assessment, evaluation, and grading are three differ-
and affective (social) learning domains. Examples of ent entities. Assessment is defined as the measurement or
existing evaluation techniques for physical skills are collection of information regarding the student per-
offered. Examples of assessment techniques for per-
formance of skills, knowledge, and attitudes taught in
formance outcomes include scoring rubrics, checklists,
rating scales, personal interviews, and self-evaluation physical education classes. Assessment should answer the
logs. Also covered is how to evaluate the knowledge question: “What does this student know how to do?”, and
and social components of physical education. Because instructionally, assessment should answer the question:
grading is always a difficult issue for physical edu- “What does the student need to learn next?” Evaluation
cation teachers, both sides of the grading issue are is defined as the process of using the assessment infor-
covered so teachers can see the many viewpoints that mation to make a judgment on student performance.
must be considered.
Grading is a composite score that incorporates the infor-
Student Outcomes mation and data gathered through the assessment and
evaluation process. Used together, assessment, evalua-
After reading this chapter, you should be able to:
tion, and grading offer students a view of how they are
• Explain the difference between assessment, evalu- performing in different areas under the physical educa-
ation, and grading.
tion umbrella. For example, a student might earn high
• Administer a sport skills assessment to a class of
marks in volleyball and basketball skills but lower marks
secondary school students in physical education.
in soccer and team handball. A grade is assigned as a
• Know how to assess performance outcomes using
composite score for all the areas measured in physical
a variety of instruments including rubrics, check-
lists, rating scales, anecdotal record sheets, and education; to some degree, it is an average report of all
self-evaluation logs. data gathered through the process of assessment and 10
• Devise a knowledge assessment for secondary evaluation.
school students on specific sports units.
• Create a study guide and related exam for students.
• Know how to administer the national physical ASSESSMENT OF STUDENT
education test.
• Discuss issues related to assessment, evaluation,
PERFORMANCE
and grading, including educational objectives ver- Assessment, defined as the collection of information
sus administrative tasks, process versus product, about student performance, has always been a tough sub-
improvement and potential, negative versus posi- ject for teachers to tackle. Traditionally, assessment in
tive, and pass–fail versus letter grades. physical education has been directed at functions of com-
• Explain the pros and cons of specific methods of pliance (e.g., dressing, participation, attendance) and not
grading in physical education. on components that reflect student learning (Lund &
• Develop a grading scheme in line with stated Kirk, 2010). Even when performance is considered, it is
objectives for secondary school physical education. done in ways that are artificial in nature and do not rep-
resent student achievement.
Two types of assessments are performed in physical
education: formal assessment—assessment with the intent
Assessment, evaluation, and grading are areas teachers are to affect grading procedures and informal assessment—
expected to integrate into the teaching process. Regardless assessment done to obtain knowledge about student
of how these processes are managed, the emphasis on performance but not for use in the determination of
accountability continues to place more importance on this grades. Most physical educators use informal assessment.
area. National, state, and district standards are becoming Although physical educators tend to perform numerous
the norm. No longer are school boards willing to support daily informal assessments, this information can’t be used
a program that does not document its impact on students. to evaluate or grade students.
Teachers must demonstrate that each student meets spe- Within the field of physical education, assessment
cific learning outcomes specified by content standards. is an area of varying difficulty. Classes are frequently
Student learning, achievement of content, assessment, and larger than traditional classroom settings, students have

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 A S S E S S M E N T, E V A L U AT I O N , A N D G R A D I N G

various skill abilities, there are multiple content areas, Sample Test
and there is often no formal protocol established to col- In the shuttle run (American Association for Health,
lect student work and develop permanent records such Physical Education, and Recreation, [AAHPER], 1976),
as standardized testing results used in mathematics or two blocks of wood are placed side by side on a line 30 feet
literature. Assessment and evaluation in physical educa- from the starting line. On the command to start, the
tion is left to individual teachers and departments. This student runs from behind the starting line to retrieve one
is often true even if state standards provide the content of the blocks. After placing it behind the starting line,
to be covered at each grade level in predetermined areas. the student runs to pick up the second block and carries it
Given multiple obstacles, teachers are faced with the back across the starting line. Two trials are given, with a
challenge of developing and implementing assessment rest allowed between them. The score is recorded as the
techniques and strategies that are authentic represen- number of seconds required to retrieve both blocks.
tations of what students have learned and can do. The
following sections are designed to give teachers the Balance
framework and tools to perform more meaningful and Balance is usually classified into two types: static and
accurate student assessments. dynamic. Static balance occurs when the person is in a
fixed position such as doing a handstand or balancing on
a balance beam. Dynamic balance is the ability to move
OBJECTIVE ASSESSMENT in a stable manner without falling and is used in activi-
OF PHYSICAL SKILLS ties such as skating, gymnastics, and most locomotor
Physical skill development is a primary purpose of sports.
physical education. Knowledge and attitude develop-
Sample Tests
ment can be addressed in other areas of the curriculum,
but physical skill development only occurs through an In the stork stand for static balance (Safrit, 1990), the
effective physical education program. Physical skills can student stands erect on the dominant foot, placing the
be divided into two subsets: the first set contains the opposite foot flat on the medial part of the supporting
general components of skill such as agility, balance, knee, with the hands on hips. The score is the amount of
coordination, power, reaction time, and speed. The sec- time the balance position can be held.
ond set of skills relates to the ability to perform specific In the balance beam walk for dynamic balance
sport skills such as those found in badminton, rugby, or (Jensen & Hirst, 1980), the student is instructed to stand
team handball. at one end of a 4-inch-wide balance beam. When ready,
the student begins to slowly walk (one foot in front of the
other) the full length of the beam, pausing at the end for
GENERAL COMPONENTS OF SKILL 5 seconds, turning 180 degrees, and returning to the
Physically skilled individuals usually display ability in a starting point. Three trials are given. The test is a scored
number of skill components. The more a person excels in as pass–fail.
each of the components, the greater the possibility they
will perform well in sport skills. Physical educators can Coordination
use this understanding of movement principles and Coordination is the ability to smoothly integrate a num-
concepts to effectively develop instructional lessons and ber of motor patterns together to produce a complete
related assessments. Adolescent students can begin to and effective skill. Coordination is most often required
build an understanding using the relationship of these for complex skills such as throwing, catching, striking,
skill performances to their own abilities. In addition, stu- and kicking.
dents can establish attainable goals and outcomes based
on their perceived ability within each skill component. Sample Test
The following discussion identifies each skill components In the stick test of coordination (Corbin, Welk, Corbin, &
and an example of a commonly used test used to measure Welk, 2008), the student juggles three wooden wands.
each component. One wand is held in each hand, and the third wand rests
across the other two. The resting wand is flipped a half
Agility turn (1 point) or full turn (2 points) and caught using the
Agility is the ability of the body to change position rap- wands in each hand. Five attempts are allowed for a half
idly and accurately while moving in space. Most sports turn and five attempts for a full turn. The test is scored by
require agility and the ability to move in different direc- adding the points earned for the number of successful
tions quickly. flips (15 points possible).

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Speed and Reaction Time wide variety of tests are Measurement and Evaluation in
Speed and reaction time are closely related components. Physical Education and Exercise Science (Lacy, 2010) and
Speed is the ability to move quickly in the shortest time Assessing Sport Skills (Strand & Wilson, 1993).
possible. Reaction time is the amount of time necessary to Bear in mind that these formal assessments evaluate
respond to a signal. Even though both can be measured components of specific sport skills in isolation and do
separately, it is most common to group them and measure not evaluate actual performance in game situations. An
them singly in a dash. Running a sprint for time requires actual performance assessment would be called an authen-
rapid reaction time and speed. tic assessment, which determines how successful a student
is in the application of skills in a “real” setting. Skill appli-
Sample Test cation complexity can limit such testing, resulting in
In the 50-yard dash (developed by AAHPER in 1976), the teachers finding them unacceptable in the instructional
student is timed while running the 50-yard distance as fast setting. Another drawback is that some tests require a
as possible. large number of trained personnel for administration,
which may not be feasible in large secondary classes.
Power Regardless of these restrictions, an effective teacher will
Power is the ability to exert high muscular forces in a arrange his or her instructional environment to include
minimum amount of time. both formal and authentic skill assessments and evalua-
tion. It is important that students know learning is an
Sample Test integral part of physical education. Assessment should
In the standing long jump (AAHPER, 1976), the student answer this question: “What does this student know how
assumes a starting position behind the takeoff line. The to do?”
student takes off using both feet simultaneously and
jumps as far as possible. The long jump is scored on the Kemp-Vincent Tennis Rally Test
best of three trials to the nearest inch. This test (Kemp & Vincent, 1968) was developed to eval-
uate rallying ability in tennis under game conditions.
Integrating Assessment of General Two students of similar ability assume ready positions 10
Skill Components on opposite sides of the net on a singles tennis court.
Each player has two tennis balls on his or her side of the
Results from the formal testing found previously can
court. On signal, one student bounces a ball behind the
frequently provide students with perceptions of their abil-
baseline and with a courtesy stroke, puts the ball into
ities, but assessment must go beyond an understanding
play. The two students rally the ball as long as possible.
of these basic concepts. Students will begin to under-
When a ball is hit into the net or out of bounds, either
stand and place added meaning to the results if they
player starts another ball into play with a courtesy stroke
understand the bigger picture of how these concepts are
from behind the baseline. Any type of stroke may be
used in the world of sports, fitness, and games. These
used during a rally. If all four balls are hit out of play,
results will provide students with a baseline for success,
the testing students are responsible for retrieving them
but the relationship and implications of these concepts
to continue the test. One 3-minute trial is allowed.
will be more thoroughly constructed through active
engagement, interaction, and analysis of the movement Scoring
environment.
For a 3-minute rally, the combined number of hits for the
two players are counted, including any erroneous hits. The
SPECIFIC SPORT SKILLS TESTS courtesy stroke to put a ball in play counts as a hit. Errors
Standardized testing is frequently used to communicate committed by each player are counted. From the com-
levels of student learning outcomes. A wide number of bined number of hits for both players, each individual
formal tests have been designed to objectively evaluate player subtracts the number of his or her errors to arrive
sport skills. These tests are usually carefully designed at a final rally score.
and score high in validity and reliability. Norms are usu-
ally available for the tests so teachers can compare the AAHPERD Basketball Test
performance of their students with a larger number of The American Alliance for Health, Physical Education,
students who have been tested. This section is not Recreation, and Dance (AAHPERD) basketball test
meant to be comprehensive but to give a few examples (AAHPER, 1984) was developed to evaluate a number of
of the types of objective tests available to physical edu- basketball skills, including dribbling, passing, shooting,
cation teachers. Two excellent textbooks that contain a and defensive ability. Each of the areas is briefly described.

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Speed Spot Shooting program (Welk & Merridith, 2008) is the most popular
Five spots are laid out around the key. The shooter must health-related fitness test being used and is the recom-
shoot, retrieve the ball, dribble to another spot, and shoot mended test by the NASPE. Each test item has been checked
again. The student must attempt at least one shot from for validity and reliability. The Fitnessgram assessment
each spot. All students get three trials of 60 seconds each. program offers a choice of health-related fitness protocols
for several of the health-related fitness components. Physical
Passing education teachers can select tests most appropriate for
Six targets are placed on a wall with a restraining line their students and develop a customized test battery. The
8 feet away from the wall. On signal, the student performs Fitnessgram program’s top priority is personal fitness self-
a chest pass to the first target, recovers the ball, and moves testing. Students are taught to evaluate themselves and inter-
to the second target. This action continues until he or she pret their test results.
reaches the last target. While at the last target, the student The Fitnessgram program results help teach students
throws two chest passes, and then repeats the sequence about the importance of physical activity for good health.
moving to the left. This pattern continues until time runs Students are not compared to one another but are given feed-
out (30 seconds). Three trials are given. back about their fitness and whether it meets the minimum
standard for good health. If this objective is met, students can
test themselves and plan personal programs throughout life
Control Dribble
(Corbin & Pangrazi, 2008). Student results are acknowledged
Five cones are placed in the key, one in each corner and and commended in the Fitnessgram program; however, it
the fifth in the middle. On signal, the student weaves in places its highest priority on the development and reinforce-
and out of the cones and completes the course as fast as ment of health-related behaviors that are attainable by all
possible. The score is recorded as number of seconds students. These behavior programs are used to recognize
required to complete the course. Three trials are given. participants for any of the following activities: completion of
exercise logs, achievement of specific and personalized goals,
Defensive Ability and fulfillment of a contractual agreement (with a responsi-
The student slides in defensive position from marker to ble adult). A helpful text for understanding fitness and activ-
marker without crossing the feet. Each time a marker is ity topics is Toward a Better Understanding of Physical Activity
reached, the student must touch the floor. The score is and Fitness: Selected Topics, Volume Two, (Corbin, Pangrazi, &
recorded as number of seconds required to complete the Franks, 2004).
course.

Fitnessgram Test Items

Johnson Soccer Test
The suggested test items in the Fitnessgram (Cooper
This test (Johnson, 1963) was designed to evaluate general Institute, 2007) are briefly described in the following
ability in soccer. A wall marked with the same dimensions text. Other test items are included in the manual to give
as a soccer goal and a supply of soccer balls are needed. The teachers a choice of designing a different test battery. See
student starts behind a restraining line that is 15 feet from the websites section at the end of this chapter for infor-
the wall. On signal, the student kicks a ball against the wall mation on how to obtain a comprehensive test adminis-
so that it rebounds back on the fly or after bouncing. The tration manual, related materials, and software.
objective is to return the ball against the backboard as many
times as possible during a 30-second timed interval. All
Aerobic Capacity
kicks must be initiated from behind the restraining line. If a
The Progressive Aerobic Cardiovascular Endurance Run
ball goes out of control, the student can retrieve another
(PACER) test is an excellent alternative to the mile—it
from the supply. Three 30-second trials are given. The score
involves a 20-meter shuttle run (a 15-meter pacer is also
is the number of legal kicks made during the three trials.
included for elementary settings) and can be performed in-
doors (Figure 1). The PACER test is progressive and starts
HEALTH-RELATED FITNESS out at a level that allows all students to be successful and
Physical fitness testing has occurred for decades in physical gradually increases in difficulty. The objective of the PACER
education. Some experts make an argument for placing less is to run back and forth across the 20- or 15-meter distance
emphasis on fitness testing and more on activity evaluation within a specified time limit that gradually decreases. The
(Pangrazi, 2007). There is much to be said, however, for 20- or 15-meter distance is not intimidating to young partic-
using a standardized test that is administered to many stu- ipants (compared to the mile) and teaches students to pace
dents. Currently, the Fitnessgram physical fitness assessment themselves rather than running all out and fatiguing rapidly.

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Courtesy of the Mesa High School Physical Education Program, Mesa, AZ. With permission.

Courtesy of the Mesa High School Physical Education Program, Mesa, AZ. With permission.
FIGURE 1 Students participating in the FIGURE 2 Peer testing the trunk extensor for
PACER test strength and flexibility

Body Composition Flexibility 10

Body composition is evaluated using percent body fat, The back-saver sit-and-reach (Figure 3) is similar to the
which is calculated by measuring the triceps and calf skin- traditional sit-and-reach test except that it is performed
folds, or the body mass index (BMI), calculated using with one leg flexed to avoid encouraging students to
height and weight.

Abdominal Strength
The curl-up test uses a cadence (one curl-up every 3 sec-

Courtesy of the Mesa High School Physical Education Program, Mesa, AZ. With permission.
onds). The maximum limit is 75. Students lie in a supine
position with the knees bent at a 140-degree angle. The
hands are placed flat on the mat alongside the hips. The
objective is to gradually sit up and move the fingers down
the mat a specified distance.

Upper-Body Strength
The push-up test is done to a cadence (one every 3 seconds)
and is an excellent substitute for the pull-up. A successful
push-up is counted when the arms are bent to a 90-degree
angle. This item allows many more students to experience
success as compared to the pull-up and flexed-arm hang.
Other alternative test items to the push-up are the modified
pull-up, the pull-up, and the flexed-arm hang.

Trunk Extensor Strength and Flexibility

The trunk lift test is done from a facedown position
(Figure 2). This test involves lifting the upper body 6 to FIGURE 3 Peer testing the back-saver sit
12 inches off the floor using the muscles of the back. The and reach
position must be held until the measurement can be made.

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hyperextend. Measurement is made on both the right and related to the measurement and interpretation of body
left legs. composition information is available in Lohman (1992).
Williams and colleagues (1992) reported that students
Criterion-Referenced Health Standards with body-fat levels above 25 percent for boys and 30 to
A major reason for doing health-related fitness evalua- 35 percent for girls are more likely to exhibit elevated
tion is to provide students, teachers, and parents with cholesterol and hypertension levels. The lower limit for
information about good health. The Fitnessgram pro- the Fitnessgram HFZ corresponds to these levels of body
gram (Cooper Institute, 2007) uses criterion-referenced fat. In other words, students who are fatter may be at risk
health standards that represent good health instead of for future health problems.
traditional percentile rankings. These standards repre- Criterion-referenced health standards have not been
sent a level of fitness that offers some degree of protec- established for abdominal strength, upper-body strength,
tion against diseases resulting from sedentary living. The and flexibility. For example, it is difficult to determine
Fitnessgram program uses an approach that classifies whether a lack of upper-body strength is important for
fitness performance into two categories: needs improve- quality health. Instead, criterion-referenced training stan-
ment and healthy fitness zone (HFZ). All students are dards are used for these areas of fitness. The lower limit
encouraged to score within the HFZ; however, there is represents a performance level that students should be
little advantage to scoring beyond the healthy fitness able to accomplish if they are reasonably active and exer-
zone (Figure 4). cise. These standards reflect how many push-ups active
Criterion-referenced health standards do not com- students should be able to perform. Stated another way,
pare students against each other the way that percentile these standards reflect a reasonable expectation for stu-
rankings do. Instead, the focus is on personal fitness and dents who are sufficiently active.
minimizing possible health problems by trying to score
within the HFZ. Criterion-referenced health standards Effective Uses of Fitness Tests
for aerobic fitness are based on an early study by Blair Fitness tests are designed to evaluate and educate stu-
and colleagues (1989). A significant decrease in risk of dents about the status of their physical fitness. In spite of
all-cause mortality occurred when people were active continued research and improvement, fitness tests have
enough to avoid classification in the bottom 20 percent limitations and usually show low validity (that is, they do
of the population. The risk level continues to decrease not measure what they purport to measure). It is impor-
as fitness levels increase but not significantly when tant to bear in mind that the results of fitness evaluation
compared to moving out of the least active group. The are often flawed or inaccurate. Therefore, how the tests
aerobic performance minimums (mile run or PACER) are used becomes an important issue. The three major
for the Fitnessgram HFZ require achieving a fitness ways to use fitness tests are (1) to teach personal self-
level above the least-active portion (bottom 20 percent) testing, (2) to establish personal best fitness perform-
of the population. ances, and (3) to evaluate institutional fitness goals. The
Criterion-referenced health standards for percentage personal self-testing program is most strongly advocated
of fat are calculated from equations reported by in the physical education program. It can be done in the
Slaughter and colleagues (1988). Detailed information least amount of time, is educational, and can be done
on the development of these equations and other issues frequently. In addition, little instructional time is lost,

Aerobic Capacity % Body Body Curl Up Trunk 90° Modified Back Shoulder
PACER,* One Mile Fat Mass # completed Lift Push-up Pull-up Saver Sit Stretch
Run and Walk Test Index inches # completed # completed &
Reach**
inches

Healthy
Girl 14 ≥39.4* 14.0–28.5 15.9–22.8 >18 9–12 >7 >4 10 Fitness Zone
= Touching
fingertips
Boy 14 ≥42.5* 7.1–21.3 16.1–22.1 ≥24 9–12 ≥14 ≥9 8 together
behind the
back on both
right and
left sides

**Test scored Yes/No; must reach this distance on each side to achieve the HFZ

FIGURE 4 Healthy fitness zones (Hfz) for a 14-year-old girl and boy

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and students learn how to evaluate their fitness, a skill Figure 6 is an example of a self-evaluation form that
that will serve them for a lifetime. can be used by students. It contains a column to check off
whether the minimum criterion-referenced health stan-
Personal Self-Testing dard for each test item has been met. The purpose of
The personal fitness self-testing approach is student recording the data is to help students learn to evaluate
centered, concerned with the process of fitness testing, themselves without the stigma of others having to view or
and places emphasis on learning to self-evaluate know about it. As a final note, it is acceptable for some
(Figure 5). When using this technique, students can students to choose not to be tested on a certain item be-
work individually or find a friend with whom they cause they fear embarrassment (skinfolds) or failure
would like to self-test. With a partner, they evaluate (PACER). It is worse to be tested and embarrassed than to
each other and develop their own fitness profiles. The not be tested at all.
goal is to learn the process of fitness testing so students
will be able to evaluate their health status during adult- Personal Best Testing
hood. Students are asked to do their best, but the The personal best testing approach appeals to gifted per-
teacher does not interfere in the process. Fitness results formers and to students who are motivated by achieving
are the property of the student and are not posted or a maximum performance. The objective is to achieve a
shared with other students. Self-testing is an educa- maximum score in each of the test items. This approach
tional endeavor; it also allows for more frequent evalu- has been used for years with most fitness tests. In addi-
ation because it can be done quickly, privately, and tion, several awards (President’s Council on Physical
informally. It takes a considerable amount of practice Fitness and Sports, 2004) are issued to high-level per-
to self-test effectively so multiple opportunities to formers. This is a formal testing program as compared to
practice are necessary. It is also important for teachers the self-testing approach discussed previously. Test items
to help students interpret the results. Students who fall must be performed correctly, following test protocol to
below the healthy fitness zone (HFZ) should be assisted the letter. It requires a considerable amount of time to
in developing a program of improvement. Students administer.
who reach the HFZ should be taught how to determine Personal best testing is an elective program. It requires 10
goals for fitness within the zone and how to maintain maximal performance and usually is not motivating to
that level of fitness. less capable students. Some students are threatened and
fear the embarrassment of failing to perform well in front
of peers. A way to avoid embarrassing students who are
less capable is to administer the test outside of class
time. Testing opportunities can be offered after or before
school and on a weekend when school is not in session.
Some city recreation departments can offer fitness testing
opportunities outside the physical education program as
another elective option. This approach is much less
threatening; students can choose to participate in the per-
sonal best testing session or decide to entirely avoid such
situations.
Courtesy of the Mesa High School Physical Education Program,

Institutional Evaluation
The institutional evaluation program involves examining
the fitness levels of students to see if the institution
(school) is reaching its desired objectives. Institutional
objectives are closely tied to the physical education cur-
riculum. If the curriculum taught to students is adequate
Mesa, AZ. With permission.

and the goals meaningful, the majority of students should

be able to reach institutional goals. A common approach
for institutional goal setting is to establish a percentage of
FIGURE 5 Self-testing health-related the student body that must meet or exceed criterion-
fitness referenced health standards for a fitness test. If the per-
centage is below established institutional standards, it

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Name Age Grade Room

Score HFZ*

Body Composition
Calf (leg) Skinfold

Triceps (arm) Skinfold +

Total (leg and arm) =

Cardiovascular Endurance

PACER

Abdominal Strength

Curl-ups

Upper Body Strength

Push-ups

Back Strength

Trunk Lift

Lower Back Flexibility L R

Sit and Reach

Upper Body Flexibility L R

Shoulder Stretch

*HFZ means you have scored in the Healthy Fitness Zone. This means that you have achieved or passed the
minimum fitness standard required for good health and minimal health risk. Regardless of whether you passed
all the tests, you must maintain an active lifestyle for good health. Try to accomplish at least 60 minutes of
activity every day.

You do not have to share the results of your personal fitness record. It is for your information and should help
you determine your health status. Ask your teacher if you need ideas for increasing your physical activity level.
Students are learning the process of evaluating their fitness. The scores recorded may not be accurate.

FIGURE 6 My personal fitness record (Fitnessgram)

may indicate that the curriculum needs to be modified to seventh and ninth grades). This minimizes the amount of
meet the objective. formal testing students have to endure during their
Because this type of testing affects teachers and cur- school career.
riculum offerings, it is done in a formal and standardized
manner. A common approach is to train a team of par-
ents to administer tests throughout the system. This
ensures accuracy and consistency across all schools in the
ASSESSMENT OF PERFORMANCE
district. Each test item is reviewed separately because it is OUTCOMES
possible that objectives are reached for some, but not all, Assessment in physical education is often difficult because
of the items. To avoid testing all students every year, some of the nature of the subject matter. There is seldom a perfect
districts evaluate only during entry level years (i.e., the and correct performance. Even outstanding athletes who

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have practiced for years make performance errors. How- becoming popular because teachers are expected to assess
ever, there are ways to assess student performance that and report student progress toward program standards
allows for a continuum of performance levels between good (Chepko & Arnold, 2000). While similar to alternative
and poor. Assessment of student performance is an impor- assessment, another aspect to assessing student perform-
tant issue that can be accomplished in many different ways. ance is making sure the assessment is authentic. Authentic
Assessment can become more than an end product, result- assessment is defined as measuring student performance
ing in evaluation of good and poor; it can be used as an in a real-world application of knowledge or skills. Unlike
integral part of student learning and understanding. Assess- many of the skills tests listed in the previous section,
ment can be used as a tool to guide the instructional process authentic assessment allows for students to perform in a
and develop in-depth student understanding. normal setting rather than a contrived testing environ-
What students are to learn is directed by national, ment. What good is performing a skill well if a student is
state, and/or content-specific standards. These standards not able to perform it when it counts? Student outcomes
serve as a guide to what can be expected on completion. on a written rules test will mean little if they cannot be
Expectations and outcomes are clarified with standards; applied appropriately during game play. By assessing stu-
yet, it is often unclear if the learning outcomes based on dents during normal participation, a teacher ensures the
these standards are achieved without input derived from assessment will reflect actual knowledge or ability. In all of
alternative and authentic assessment. When authentic the following examples of assessment instruments, it is rel-
assessment is used, teachers can state that students “know” atively easy to ensure that each have at least some authentic
and “do” what is stated in the standards. Information col- components to them. Examples of conditions that repre-
lected from alternative and authentic assessment makes it sent authentic assessment can include the following:
clear what students have learned. Standards direct the
learning, giving it a framework; objectives are more imme- ■ Adherence to rules during play
diate outcomes and can be developed to focus on the ■ Strategy formulation and execution
progressive nature of learning as well as outcomes. Student ■ Skill selection and application during play
learning objectives are written so that both the teacher and
■ Performance of physical skills under game-like or
students know what they can do at the end of the course or
competitive situations
10
on completion of the lesson.
A looming question is this: “How do teachers help ■ Self-monitoring for performance indicators of
students engage in assessment that is meaningful?” It is activity involvement, fitness, and appropriate social
this question that drives the principles of using assess- engagement
ment as tools to assess student skill level and understand-
ing and provides opportunities to involve the student with
outcomes-based learning. Meaningful information should SCORING RUBRICS
result from systematic and ongoing assessments that A rubric is an alternative way to evaluate a specific out-
involve all three learning domains: cognitive, psychomotor, come. Rubrics can be used to objectively score a student
and affective. Assessment can occur throughout multiple according to the level of achievement he or she has accom-
levels of learning, including knowledge, comprehension, plished based on specific criteria. Effective rubrics focus
application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation. on specific learning outcomes or objectives that students
Traditionally, assessment in physical education has are expected to achieve. Scores are assigned for each level
been accomplished informally, often done on the spot of attainment. Rubrics can be used as both process and
when a teacher corrects or reinforces a student’s perform- product assessments. When a rubric is used as a process
ance. Visual monitoring of students’ performance has also assessment, information is shared with the student and
been accepted as a form of assessment. Teachers visually becomes an excellent tool to self-diagnose both strengths
scan to see if students are successfully accomplishing and weaknesses and develop a practice plan (Figure 7).
specific tasks. Informal assessment typically produces no Students are given the rubric prior to assessment so
documented evidence to show students or parents that they understand how they will be assessed and held ac-
objectives have been attained. Standards-based content countable. The scoring system and the criteria assigned
highlights what students should know and be able to do at each level must be objective and attainable and answer a
the end of specific grade levels (NASPE, 2004). Standards basic question common to most assessments: “Does the
provide guidelines for teachers and departments to com- student consistently meet the stated criteria required for
municate and give direction to physical education. completion of the course requirement?” Figure 8 is an ex-
With the introduction of physical education content ample of an outcomes-based product rubric for grading a
standards, more formal yet alternative assessments are weight training class.

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Elements of Learning (Football Punting)

Punting within a
Levels of Learning limited time Punting to a partner Punting at angles

Watches the ball and Eyes are on the ball Eyes are on the ball
not the partner
Distance is adjusted to Leg angle extends
Only 2 steps are taken, location of receiving toward the intended
Professional then ball is punted partner; partner does target
not move more than
10 feet Ball is within 15 feet of
target
The step-hop technique
is used

Eyes are on the ball Eyes are on the ball Eyes are on the ball
3 or more steps are Distance is adjusted to Leg angle extends
taken location of receiving toward the intended
Collegiate partner; partner moves target
no more than 15 feet
Ball is within 20 feet of the
The step-hop technique target
is used

Eyes are taken off the Eyes are on the ball Eyes are taken off the
ball ball
Distance is adjusted to
3 or more steps are ball location of receiving Leg angle extends
Varsity taken partner; partner moves toward the intended
no more than 20 feet target
The step-hop technique Ball is not catchable
is not used

Eyes are taken off the ball Eyes are taken off the Eyes are taken off the
ball ball
Ball is dropped
Junior Varsity Ball is not catchable for Leg angle does not
Ball is not kicked
partner extend toward the
intended target
The step-hop technique
is not used Ball is not catchable

FIGURE 7 High school rubric for punting a football

Another use of rubrics is to list criteria that need to be students work together in groups of three and analyze their
completed for successful performance of a skill. The crite- own and their peers’ skill performance. Each performer re-
ria are performance levels students are expected to achieve ceives the average of three scores, their own score and the
as they practice skills. Students obtain a clear and objec- scores of two peers.
tive picture of how they are performing and can develop
future practice tasks based on those areas still needing
development. This type of skill evaluation helps students CHECKLISTS
focus on the process of correct performance as compared Subjective evaluation leads to inconsistency in assessment
to product evaluation. Basic to the skill evaluation rubric is and evaluation. Students are unclear as to what is to be
the question of whether the student can perform the mo- graded and, just as importantly, how it is to be graded.
tor skills using correct technique. Figure 9 is an example of Specifying the performance criteria to be graded can be
a bowling rubric using videotape analysis. In this case, improved using a check sheet or scorecard. Criteria are

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Name: Date:

Outstanding Needs Improvement

A. Participates in weight training activities over and above A. Doesn’t always complete class requirement activities.
class requirements. B. Usually shows concern for safety but at times lifts using
B. Expresses positive views toward safety in the unsafe practices.
weight room. C. Participates in one intramural or extramural weight training
C. Participates in three intramural or extramural weight competition.
training competitions. D. Often not able to demonstrate proper techniques when a new
D. Gives examples of proper techniques for five basic lifts. lift is introduced.
E. Leads by example in the weight room by taking turns E. Rarely tries to help others.
and encouraging peers. F. Rarely knows what body part is developed by a lift.
F. Can self-analyze each lift and explain what part of the G. Often fails to record all lifts by weight and repetitions into log.
body is being developed.
G. Records all lifts by weight and repetitions into log.

Satisfactory Unsatisfactory
A. Participates in all class requirement activities. A. Demonstrates spotty record of completing class requirement
B. Shows concern for safety but is not overt about safe activities.
practices. B. Considers safety a low priority and needs correction regularly.
C. Participates in two intramural or extramural weight C. Does not participate in intramural or extramural weight
training competitions. training competition.
D. Usually, but not always, able to demonstrate proper D. Fails to use proper techniques when lifting.
technique for five basic lifts. E. Often fails to allow peers to “work-in” and share weights.
E. Displays primary interest in self-development rather F. Displays unorganized total weight program.
than helping others.
F. Usually knows what body part each lift develops.
G. Does not maintain a log of lifts by weight and repetition. 10
G. Usually records all lifts by weight and repetitions
into log.

FIGURE 8 Scoring rubric for a weight training class

listed and ranked on a scale of points. Even though using for evaluating each other. When a task is evaluated, the
the checklist increases the reliability of the data, the over- form is dated, scored, and initialed.
all approach remains subjective. A score sheet can be used Figure 11 is an example of a volleyball skills peer as-
to evaluate skill development or successful application of sessment checklist. In this situation, a partner observes
skills in an authentic setting. For example, teachers select and completes the assessment. Points are earned by com-
the types of skills they believe a student should learn in a pleting tasks. At the end of the unit, a grade is assigned
basketball unit. based on the number of points accumulated. If there is
Checklists are useful for reporting progress to stu- some concern about the accuracy of evaluation, students
dents and parents and identifying students in need of can be spot-checked on different skills. In most cases, the
special help. Using a class list with skills displayed across strength of a checklist is that it gives direction to instruc-
the top of the sheet is a common method used for record- tion. Students know what is expected of them and how
ing class progress. If grading is based on the number of they will be evaluated.
activities students master, the checklist can deliver this
information. Checklists are usually most effective when
skills are listed in the sequence in which they should be RATING SCALES
learned. In this way, the teacher can gear the teaching Teachers can use rating scales to evaluate the performance
process to diagnosed needs. To avoid disrupting the of a class of students. Rating scales should list the tasks
learning process, teachers can record student progress in- that students need to complete. To some degree, these
formally while students are practicing. Figure 10 is an ex- tasks form the outcomes for the unit. Figure 12 is an ex-
ample of a pass–fail task checklist used in softball. In this ample of a team handball teacher rating scale. Rating is
example, students work with a partner and are responsible done on a four-point scale; the most points are awarded

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This assignment will require that you evaluate yourself using videotape analysis. Over the next 3 weeks, have one of the members of
the group videotape you while you are performing the following skills. You must be taped at least twice doing the same skills. Make
sure everyone in your group has been videotaped performing all the skills listed below. Evaluate your tape at home or at school.
Then give your tape to each of the members in your group and ask them to evaluate it. When you have completed all the skills,
turn in the tape(label it with your name) and your evaluation sheet.

Always Usually Rarely

Approach 2 pts 1 pt 0 pts
Push away on first step
Push away: out and down—elbow straight
Backswing: straight—in line with boards
Steps: smooth, gliding, even rhythm
Steps: increase in length and speed
Slide on left foot

Release
Shoulders: parallel to foul line
Shoulders: level
Upper body: inclined forward
Left foot: in line with boards
Weight balanced on left foot
Thumb in 12 o’clock position
Ball first strikes alley 1.5 ft in front of left foot
Follow-through: straight and to shoulder height

Aim
Approach: straight, in line with boards
Release: proper dot to dots at foul line
Crosses proper dart
Where does ball strike pins? (e.g., 1–3, 1, 3, 1–2)

Scoring: Total points accumulated in each area above.

Self-evaluation: Approach Release Aim
Trial 1
Trial 2
Peer #1 evaluation of me Approach Release Aim
Trial 1
Trial 2
Peer #2 evaluation of me Approach Release Aim
Trial 1
Trial 2
Total Score:

Write a short evaluation of how you will improve your bowling skills based on your evaluation of your bowling form.

FIGURE 9 Bowling rubric using videotape evaluation

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Work with a partner. Each of you has a task sheet and will be responsible for evaluating each other. You will have to find
other peers to complete some of the tasks. Record the date the task was tried and whether it was successfully accomplished (yes/no).
Then initial the sheet.
Date Score Initials Description of task

Stand 45 ft from a partner who is inside a hoop and complete 5 consecutive

underhand pitches to that person without causing him/her to move outside
the hoop.
Stand 60 feet from a partner who is inside a hoop and complete 5 overhand
throws to that person without forcing him or her to move more than 1 foot
outside the hoop.
Demonstrate the proper stance, windup, and delivery of the windmill pitch.

From a designated area of the outfield, situated 150 feet (boys) or 100 feet
(girls) away, throw the softball through the air directly to a 10-foot-wide circle
chalked in front of home plate. To count, the throw must bounce only once before
landing or going through the circle. Make 3 of 5 throws.

Display pitching skills by striking out 3 or more batters or by allowing no more

than 5 base hits in an actual game.
Using the correct fielding stance, cleanly field 5 consecutive ground or fly balls
hit by partner.

Play a game of Pepper with a group of no more than 6 players, demonstrating

good bat control, hand–eye coordination, and fielding skills.
Play a game of 500 with no more than 5 players and demonstrate skills in
catching flies and line drives and in fielding ground balls. 10
Using a batting tee, hit 5 consecutive softballs, on the fly or on the ground,
past the 80-foot semicircle line marked off in chalk.
Execute proper bunting form and ability by dumping 3 of 5 attempts into
designated bunting areas along the first or third baselines.
In an actual game, make 2 or more base hits.

Bonus Requirements (You may substitute the following for tasks above you didn’t accomplish.)
Make a diagram of an official softball diamond on poster board. Illustrate proper
field dimensions.
On a piece of paper, show how batting average and earned run average are
compiled.
Umpire a game for 3 or more innings.
Keep accurate score in an official score book for 3 or more innings.

FIGURE 10 Softball peer assessment task checklist

for a task completed successfully. Required tasks should be individual determining students’ level of success. Peer
posted in the teaching area so students know what skills assessment can also increase communication and
they are expected to learn and how they will be evaluated. observation skills and add to a student’s understanding of
In a longer unit of instruction, ratings can be done at the effective skill performance. Time can be effectively used
end of each week. Using students’ peers to assist in the when peers assist in the assessment process.
assessment process can be a valuable tool. Large class
numbers can prevent in-depth assessment from being ANECDOTAL RECORD SHEETS
completed in a timely manner, but by developing peer A record sheet that contains student names and has room
assessment tasks, teachers are relieved of being the sole for comments about student performance can be used to

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Work with a partner. See the course syllabus for the days when you should evaluate the following skills. If you successfully pass
the skill, have your partner verify your performance by dating and initialing this sheet. When finished, calculate the total number of
points you have earned.
Points Date Partner’s
Skill to Be Tested: Possible Passed Initials

Wall sets: Set ball 12–15 inches above a 10 ft-line against the wall 25 times 5
(try to make them consecutive).

Quick hands sets: Set ball 12–15 inches above hands in air or against wall for 5
30 seconds.

Partner sets: 25 sets with your partner 15 ft apart (try to make them consecutive). 10

Hoop sets: Set 10 balls into a hula hoop 12 ft away from a partner-tossed ball 15
from a right angle to the net or wall.
Wall bumps: Bump the ball above a 10-ft line against the wall 25 times (try to 5
make them consecutive).

Partner bumps: 25 bumps with a partner 15 ft apart (try to make them 10

consecutive).
Hoop bumps: Bump 10 balls into a hula hoop 12 ft away from a partner-tossed 15
ball. The ball should be tossed at a 30°–45° angle to the net.

Overhand serves: Make 10 successful overhand serves. 10

Wall spikes: 10 consecutive floor-to-wall spikes. 5

Four-step approach: Perform 5 dry approaches. 5

Spikes: Do 5 successful spikes. 10

Blocking fundamentals: 5 static jumps, 5 crossover step jumps to the right 5

and left.
Total Score:

FIGURE 11 Volleyball skills peer assessment checklist

assess student progress. Anecdotal records of student leads to an increased understanding of student perform-
progress can be reinforcing to the student and teacher as it ance. Observations should be recorded at the start of the
is often difficult to remember how much progress has unit and compared with observations made at a later date
been made over a period of time. With anecdotal records, as instruction proceeds.
teachers can inform students of their initial skill levels
compared with their present performances. When making
anecdotal records, record the performance as soon and PERSONAL INTERVIEWS
accurately as possible. If background information is Student input is a valuable tool to gain information
needed to put the performance in proper context, it should about student knowledge, understanding, and interests.
be included. Establishing an interview system to monitor students can
A digital voice recorder is useful for recording anec- develop added value and communicate to students that
dotal information. Comments can be recorded during their ideas are valued and an important component within
observation and transcribed later. This process helps teach- the educational environment. A personal interview can
ers learn the names and behavior patterns of students and make students feel wanted and cared for, considering few

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Students will be rated on the following team handball skills. The following rating scale will be used for evaluation purposes.

1 = Student unable to complete the task

2 = Student usually does not complete the task successfully
3 = Student usually completes the task successfully
4 = Student always completes the task successfully
Name of Students

Skill Task

Dribble the ball with the right hand (standing position) for 10
consecutive times.

Same as task above, but with the left hand.

Dribble the ball with the right hand (moving forward) from the
centerline to the goal line without losing the dribble.

Same as task above, but with the left hand.

Pass the ball to a partner standing 10 feet away with a 2-handed

chest pass to the chest area (between chin and waist) 8 of 10 times.

Pass the ball to a partner standing 10 feet away with a 2-handed

bounce pass to the waist area 8 of 10 times.

Pass the ball to a partner standing 10 feet away with a 2-handed

overhead pass to the chest area 8 of 10 times.

Pass the ball to a partner standing 10 feet away with a 1-handed

10
overhead pass to the chest area 8 of 10 times.

While running from the centerline, alternately pass a 2-handed

chest and bounce pass that can be caught by a partner running at
a parallel distance of 12 feet with 3 of 4 passes hitting the partner
in the hands.

While standing 7 meters from the goal, hit 3 of 5 goals.

Defend 3 of 5 attempted shots taken by a partner from a distance

of 7 meters.

Dribble the ball with the right hand (moving forward) from the
centerline to the goal area without losing the dribble. Jump up and
make a goal 3 of 5 times.

From 6 meters, hit a target 5 consecutive times with the following

passes: roller, hook, jump, shovel, 1-handed shoulder, sidearm, and
behind-the-back.

From 9 meters away, hit 2 of 5 goals.

From 9 meters away, defend 4 of 5 goal shots.

Dribble through a set of 6 cones in 25 seconds.

FIGURE 12 Team handball skills rating scale

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students have the opportunity to share with an instructor used to assist students in developing strategies for
how much they have learned in a class. Personal interviews attaining success and assessing their performance. In
may seem like an overwhelming task given large class sizes order for self-assessment to be valid and reliable, stu-
and limited time. Using a focus group, where students of dents must be taught how to assess themselves and be
similar abilities are interviewed at the same time, can pro- given multiple opportunities to practice. Even though
duce similar insights. Grouping students with those of instructional time will be spent teaching and practicing
similar abilities can provide a safe environment for stu- self-assessment, meaningful information and knowl-
dents to share how they feel, what they understand, and edge can be developed. Teachers who use this approach
their strengths and weaknesses. Caution must be used, also assess and evaluate these students. The final grade
however, if the interview goal is to assign grades. Quality of will be a composite of student and teacher assessments
responses must be based on a clearly defined set of stan- and evaluation.
dards and criteria developed prior to the interview. Less Figure 13 is an example of a weekly physical activity
subjectivity will occur when checklists of questions and log. Students are expected to monitor and record their ac-
skill evaluations are developed and followed with each cumulated physical activities outside of the school day.
student. Goals can be set for how much activity should be accu-
Even if this approach cannot be used on a broad scale, mulated. In this case, the goal is 60 minutes of moderate
interviewing can be a useful tool for evaluating the effec- or vigorous physical activity per day. This log could also
tiveness of the program and the instruction. Teachers can be used for extra credit or homework so students could
select key students to interview to see how well they are augment their in-class grade by participating in physical
learning, how they feel about the instructional approach, activities outside of school.
and what they might like to have added to the program. Another variation of the self-evaluation approach is to
Seldom do teachers sit down and discuss the wants and allow students to develop goals they want to achieve based
concerns of students. This approach can enhance this on specific standards and outcomes. Democratically, the
important phase of instruction. The following is an exam- class decides how students will accomplish these outcomes.
ple of questions that might be covered in an interview: Students are also responsible for completing the assess-
ment materials to ensure that the specified learning
1. Did you enjoy the unit of instruction? outcomes are achieved. At the end of the instructional ses-
2. What new skills did you learn? sion, both students and the teacher evaluate the progress
3. Did you improve your skill level? Did you have ade- made and the final grade.
quate time to practice? Some teachers add a third phase to the self-evaluation
process by having students evaluate each other, resulting
4. Did you receive adequate instruction during the in a three-pronged evaluation scheme: teacher, student
unit? peer, and self-evaluation. One of the strongest reasons
5. How did your peers interact with you during the given for using this approach is that it makes students feel
unit? more involved in the educational process. Students are
6. Describe how you felt participating in this activity. more likely to believe the grading system is fair when it
manifests itself through teacher, peer, and self-evaluation.
7. Describe three things you liked least in this unit.
8. Explain why you would or would not take this
course again. PORTFOLIOS
9. What type of activities would you like to see offered Portfolios are also an effective tool in assessing student
in physical education? performance and demonstrating that students have
accomplished specific objectives in an authentic man-
10. Why do you think physical education should be (or
ner. They are a collection of multiple assessments made
not be) offered for juniors and seniors?
throughout a certain segment of the class. They can
include measures of all three learning domains and
SELF-ASSESSMENT LOGS serve as an excellent tool to holistically assess a student.
Developing personal ownership for one’s success is an One of the main advantages of using portfolios is that it
important goal during middle and high school years. allows for students who may not excel physically to
Teaching students how to personally assess their per- demonstrate learning and competence in physical edu-
formances can be useful in helping students develop cation. Melograno (2006) provides good information
independence as well as providing a component of the for teachers interested in developing assessments
grading system. Goal setting is a common approach through the use of portfolios. Examples of items to

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Your assignment is to keep track of the physical activity you do when you are not in school. It is best to accumulate at least 60 minutes
of physical activity each day to maintain good health. However, 30 minutes is acceptable. Not only will you look better if you are active
each day, but you will be healthier and have more energy.

Activities Done This Week Amount of Time (Minutes)

M Tu W Th F Sa Su

Walking
Jogging
Bicycle riding
Rope jumping
Playing or practicing a team sport with friends
In-line skating
Playing Frisbee
Hiking
Practicing martial arts
Practicing cheerleading skills
Swimming or playing a water sport
Playing or practicing tennis
Playing or practicing golf
Playing or practicing racquetball
Going to a health club for a workout

Other Activities (list below) 10

Number of days I was active for at least 60 minutes:

Number of days I was active for at least 30 minutes:
Number of days I was not active for at least 30 minutes:
Grading: You will receive 5 points for each day you are active for at least 30 minutes. If you are active for at least 60 minutes, you will
receive 10 points for that day. If you are active for more than 30 minutes at least 5 of the 7 days, you will receive a bonus of 30 points.
My weekly score: points

FIGURE 13 Weekly physical activity log

include in a student portfolio include but should not be ■ Self-assessments and reflections
limited to the following: ■ Student goals
■ Tests, assignments, and projects completed in class
and as homework TACTICAL/GAME-PLAY ASSESSMENT
■ Fitness score results One of the most authentic forms of assessment in physical
education occurs in the form of Games Performance
■ Journal entries Assessment (Mitchell, Oslin, & Griffin, 2007). This type of
■ Performance results on skill tests assessment is authentic in nature because it focuses on the

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Authentic Assessment Sheet

Date Activity Observed Badminton Doubles

Observer Performer

Phase of Errors Possible Corrective

Skill Description of Important Elements Observed Causes Feedback

Court • Remains in critical portions of the court

Positioning for participation
• Recognizes when offensive and defensive
positions should be assumed
• Attempts to move opponents from good
court positioning

Court • Quickly moves to position for shot returns,

Movement coverage of court, etc.
• Following court event, moves back to
neutral position
• Begins to anticipate where opponents will
hit shuttle and moves in anticipation

Strategy • Recognizes strengths and weaknesses of

opponents and attempts to exploit each
• Attempts to use “front and back” or
“side-to-side” strategy when appropriate
• Uses variety of shots when appropriate

Skills • Serves
• Clears
• Drives
• Lobs
• Smashes
Partner • Attempts to support partner through
Recognition communication, movement, and
encouragement
• Displays positive sporting behaviors

FIGURE 14 Authentic assessment in badminton

two main aspects of game play: physical performance and For instance, it is just as important for the student to
decision making. These two components define the nature know what club to use while golfing as it is for them to
of game play and will provide a teacher and student with know how to swing the club. Figure 14 is an observation
accurate information about a student’s ability to partici- sheet that can be used to evaluate a student’s ability to
pate in an authentic setting. Tactical assessments focus on solve tactical problems during a game of badminton.
a student’s knowledge of what to do during participation
and will tell a teacher if a student can leave his or her class
with the ability to engage in that activity outside the world ASSESSMENT OF KNOWLEDGE
of physical education. In just about every sporting adven- Cognitive assessment is an integral part of evaluating the
ture students tackle, there is a tactical component. whole child. A combination of all three learning domains
Everything from water polo to cricket has tactical prob- (cognitive, psychomotor, and affective) influence students’
lems to solve. In many cases, this type of assessment can desire to participate in movement activities. Traditional
provide information critical to the success of a student. evaluation of content knowledge through written tests has

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been viewed in a controversial light. Students may feel that portfolios can be an authentic representation of knowledge
it is enough to learn skills, and they should not have to take and application.
written exams in physical education. Some parents resent it Regardless of the cognitive assessments used, teachers
when their children receive a lower grade because of poor must match the developmental levels of the students at the
performance on written tests. Teachers have often been different grade levels. When developing written test ques-
unwilling to administer written tests in physical education tions using multiple choice, true–false, completion, or
because of the amount of time it takes from skill practice. essay options, teachers can use a combination to effectively
Regardless of feelings, it is apparent that knowledge is meet student abilities. When using essay questions, it is
involved in the application of all motor skills. An individual important to remember that grading time will be incre-
must know rules, regulations, and proper etiquette to partic- ased, as compared to multiple choice and/or true–false
ipate fairly and enjoyably with others. Proper skill perform- questions. Figure 15 is an example of a test that might be
ance is knowledge based, and skill improvement will not administered to freshmen at the completion of a unit on
occur if the individual does not know proper skill technique. racquetball.
To minimize concern, teachers need to explain to students When designing written tests, observing a few key
and parents why cognitive achievement is as important in points can make the examinations more effective.
physical education as in any other academic area.
Evaluating the cognitive domain through alternative POINTERS FOR EFFECTIVE WRITTEN TESTS
assessment can be done efficiently and authentically. 1. Group different types of questions by format.
Physical education should always be focused on maximiz- True–false, multiple choice, and matching questions
ing activity and ensuring that students learn physical skills; should be in separate sections.
in addition, they also need to know the “whys” of physical
movement. Cognitive assessment of physical education 2. Place all instructions on the test. Particular instruc-
content does not have to be an endeavor that occurs only in tions for different types of questions should precede
the physical education classroom. Academic content teach- each section.
ers can deliver and measure requisite knowledge as 3. Place the test items in increasing order of difficulty.
effectively as physical educators through integration. Exam- Students may give up on the exam if the first ques- 10
ples of this can include analysis of exercise heart-rate zones tion or two is high in difficulty.
in math class, or biomechanical impact on sport skills in 4. Ensure there is not an obvious pattern to the exam,
physics, or nutritional analysis and its impact on calorie such as alternating true-and-false items or keywords
consumption in aerobic sports. Including the cognitive that tip off the answer (e.g., using always or never in
component as a part of a total program indicates that effec- true–false questions).
tive skill learning requires knowledge.
Assessing knowledge of the rules, strategy, and history 5. Carefully monitor the exam. Students feel the instruc-
of a sport or activity can be accomplished through alter- tor is unfair if it is easy to cheat or share answers. Also,
native and more authentic unique techniques. For exam- when monitoring the exam, teachers can listen to stu-
ple, students can, individually or in small groups, develop dent questions. Similar questions about similar items
a crossword puzzle based on the rules of a specific sport. often tip off an instructor to a poorly designed or
These crossword puzzles are then exchanged with class- written item.
mates to be completed and used to document cognitive Another approach to check knowledge outcomes is
understanding. Students can demonstrate their under- to give students a study guide. The study guide should
standing of rules by performing referee duties during contain knowledge that students need to know to partici-
game and tournament play. Accuracy of decisions and pate successfully in a unit of instruction. Figure 16 is an
calls can be determined by a peer assessment. Both of example of a rugby study guide and exam developed for
these alternative methods of assessment represent cogni- entry-level high school students. It contains the basic for-
tive understanding in an authentic setting. mations, terminology, and rules necessary to participate
Application of fitness formulas, concepts, and princi- in a touch rugby unit.
ples (e.g., exercise heart rate, overload, FITT) and develop-
ment of personal exercise programs can be documented
through completion of fitness portfolios. Students include
ASSESSMENT OF ATTITUDES
goals, records of participation, and activity tracking scores AND VALUES
(e.g., with a pedometer) to support their outcomes. Fitness Standard 6 of the NASPE National Standards for Physical
Education states that students will “value[s] physical
activity for health, enjoyment, challenge, self-expression,

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Racquetball Exam

I. In the blanks below, fill in the name of the area of the court designated by each letter. (10 points)

D B A E

A Line

B Line
C

D Court
E Court

II. In the following diagrams, draw an arrow to indicate the path that the ball is most likely to follow. None of these shots has hit
the floor. The (X) indicates the point of origin of the shot. (6 points)

X X

III. In the spaces at the left, place a (+) if the statement is true; place a (0) if the statement is false. (60 points)
1. A game consists of 15 points.
2. Only the server may score a point.
3. The server may either bounce the ball before serving, or hit it straight out of his or her hand.
4. Only one foot need be in the service zone when serving.
5. In doubles, the partner with the better left hand usually plays the left side.

FIGURE 15 Knowledge test for racquetball

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6. The choice for the right to serve is decided by the toss of a coin, and the side winning the toss starts the first and third games.
7. If a player swings and misses on the serve, he or she is given only one more chance.
8. A legal serve must bounce in the backcourt on a fly or after touching one sidewall.
9. In doubles, only one person serves in the first and second service. After that, both players on each team serve.
10. A player is out if he or she is hit with his or her own shot on the fly, but it is a hinder if his or her own shot hits him or her on
one bounce.
11. It is common courtesy to alternate serves to each court, but in tournament play, there is no such rule.
12. The more walls that a shot hits, the deader the rebound will be.
13. When playing a “lane shot,” it is usually best to hit the ball underhand.
14. It is good to use the sidewall when using the “lob serve.”
15. The “kill shot” should be attempted when the ball is chest high.
16. The most advantageous court position is just behind the short line.
17. It is often wise to let a waist-high shot bounce off the back wall so that it can be returned from a lower height.
18. In doubles, a player may call a hinder when he or she is obstructed from hitting the ball by his or her partner.
19. In doubles, the server’s partner must lean against the sidewall until the ball passes the service line.
20. The ball should be contacted at the junction between the fingers and the palm.

IV. In the spaces at the left, place the letter of the answer that best completes the statement. (24 points)
1. Which of the following is not a serve?
A. Scotch-toss serve
B. Ceiling serve
C. Power serve
D. Z serve
2. All of the following concerning body position for hitting the “kill shot” are correct except: 10
A. Bend the knees and waist.
B. Weight transfer is from the front foot to the rear foot.
C. Contact should be at shin level or lower.
D. The forearm should be parallel to the floor.
3. All of the following are “shorts” except:
A. Hitting the sidewall and then the front wall.
B. Hitting the front wall and then having the ball bounce in front of the short line.
C. Hitting the front wall and then the two sidewalls.
D. Hitting the front wall and then the ceiling.
4. All of the following statements concerning receiving the serve are true except:
A. The receiver must be behind the short line while the ball is being served.
B. The receiver may return the service on either the volley or the first bounce.
C. A short may be returned if so desired.
D. The receiver does not have the option of returning the service on a foot fault.
5. How many bounces are permitted on the serve?
A. 2
B. 3
C. 4
D. unlimited amount

FIGURE 15 (continued )

and/or social interaction” as a learning outcome (2004). growth and development. Assessment in the affective do-
There is a clear relationship between participation and main supports the positive impact physical education has
value, enjoyment and social interaction. Traditional as- on students’ feelings toward movement. Few educators
sessment tools such as grading on attendance, dressing, measure the impact their program and instruction have
and written tests give little support to students’ affective on this important area. Usually, teachers agree about what

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The following is information you are expected to know when the written exam is given at the end of the week. We will discuss any
questions you have prior to the exam.

Rugby is a game played by two teams of 15 players who are allowed to carry, kick, and throw the ball. Players attempt to score points
by placing the ball over the opponents’ goal line (a try) or by kicking the ball over the crossbar (a goal).

Team formations and positions (for this class)

Goal line
X X
X
X
XXX (these players interlock)
1 2 3 (these players interlock)
4
5
7 6
Goal line

Names of players by position: 1 = prop forward; 2 = hooker; 3 = prop forward; 4 = scrum halfback; 5 = center; 6 = wing
(strong side); 7 = wing (weak side)

Terminology
Try (touchdown)—worth 4 points. When the ball is touched down in the opponents’ end zone.
Conversion (extra point)—2 points. Attempted kick after the try is scored. The ball is kicked from any distance beyond 10 yards and
directly out from where the ball was touched down.
Penalty goal—3 points. This follows an infraction of the rules and is kicked from the point of infraction or anywhere behind it. It
may be placekicked or drop-kicked over the bar of the goalpost.
Drop goal—3 points. This is a dropkick that is taken at any time while the game is in progress. The ball must go over the bar.
Lineout—Formed by the two teams of the scrum forwards in opposing lines wherever the ball goes into “touch” (out of bounds); both
teams jump to try to obtain possession, and then the ball is thrown between them by the wing.
Scrum—Forwards bind together against each other while the scrum half throws or rolls the ball directly between the two rows. Both
sides try to gain possession by “hooking” the ball back with their feet so that the backs start a running movement.

Rules
1. Seven players make up a team.
2. Match begins with a kickoff, which must travel at least 10 yards.
3. Play is continual and is only stopped when the ball is out of bounds (like soccer).
4. When the player with the ball is tagged, that player must stop, place the ball on the ground, and quickly line up in position.
5. Three players (on each team) will form a scrummage by the two forwards and the hooker. These players will interlock. This group
of three players is called “the pack.”
6. As “the pack” forms a scrum, the other players remain behind them.
7. The scrum should be steady until the ball is put in by the scrum half of the non-offending team. If the ball runs straight through
the scrum, it must be put in again.

FIGURE 16 Rugby study guide and exam

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8. The three front players must not raise a foot until the ball touches the ground. These players cannot handle the ball.
9. The scrum half is expected to pick up the ball smartly and pass it sharply back to the next person in line. Following this, a series
of backward laterals occurs, each pass made just before the ball carrier is tagged.
10. A ruck occurs when one or more players from each team close around the ball when it is on the ground between them. Players
must be on their feet and must bind with at least one arm around a teammate.
11. A maul occurs when one or more players from each team close around a player who is carrying the ball.

Rugby Test
(20-point unit test)

Name:

Multiple Choice (1 point each)

1. In the game of rugby played in class, each team has players.
a. 10
b. 7
c. 22
d. 14
2. The game begins with a kickoff, which must travel at least yd.
a. 40
b. 30
c. 20
d. 10
3. Play is continual and is only stopped when:
a. A player calls “time-out”
b. The ball is out of bounds 10
c. A player falls down
d. The ball is kicked
4. A is formed by the two teams’ forwards and hookers in opposing lines wherever the ball goes into
“touch” (out of bounds); both teams jump to try to obtain possession as the ball is thrown in bounds.
a. Conversion
b. Scrum
c. Lineout
d. Ruck
5. In class, when the player with the ball is , that player must stop, place the ball on the ground, and quickly
line up into position.
a. Scared
b. Tackled
c. Tagged with either hand
d. Tagged with both hands

Matching
1. Known as “the pack” Positions
2. Puts the ball in and takes it out A. 2 forwards and hooker
3. Must not raise a foot until the ball touches the ground B
. . Scrum halfback
4. Fastest-running player(s)on the team C. Center and 2 wings
5. These players will interlock
(continues)

FIGURE 16 (continued )

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True/False
1. A 98-lb player will most likely play the position of a “prop forward.”
2. A “try” is scored as soon as the player carrying the ball crosses the opponents’ end zone.
3. A player can pass the ball forward, sideways, and behind.
4. Rugby is a team sport played at many colleges that may even offer scholarships to both male and female students.
5. A 280-lb player will most likely play the position of a “wing.”

FIGURE 16 Rugby study guide and exam (continued )

to do for students in the affective learning domain. Most students a chance to learn what personal behavior is
teachers want to do the following: acceptable or unacceptable. Because most behavior in
physical education is visible to others, feedback about
1. Develop positive attitudes toward physical acti- proper social behavior is effective and immediate.
vity. If students learn physical skills but develop a
negative feeling about activity, it is quite likely they Behavioral attitudes can be informally monitored with a
will not participate when left on their own. Feeling checklist similar to the one in Figure 17. This instrument is
positive about one’s ability and competency in informal and relates specific behaviors to attitude. Teachers
physical activities will increase the possibility of often view a “good attitude” as one where the student does
participation. what the teacher tells them to do. This approach deals more
with behavior than attitude toward physical education. If
2. Enhance a positive self-concept. Students will most such a tool is used, it offers the advantage of listing specific
likely be viewed positively by their peers when they criteria. At times, teachers will tell a student he or she has a
learn to perform physical skills appropriately. Self- “bad attitude” but not define why he or she is being chastised.
concept is reinforced through feedback from others. A checklist defines what behavior is expected and helps pre-
When teachers and peers respond positively, indi- vent making snap judgments about attitudes.
viduals learn they are worthy individuals. A number of instruments are available for measuring
3. Develop proper social skills. Students need to learn to attitudes and values. A few examples are offered here. For a
play fair and with proper respect for others. The op- review of a wide variety of instruments, see the text by Lacy
portunity to cooperate and compete with peers offers (2010). Such instruments have been evaluated over time

Attitude Check Sheet

Assign 0 to 5 points during each observation with 5 being the highest score. A number of observations should be made during the
semester in order to reveal consistency and improvement.

Student Date Lesson focus

1. Tries all activities 0 1 2 3 4 5

2. Is on time 0 1 2 3 4 5
3. Consistently gives a maximum effort 0 1 2 3 4 5
4. Shows concern for others 0 1 2 3 4 5
5. Listens to and applies criticism 0 1 2 3 4 5
6. Shows enthusiasm 0 1 2 3 4 5
7. Participates with all students 0 1 2 3 4 5
8. Shares ideas with teacher and class 0 1 2 3 4 5
9. Demonstrates leadership 0 1 2 3 4 5
10. Volunteers to help others 0 1 2 3 4 5

FIGURE 17 Student attitude check sheet

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and are somewhat more accurate in evaluating long-term ■ Usually focuses on performance outcomes rather
attitudes and values. Regardless of the instrument used, than processes; therefore, it is useful to rank stu-
teachers should use caution; personality traits change and dents amongst themselves and to evaluate overall
are difficult to measure. program effectiveness.
There are also disadvantages to this method, including the
USING AFFECTIVE ASSESSMENT
following:
Assessing the affective development of students is impor-
tant information that can be used to develop a physical ■ Students often feel they are being unfairly com-
education program that will have positive long-term effects. pared to others and that components like improve-
Caution must be issued when evaluating a student’s emo- ment and effort are lost in this method.
tional side. Adolescence is a time filled with great change, ■ Usually little information about why a performance
and students are often viewed as moody, self-absorbed, was good or bad is communicated with this type of
confrontational, and even “know-it-alls.” This changing and evaluation.
emotional time will not always provide objective results
■ In this method, there will always be a student who
that can be incorporated in to an overall evaluation score.
comes in first and one that comes in last in regards
Yet assessing how students feel about physical education
to their performance. In other words, at least one
and ensuring that students engage in positive experiences
student will fail the task no matter how well they do
that help build self-esteem and self-confidence is critical.
because in relation to his or her peers’ performance,
Students’ perceptions can be used to address changes in
he or she performed the worst.
content or instructional delivery. There is no better assess-
ment tool regarding students’ attitudes and beliefs than
those gathered from the students. CRITERION-REFERENCED
EVALUATION OF STUDENT EVALUATIONS
Criterion-referenced evaluation involves comparing a
PERFORMANCE student’s performance against a preexisting set of criteria 10
The evaluation process is crucial in providing feedback to or guidelines. Standardized tests such as the Fitnessgram
students, teachers, and parents. Teachers are provided (Cooper Institute, 2007) are reported in this fashion.
with information to make judgments about student per- Much of what is done in a typical physical education
formance based on certain criteria. These criteria usually class falls under this type of evaluation. When students
fall under two separate categories: norm-referenced and perform in class to pre-established requirements, criterion-
criterion-referenced evaluations. referenced evaluations are performed. In this type of
evaluation, it falls on the teacher to make appropriate
NORM-REFERENCED EVALUATIONS choices in determining the criteria for evaluation. This is
not always easy as some students will easily surpass the
Performing a norm-referenced evaluation of student per-
criteria while others will fail the same criteria. Most of
formance requires a teacher to use assessment information
the controversy of grading in physical education can be
to rank a student in comparison to other student perform-
attributed to choosing appropriate criteria for evalua-
ances on a similar event. Standardized tests, such as the
tion. Using this type of evaluation, every student in your
President’s Challenge on Physical Fitness (President’s
class can receive an “A” for his or her performance; like-
Council on Physical Fitness and Sports, 2004), are reported
wise, all of them can fail. This is why it is so important
in this fashion. This information will allow a student to
for a teacher to choose correct criteria. The benefits of
know where his or her performance stands in comparison
criterion-referenced evaluations are as follows:
to his or her peers. On a smaller level, teachers may imple-
ment this type of evaluation within their own classes. ■ Evaluation is custom fit for the specific groups or
“Grading on a curve” is an example of norm-referenced students with whom a teacher is working.
evaluation that teachers might implement. The benefits of ■ The information provided is informative in relation
this type of evaluation are as follows: to what a student can and cannot do instead of how
■ Allows for performance evaluation in relation to he or she compares to others.
peers. ■ These evaluations can provide reasons why students
■ Is easily administered and collected because most of are performing at a certain level.
the measures are outcomes such as number of times ■ It is possible for every student to be successful in
and timed events. regards to mastering content.

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The drawbacks to criterion-referenced evaluations are as program. Another factor that motivates students is the
follows: setting of achievable goals. It is difficult to know what
is reasonable and reachable if students are unaware of
■ The criteria chosen to evaluate performance may their performance levels and abilities.
not represent appropriate standards.
■ Levels of acceptance or quality may be set too high or Diagnosis
low for the majority of students. When all students in Process assessment often reveals problems or deficien-
a class receive an “A” on a test, it might be that the cies. When teaching an entire class, it is difficult to sense
evaluation is not sensitive enough to discriminate the ability and progress of each student. Often, more
differences in performance. energy is placed on monitoring student behavior than
student performance. Assessment performed through-
Teachers are urged to weigh all the advantages and out a unit will focus energy on progress of individual
disadvantages of both of these types of evaluations in students and reveal those students whose skills are defi-
order to judge which type is the most appropriate for cient or performed incorrectly.
their specific situation. This decision can be crucial in
evaluating student and program performance. Placement and equalization
At times, it is effective to group students homogeneously,
that is, students with equal ability are placed in groups.
USES FOR STUDENT EVALUATION On the other hand, using a peer tutoring method can be
Many components are evaluated in physical education. done if assessment reveals some skilled performers and
A major part of evaluation is examining the skill learning others having problems. Student evaluation will help
and development that occurs through the instructional teachers place students with mentor coaches and balance
process. Even though skill development is a primary focus small groups’ ability levels when it enhances learning.
of physical education, it is not enough; students need to
learn about strategy, skill performance techniques, sport Program evaluation
etiquette, and positive attitudes toward physical activity. Evaluation of students can reveal the effectiveness of the
Written exams and alternative assessments can evaluate program and the relevancy of objectives. If all students
whether or not students have requisite knowledge for suc- pass the evaluation, it may mean that the goals of the pro-
cessful participation. Finally, the area of attitudes and gram are too low. If many fail, the quality of instruction
values is important to the program. Students will choose may be inadequate or the standard of performance may
not to participate if their attitudes and values have not be out of reach. Over time, evaluation of students can
developed concurrently with skills and knowledge. give direction to the program as objectives and instruc-
Some common reasons for evaluation include the tional strategies are modified to increase student success.
following:
Program support
Grading Results of regular evaluation can be used to validate
Performance on valid and reliable instruments offers and support the program. Data gained through evalu-
objective data for grading. Communicating with ation are objective and can reveal what students are
students and parents is more effective when an objec- expected to learn and how effectively they are learn-
tive and systematic tool has been used for evaluation ing. Accountability is a buzzword among educators as
(e.g., rubrics, Fitnessgram). Parents and students can schools try to document what students are learning in
see how they compare to others or established criteria order to gain public support. When administrators
and are given a realistic view of their performance. need to make cutbacks in programs, they usually ask
Grades based on objective data carry more credibility faculty members to justify continuation of their pro-
and respect both inside and outside the profession. grams. Data gained through consistent assessment
and evaluation of students are strong and effective
Motivation means to defend the program.
Nothing motivates students more than improvement
based on individual effort. When improvement can be
documented through evaluation, it can be clear evi- TO GRADE OR NOT TO GRADE?
dence that effort has been rewarded. It is difficult to Another issue related to grading is whether physical educa-
know the extent of improvement (or lack of) if both tion should be graded. Some feel the most important pur-
process and product assessment are not a part of the pose of a physical education program is to offer students

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the opportunity to recreate and exercise. Others feel that ARGUMENTS FOR USING
education should be a primary focus and a grade is needed
A GRADING SYSTEM
to reflect how much students have learned. Arguments are
■ Giving grades makes physical education similar to
offered on each side of the issue—to grade or not to
other academic areas in the school curriculum. This
grade—to help teachers better understand and defend the
gives physical education credibility and gains respect
approach they choose. For an in-depth review of grading,
from parents, teachers, and administrators.
the text by Lacy (2010) is recommended.
■ Grades communicate the performance of students
to parents. Parents have a right to know how their
ARGUMENTS AGAINST USING children perform in physical education. Grades are
A GRADING SYSTEM used by teachers in other areas and are easily under-
stood and interpreted by parents; therefore, they
■ Grades are difficult to interpret. A grade means
should be used in physical education.
one thing to one teacher and another to a differ-
ent teacher. When moving to a different school, ■ When grades are not given, academic respect is lost.
the meaning of the grade does not transfer, and Physical education already suffers from the mis-
teachers at the new school may view the grade guided perception that physical educators don’t
differently. teach anything; they just “roll out the ball.” Lack of a
grading system may make it appear to others that
■ Physical education does not place emphasis on
little teaching or learning is occurring.
content and product. Rather, it judges success by
improvement of skills. Grades in academic areas ■ A grading system gives accountability. When grades
reflect achievement and accomplishment; because are given, administrators and parents often assume
grades in physical education reflect improvement that teaching and student accomplishment have
and effort, they may be interpreted incorrectly. occurred.
■ Often, time is limited in physical education, and ■ A grading system rewards skilled students. Stu-
classes only meet a few days a week. Testing for the dents are rewarded in academic areas for their 10
purpose of assigning a grade is time consuming and intelligence and performance and should be simi-
takes away from learning opportunities. Physical larly rewarded for accomplishment in physical
educators try to squeeze as much learning as possi- education settings.
ble into a minimal amount of time, and grading ■ Grading systems where teachers choose appropriate
dramatically reduces their instructional time. criteria for assessment allow for a greater success
■ Physical education is diverse and broad by definition. than many other academic areas where success and
Instruction covers all three learning domains, that is, failure are only determined through performance
skill development, attitude formation, and content outcomes.
knowledge. Trying to grade all three of these areas is
difficult and demands a great deal of time. In addi-
tion, which of these three domains is most impor- GRADING—DIFFERING
tant, and can any of them be overlooked?
VIEWPOINTS
■ Grading is done only in areas where standardized Many approaches are used for grading students. Grading
instruments have been developed. Fitness testing is methods vary depending on the philosophies of teachers
the major area in physical education where a variety and districtwide school regulations. This section exam-
of standardized tests have been developed. Because ines different viewpoints, offers insight into each, and
of the dearth of standardized tests in other areas, challenges readers to defend the grading procedure they
excessive attention is given to fitness testing. choose.
■ Physical education emphasizes physical fitness and
skill performance. Performance in these areas is
strongly controlled by genetics, making it difficult
for all students to achieve—even when they “give it
EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES
their best effort.” In addition, when grades are given VERSUS ADMINISTRATIVE TASKS
for physical fitness performance, some students feel It is generally agreed that physical education should help
discouraged because they train and still do not reach students achieve in four areas: skill development, physical
standards of high performance. fitness, personal values, and cognitive development. Some

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grading systems assign weight to each of these areas when education grades in the overall grade point average nor
compiling a grade. Regardless of the amount of emphasis include them in graduation requirements. When grades
given to each area, the final grade depends on accomplish- earned in physical education become unimportant to school
ment of educational objectives. This contrasts with grading requirements, it makes it easy to say that physical education
on completion of administrative tasks where students earn should no longer be required of all students considering the
a part or all of their grade by showering, attending, partici- grade is meaningless. The bottom line is to grade in a man-
pating, being prompt, and wearing the proper uniform. ner that is compatible with other subject matter areas.
This latter approach grades students on tasks that have lit-
tle to do with accomplishment of physical education objec-
tives. Furthermore, these tasks are usually documented at PROCESS VERSUS PRODUCT
the beginning of the period and will serve little in holding Another area of concern when evaluating is whether the
students accountable for their in-class performances. process or the product of education is more important.
Consider the conflicts arising when students are Those who emphasize the process of education stress the
graded on achievement of educational objectives versus importance of students leaving school with warm and
accomplishment of administrative tasks. Assume a stu- positive feelings toward physical activity. These educators
dent in a math class regularly forgets to bring a pencil and state their beliefs in the following manner: “I am not con-
is tardy but earns an A grade on all math exams. Does this cerned about how many skills my students learn; I just
student earn a final grade of A, or is the student penalized want them to walk out of my class with positive feelings
for doing poorly on administrative tasks (tardiness, and so about physical activity.” The assumption is that students
on) and given a C grade? Reverse the situation and assume who feel positive about physical activity will be willing to
the student has an outstanding attitude, is never tardy, and be active throughout their lifetimes. These teachers assign
always brings the proper supplies to class. At the end of grades based on the process of trying rather than the
the semester, the student has earned a C grade on exams product of performance. Students who receive higher
yet performed all administrative tasks at a high level. Does grades may not be the most skilled but have shown
this student receive a final grade of A? If grades in other improvement and effort throughout the semester.
curricular areas of the school are earned through accom- Teachers who reside in the product camp focus pri-
plishment of educational objectives or performance of marily on student accomplishment and see effort as some-
administrative tasks, it is probably wise to follow suit in thing that is laudable but not part of the grading process.
the physical education area. Their philosophy might be stated as follows: “I don’t really
Administrative tasks are usually enforced through care whether students like me or physical education. What
school or districtwide regulations. For example, most dis- is ultimately important is their performance. After all, the
tricts have procedures for dealing with excessive absences students who are best in math earn the highest grades, so
or tardiness. Usually, teachers need not further penalize why should it be any different in physical education?”
students through a grade reduction. Sometimes students Teachers who focus on product give the highest grade to
are graded on participation, which is similar to receiving a the best performer, regardless of other factors. Less-skilled
grade just because one is physically present in class. On the students, no matter how hard they try, will not receive an
other hand, students should be able to choose not to par- above-average grade.
ticipate in class only when they are excused by the admin- This is a difficult problem to resolve in physical educa-
istration or by the school nurse (for sickness or injury). tion and is always hotly debated. One point of view is that
Participation alone should not be used as a factor in students should learn how society works from the grading
assigning grades. Rather, all students should be expected to system. People are not rewarded in life based on how hard
participate unless excused by administrative edict. they try, but rather, on their performance. For example, if
If a student does not attend class, it is defensible to ask real estate agents try hard but never sell a house, they will
the student to repeat the class. This is usually done by not make any money. The payoff is for selling houses, not
assigning a failing grade. Because instructors do this in other for trying hard to sell houses. An opposing viewpoint is
academic areas, excessive absences are usually an accep- that many people in society are rewarded for effort, and
table criterion for failing the student. The major theme to “doing your best” should be rewarded.
remember is that grading systems in physical education The need to develop competency in various physical
should be in line with the grading systems in other subject- skills offers support for the product point of view. Interests
matter areas. If physical educators choose to grade other- are established based on competency in different areas.
wise, the grade may be meaningless to other teachers, A relatively low percentage of adults select new hobbies in
parents, and students. Differences in grading approaches areas where they feel incompetent. To ensure lifetime activ-
have caused some school districts to not calculate physical ity, school physical education programs need to graduate

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students whose skill competencies allow them to feel com- GRADING ON POTENTIAL
fortable in public view. A grading system that focuses on
Some teachers choose to grade based on student poten-
skill development and performance will encourage the
tial. These teachers may lower a student’s grade because
quest toward competency.
the student did not reach his or her potential. On the
A solution to consider is to grade on performance
other hand, a grade may be raised because the teacher felt
while teaching in a manner that focuses on the process of
the student didn’t have much ability but did reach his or
learning. Much is to be said for teaching in a manner that
her potential. In other words, the teacher decides what a
helps students develop a positive attitude toward activity.
student’s potential performance level should be and
Attitude development depends largely on how teachers
then assigns a grade based on whether he or she reached
present the material rather than on actual performance.
this level. The grade a student receives depends on the
Students, with the help of the instructional process, need
teacher’s subjective perception of that student’s genetic
to understand that they perform differently from each
limitations. How can any teacher really know the absolute
other as in math or science and receive a respectively
potential of any student? This approach results in
higher or lower grade. This would make physical educa-
students being assigned a grade based on an unknown
tion similar to other academic areas in that those who
factor: potential.
perform best would receive the highest grade.
This approach depends on the teacher’s feelings about
the student in question. It is based on intangibles and may
RELATIVE IMPROVEMENT result in a grade being assigned because the student is
“just like her brothers or sisters.” Grades are difficult to
Some physical educators believe that effort, or “just doing
defend when they are based on the teacher’s subjective
the best you can,” should be the most important factor in
beliefs rather than on criteria that can be measured and
assigning grades. To reward effort, these teachers base stu-
evaluated. How would a parent react to a teacher’s state-
dent grades on the amount a student improves. This
ment that, “Your child received a failing grade because he
involves pretesting and posttesting to determine the
just didn’t live up to his potential”? To be defensible, grad-
amount of progress made throughout the grading period.
ing systems need to be based on tangible data gleaned
This approach contrasts with basing the grade on absolute
from observable behavior and performance. 10
performance; it is quite possible that the best performer in
the class will not receive the highest grade because of lack
of improvement.
Grading on improvement is time consuming and
NEGATIVE VERSUS POSITIVE
requires that the same test be given at the beginning and GRADING
end of the semester or unit. The test may or may not be a To make the grading system defensible and concrete,
valid reflection of what has been learned in the class and some teachers have used point systems. In most point
may not be sensitive enough to reflect improvement made systems, both performance objectives and administra-
by both poor and outstanding performers. Testing at the tive factors are listed as grade components. A student
beginning of a unit can be discouraging and demoralizing if earns a grade through performance, attitude, and
a student performs poorly in front of peers. It can also knowledge. Point systems can become a negative influ-
be hazardous in some activities, such as gymnastics or ence if handled incorrectly. For example, some teachers
archery, which require intensive instruction to prevent give students 100 points at the start of the semester and
accidents or injuries. then “chip off ” points for various unsatisfactory levels
Another factor to consider is the issue of performing of performance. A student may lose points for not try-
for a grade. Students learn quickly that if they perform too ing, not performing, or not knowing answers on a test.
well on the pretest, they will be penalized at posttest time. Students soon realize that energy should be spent on
It is thus important to perform at a low level to demon- concentrating on negative behaviors that lose points
strate a higher degree of improvement on the posttest. A rather than educational objectives.
related problem is that improvement is sometimes easier at This contrasts with a system that rewards positive be-
beginning levels of a skill than at high levels of perform- havior. When the student performs well, points are
ance. Most teachers are aware of the rapid improvement assigned and the student can earn his or her grade through
beginners make before reaching a learning plateau. A skilled self-direction. In a negative system, teachers make all the
performer may be at a level where improvement is difficult judgments about points lost and receive, in turn, the
to achieve. Lack of improvement in this situation would negative feelings of the student. In a positive system, stu-
result in a skilled performer receiving a lower grade than a dents can behave in a positive manner to earn points.
beginner. Teachers are constantly rewarding their behavior, which

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fosters positive feelings toward physical education and If physical education does not require grading integrity, the
teachers. Rewarding positive behavior makes students feel subject probably should not be counted in the grade point
that the teacher cares about their welfare and growth. average. The problem lies in the final outcome. If the physical
A negative system tends to make teachers focus on education department chooses to operate autonomously
what students cannot do rather than on what they should from the rest of the school system, it then becomes vulnerable
or can do. Energy is spent on “policing” students and to nonsupport and abandonment. Physical education should
threatening to take away points if they do not behave. be considered an integral part of the school system and
Students do not respond well to this approach, considering should be graded in a manner consistent with other subject
a loss of points does not require an immediate change in matter areas.
behavior and a redirection. The loss of points results in a
reduction of the final grade, a consequence that is usually 6
to 9 weeks away. Few students respond positively to grade
leverage through a negative system. A student who cares STUDY STIMULATORS
about their grades is usually performing well in the first AND REVIEW QUESTIONS
place. Threatening to lower the grade of a student who 1. Differentiate between assessment, evaluation,
does not like physical education or school in general only and grading.
further alienates the student and is based on a system of 2. From a teacher’s perspective, explain why the
negative reinforcement. Grading systems should positively use of “positive grading” is preferred over “neg-
ative grading.”
encourage students to perform.
3. Briefly describe the basic procedure of doing the
Fitnessgram PACER test.
PASS–FAIL VERSUS LETTER 4. What are the advantages of doing the PACER
test over the 1-mile run?
GRADES 5. Explain what criterion-referenced health stan-
Another approach to grading involves assigning a pass–fail dards indicate for students.
grade instead of a letter grade. Pass–fail has become more 6. Why is authentic assessment preferred in a phys-
ical education environment?
common today because of the push to avoid having physi-
7. Explain why physical educators should follow
cal education grades count in the academic grade point the lead of classroom teachers and grade stu-
average. This approach prevents students from receiving a dents on performance in class.
low grade in physical education while earning high grades 8. What is the “process versus product” dilemma
in subject matter areas. faced by teachers in terms of their grading
When using a pass–fail grading system; no method is procedures?
9. Explain the potential long-term effects of a neg-
available for rewarding outstanding performers. A student
ative type of grading scheme.
who earns a grade of C or D receives the same final grade as 10. Why are there so many different points of view
the top performer in the class. This approach reinforces regarding grading in physical education?
making a minimal effort to accomplish goals because differ-
ing levels of performance are not rewarded. The pass–fail
system also does little to show students that they have WEBSITES
improved. For example, if a student is performing at the C Assessment Ideas
level and earns a B by the end of the next quarter, the pass www.pecentral.org/assessment/assessment
grade reflects no change in performance. Grading systems Fitnessgram/Activitygram
are most effective when they reward improved standards of www.Fitnessgram.net
performance. National Association for Sport and Physical Education
Some teachers endorse pass–fail grading because it www.aahperd.org/naspe
eases the burden of evaluation. They no longer have to
Physical Education Teaching and Curriculum Information
worry about bookkeeping chores because the grade is
www.pecentral.com
only grossly indicative of student progress. Recording www.pelinks4u.org
anything more than the minimum performance required www.pe4life.org
for passing the class becomes unnecessary. Some teachers, www.reach.ucf.edu/~pezone/
therefore, support this grading system because of ease of Presidents Council on Physical Fitness and Sports
implementation. www.fitness.gov
Once again, when the grading system in physical
Research for Education and Learning
education differs from those in other subject matter areas, de- www.mcrel.org
fending the program in the school setting becomes difficult.

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of tennis skill. Research Quarterly, 39, 1000–1004. 68(7), 17–18.

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262
 Students with
Disabilities

From Chapter 11 of Dynamic Physical Education for Secondary Schools, Seventh Edition. Paul W. Darst, Robert P. Pangrazi, Mary Jo Sariscsany,
Timothy A. Brusseau, Jr. Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. Published by Pearson Benjamin Cummings. All rights reserved.
 Students with
Disabilities
ESSENTIAL COMPONENTS OF
A QUALITY PROGRAM
▲ ▲

I. Organized around content standards

II. Student-centered and developmentally
appropriate
III. Physical activity and motor skill develop-
ment form the core of the program
IV. Teaches management skills and
self-discipline
▲ ▲

V. Promotes inclusion of all students

VI. Focuses on process over product
VII. Promotes lifetime personal health
and wellness
▲

VIII. Teaches cooperation and responsibility

and promotes sensitivity to diversity

Jose Carrillo/PhotoEdit
NATIONAL STANDARDS FOR
PHYSICAL EDUCATION*
▲

1. Demonstrates competency in motor skills

and movement patterns needed to perform
a variety of physical activities.
2. Demonstrates understanding of movement
concepts, principles, strategies, and tactics as
they apply to the learning and performance
of physical activities.
3. Participates regularly in physical activity.
4. Achieves and maintains a health-enhancing
level of physical fitness.
5. Exhibits responsible personal and social
▲

behavior that respects self and others in

physical activity settings.
6. Values physical activity for health, enjoyment,
▲

challenge, self-expression, and/or social *National Association for Sport and Physical Education
interaction. (NASPE), 2004.

264
 STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES

often have a range of abilities in their classes requiring in-

Chapter Summary dividual instruction, however, adapted physical education
is typically geared toward meeting long-term (>30 days)
This chapter focuses on the most common types of
disabilities, and on ways to modify activities and
unique needs as determined by the Individuals with
determine categories of placement for students Disabilities Education Act (IDEA). These include a child
with disabilities. Every state is required by federal diagnosed with mental impairment, deafness, or other
law to develop a plan for identifying, locating, and hearing impairment, speech or language impairment,
evaluating all students with disabilities. Due process blindness or other visual impairment, serious emotional
for students and parents is an important requisite disturbance, orthopedic impairment, autism, traumatic
when conducting formal assessment procedures.
Assessment plays a vital part in determining proper
brain injury, a learning disability, deafblindness (the condi-
placement of the student with a disability into phys- tion of little or no useful sight and little or no useful hear-
ical education. Moving a student to a less restrictive ing), multiple disabilities, or other health impairments that
learning environment should be based on achieve- require special education (Office of Special Education and
ment of specified competencies necessary in the Rehabilitation Services, 2002). Adapted physical education
new environment. Inclusion involves the practice of may also include children with developmental delays as
placing students with disabilities into classes with
well as any physical or mental impairment that limits one
able peers. An individualized learning environment
increases opportunities for successful inclusion. The or more major life activities (Winnick, 2005).
student with the disability should be held to high Adapted sport refers specifically to sport modified to
expectations and not be permitted to use a disabil- meet the unique needs of individuals with disabilities. An
ity as a crutch or as an excuse for substandard work. important responsibility of the physical education teacher is
to be aware of adapted sport opportunities for their students.
Student Outcomes These may include activities thorough various organizations,
After reading this chapter, you will be able to: including the United States Olympic Committee, Disabled
• Define adapted physical education and adapted Sports USA, Special Olympics, USA Deaf Sports Federation,
sport. U.S. Association of Blind Athletes, National Disability Sport
• Understand the implications of Public Law (PL) Alliance, and Wheelchair Sports USA (Winnick, 2005).
94–142 and the Individuals with Disabilities
Education Act (IDEA) on physical education.
• Develop a plan for identifying, locating, and eval- LAWS RELATED TO ADAPTED
uating all students with disabilities.
• Cite standards associated with assessment proce-
PHYSICAL EDUCATION
dures for students with disabilities. The Education for All Handicapped Children Act (PL
• Identify essential elements of an individualized
94–142) was passed by Congress in 1975. This legislation
educational program and list the stages of devel- introduced new requirements, vocabulary, and concepts into
opment. physical education programs across the United States. These
• List guidelines for successful inclusion experiences. concepts include individualized educational programs
• Describe ways to modify learning experiences in (IEPs), mainstreaming, least restrictive environments, zero
physical education to accommodate students with reject, and progressive inclusion. The purpose of the law is
disabilities. clear and concise:
It is the purpose of this act to assure that all handicapped
children* have available to them a free appropriate pub-
lic education which emphasizes special education and
DEFINING ADAPTED PHYSICAL related services designed to meet their unique needs, to
EDUCATION AND SPORT assure that the rights of handicapped children and their
Adapted physical education is best defined as an individu-
*The term handicapped is used in PL 94 –142 to include
alized program designed to meet the unique needs of an
children who are mentally challenged, hard of hearing, deaf,
individual student. This may include fitness, fundamental
speech impaired, visually handicapped, seriously emotionally
motor skills, skills in aquatics, dance, individual and team disturbed, orthopedically impaired, other health impaired,
games, and sports (Winnick, 2005). A quality physical blind, multi-handicapped (i.e., concomitant impairments such
education promotes inclusion of all students. A good as mental retardation/blindness, mental retardation/orthopedic
teacher will make the necessary adaptations for all stu- impairment, etc.), or specific learning disabled. More appropri-
dents, especially those with a disability. Physical educators ate wording is students with disabilities, which will be used
throughout this chapter.

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 STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES

parents or guardians are protected, to assist states and not all individuals can do all of the same activities in the
localities to provide for the education of all handicapped same environment. However, the concept of “zero reject”
children, and to assess and assure the effectiveness of entitles everyone of school age to some aspect of the school
efforts to educate handicapped children. (PL 94–142). program. No one can be totally rejected because of a
disability. The focus should be on placing students into
In short, the law requires that all youth with disabilities,
settings that offer the best opportunity for educational
ages 3 to 21, receive a free and appropriate education in the
advancement. It is inappropriate to place a young person
least restrictive environment. The law includes children/
in an environment where success is impossible. However, it
young people in public and private care facilities and
is debilitating to put a student in a setting that is more
schools. Youth with disabilities who can learn in regular
restrictive than necessary. Special educators speak about
classes with the use of supplementary aids and services
mainstreaming options that offer a variety of opportuni-
must be educated along with other students who are able.
ties, from participation in regular physical education
Physical education is the only specific area mentioned in PL
classes to physical education in a full-time special school.
94–142. The law indicates that the term special education
Figure 1 shows a series of options that might be available
“means specially designed instruction, instruction in physi-
for physical education.
cal education, home instruction, and instruction in hospi-
The least restrictive environment varies depending on
tals and institutions.” A 1997 amendment, PL 105–17 (also
the unit of instruction and the teaching style. For example,
known as IDEA), continues with the objective of providing
for a student in a wheelchair, a soccer or football unit
handicapped individuals with the least restrictive environ-
might be restrictive, whereas in a basketball or Frisbee unit,
ment in the school setting. The Individuals with Disabilities
the environment would not be as restrictive. For a student
Education Act states, “Physical education services, specially
with emotional disabilities, the direct style of instruc-
designed if necessary, must be made available to every child
tion might be the least restrictive environment, while a
with a disability receiving a free appropriate public educa-
problem-solving method with group cooperation may be
tion.” Rehabilitation and social work services are included
too difficult and would be more restrictive. Consistent and
as related services.
regular judgments need to be made considering curricu-
To comply with PL 94–142, secondary schools must
lum content and teaching styles change the type of envi-
locate, identify, and evaluate all students who might have a
ronment the student enters. It is shortsighted to place
disability. A screening process must be followed by a for-
students into a situation and then forget about them.
mal assessment procedure. An assessment must be made
Evaluation and modification of environments need to be
and an IEP developed for each student before placement
ongoing. The concept of “progressive inclusion” focuses on
into a special program can be made. The law states who
the idea that as students make progress, they should have
will be responsible for developing the IEP and what the
the opportunity to progress to less restrictive environ-
contents of the IEP will include.
ments and experience more of the mainstream of schools
The passage of PL 94–142 shows that a strong com-
and programs.
mitment has been made to equality and education for all
Americans. Prior to 1970, these students had limited
access to schools and did not have an equal opportunity
Regular physical education classes
to participate in school programs. The government also
restrictive

ensured that funding would be made available for quality Regular physical education classes with
Least

instruction. The law authorizes a payment to each state of restricted class size (e.g., 15 able
students per 1 child with disability)
40 percent of the average per pupil expenditure in U.S.
elementary and secondary schools, multiplied by the Regular physical education classes with
number of youths with disabilities who are receiving spe- an aide or classroom teacher support
cial education and related services. The federal mandate Regular physical education classes plus
reveals the concern of the public for comprehensive edu- part-time special education classes
cation programs for all students regardless of disability. (e.g., 3 days regular, 2 days special per week)
Full-time special education class
restrictive
Most

LEAST RESTRICTIVE ENVIRONMENT Full-time physical education in

school for special education students only
PL 105–17 uses the term least restrictive environment to
help determine the best placement arrangement of stu-
dents with disabilities. This concept refers to the idea that FIGURE 1 Physical education mainstreaming
options: least to most restrictive environments

266
 STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES

INCLUSION MOVEMENT Segregation can be maintained only when it is in the

best interests of the student. The purpose of segregated
Inclusion refers to the integration of students with disabili-
programs is to establish a level of skill and social profi-
ties into a regular class to receive physical education. These
ciency that will eventually enable the special student to be
students will often need specialized instruction or adapta-
transferred to a less restricted learning environment. The
tions in order to be successful. Much support has been gar-
goal of the process is to place students in the least restric-
nered for inclusive physical education: experts suggest it
tive environment, where they can benefit most. Students
can be more motivating, provides opportunities for social
with disabilities, working on their own, have often
development and age-appropriate play skills, promotes the
been denied opportunities to interact with peers and to
development of friendships among students with and
become a part of the social and academic classroom
without disabilities, and provides skilled role models.
network.
Arguments against suggest that inclusion does not allow
Students with disabilities often need support personnel
for students with disabilities to get enough attention,
during inclusion. Even though the physical education
teachers are not prepared for successful inclusion, and reg-
teacher is responsible for all students during class time, the
ular education students will be held back in their develop-
students with the disability may still require access to special
ment (Winnick, 2005). While it is typically considered best
education teachers, school psychologists, and speech thera-
to include all children in a regular physical education class,
pists. Support personnel often view physical education as a
a student may be placed in a totally inclusive environment
time to get rid of their students; however, they are a source of
or a totally segregated environment based on the unique
information and support for the physical education teacher
needs of the students or the uniqueness of the activity.
in charge.
Lieberman and Houston-Wilson (2009), in their text
Strategies for Inclusion, provide an example of a continuum
of placement options that could be made available to stu-
dents with disabilities in physical education class: SCREENING AND ASSESSMENT
Every state is required to develop a plan for identifying,
A. Inclusion Options
locating, and evaluating all students with disabilities.
1. Full inclusion with no adaptations or support Generally, screening involves all students districtwide and is
2. Full inclusion with curriculum adaptations and usually conducted at the start of the school year. Screening
modifications tests include commonly used test batteries such as the
3. Full inclusion with trained peer tutors Fitnessgram (Cooper Institute, 2007). However, specialized
4. Full inclusion with paraeducators tests for adapted physical education also exist. A few exam-
5. Full inclusion with specialists ples include the Brockport Physical Fitness Test (Winnick &
B. Part-Time Segregated and Part-Time Integrated Short, 1999); APEAS II (American Association for Physical
Placement Options Activity and Recreation [AAPAR], 2007); and the
1. Split placement without additional support Bruininks-Osertsky Test of Motor Proficiency (Bruininks &
2. Split placement with additional support Bruininks, 2005). In most situations, screening tests may be
administered without parental permission. They are used to
C. Community-Based Options make initial identification of students who need special
1. Part-time community-based, part-time services.
school-based Assessment is conducted after screening evaluations
2. Full time community-based have been made and appropriate students are referred to
D. Full-Time Segregated Placement Options Within special education directors. Assessment is performed by a
a Regular School District team of experts, which often includes the physical educa-
tion specialist. Effective assessment, when used appropri-
1. Reverse integration: Typically developing peers
ately, can identify the unique physical needs of students
attend class with peer with a disability
with disabilities, assist in the development of physical
2. Specialist-directed
education goals and objectives, and serve as a way to
E. Segregated Placement Options monitor student progress in the program. Due process
1. Day school for specific disabilities for students and parents is important during formal
2. Residential school for specific disabilities assessment procedures. Due process ensures that parents
3. Home schooling and students are informed of their rights and have the
4. Institution opportunity to challenge educational decisions they feel
5. Hospital are unfair or incorrect.

267
 STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES

DUE PROCESS GUIDELINES Selection of Test Instruments

To ensure that due process is offered to parents and stu- The test instruments used must provide a valid examina-
dents, the following guidelines must be followed: tion of what they purport to measure. When selecting
instruments, it must be clear to all parties how the tests
1. Written permission. A written notice must be sent
were developed and how they will measure the area of
to parents stating that their child has been referred
disability. More than one test procedure must be used to
for assessment. The notice explains that the district
determine the student’s status or developmental need.
requests permission to conduct an evaluation to
Both formal and informal assessment techniques should
determine if special education services are required
be used to ensure that the results measure the student’s
for the child. Also included in the permission letter
impairment rather than simply reflect the student’s
must be reasons for testing and the tests to be used.
shortcomings.
Before assessment can begin, the letter must be
Unfortunately, students must be labeled as “disabled”
signed by the parents and returned to the district.
in order to reap the benefits of a special education pro-
2. Interpretation of the assessment. Results of the gram. The stigmatizing effect of labels and the fallibility
assessment must be interpreted in a meeting that of various means of testing students are dilemmas that
includes the parents. Persons knowledgeable of test must be faced. Although current pedagogical practices
procedures need to be present to answer questions discourage labeling, in this case, it is necessary because
parents ask. At the meeting, parents are told school districts have to certify the disability to receive
whether their child has any disabilities and what funding.
services will be provided.
3. External evaluation. If parents are not satisfied with Administration Procedures
the results of the assessment, an evaluation outside Many disabilities interfere with standard test procedures.
of school can be requested. The district must pro- For example, many students have communication prob-
vide a list of agencies that can perform such assess- lems and must be tested in a manner that ensures testing
ments. If the results differ from the school district of motor ability rather than communication skills. Many
evaluation, the district must pay for the external students have visual and hearing disabilities that prevent
evaluation. If the results are similar, parents have to using tests that rely on these faculties.
pay for the external testing. A possibility of misdiagnosing and incorrectly classify-
4. Negotiation and hearings. If parents and the school ing students as mentally impaired can occur with certain
district disagree on the results of the assessment, the ethnic groups such as Native Americans, African Americans,
district is required to negotiate the differences. and Spanish-speaking students. These youths, often victims
When negotiations fail, an impartial hearing officer of poor and impoverished living, may instead be essentially
listens to both parties and renders an official deci- environmentally challenged and in need of cultural enrich-
sion. This is usually the final review; however, both ment and expanded experiences. It is subtle discrimination,
parties do have the right to appeal to the state but it must be replaced with understanding that students
department of education, which renders a binding differ because of culture, poverty, migrant lifestyle, and lan-
and final decision. Civil action through the legal sys- guage. Many of the tests are based on Caucasian, middle-
tem can be pursued should the district or parents class students and standards. Ethnic minority students
still disagree. However, few cases ever reach this level should be assessed with care and sensitivity to determine the
of long-term disagreement, and educators should validity of the testing procedure.
not hesitate to serve the needs of students with dis-
abilities based on this concern. Team Evaluation
5. Confidentiality. As is the case with other student A number of experts are used for assessment to help ensure
records, only parents of the child or authorized that all facets of the student will be reviewed and evaluated.
school personnel can review the student’s evaluation. Evaluation professionals who are well trained and qualified
Review by other parties can be done only after written administer the various tests. It is the responsibility of the
permission has been given by the student’s parents. school district to ensure that this will occur.

PROCEDURES FOR ENSURING Role of the Physical Education Specialist

ASSESSMENT STANDARDS The physical education specialist is the point person for
PL 94–142 ensures that assessment will be held to certain assessing and developing an individualized educational
standards to provide fair and objective results. The follow- program (IEP). An example of an IEP is presented in
ing areas are specifically delineated in the law. Figure 2. It is the physical educator’s responsibility to
268
 STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES

Initial Placement
Reevaluation
Individualized Educational Program
Change of Placement
Review
A. STUDENT INFORMATION:
Student Name Student No. Home School
Last First Middle
Date of Birth Chronological Age (M or F ) Present Placement/Grade
Parent/Guardian Name(s) Receiving School
Home Address Program Recommended
Street City/State Zip
Home Phone Work Phone Starting Date
Emergency Phone Three (3) Year Reevaluation Due Date / /
Primary Language (Home) (Child) Interpreter Needed: Yes No

B. VISION SCREENING RESULTS: Pass Fail HEARING SCREENING RESULTS: Pass Fail
Date: Comments: Date: Comments:

C. REQUIRED OBSERVATION(S): (All categories other than regular teacher)

By: By: By:
Date(s) Name(s) Date(s) Name(s) Date(s) Name(s)

D. SUMMARY OF PRESENT LEVELS OF PERFORMANCE:

Educational:

Behavioral:

E. Additional justification. See comments See addendum

Initial Initial

F. PLACEMENT RECOMMENDATION INDICATING LEAST RESTRICTIVE ENVIRONMENT:

Related services needed: Yes No (*List below.)

Placement Person Amount of Entry Date Review Reports Projected IEP Review
Recommendation Responsible Time (Range) On/About On/About Ending Date Date

Primary:

*Related
Services:

Transportation Needed? Yes No (If Yes, submit MPS Special Education Transportation Request Form.)

Describe extent student will participate in regular program.

Page 1 of ____

FIGURE 2 Example of an individualized educational program (IEP)

269
 STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES

INDIVIDUALIZED EDUCATIONAL PROGRAM REPORT OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY CONFERENCE

Date Held
Student Name Student No.

G. PROGRAM PLANNING:
Long-Term Goals: Short-Term Objectives (Goals):

H. EVALUATION:
Evaluation criteria are described in the Individual Implementation Plan (IIP), which is available in the classroom file.

I. PLACEMENT COMMITTEE:
The following have been consulted or have participated in the placement and IEP decisions:
Present Oral Written
Names of Members Position (Initial) Report Report Signatures
Parent/Guardian
Parent/Guardian
School Administrator
Special Ed Administrator
School Psychologist
Nurse
Teacher(s) Receiving
Teacher(s) Referring

Interpreter
Dissenting Opinion: Yes No If Yes, see comments See addendum
Initial Initial

J. PARENT (OR GUARDIAN) STATEMENT:

We agree to the placement recommended in this IEP. Yes No
We give our permission to have our child counseled by the professional staff, if necessary. Yes No
We understand that placement will be on a continuing trial basis and we will be contacted if any placement changes
are contemplated. We are aware that such placement does not guarantee success; however, in order to help our child,
we accept the responsibility to cooperate in every way with the school program. We acknowledge that we have been
notified of and have received a copy of our due process rights pertaining to special education placement and have a
basic understanding of these rights. We acknowledge that we have received a copy of the completed IEP Form.

Parent or Guardian Signature Date

Comments:

Page 2 of ____

FIGURE 2 (continued )

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 STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES

review all student’s health folders to see if any students of the parents or school district. This program identifies
have previously been recommended for differing support the student’s unique qualities and determines education-
in the past. Students with differing needs are first observed ally relevant strengths and weaknesses. A plan is then
in the regular physical education setting. Similarly, the devised based on the diagnosis. The IEP needs to contain
physical education teacher should visit with these students the following material:
to see how they perceive the situation and how they would
like to proceed. Usually, an adapted physical educator who 1. Current status of the student’s level of educational
specializes in working with students with different needs performance.
is called in to do the assessment. However, the physical
2. A statement of long-term goals and short-term
education teacher is expected to offer feedback about how
instructional objectives.
the student participates in regular physical education
classes. The physical education teacher teams with the 3. A statement of special education and related serv-
special education teacher to develop the IEP. It then ices to be provided to the student. Also, a report as
becomes the responsibility of the physical education spe- to what extent the student will be able to participate
cialist to implement the IEP strategies. in regular educational programs.
Standards for placing students into special programs 4. The dates for initiation of services and anticipated
are necessary so parents feel that well-defined criteria have duration of the services.
been used. Several states have adopted criteria for deter- 5. Appropriate objective criteria for determining
mining eligibility of students for adapted physical educa- annually whether the short-term objectives are
tion classes. State guidelines differ but should be followed reached.
closely if they exist. Often, standards are based on the
administration of standardized tests for which norms or
Developing and sequencing objectives for the student
percentiles have been developed. This procedure helps
is the first step in formulating the IEP. Short- and long-
ensure that objective guidelines are used and avoids sub-
range goals are delineated, and data collection procedures
jective judgment that may be open to disagreement and
and testing schedules are established to monitor the
controversy.
student’s progress. Materials and strategies to be used in
If a student is determined not to be eligible for special
implementing the IEP are established followed by a deter-
education services, it may be beneficial to refer the student
mination of the methods of evaluation to be used in
to programs for secondary students with special needs.
order to monitor the student’s progress and effectiveness
These programs deal with areas that are not delineated by
of the program. Movement to a less restrictive environ-
PL 94–142, such as obesity, physical fitness, and motor
ment is based on achievement of specified competencies
deficiencies. Unfortunately, few secondary schools offer
that are necessary in the new environment.
such programs, and eligible students must survive in the
The IEP must contain a section determining
regular programs. Physical educators need to show con-
whether specially designed physical education is needed.
cern for helping students with these problems because
If not, the student is held to the same expectations as his
obesity and physical fitness are areas with long-term health
or her peer group. A student who needs special physical
consequences and are especially important to students and
education might have an IEP with specified goals and
their parents.
objectives and still be mainstreamed in regular physical
education with goals that do not resemble those of
classmates.
DEVELOPMENT OF THE IEP Continued and periodic follow-up of the student is nec-
PL 94–142 requires that an IEP be developed for each stu- essary. Effective communication between special and regular
dent receiving special education and related services. The teachers is essential because the student’s progress needs
IEP must be developed by a committee as stipulated by the careful monitoring. At the completion of the designated
law. Included on the committee are the following mem- time period or school year, a written progress report is filed
bers: a local education association representative qualified along with recommendations for action during the coming
to provide and supervise the administration of special year or time period. A summer program is often an excellent
education; the student’s parents; the teachers who have prescription to ensure that school year improvement is
direct responsibility for implementing the IEP; and when maintained. Comprehensive records are maintained so that
appropriate, the student. Other individuals, such as an information about the student’s problem and the effects of
independent evaluator, may be included at the discretion long-term treatment are always available.

271
 STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES

ASSISTIVE TECHNOLOGY try a trial period with the student and AT to see if it is
As part of the IEP process, IDEA stipulated that assistive suitable. Parents also can be critical of the success of the
technology (AT) must be offered for children with disabili- prescribed AT. If they don’t see a need or are embarrassed
ties if it is needed to receive “free and appropriate public that their child needs such help, odds are high they will
education.” AT is defined as any piece of equipment, device, undermine the student at home. This points out the need
or system that helps bypass, work around, or compensate for for the student and parents to be involved in the process of
an individual’s specific learning deficits. This may include diagnosis and prescription. The following steps help
balls and bases that make noise for students with visual ensure the successful implementation of AT.
impairments, bowling ramps for wheelchair-bound stu- 1. Identify the needs of the student. Do they need help
dents, and bright-colored or lighter balls for students that with listening, reading, organization, memory, math,
have difficulty with perceptual development. It is the school and so on? Being as specific as possible in identifying
district’s responsibility to accept and supply the technology the special need(s) of the student will make prescrip-
at no cost to parents. The IEP team is responsible for deter- tion much more accurate and effective.
mining whether an assessment for AT is required. Either
2. Review the AT that is available to meet those needs.
school district employees or an outside agency may conduct
SchwabLearning.org has an excellent list of tools
the assessment. Just about any learning problem can be
and a booklet that explains this approach in detail.
reviewed to see if AT can compensate for the learning diffi-
It contains a checklist of steps that make the job
culty. For example, a youth who has trouble writing might
much easier.
be allowed to record it and have it converted to a typed
paper. A person who has trouble with math could be allowed 3. Use a trial period to see how (or if) the youth and
to use a calculator in a variety of settings so he or she learns parents adapt to the AT. Did the AT improve the
to easily manipulate numbers. Students who have difficulty performance of the child? If not, it may have been
reading because of dyslexia can be helped by AT that reads incorrect technology or used incorrectly (if at all)
aloud a manual or book. by the student.
Many different types of AT tools are available for 4. Review the AT instruments to see if they are user
students with learning deficits. They range from low- friendly, reliable, and somewhat maintenance-free.
technology items—such as pencils, planners, highlighters, Another important consideration is technical sup-
glasses, magnifying glasses, large-print books, and special port when help is required. It is commonplace to
lighting—to more high-tech equipment. Examples of higher find much variation in the quality of support. Much
technology aids are electronic work sheets, optical character competition exists among companies that supply
recognition, radio listening systems, word processors, speech AT, and if one product isn’t satisfactory, certainly
recognition programs, spell checkers, and talking calculators other options should be considered.
and dictionaries. In addition, vibrating pagers, hearing aids,
classroom amplification, closed captioning, screen magnifi-
cation software, Braille keyboards, and translation software
A SYSTEMATIC APPROACH
are just a few of the many types of AT available. Certainly, TO SUCCESSFUL INCLUSION
many different instructional software packages can be used Inclusion is a legal and moral issue. Educators have the
to augment learning in different academic areas. The soft- responsibility to see that all students have the opportunity to
ware focuses on instruction rather than assistance to help experience activity and related social experiences. All parents
students find success. desire the maximum of experiences for their children, and
Using AT has to be a thoughtful and well-planned the goal of teachers should be to meet this need. The issue is
process where all involved parties clearly understand that not whether to mainstream, but how to mainstream effec-
they must be “on board” and supportive. Certainly, it tively. The physical educator has to teach a number of
makes much sense to consider the student’s strengths and students, some with disabilities and diverse impairments.
special needs as well as his or her motivation to use the AT. Learning strategies that the instructor is familiar with and
If a student sees little value in using the technology, he or has been using successfully may not be appropriate for
she more than likely will not follow through with it. The students with disabilities. The teacher must accept the
student is the end user, and he or she must find the AT student as a full-fledged participant and assume the respon-
valuable—not embarrassing or worthy of ridicule from sibilities that go along with special education. Few disagree
peers. Even though it seems obvious that the AT must that mainstreaming increases the difficulty of offering
meet the developmental characteristics of the student, it is instruction for all students; however, teachers who support it
possible that parents or teachers may be overzealous in how their concern for the human spirit regardless of
prescribing inappropriate technology. It is appropriate to condition.

272
 STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES

STEP ONE: DETERMINE HOW TO TEACH severe developmental lags that become insurmountable if
The success or failure of the inclusion process depends the curriculum is not modified. On the other hand, if the
largely on the interaction between the teacher and the student is going to be included, they must be able to
student with a disability. There is no foolproof, teacher- accomplish a portion of the program. It also may be that
proof system. Purposes and derived goals are perhaps certain activities are limiting, and inclusion is not in the
more important to students with disabilities than to “nor- best interest of the student with special needs. A com-
mal” peers. Proper levels of fitness and skill are vital for promise must be reached where the physical education
healthful living. Such levels enable them to compete with teacher has made changes in his or her curriculum, and
peers. It is important to accept responsibility for meeting included students realize there may be activities not suited
the needs of students, including those with disabilities that to their participation. It should always be the intent and
permit some degree of inclusion. Teachers need to be able responsibility of the teacher to try and individualize activ-
to judge when referral for special assistance or additional ities as much as possible so students with disabilities are
services is in order. Physical education teachers must be smoothly integrated.
able to do the following: (1) analyze and diagnose motor
behavior of the students with disabilities, (2) provide STEP THREE: FIND WAYS TO MODIFY
appropriate experiences for remediation of motor condi-
tions needing attention, and (3) register data as needed on
INSTRUCTION AND ACTIVITIES FOR
the student’s personal record. Recordkeeping is important. STUDENT SUCCESS
A short period, perhaps 5 minutes between classes, could Special education students need additional consideration
be set aside to accomplish the task promptly. When time when participating in group activities, particularly when
between classes is short, the teacher may want to use a the activity is competitive. Much depends on the physical
portable tape recorder or PDA for recording evaluative condition of the student and the type of disability. Students
comments during class time. like to win in a competitive situation, and resentment can
To work successfully with students with disabilities, be created if a team loss is attributed to the presence of a
teachers have to understand specific impairments and student with a disability. Equalization helps reduce this
how they affect learning. Also, it is necessary to know source of friction. Rules can be changed for everyone so
how to assess motor and fitness needs and how to struc- that the student with a disability has a chance to contribute
ture remediation to meet those needs. Teachers should to group success. On the other hand, students need to rec-
have alternative strategies in reserve in case the original ognize that everyone, including the disabled and the inept,
method fails. Referral to the special education teacher has a right to play.
then becomes a last resort. When giving explanations Be aware of situations that might devalue the student
and directions, coach them in terms that all students, in- socially. Avoid using the degrading method of having cap-
cluding those with disabilities, can understand. Be sure tains choose from a group of waiting students. Elimination
everyone understands what is to be accomplished before games should be changed so that points are scored rather
the learning experiences begin, especially when working than having players eliminated (this is an important con-
with the hearing impaired. Concentrate on finding activ- sideration for all young people). Determine the most desir-
ities where students can excel. Avoid placing students able involvement for students with disabilities by analyzing
with disabilities in situations where they could easily fail. participants’ roles in game and sport activities. Assign a
Give them opportunities that make the best use of their role or position that will make the experience as natural or
talents. Stress the special objectives of those with disabil- normal as possible.
ities. Obvious increments of improvement toward termi- Students with disabilities have to build confidence in
nal objectives are excellent motivators for both students their skills before they want to participate with others.
and teachers. Let students know that you as a teacher are Individual activities give them a greater amount of practice
vitally interested in their progress. time without the pressure of failing in front of peers. The
aim of these techniques is to make students with disabilities
less visible and not set apart from able classmates. Using
STEP TWO: MAKE MODIFICATIONS students with disabilities as umpires or scorekeepers is a last
TO THE CURRICULUM resort. Overprotectiveness benefits no one and prevents the
This step involves reviewing the existing physical edu- special student from experiencing challenge and personal
cation curriculum and determining how it will impact accomplishment. Avoid the tendency to underestimate stu-
students who have differing needs. An important point to dents’ abilities.
consider is whether certain activities completely exclude Many instructional modifications can be made that
certain students. Many students with disabilities have will not be obvious to other students but will improve the

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 STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES

opportunity for student success. For example, factors such determine when they are fatigued; they ask predeter-
as teaching styles, verbal instructions, demonstrations, mined substitutes to take their places.
and the elimination of distractions might easily be manip- ■ Reduce the weight and/or modify the size of the
ulated in a manner that improves the lesson for all. projectile. A lighter object will move more slowly
and inflict less damage on impact. A larger object
A Reflection Check will move more slowly, making it easier for students
Making modifications to the lesson has an impact on many to track visually and catch.
people, including students with differing needs, other stu-
■ Reduce the distance a ball must be thrown or served.
dents in the class, and the teacher. It is relatively easy to
Options are to reduce the dimensions of the playing
modify activities, but it can be quite difficult to make modi-
area or add more players to the game. In serving, oth-
fications that add to the total environment rather than cre-
ers can help make the serve playable. For example, in
ate unsafe conditions or reduce the educational value of the
volleyball, other teammates can bat the serve over the
experience. When thinking about ways to accommodate all
net as long as it does not touch the floor.
students, take some time to reflect on the total experience.
The following questions should be considered as you for- ■ In games played to a certain number of points, reduce
mulate modifications. the number required for a win. For example, volley-
ball games could be played to seven or 11, depending
■ Do the changes allow students with differing needs on the skill and intensity of the players.
to participate successfully yet still be challenged? ■ Modify striking implements by shortening them
■ Does the modification make the setting unsafe for and reducing their weight. Racquets are much easier
students with differing needs as well as for those to control when shortened. Softball bats are easier to
students without disabilities? control when the player “chokes up” and selects a
■ Does the change negatively impact the quality of lighter bat.
the educational experience? Is learning seriously ■ If possible, slow the ball by letting out some air.
hampered because of the changes made? This will reduce the speed of rebound and make the
■ Does the change cause an undue burden on the ball easier to control in a restricted area. It will also
teacher? This is important because many teachers keep the ball from rolling away from players when it
come to resent students with differing needs because is not under control.
they feel the burden is too great. Certainly, change ■ Play the games in a different position. Some games
needs to be made, but it has to be reasonable for all may be played in a sitting or lying position, which is
parties. easier and less demanding than standing or running.
Activities need to be modified because all students ■ Provide matching or substitution. Match another
have differing needs. In fact, when a teacher seldom or student on borrowed crutches with a student on
never modifies activities, he or she probably is not meet- braces. Two players can be combined to play one
ing the needs of many students. Effective teachers always position. A student in a desk chair with wheels can
examine an activity and know it is their responsibility to be matched against a student in a wheelchair.
make the environment better for all students. The idea of ■ Allow students to substitute skills. For example, a
“doing the most good for the most students” is a good student may be able to strike an object but may lack
adage to follow. The following are ways to modify curricu- the mobility to run. Another student can be selected
lum activities. to run.

Modifications for Students Modifications for Students

Lacking Strength and Endurance Lacking Coordination
■ Lower or enlarge the size of the goal. In basketball, ■ Increase the size of the goal or target. Increasing the
the goal can be lowered; in soccer, the goal might be size of a basketball goal will increase the opportunity
enlarged. for success. Another alternative might be to offer
■ Modify the tempo of the game. For example, games points for hitting the backboard near a goal. Because
might be performed using a brisk walk rather than scoring is self-motivating, modification should occur
running. Another way to modify tempo is to stop the until success is ensured.
game regularly for substitution. Autosubstitutions ■ Offer protection when appropriate. The lack of coor-
can be an excellent method for allowing students to dination will make the student more susceptible to

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 STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES

injury from a projectile. Use various types of protec- ■ Teach students how to fall. Students with balance
tors (such as glasses, chest protectors, or face masks). problems will inevitably fall. Practice in learning
■ When teaching throwing, allow students the how to fall should be offered so that they gradually
opportunity to throw at maximum velocity with- learn how to absorb the force.
out concern for accuracy. Use small balls that can
be grasped easily. Fleece balls and beanbags are
Modifications for Students
easy to hold and release. with Visual Impairments
■ Use simple language and detailed verbal explana-
■ Use a stationary object when teaching striking or hit-
tions.
ting. The use of a batting tee or tennis ball fastened to
a string can offer the student an opportunity for suc- ■ Demonstrate within the child’s field of vision or allow
cess. In addition, a larger racquet or bat can be used, the student to feel a peer/instructor execute the skill.
and “choking up” on the grip can be tried. ■ Physically assist the student through the required
■ Make projectiles easily retrievable. If a great deal of movement (make sure you warn the student of
time is spent on recovering the projectile, students physical assistance).
will receive few practice trials and feel frustrated. ■ Use sound devices in balls (i.e., beeper ball) and
Place them near a backstop or use a goal that goals (i.e., bells). A teacher or peer can continuously
rebounds the projectile to the shooter. call a visually impaired student to help them arrive
■ When teaching catching, use a soft, lightweight, and at the appropriate location.
slow-moving object. Beach balls and balloons are ■ Use larger brightly-colored balls, goals, and so forth
excellent for beginning catching skills because they to help students recognize objects.
allow the student to track his or her movement visu-
ally. In addition, foam rubber balls eliminate the fear
of being hurt by a thrown or batted projectile. Modifications for Students
with Hearing Impairments
■ Provide students with written lessons or provide
Modifications for Students written explanations at activity stations.
Lacking Balance and Agility
■ Position yourself in a location where students can
■ Increase the width of rails, lines, and beams when
see you speaking and provide visual start and stop
practicing balance. Carrying a long pole will help
signals.
minimize rapid shifts of balance and is a useful
lead-up activity. ■ Utilize additional demonstrations. Match each
hearing impaired student with a hearing peer.
■ Increase the width of the base of support. Students
should be taught to keep the feet spread at least to ■ If students are able to sign, learn as much as possi-
shoulder width. ble. Encourage communication between hearing
impaired and hearing students.
■ Emphasize use of many body parts when teaching
balance. The more body parts in contact with the
floor, the easier it is to balance the body. Beginning STEP FOUR: DETERMINE WHAT
balance practice should emphasize controlled SUPPORT AND AID IS NECESSARY
movement using as many body parts as possible. When a student is deemed ready for placement, consulta-
■ Increase the surface area of the body parts in con- tion between the physical education teacher and the special
tact with the floor or beam. For example, walking education supervisor is of prime importance. In a setting
flat-footed is easier than walking on tiptoes. where emotions and feelings can run high, it is important
■ Lower the center of gravity. This offers more stability to ensure that communication and planning occur on a
and greater balance to the participant. Place emphasis regular basis. The reception and acceptance of special stu-
on bending the knees and slightly leaning forward. dents cannot be left to chance. A scheduled plan has to be
instituted before the student is mainstreamed. Special and
■ Make sure surfaces offer good friction. Floors and physical education professionals must discuss the needs of
shoes should not be slick or students will fall. the student and the needs of the physical education teacher
Carpets or tumbling mats will increase traction. in order to develop realistic expectations. It is quite possible
■ Provide balance assistance. A barre, cane, or chair that the special education teacher may have to participate in
can be used to keep the student from falling. a physical education class to ensure a smooth transition.

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 STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES

The thrust should center on what students can do rather deficit, which dehumanizes that person. A number of
than on what they cannot do. Any approach that treats stu- strategies can be used to teach better tolerance and under-
dents with disabilities as cripples is dehumanizing. standing of others. The following are some suggestions
Full information about the needs of the student is due that can be modified to help students increase their sensi-
to the physical education teacher before the student partic- tivity to others.
ipates. Physical education teachers must feel able to tell
■ Ask students to brainstorm as many words or images
support personnel what kind of help they need. Negative
that come to them when they think of or hear the
feelings toward students with differing needs will occur if
words disability, impairment, handicap, and so on.
the physical educator feels students are dropped into class
Write the words on the board and continue to dis-
without asking what kind of help they need. This proce-
cuss the words mentioned throughout the week. As
dure should also be implemented when the student moves
discussion and feelings about such words continue to
from one mainstreaming situation to another. Both able
surface, create a new list of words and images that
students and students with disabilities need opportunities
occur.
to make appropriate progress. The educational needs of
students with disabilities must be met without jeopardiz- ■ Discuss famous people who had some type of dis-
ing the progress of other students. This does not rule out ability, for example, Helen Keller, Ray Charles,
activity modifications so that those with disabilities can be Winston Churchill, Abraham Lincoln, and Franklin
included. D. Roosevelt. Describe how they succeeded despite
serious disabilities. Try to focus on how they used
their existing strengths to succeed. Identify peers
STEP FIVE: TEACH TOLERANCE
with disabilities and how these students are more
TO ALL STUDENTS similar than different.
The teacher is advised to help all students understand the
■ Discuss behaviors that teachers and students can use
problems related to being disabled. A goal should be to to make students with disabilities feel a part of the
have students understand, accept, and live comfortably
class setting. Approach these peers and give them a
with persons with disabilities. They should recognize that high five or word of encouragement. Identify activi-
students with disabilities are functional and worthwhile
ties where they may excel or feel competent. Ask stu-
individuals who have innate abilities and can make sig- dents how they could modify success for all students.
nificant contributions to society. The concept of under-
Often, students have a good idea of how an activity
standing and appreciating individual differences is one should be changed or modified to ensure success for
that merits positive development and should concentrate
all students regardless of disability.
on three aspects:
■ Discuss how to behave toward students with disabili-
■ Recognizing the similarities among all people: their ties. For example, if you are chatting with someone
hopes, rights, aspirations, and goals. in a wheelchair, seat yourself first and then begin the
■ Understanding human differences and focusing on discussion. If you see a blind person, identify yourself
the concept that all people are disabled. For some, and ask if you can be of assistance. Use a normal tone
disabilities are of such nature and severity that they of voice to avoid startling or treating them in a man-
interfere with normal living. ner different than you use with others.
■ Exploring ways to deal with those who differ with- ■ Check out the school for modifications that have
out helping too much and stressing the acceptance been made to make the school accessible for all. For
of all students as worthwhile individuals. People example, is there a sink at the right height for stu-
with disabilities deserve consideration and under- dents in wheelchairs? Are there automatic doors?
standing based on empathy, not sympathy. Are the curbs ramped in places? Borrow some
wheelchairs, and have students try to get around the
Tolerance Training school without leaving the chair.
A number of activities can be conducted to help students ■ Discuss why a society passes laws to aid those with
better understand the feelings, differences, and similarities disabilities. Ask them the purpose of the laws and
of students with disabilities. Teach students that everybody how such laws reflect on our society. Identify the
has a number of areas where they feel a deficit or lack con- handicapped parking laws and ask students how they
fidence in their ability to perform. Talking about similari- feel when someone without a disability parks in
ties rather than differences is a good starting point. Often, these spots. How do their parents feel about this law?
some type of disability will cause students to focus on the Do they sometimes park in a handicapped spot?

276
 STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES

STEP SIX: INTEGRATE STUDENTS through the school day, which may be complicated by a
sensory deficit, a mobility problem, or a mental deficiency.
WITH DIFFERING NEEDS INTO THE CLASS
Special care must be given to students who have been
Once the mainstreamed student, able students, and
excluded from physical education programs. Wheelchair-
teacher have undergone preliminary preparation, con-
bound students need special attention given to their car-
sideration can be given to integrating the disabled
diovascular development through activities that stimulate
young person into the learning environment. When cor-
deep breathing. Arm development is important so that
rectly implemented, mainstreaming allows the student
they can move in and out of the wheelchair easily.
to make educational progress, achieve in those areas
An idiosyncratic gait or an appearance that gives the
outlined in the IEP, learn to accept limitations, observe
impression of abnormality is often a problem for mentally
and model appropriate behavior, and become socially
challenged young people. Early identification of a problem
accepted by others. Some guidelines for successful inte-
and inclusion of a posture correction program are impor-
gration of students with disabilities into physical educa-
tant. The physical educator is often best qualified to initiate
tion follow.
and supervise this program. Informal screening includes
■ Expect students with disabilities to meet target goals several tasks: walking, sitting, and stair climbing. Obesity
specified in the IEP in addition to participating in the may need to be considered in amelioration. Once identifica-
regular program of activities. This can involve tion is made, a more detailed analysis of the subject’s posture
resources beyond the physical education class, includ- can follow. The degree of postural abnormality governs
ing special work and homework. whether referral is indicated. Videotaping can provide base-
line data from which to monitor corrections. Achieving
■ Build ego strength; stress abilities. Eliminate estab-
acceptable posture is both a short-term (progress) and long-
lished practices that unwittingly contribute to embar-
term (achievement) goal to be included in the student’s IEP.
rassment and failure.
Referral for severe conditions or for postural conditions that
■ Foster peer acceptance, which begins when the are difficult to correct usually involves the support services
teacher accepts the student as a functioning, partici- of a physician or an orthopedic specialist.
pating member of the class. The psychosocial aspects of posture should be consid-
■ Concentrate on the student’s physical education ered, with attention focused on the establishment of a
needs and not on the disability. Give strong attention good self-concept and effective social relations. Behavior
to fundamental skills and physical fitness qualities. management can focus on motivation toward better pos-
■ Provide continual monitoring and periodically assess tural habits when standing, walking, sitting, lifting, and
the student’s target goals. Anecdotal and periodic general movement. Proper posture should become a habit.
recordkeeping are implicit in this guideline.
■ Be constantly aware of students’ feelings and anxi- PARENTAL SUPPORT
eties concerning their progress and integration. Having parents on the IEP committee spurs their involve-
Provide positive feedback as a basic practice. ment and establishes a line of communication between
home and school. Home training or homework may be
recommended for many students. If home training is indi-
FITNESS AND POSTURE FOR cated, parents must be committed in terms of time and
STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES effort. Their work need not be burdensome but must be
The normalization process has directed attention to done regularly in accordance with the sequenced learn-
posture as a factor in peer acceptance. Because many ing patterns. Also, the school must supply printed and
secondary students with disabilities have low physical sequenced learning activities for a systematic approach to
fitness levels, posture problems occur in this group. One the homework. Materials should be understandable and
aim of mainstreaming is to make special students less goals clear. Parents should see obvious progress in their
visible, hence, the need to help them achieve acceptable children as assignments unfold.
posture. Values received from an attractive appearance Older students with disabilities may accept some
include better acceptance by peers and more employ- responsibility for home training, relegating the parent to
ment opportunities later. the role of an interested, encouraging spectator. Even if
Physical fitness is also important for these students. homework is not feasible, parental interest and support
To compete with and gain respect from peers, the goal of are positive factors. The parents can help their child real-
fitness is a justified thrust of the physical education pro- ize what skills have been learned and what progress has
gram. Adequate physical fitness helps the student move been made.

277
 STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES

RECRUITING AND TRAINING 6. Provide four examples of how activities can be

modified for students who lack strength and
PARAEDUCATORS AND AIDES endurance.
The use of aides can be an effective way of increasing the 7. Discuss the recommended teaching strategies
for instructing students with mental impair-
amount of instruction and practice for students who are ments.
disabled. A recent text (Lieberman, 2007) identifies ways to 8. Visually impaired students cannot benefit from
utilize and work with paraeducators and aides in the phys- demonstrations or other visual cues. Explain
ical education arena. Volunteers are easy to find among what alternative strategies can be used for these
various community organizations, such as parent–teacher students.
associations, foster grandparents, and community colleges. 9. Why is it especially important to have consis-
tency and routine in the learning environment
High school students who volunteer have proven effective
when students with emotional disabilities are
with middle school students. mainstreamed?
An initial meeting with volunteer aides should ex- 10. How can a physical education teacher increase
plain the type of students with whom they will work, and the parental involvement when instructing a stu-
clarify their responsibilities. Aides must learn how to be dent with a disability?
most effective in assisting the instructor. Training could
include learning how to work effectively with individuals, WEBSITES
recording data, and developing special materials and in-
Adapted Physical Education
structional supplies. In addition, the potential aides
www.palaestra.com
should receive experience in working with young people www.pecentral.org/adapted/adaptedmenu
to see if they are capable and enjoy such work. Physical ed- www.pelinks4u.org/sections/adapted/adapted
ucation specialists must also learn how to work with aides. www.twu.edu/inspire
In some cases, physical educators find the task of organiz- Adapted PE Assessment Tools
ing and supervising aides to be burdensome if they have www.pecentral.org/adapted/adaptedinstruments
not learned to supervise and organize. Assistive Technology
Aides can assume many roles that increase the effec- www.rfbd.org
tiveness of the instructional situation. For example, the www.ataccess.org
aide may gather and locate equipment and supplies prior www.ctcnet.org
to the lesson. They may officiate games and ensure that Children’s Disabilities Information
they run smoothly. Seasoned aides enjoy and are capable www.childrensdisabilities.info
of offering one-on-one or small-group instruction to stu- Inclusion Programs That Work
dents. Aides should not reduce the need for involvement www.ed.gov/pubs/EPTW/eptw12
of the physical education instructor because they only im- www.palaestra.com/Inclusion
plement instruction strategies that have been organized Legal Issues
and developed by the professional educator. In addition, www.asclepius.com/angel/special
the physical educator must monitor the quality of the pre- www.ed.gov/offices/OSERS/Policy/IDEA/the_law
sentations made by the aide. National Standards
www.cortland.edu/apens
Weight-Control Information Network
www.win.niddk.nih.gov

STUDY STIMULATORS AND

REVIEW QUESTIONS REFERENCES AND
1. Explain the term least restrictive environment. SUGGESTED READINGS
2. Cite the steps associated with development of AAPAR (2007). AREAS II: Adapted physical education
an individualized educational program (IEP). assessment scale, revised. Reston, VA: Author.
Indicate the phases of development most impor- Auxter, D., Pyfer, J., & Huettig, C. (2005). Principles and
tant to ensure success. methods of adapted physical education and recreation
(10th ed.). Boston: McGraw-Hill.
3. Explain the moral dimension of the inclusion
Block, M. E. (2000). A teacher’s guide to including students
process. with disabilities in regular physical education (2nd ed.).
4. Discuss four strategies that will contribute to a Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co.: Baltimore, MD.
successful integration of students with disabilities. Bruininks, R. H., & Bruininks R. D. (2005). Bruinks-Oseretsky
5. What is the central purpose of modifying practice test of motor development proficiency (2nd ed.). Circle
or game conditions for students with disabilities? Pines, MN: American Guidance Service.

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 STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES

Cooper Institute, Meredith, M., & Welk, G. (Eds.). (2007). Lieberman, L. J., & Houston-Wilson, C. (2009). Strategies
Fitnessgram/activitygram test administration manual for inclusion: A handbook for physical educators.
(4th ed.). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
Davis, R. W. (2002). Inclusion through sports: A guide to Office of Special Education and Rehabilitation Services,
enhancing sport experiences. Champaign, IL: Human 34 CFR 300 (2002).
Kinetics. Sherrill, C. (2004). Adapted physical activity, recreation
Dobbins, D. A., Garron, R., & Rarick, G. L. (1981). The motor and sport (6th ed.). Boston: WCB/McGraw-Hill.
performance of educable mentally retarded and intel- Ulrich, D. A. (1983). A comparison of the qualitative motor
lectually normal boys after covariate control for differ- performance of normal, educable, and trainable men-
ences in body size. Research Quarterly, 52(1), 6–7. tally retarded students. In R. L. Eason, T. L. Smith, & F.
Dunn, J. M., & Leitschuh, C. (2006). Special physical education Caron (Eds.), Adapted physical activity. Champaign, IL:
(8th ed.). Dubuque, IA: Kendall/Hunt Publishing Co. Human Kinetics.
Friend, M. (2008). Special education: Contemporary per- Vogler, E. (2003). Students with disabilities in physical edu-
spectives for school professionals (2nd ed.). Boston: cation. In Silverman, S., & Ennis, C. (Eds.) Student learn-
Allyn & Bacon. ing in physical education (2nd ed.). Champaign, IL:
Henley, M., Ramsey, R. S., & Algozzine, R. F. (2006). Human Kinetics.
Characteristics of and strategies for teaching students Winnick, J. P. (2005). Adapted physical education and
with mild disabilities (5th ed.). Boston: Allyn & Bacon. sport (4th ed.). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
Horvat, M., Eichstaedt, C., Kalakian, L., & Croce, R. (2003). Winnick, J. P., & Short, F. X. (1999). The Brockport physical
Developmental/adapted physical education: Making fitness test manual. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
ability count (4th ed.). San Francisco: Pearson Higher Yun, J., Shapiro, D., & Kennedy, J. (2000). Reaching IEP
Education/Benjamin Cummings. goals in the general physical education class. Journal
Lieberman, L. J. (2007). Paraeducators in physical educa- of Physical Education, Recreation, and Dance, 71(8),
tion. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. 33–37.

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280
 Safety and Liability

From Chapter 12 of Dynamic Physical Education for Secondary Schools, Seventh Edition. Paul W. Darst, Robert P. Pangrazi, Mary Jo Sariscsany,
Timothy A. Brusseau, Jr. Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. Published by Pearson Benjamin Cummings. All rights reserved.
 Safety and Liability
ESSENTIAL COMPONENTS OF
A QUALITY PROGRAM
▲

I. Organized around content standards

II. Student-centered and developmentally
appropriate
III. Physical activity and motor skill develop-
ment form the core of the program
IV. Teaches management skills and
self-discipline
V. Promotes inclusion of all students
VI. Focuses on process over product
▲

VII. Promotes lifetime personal health

and wellness
VIII. Teaches cooperation and responsibility
and promotes sensitivity to diversity

NATIONAL STANDARDS FOR

PHYSICAL EDUCATION*
1. Demonstrates competency in motor skills
and movement patterns needed to perform
a variety of physical activities.
2. Demonstrates understanding of movement
concepts, principles, strategies, and tactics as
they apply to the learning and performance
of physical activities.
3. Participates regularly in physical activity.
4. Achieves and maintains a health-enhancing
level of physical fitness.
▲

5. Exhibits responsible personal and social

behavior that respects self and others in
physical activity settings.
6. Values physical activity for health, enjoyment,
challenge, self-expression, and/or social *National Association for Sport and Physical Education
interaction. (NASPE), 2004.

282
 SAFETY AND LIABILITY

each defense leaves the teacher at the mercy of

the court.
Chapter Summary • Describe the features of athletic participation
This chapter focuses on the concepts of safety and that make it a high-risk activity. Define a set of
liability and how each area affects instruction. guidelines that will help minimize the chance of a
The practice of safety involves preventing acci- lawsuit.
dents. The major areas of neglect that often lead
to lawsuits are supervision of students, instruction
of students, equipment and facilities, and athletic
participation. Written policies and guidelines in School district personnel, including teaching and nonteach-
these areas need to be written and posted. Using a ing members, are obligated to exercise due care for the
safety and liability checklist is a preventive approach safety of students. This duty is manifested as the ability to
to avoiding the possibility of a lawsuit. Teachers anticipate reasonably foreseeable dangers and the responsi-
need to know the health status of students and bility to take necessary precautions to prevent problems
adjust their instruction accordingly.
A written plan for emergency care should be
from occurring. Failure to do so may cause the district and
established, approved by the school district, and fol- teachers to be the targets of lawsuits.
lowed to the letter by teachers. The administration Compared with other subject matter areas, physical
of first aid should be undertaken by the physical education is particularly vulnerable to accidents and result-
education instructor only for saving a life. Accident ant injuries. More than 50 percent of all accidents in the
reports should be filled out immediately while the school setting occur on the playground and in the gymna-
results of the accident are fresh. A safety and lia-
sium. This chapter takes a three-pronged approach to mini-
bility checklist can be used to monitor the physical
education environment. mize the impact of accidents and injury. The first topic
Liability implies a responsibility to perform a covered is safety and how guidelines can be used to create a
duty to a particular group, namely students in an safe environment for students. Safety procedures are about
education setting. Tort liability is a lawsuit for breach foresight and procedures that will assure the activity area
of duty. Money is given to the offended individual and related equipment are safe and ready for use. In addi-
when the breach of duty was flagrant. Negligence
tion, rules and checklists are used to assess the area on a
involves four major areas: (1) duty to the individual,
(2) breach of duty or failure to carry out the required regular basis. Proper supervision of students is the second
duty, (3) injury to the student, and (4) proximate area that needs to be implemented properly. Supervision
cause (whether the accident was caused by the includes responsibilities for administrators and staff mem-
teacher not carrying out the duty). There are many bers to assure teachers and students have a safe environment
types of negligence: malfeasance, misfeasance, non- and proper equipment. It also includes responsibilities for
feasance, contributory negligence, and comparative
teachers that must be planned for and integrated into all
or shared negligence.
lessons. The final portion of the chapter is about negligence
Student Outcomes and liability. Hopefully, you won’t have to worry about
being the focus of a lawsuit. Most legal situations can be
After reading the chapter, you will be able to:
avoided if proper safety and supervision are practiced.
• Develop a working definition of safety that repre-
sents the risks inherent in physical education.
• Dictate the need for effective recordkeeping of SAFETY
accidents and purchase of liability insurance.
The major thrust of safety is to prevent situations that cause
• Write a comprehensive safety checklist for a physical
accidents. It is estimated that more than 70 percent of injuries
education or athletic program.
that occur in sports and physical education could be pre-
• Explain why careful planning is a prelude to ade-
vented through proper safety procedures. On the other hand,
quate instruction.
some accidents occur despite precautions, and proper emer-
• List several guidelines a teacher should incorporate
when planning for meaningful and safe instruction.
gency procedures should be established to cope with any situ-
ation. A comprehensive study of injuries was conducted by
• Write a plan for emergency care when an accident
occurs in a physical education class. the U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission (2008). This
study involved a network of computers in 119 hospital emer-
• Clearly delineate the different types of negligence
and give an example of how each situation might gency rooms that channeled injury data to a central point.
occur in the physical education setting. The sports and activities that produced the most injuries
• Identify the different types of defense arguments were, in order, football, touch football, baseball, basketball,
that are made to prove that the instructor was gymnastics, and skiing. The facility that produced the most
not negligent. Allied to this is understanding why disabling injuries was the swimming pool.

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Learning to recognize potential high-risk situations is 3. Throughout the school year, safety orientations
an important factor in preventing accidents. Teachers should be conducted with students. Discussions
must possess a clear understanding of the hazards and should include potentially dangerous situa-
potential dangers of an activity before they can estab- tions, class conduct, and rules for proper use of
lish controls. Instructors must not assume that partici- equipment and apparatus. Teachers should urge
pants are aware of the dangers and risks involved in students to report any conditions that might cause
various activities. Students must be told of all dangers and an accident.
risks before participation. 4. Safety rules for specific units of instruction
should be discussed at the onset of each unit.
GUIDELINES FOR SAFETY Rules should be posted and brought to the atten-
1. In-service sessions in safety should be administered by tion of students regularly. Posters and bulletin
experienced and knowledgeable teachers. Department boards can promote safety in an enjoyable and
heads may be responsible for the training or outside stimulating manner.
experts can be employed to undertake the responsibil- 5. If students are to serve as instructional aides, they
ity. Giving in-district credit to participating teachers should be trained. Caution must be used when
offers strong indication that the district is concerned using student aides because teachers are still respon-
about using proper safety techniques. sible even if an aide performs a duty incorrectly.
2. Medical records should be reviewed at the start of 6. Instructional practices need to be monitored for pos-
the school year. Atypical students should be identi- sible hazards. For example, students in competitive
fied and noted within each class listing before the situations should be matched by size, maturity, and
first instructional day. If necessary, the teacher or ability. Proper instruction necessary for safe partici-
school nurse can call the doctor of a student with pation should occur prior to activity. Instructors
disabilities or activity restrictions to inquire about should receive a competence check to ensure they are
the situation and discuss special needs. Physical edu- adequately trained to give instruction in various
cation teachers should assume the responsibility of activities. The instructional area should be properly
checking with the school nurse about students who prepared for safe participation; if the area is lacking
have special problems (e.g., epilepsy) or temporary necessary apparatus and safety devices, instruction
problems (e.g., medication) (see Figure 1). should be modified to meet safety standards.
7. An inventory of equipment and apparatus should
include a safety checklist. Whenever necessary,
equipment in need of repair should be sent to
proper agents. If the cost of repair is greater than
40 percent of the replacement cost, discarding the
equipment or apparatus is usually a more economi-
cal choice.
Courtesy of the Mesa High School Physical Education Program, Mesa, AZ.

8. When an injury occurs, it should be recorded and a

report placed in the student’s file. An injury should
also be filed by type of injury such as ankle sprain
or broken arm. The report should list the activity
and the conditions to facilitate analysis at regular
intervals. The analysis may show that injuries are
occurring regularly during a specific activity or on
a certain piece of equipment. This process gives
direction for creating a safer environment or defend-
ing the safety record of a sport, activity, or piece of
equipment.
9. Teachers need to maintain up-to-date first-aid and
With permission.

cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) certification.

Administrators should ensure that teachers meet
FIGURE 1 Teacher examining health records these standards and should provide training sessions
when necessary.

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 SAFETY AND LIABILITY

EMERGENCY CARE PLAN SAFETY COMMITTEE

Before any emergency arises, teachers should prepare Safety should be publicized regularly throughout the
themselves by learning about special health and physical school, and a mechanism should exist that allows stu-
conditions of students. Most schools have a method for dents, parents, and teachers to voice concerns about
identifying students with special health problems. If a unsafe conditions. A safety committee can meet at regular
student has a problem that may require treatment, a intervals to establish safety policies, rule on requests for
consent-to-treat form should be on file in case the parent allowing high-risk activities, and analyze serious injuries
or guardian is unavailable. Necessary first-aid materials that have occurred in the school district. This committee
and supplies should be available in a kit and be readily develops safety rules that apply districtwide to all teachers.
accessible. Establishing procedures for emergency care and It may determine that certain activities involve too high a
notification of parents in case of injury is of utmost impor- risk for the return in student benefit. Establishing accept-
tance in providing a high standard of care for students. To able criteria for sport equipment and apparatus is often a
plan properly for emergency care, all physical education function of the safety committee.
teachers should have first-aid training. First aid is the The safety committee should include one or more high-
immediate and temporary care given at an emergency level administrators, physical education teachers, health offi-
before a physician is available. Its purpose is to save life, cers (nurse), parents, and students. School administrators
prevent aggravation of injuries, and alleviate severe suffer- are often included when lawsuits are filed against teachers
ing. You must administer first aid if there is evidence of because they are held responsible for program content and
life-threatening bleeding or if the victim is unconscious or curriculum. Their representation on the safety committee is
has stopped breathing. When already injured persons may therefore important. Students on the committee may be
be further injured if they are not moved, then moving aware of possible hazards, and parents may often voice con-
them is permissible. As a general rule, however, an injured cerns overlooked by teachers.
person should not be moved unless absolutely necessary. If
back or neck injury is indicated, the head must be immobi-
lized and should not be moved without the use of a spine SUPERVISION
board. The purpose of first aid is to save life. The emer- All activities in a school setting must be supervised, includ-
gency care plan consists of the following steps: ing breaks between classes, lunch times, and field trips. The
responsibilities of the school are critical if supervision is to
1. Administration of first aid to the injured student is
function properly.
the number-one priority. Treat only life-threatening
injuries. Call the school nurse to the scene of the
accident immediately. Emergency care procedures Administrators
should indicate whether the student can be moved Two levels of supervision are required: general and specific.
and in what fashion. It is critical that the individual General supervision (study hall, lunchroom, and so on)
applying first aid avoid aggravating the injury. refers to broad coverage, when students are not under
2. Parents should be notified as soon as possible when direct control of a teacher or a designated individual. A
emergency care is required. Each student’s file should plan of supervision should be made, designating the
list home and emergency telephone numbers where areas to be covered and including where and how the
parents can be reached. If possible, the school should supervisor should rotate through these areas. This plan,
have an arrangement with local emergency facilities kept in the principal’s office, should cover rules of conduct
so that a paramedic unit can be called immediately governing student behavior. Rules should be posted
to the scene of a serious accident. prominently on bulletin boards, especially in classrooms.
In addition to the plan, administrators must select quali-
3. In most cases, the student should be released to a fied personnel, provide necessary training, and monitor
parent or a designated representative. Policies for the plan properly.
transportation of injured students should be estab- The general supervisor must be concerned primarily
lished and documented. with student behavior, focusing on the student’s right to a
4. A student accident report should be completed safe and unthreatening experience. Supervisors should
promptly while the details of the accident are clear. observe the area, looking for breaches of discipline, partic-
Figure 2 is an example of an accident form that cov- ularly when an individual or group “picks on” another
ers the necessary details. The teacher and principal student. If it becomes necessary to leave the area, a quali-
should both retain copies, and additional copies fied substitute must be found to prevent the area from
should be sent to the administrative office. going unsupervised.

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Student Accident Report

School
In all cases, this form should be filed through the school nurse and signed by the principal of the school. The original will be forwarded
to the superintendent’s office, where it will be initialed and sent to the head nurse. The second copy will be retained by the principal
or the nurse. The third copy should be given to the physical education teacher if accident is related.
Name of Injured Address

Phone Grade Home Room Age

Parents of Injured

Place of Accident Date of Accident

A.M.
Hour P.M. Date Reported By Whom
A.M. A.M.
Parent Contact Attempted at P.M. Parent Contacted at P.M.

DESCRIBE ACCIDENT, GIVING SPECIFIC LOCATION AND CONDITION OF PREMISES

NATURE OF INJURY
(Describe in detail)

CARE GIVEN OR ACTION TAKEN BY NURSE OR OTHERS

REASON INJURED PERSON WAS ON PREMISES

(Activity at time—e.g., lunch, physical education, etc.)

STAFF MEMBER RESPONSIBLE FOR STUDENT SUPERVISION AT TIME OF ACCIDENT

IS STUDENT COVERED BY SCHOOL-SPONSORED ACCIDENT INSURANCE? YES NO

MEDICAL CARE RECOMMENDED YES NO

WHERE TAKEN AFTER ACCIDENT

(Specify home, physician, or hospital, giving name and address)
A.M.
BY WHOM AT WHAT TIME P.M.

FOLLOW-UP BY NURSE TO BE SENT TO CENTRAL HEALTH OFFICE

REMEDIATION MEASURES TAKEN

(Attach individual remarks if necessary)

School Principal

Date Nurse

On the back of this sheet, list all persons familiar with the circumstances of the accident; provide name, address,
phone numbers, age, and location with respect to the accident.

FIGURE 2 Sample student accident report form

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Faculty and Staff Equipment and apparatus should not go unsupervised at

General supervision is necessary during times when stu- any time when left accessible to students in the area. An
dents congregate but are not involved in instruction. The example would be equipment left on the playing field
supervisor should know the school’s plan for supervision between classes. If other students in the area have easy
and emergency care procedures to follow in case of an access to the equipment, they may use it in an unsafe
accident. Supervision is a positive act that requires the manner, and the teacher can be found liable if an injury
supervisor to be actively involved and moving throughout occurs.
the area. The number of supervisors is usually determined
Sample Case: “I know there was a supervisor out
by the type of activity, the size of the area, and the number
there!”
and age of the students. If you feel that a situation cannot
not be safely supervised, it is important to document and At lunch, middle school students have 20 minutes of free
share it with an administrator. time to play on the activity field and in the gymnasium.
Specific supervision requires that the instructor be One teacher is assigned to supervise the students on the
with a certain group of students (i.e., a class). An example playing field, and one is supervising the gym. The play-
is spotting students who are performing challenging ing field is large, and there is an injury opposite of where
gymnastic activities. If certain pieces of apparatus require the teacher is standing. The teacher hustles to aid the stu-
special care and proper use, post rules and regulations dent. While the teacher is attending the student, a fight
near the apparatus. Make students aware of the rules and breaks out and goes unnoticed by the teacher because she
should offer appropriate instruction and guidance in is busy with the injured student. A smaller student is
applying the rules. When rules are modified, they should severely beaten by a larger student. Is the teacher liable
be rewritten in proper form. There is no substitute for because she didn’t see the fight? Can one teacher
documentation when the need to defend policies and adequately supervise a playground full of students? Is the
approaches arises. administrator responsible because only one teacher was
When teaching, arrange and teach the class so that all assigned to supervise? Did the teacher have a way to com-
students are always in view. This implies supervising from municate with the front office to ask for additional help?
the perimeter of the area. Teachers in the center of the area Teachers should not agree to supervise activities for which
with many students behind them will find it impossible they are unqualified to anticipate possible hazards. If this
to supervise a class safely and effectively (see Figure 3). situation arises, a written memo should be sent to the
department head or principal stating such lack of insight
and qualification. Teachers should maintain a copy for
their files. The following guidelines will help assure that
supervision is adequate:
Courtesy of the Mesa High School Physical Education Program, Mesa, AZ. With permission.

1. Be in the immediate vicinity (within sight and hear-

ing) of students.
2. If required to leave, make sure you have an adequate
replacement in place before departing. Adequate
replacements do not include paraprofessionals, stu-
dent teachers, custodial help, or untrained teachers
(unless approved by the school district).
3. Plan and incorporate your supervision procedures
into daily lessons.
4. Remind yourself about what you should look and
listen for, where to stand for the most effective view,
and what to do if a problem arises.

INSTRUCTION
Instructional responsibility rests primarily with the
FIGURE 3 Teacher supervising from a teacher, but administrators have certain defined functions
position where all students are visible as well because it is their responsibility to assure proper
instruction.

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Administrators teaching act. District and state guidelines enforcing instruc-

The administration should review and approve the cur- tional sequences and restricted activities should be checked
riculum on a yearly basis to ensure that it is current and closely.
updated. Activities included in the curriculum should be Sample Case: The Need for a Curriculum and Lesson
based on contributions they make to the growth and Plan
development of young people. It makes little sense in a
In a gymnastics unit taught in a high school, one of the
court of law to say that an activity was included “for the
teachers is a former gymnast. Because of her knowledge
fun of it” or “because students liked it.” Instead, activities
level, she convinces the rest of the physical education
should be placed in the curriculum because they meet
team to teach gymnastics to their students as well. This
program outcomes. Administrators are obligated to sup-
school does not have a curriculum guide, and none of
port the program with adequate finances. The principal
the teachers write lesson plans. One of the less compe-
and higher administrators should visit the program peri-
tent (in the gymnastics area) teachers decides to have
odically. Familiarity with program content and operation
students try a headspring over a tumbling mat. A student
reduces the possibility that practices were occurring with-
is seriously hurt (severe neck injury that causes paraly-
out adequate administrative supervision.
sis), and the parents of the student file a $1.5 million
lawsuit. How would you defend yourself in this situa-
Physical Education Teachers tion? Would it help if you were able to say gymnastics
With regard to instruction, the teacher has a duty to pro- was part of the school curriculum? What if the plaintiff’s
tect students from unreasonable physical or mental harm. lawyer brings in an expert witness who says the instruc-
Ask yourself if students are physically and emotionally tional sequence was inappropriate? Could you show
safe while in your care. This includes avoiding any acts or your lesson plan that shows the proper instructional
omissions that might cause harm. The teacher is educated, sequence based on what expert instructors recommend?
experienced, and skilled in physical education and must Can you be an expert in every activity you teach, or
be able to foresee situations that could be harmful. do you need to rely on other experts for the proper
A major area of concern involving instruction is sequence of activities to teach?
whether the student received adequate instruction before Proper instruction demands that students not be
or during activity participation. Adequate instruction forced to participate. If a student is required to perform
means (1) teaching students how to perform activities an activity unwillingly, the teacher may be open to a
correctly and use equipment and apparatus properly, and lawsuit. In a lawsuit dealing with stunts and tumbling,
(2) teaching students necessary safety precautions. If in- the court held the teacher liable when a student claimed
structions are given, they must be correct and understand- that she was not given adequate instruction in how to
able and include proper technique, or the instructor can perform a stunt called “roll over two.” The teacher was
be held liable. The risk involved in an activity must be held liable because the student claimed she was forced
communicated to the learner. to try the stunt before adequate instruction was offered.
The age and maturity level of students play an important Gymnastics and tumbling are areas in which lawsuits
role in the selection of activities. Younger students require are prevalent because of a lack of adequate instruction.
more care, instructions that are easy to comprehend, and Posting the proper sequence of skills and lead-up
clear restrictions in the name of safety. Some students have a activities may be useful to ensure that they have been
lack of appropriate fear in activities, and the teacher must be presented properly. Teachers need to tread the line
aware of this when discussing safety factors. A daredevil may carefully between helpfully encouraging and forcing
have little concern about performing a high-risk activity, students to try new activities.
even if an instructor is nearby. This places much responsibil- For teachers who use running and exercises as pun-
ity on the instructor to know each student’s tendencies and ishment, the consequences of such a practice should
give adequate instruction and supervision. be examined carefully before implementation. By itself,
Careful planning is a necessity. Written curriculum using some type of physical activity (push-ups or run-
guides and lesson plans offer a well-prepared approach that ning) is an unacceptable practice because it signals to
can withstand scrutiny and examination by other teachers students that activity is a negative consequence. A
and administrators. Written lesson plans should include teacher’s practice of having students perform laps
proper sequence and progression of skill instruction. when they misbehave might go unchallenged for years.
Teachers are on defensible grounds if they can show that However, if a student is injured while performing physi-
the progression of activities was based on presentations cal activity as a punishment, teachers are usually found
designed by experts and were followed carefully during the liable and held responsible for the injury.

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 SAFETY AND LIABILITY

Sample Case: Running for Punishment—The Right

Choice?
Students are participating in a physical education class
and are unruly. They are talking when they shouldn’t

Courtesy of the Mesa High School Physical Education Program, Mesa, AZ. With permission.
and generally not cooperating. The teacher, in a fit of
controlled anger, tells the two students to go run laps
around a large field until they decide to behave. It is a
hot fall day, and after 15 minutes of running, one of
the students falls and goes into convulsions on the far
side (a third of a mile away) of the field. The teacher
doesn’t see the child go down until a student tells him
about it. Is this malfeasance? Is running an acceptable
choice for punishment? Were the weather conditions
considered? Did the youth have some preexisting
health condition? Were the students under the watch-
ful eye of the teacher or out of sight? Could you defend
yourself in this situation?

PLANNING A SAFE LESSON

The following points are helpful to consider as you plan
your lesson. If there is any doubt in your mind as to FIGURE 4 Teacher reviewing an excuse note
whether an activity might be unsafe, it is probably best while supervising a class
to avoid it:
■ Make sure your students are engaged in meaningful ■ If a student claims injury or brings a note from par-
and appropriately challenging activities. Sequence ents requesting that the student not participate in
all activities so they are presented at the proper physical activity, honor the communication (see
developmental level of your students. Many prob- Figure 4). Excuses are almost always given at the
lems occur when snap judgments are made under start of the period when the teacher is busy with
the daily pressure and strain of teaching. many other duties (e.g., getting equipment ready,
■ Scrutinize high-risk activities to ensure that all safety taking roll, and opening lockers). It is difficult to
procedures have been implemented. If in doubt, dis- make a thoughtful judgment at this time. The
cuss the activities with other experienced teachers school nurse is qualified to make these judgments
and administrators. when they relate to health and should be used in
■ Ensure that activities used in the curriculum are that capacity. If the excuses continue over a long
within the developmental limits of the students. period of time, the teacher or nurse should have a
Considering the range of maturity and develop- conference with the parents to rectify the situation.
ment of students in a class is usually wide, activities ■ Make sure that activities included in the instructional
may be beyond the ability level of some students. process are in line with the available equipment and
■ Remember, if students’ grades are based on the facilities. An example is the amount of space available.
number of activities in which they participate, If a soccer lead-up activity is brought indoors because
some students may feel forced to try all activities. of inclement weather, it may no longer be a safe and
Teachers should make it clear to students that the appropriate activity.
choice to participate belongs to them. When they ■ Assure students are matched on the basis of size and
are afraid of getting hurt, they can elect not to per- ability. Just because competitors are the same sex and
form an activity. choose to participate does not absolve the instructor
■ Include in written lesson plans necessary safety of liability if an injury occurs. The question that courts
equipment. The lesson plan should detail how examine is whether an effort was made to match
equipment should be arranged, where mats will students according to height, weight, and ability.
be placed, and where the instructor will carry out ■ If spotting is required for safe completion of activi-
supervision. ties, always do it yourself or train students to spot

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others. Teaching students how to spot is as important important. Grass should be kept short and the grounds
as teaching them physical skills. Safe conduct must inspected for debris. Holes in the ground should be filled
be learned. and loose gravel removed. A proper finish that prevents
■ If students are working independently at stations, excessive slipping should be used on indoor floors. Shower
distribute carefully constructed and written task rooms should have a roughened floor finish applied to
cards to help eliminate unsafe practices. prevent falls when the floors are wet.
Equipment and facilities used in the physical educa-
■ Participants in extracurricular activities should be tion program must ensure safe participation. The choice
required to sign a responsibility waiver form. For of apparatus and equipment should be based on the
example, if you are taking a class off campus to the growth and developmental levels of the students. For
bowling alley or golf course, a waiver form should example, allowing middle school students to use climbing
be sent home explaining the risks involved in vol- equipment designed for high school students may result
untary participation. Even though signed waiver in a fall that causes injury. Hazards found on playing
slips do not waive the rights of participants (teach- fields need to be repaired or eliminated. The legal concept
ers can be found liable if injuries occur), the waiver of an “attractive nuisance” implies that some piece of
does clearly communicate the risks involved and equipment or apparatus, usually left unsupervised, was
may be a strong “assumption of risk” defense. so attractive to young people that they could not be
■ Have a written emergency care plan posted in the expected to avoid it. When an injury occurs, even though
gymnasium. This plan should be approved by students may have been using the apparatus incorrectly,
health care professionals and should be followed to teachers and school administrators are often held liable
the letter when an injury occurs. because the attractive nuisance should have been removed
from the area when unsupervised.
EQUIPMENT AND FACILITIES
School responsibility for equipment and facilities is required PHYSICAL EDUCATION TEACHERS
for both noninstructional and class use. Indoor facilities are of primary concern to physical educa-
tion instructors. While the administration is charged with
ADMINISTRATORS overall responsibility for facilities and equipment, including
The principal and the custodian (if approved by the princi- periodic inspections, the instructor should make a regular
pal) should oversee the fields and playground equipment safety inspection of the instructional area. If corrective
used for recess and outside activities. Students should be action is needed, the principal or other designated adminis-
instructed to report broken and unsafe equipment, as well as trator should be notified in writing. Verbal notification is
hazards (glass, cans, rocks), to the principal’s office. If equip- not enough, considering it offers little legal protection to
ment is faulty, it should be removed from the area. A regular the instructor.
inspection of equipment and facilities, preferably by the Facilities should be used in a safe manner. Often, the
physical education specialist, should be instituted, perhaps sidelines and end lines of playing fields for sports such as
weekly. If a specialist is not employed, the inspection will football, soccer, and field hockey are placed too close to
have to be performed by the principal or the custodian. walls, curbing, or fences. The boundaries for the game
Results of the inspection should be filed with the school should be moved to allow adequate room for deceleration,
district safety committee. Replacement of sawdust, sand, or even though the size of the playing area may be reduced.
other shock-absorbing material must be done regularly. In the gymnasium, students should not be asked to run to
Administrators should develop a written checklist of equip- a line that is close to a wall. Another common hazard is
ment and apparatus for the purpose of recording scheduled baskets positioned too close to the playing area. The poles
safety inspections. The date of inspection should be noted to that support the baskets must be padded.
show that inspection occurs at regular intervals. If a poten- Proper use of equipment and apparatus is important.
tially dangerous situation exists, rules or warnings should be Regardless of the state of equipment repair, if it is mis-
posted so that students and teachers are made aware of the used, it may result in an injury. If equipment has the
risk before participation is allowed. potential for misuse, students must receive instruction about
Proper installation of equipment is critical. Climbing acceptable ways to participate. Safety instruction should
equipment and other apparatus that needs to be anchored be included in the written lesson plan to ensure that all
should be installed by a reputable firm that guarantees points are covered. Equipment should be purchased on
its work. When examining apparatus, inspection of the the basis of quality and safety as well as potential use.
installation is important. Maintenance of facilities is also Many lawsuits occur because of unsafe equipment and

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apparatus. The liability for such equipment may rest with DETERMINATION OF LIABILITY
the manufacturer, but this has to be proven, which means 1. Duty. The first point considered is that of duty
that the teacher must state, in writing, the exact specifica- owed to the participants. Did the school or teacher
tions of the desired equipment. The process of bidding for owe students a duty of care that implies conforming
lower-priced items may result in the purchase of less-safe to certain standards of conduct? When examining
equipment. If teachers have specified proper equipment duty or breach of duty, the court looks at reasonable
in writing, however, the possibility of being held liable for care that a member of the profession in good stand-
injury is reduced. ing would provide. In other words, to determine a
reasonable standard, the court uses the conduct of
other teachers as a standard for comparison.
TORTS
2. Breach of Duty. The teacher must commit a breach
All students have the right to freedom from injury caused
of duty by failing to conform to the required duty.
by others or participation in a program. Courts have ruled
After it is established that a duty was required, it
that teachers owe their students a duty of care to protect
must be proved that the teacher did not perform
them from harm. Teachers must offer a standard of care
that duty. Two situations are possible: (a) the teacher
that any reasonable and prudent professional with similar
did something that was not supposed to be done
training would apply under the given circumstances.
(e.g., putting boxing gloves on students to resolve
A teacher is required to exercise the teaching skill, discre-
their differences), or (b) the teacher did not do
tion, and knowledge that members of the profession in
something that should have been done (e.g., failing
good standing normally possess in similar situations.
to teach an activity using proper progressions).
Lawsuits usually occur when citizens believe this standard
of care was not exercised. 3. Proximate Cause. The failure of the teacher to
In education, a tort is concerned with the teacher– conform to the required standard must be the prox-
student relationship and is a legal wrong that results in imate cause of the resulting injury. It must be
direct or indirect injury to another individual or to prop- proved that the injury was caused by the teacher’s
erty. The following legal definition is from Black’s Law breach of duty. It is not enough to simply prove that
Dictionary (Garner, 2009): a breach of duty occurred. It must simultaneously
be shown that the injury was a direct result of the
[A tort is] a private or civil wrong or injury, other than teacher’s failure to provide a reasonable standard of
breach of contract, for which the court will provide a care. The plaintiff ’s expert will try to convince the
remedy in the form of an action for damages. Three court that there was a requisite standard and that
elements of every tort action are: existence of legal standard was not met. In contrast, the defendant
duty from defendant to plaintiff, breach of duty, and will try to show that the teacher met the proper
damage as proximate result. standard of care.
As the result of a tort, the court can give a monetary 4. Damages. Actual harm must occur if liability is to
reward for damages that occurred. The court can also give be established. If no injury or harm occurs, there is
a monetary reward for punitive damages if a breach of no liability. It must be proved that the injured party
duty can be established. Usually, the court rewards the is entitled to compensatory damages for financial
offended individual for damages that occurred because loss or physical discomfort. Actual damages can be
of the negligence of the instructor or other responsible physical, emotional, or financial, but the court will
individual. Punitive damages are much less common. only award financial remuneration.

LIABILITY FORESEEABILITY
Liability is the responsibility to perform a duty for a par- A key to the issue of negligence is foreseeability. Courts
ticular group. It is an obligation to perform in a particular expect that a trained professional is able to foresee poten-
way required by law and enforced by court action. tially harmful situations. Was it possible for the teacher to
Teachers are bound by contract to carry out their duties in predict and anticipate the danger of the harmful act or sit-
a reasonable and prudent manner. Liability is always a uation and to take appropriate measures to prevent it from
legal matter. It must be proved in a court of law that negli- occurring? If the injured party can prove that the teacher
gence occurred before one can be held liable. Four major should have foreseen the danger involved in an activity or
points must be established to determine if a teacher was situation (even in part), the teacher will be found negligent
negligent. for failing to act in a reasonable and prudent manner. This

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points out the necessity of examining all activities, equip- Nonfeasance

ment, and facilities for possible hazards and sources of Nonfeasance is based on lack of action in carrying out a
accident. duty. This is usually an act of omission: the teacher knew the
proper procedures but failed to follow them. Teachers can be
Sample Case: A Case of Foreseeability?
found negligent if they act or fail to act. Understanding and
A common game (unfortunately) in many school carrying out proper procedures and duties in a manner
settings is bombardment, or dodgeball. During the befitting members of the profession is essential. In contrast
game, a student is hit in the eye by a ball and loses to the misfeasance example, nonfeasance occurs when a
vision in that eye. Was this a foreseeable accident that teacher knows it is necessary to spot certain gymnastic rou-
could have been prevented? Were the balls being used tines but fails to do so. Courts expect teachers to behave with
capable of inflicting severe injury? Were students more skill and insight than parents. Teachers are expected
aware of rules that might have prevented this injury? to behave with greater competency because they have been
Were the abilities of the students somewhat equal, or educated to give students a higher standard of professional
were some capable of throwing with such velocity care than parents.
that injury was predictable? Were all students forced
to play the game? These questions would likely be Sample Case: Does Size Make a Difference?
considered in court in an attempt to prove that the Students are playing in a middle school game of diago-
teacher should have been able to predict the overly nal soccer. When their numbers are called, three stu-
dangerous situation. dents from each team come running to the center to
try and get the ball first and gain scoring advantage.
One of the students is a small student who weighs
NEGLIGENCE
about 70 lbs. A student on the other team is mature
Negligence is defined by the court as conduct that falls and weighs nearly 160 lbs. As they approach the ball,
below a standard of care established to protect others from the larger student basically runs over the smaller stu-
unreasonable risk or harm. Several types of negligence can dent, knocking him down and causing a head injury.
be categorized. Within two weeks, the student has a seizure, and the
parents plan to sue. Should the students have been
Malfeasance matched for size? Should they have been matched for
Malfeasance occurs when the teacher does something maturity and ability? Does gender make a difference?
improper by committing an act that is unlawful and Could the game have been modified to avoid this in-
wrongful, with no legal basis (often referred to as an act of jury? Is the teacher guilty of malpractice?
commission). Malfeasance can be illustrated by the fol-
lowing incident. In a rock climbing unit, a student is fear- Contributory Negligence
ful and doesn’t want to try it. The teacher is taken aback
The situation is different when the injured student is
and tells the student loudly in front of other students to
partially or wholly at fault. Students are expected to exer-
give it a try. Even though it was meant to encourage the
cise sensible care and to follow directions or regulations
student, it may have embarrassed the student in front of
designed to protect them from injury. When the injured
his peers. The student gives it a try, slips, and injures a
party exhibited improper behavior that caused the acci-
wrist in a short fall. The student didn’t want to participate
dent, it is usually ruled to be contributory negligence
but was forced to do so which could make the teacher
because the injured party contributed to the resulting
liable for any physical or emotional harm caused.
harm. This responsibility is directly related to the matu-
rity, ability, and experience of the student. For example,
Misfeasance most states have laws specifying that a child under 7 years
Misfeasance occurs when the teacher follows the proper of age is incapable of contributory negligence.
procedures but does not perform according to the required
standard of conduct. Misfeasance is based on performance Sample Case: “I told them not to, but they did it
of the proper action but not up to the required standard. anyway!”
It is usually the subpar performance of an act that might A physical education instructor teaching a class of
have been otherwise lawfully done. An example would freshmen students has thoroughly explained the shot
be the teacher offering to spot a student during a tumbling put and related safety rules and marked restraining
routine and then not doing the spotting properly. If the lines that are easy for students to see. During the track
student is injured following a faulty spot, the teacher can and field class, students are engaged in practicing a
be held liable. number of events. One of the students runs through

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the restricted area and is hit by a shot put. Who is to Assumption of Risk
blame? Was the student old enough to know better? Clearly, physical education is a high-risk activity when
Were there too many events being taught at the same compared with most other curriculum areas. Assumption
time? Should the teacher have foreseen that an acci- of risk implies the participant assumes the risk of an
dent might happen even if students were pre-warned? activity when choosing to be part of that activity. Physical
Is the shot put an appropriate event for physical edu- education teachers seldom use the assumption of risk
cation classes? Is there an assumption of risk in all defense because students are rarely allowed to choose to
physical education activities, causing these situations participate or not participate. An instructor for an elec-
to happen from time to time? tive program that allows students to choose desired units
of instruction might find this a better defense than one
Comparative or Shared Negligence who teaches a totally required program. Athletic and
Under the doctrine of comparative negligence, the injured sport club participation occurs by choice, and players
party can recover damages only if he or she is found to be must assume a greater risk in activities such as football
less negligent than the defendant (the teacher). Where and gymnastics.
statutes apply, the amount of recovery is generally reduced
in proportion to the injured party’s participation in the Contributory Negligence
circumstances leading to the injury. Contributory negligence is often used by the defense in an
attempt to convince the court that the injured party acted
in a manner that was abnormal. In other words, the
COMMON DEFENSES AGAINST injured individual did not act in a manner that was
NEGLIGENCE typical of students of similar age and maturity. The
Negligence must be proven in a court of law. Many times, defense attempts to demonstrate that the activity or
teachers are negligent in carrying out their duties, yet the equipment in question was used for years with no record
injured party does not take the case to court. If a teacher of accident. A case is made based on the manner of
is sued, some of the following defenses are used in an presentation—how students were taught to act in a safe
attempt to show that the teacher’s action was not the pri- manner—and that the injured student acted outside the
mary cause of the accident. parameters of safe conduct. A key point in this defense is
whether the activity was suitable for the age and maturity
Act of God level of the participants.
The act of God defense places the cause of injury on forces
beyond the control of the teacher or the school. The defense
is made that it was impossible to predict an unsafe con- PERSONAL PROTECTION:
dition, but through an act of God, the injury occurred. MINIMIZING THE EFFECTS
Typical acts would be a gust of wind that blew over a volley-
ball standard or a cloudburst of rain that made a surface
OF A LAWSUIT
slick. The act of God defense can be used only in cases in In spite of proper care, injuries do occur, and lawsuits may
which the injury still would have occurred even though rea- be initiated. Two courses of action are necessary to coun-
sonable and prudent action had been taken. teract the effects of a suit.

Proximate Cause LIABILITY INSURANCE

The defense of proximate cause attempts to prove that the Teachers may be protected by school district liability
accident was not caused by the negligence of the teacher. insurance. Usually, however, teachers must purchase
There must be a close relationship between the breach of their own policies. Most policies provide for legal serv-
duty by the teacher and the injury. This is a common ices to contest a suit and will pay indemnity up to the
defense in cases dealing with proper supervision. A stu- limits of the policy (liability coverage of $500,000 is
dent is participating in a competitive activity supervised most common). Most policies give the insurance com-
by the teacher. As the student drives to the basket, she is pany the right to settle out of court. Unfortunately,
undercut by another student and hits her head in a fall to when this occurs, some may infer that the teacher was
the floor. Unfortunately, the teacher was observing an guilty even though the circumstances indicate other-
adjacent activity and didn’t see the accident. The defense wise. Insurance companies usually settle out of court to
lawyer will try to show that the accident would have avoid the excessive legal fees required to try to win the
occurred regardless of whether the teacher was there. case in court.

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RECORDKEEPING 10. Are substitute teachers given clear and comprehen-

The second course of action is to keep complete records of sive lesson plans so that they can maintain the scope
accidents. Many lawsuits occur months or even years after and sequence of instruction?
the accident, when memory of the situation is fuzzy. 11. Is the student evaluation plan based on actual per-
Accident reports should be filled out immediately after an formance and objective data rather than on favoritism
injury. The teacher should take care to provide no evi- or arbitrary and capricious standards?
dence, oral or written, that others could use in a court of 12. Is appropriate dress required for students? This does
law. Do not attempt to make a diagnosis or to specify the not imply uniforms—only dress (including shoes)
supposed cause of the accident in the report. that ensures the safety of the student.
If newspaper reporters probe for details, the teacher
should avoid describing the accident beyond the basic 13. When necessary for safety, are students grouped ac-
facts. When discussing the accident with administrators, cording to ability level, size, or age?
the teacher should describe only the facts recorded on the 14. Is the class left unsupervised for teacher visits to the
accident report. School records can be subpoenaed in office, lounge, or bathroom? Is one teacher ever
court proceedings. The point here is not to dissemble, but asked to supervise two or more classes at the same
to be cautious and avoid self-incrimination. time?
15. If students are used as teacher aides or to spot oth-
SAFETY AND LIABILITY CHECKLISTS ers, are they given proper instruction and training?
The following checklists can be used to monitor the physi-
cal education environment. Any situations that deviate Equipment and Facilities Checklist
from safe and legally sound practices should be rectified 1. Is all equipment inspected regularly, and are the
immediately. inspection results recorded on a form and sent to
the proper administrators?
Supervision and Instruction Checklist 2. Is a log maintained recording the regular occurrence
1. Are teachers adequately trained in all of the activi- of an inspection, the equipment in need of repair,
ties they are teaching? and the date when repairs were made?
2. Do all teachers have evidence of a necessary level of 3. Are “attractive nuisances” eliminated from the gym-
first-aid training? nasium and playing field?
3. When supervising, do personnel have access to a writ- 4. Are specific safety rules posted on facilities and near
ten plan of areas to be observed and responsibilities to equipment?
be carried out?
5. Are the following inspected periodically:
4. Have students been warned of potential dangers
and risks and advised of rules and the reasons for a. Playing field for presence of glass, rocks, and
the rules? metal objects?
b. Fasteners holding equipment, such as climbing
5. Are safety rules posted near areas of increased risk?
ropes, horizontal bars, or baskets?
6. Are lesson plans written? Do they include provisions
c. Goals for games—such as football, soccer, and field
for proper instruction, sequence of activities, and
hockey—to be sure they are fastened securely?
safety? Are all activities taught listed in the district
curriculum guide? d. Padded areas, such as goal supports?
7. When a new activity is introduced, are safety precau- 6. Are mats placed under apparatus from which a fall
tions and instructions for correct skill performance is possible?
always communicated to the class? 7. Are playing fields arranged so participants will not
8. Are the activities taught in the program based on run into each other or be hit by a ball from another
sound curriculum principles? Could the activities game?
and units of instruction be defended on the basis of 8. Are landing pits filled and maintained properly?
their educational contributions?
Emergency Care Checklist
9. Do the methods of instruction recognize individual
differences among students, and are the necessary 1. Is there a written procedure for emergency care?
steps taken to meet the needs of all students, regard- 2. Is a person properly trained in first aid available
less of sex, ability, or disability? immediately following an accident?

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3. Are emergency telephone numbers readily accessible? 6. Cite the four elements that must be present to
confirm negligence.
4. Are telephone numbers of parents available? 7. Explain why it is important to have a high-ranking
5. Is an up-to-date first-aid kit available? Is ice imme- district administrator on the safety committee.
diately available? 8. Describe the basic emergency care process that
should be followed when a student suffers a seri-
6. Are health folders maintained that list restrictions, ous injury.
allergies, and health problems of students? 9. Differentiate between malfeasance, misfeasance,
and nonfeasance. Cite examples of each as they
7. Are health folders reviewed by instructors on a
might occur in the physical education setting.
regular basis? 10. Why is a decision to “settle out of court” often a
8. Are students participating in extracurricular activi- mixed blessing for the teacher?
ties required to have insurance? Is the policy number
recorded?
WEBSITES
9. Is there a plan for treating injuries that involves the Legal Issues and Physical Education
local paramedics? www.kin.sfasu.edu/finkenberg/kin511/Liability
10. Are accident reports filed promptly and analyzed www.pecentral.org/booksmusic/bookstore/books/
liabilitytexts
regularly?
School Safety and Security
Student Transportation Checklist www.schoolsecurity.org
www.sasked.gov.sk.ca/docs/physed/safe
1. Have parents been informed that their students will
be transported off campus?
2. Are detailed travel plans approved by the site admin- REFERENCES AND
istrator and kept on file? SUGGESTED READINGS
3. Are school vehicles used whenever possible? Appenzeller, H. (Ed.) (2005). Risk management in sport:
Issues and strategies (2nd ed.). Durham, NC: Carolina
4. Are drivers properly licensed and vehicles insured? Academic Press.
5. If teachers or parents use their vehicles to transport Appenzeller, H. (2003). Managing sports and risk man-
agement strategies (2nd ed.). Durham, NC: Carolina
students, are the students, driver, and car owner Academic Press.
covered by an insurance rider purchased by the Carpenter, L. J. (2008). Legal concepts in sport: A Primer
school district? (3rd ed.). Champaign, IL: Sagamore Publishing.
Clement, A. (2004). Law in sport and physical activity (3rd
ed.). Dania, FL: Sport and Law Press.
Dougherty, N. J. (Ed.). (2002). Principles of safety in physical
education and sport (3rd ed.). Reston, VA: American
STUDY STIMULATORS Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recreation and
Dance (AAHPERD).
AND REVIEW QUESTIONS Dougherty, N. J., Golberger, A. S., & Carpenter, A. S. (2007).
Sport, physical activity, and the law (3rd ed.). Champaign,
1. Explain what standard of duty a teacher has
IL: Sagamore Publishing.
from a legal standpoint. Garner, B. A. (Ed.). (2009). Black’s law dictionary (9th ed.).
2. Explain what is meant by contributory negli- St. Paul, MN: West.
gence and provide an example of such. Hart, J. E., & Ritson, R. J. (2002). Liability and safety in
3. Discuss the responsibilities of the school district physical education and sport: A practitioner’s guide
administration in the areas of supervision and to the legal aspects of teaching and coaching in ele-
instruction. mentary and secondary schools (2nd ed.). Reston, VA:
4. Discuss the importance of having a well laid-out AAHPERD.
lesson plan from a legal defense perspective. U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission. (2008).
5. Define “attractive nuisance” and explain how it Handbook for public playground safety. Washington,
DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.
might pose a risk for teachers.

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296
 Activity Outside of the
Physical Education Class:
Intramurals, Sport Clubs,
School Programs, and Athletics

From Chapter 13 of Dynamic Physical Education for Secondary Schools, Seventh Edition. Paul W. Darst, Robert P. Pangrazi, Mary Jo Sariscsany,
Timothy A. Brusseau, Jr. Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. Published by Pearson Benjamin Cummings. All rights reserved.
 Activity Outside of the
Physical Education Class:
Intramurals, Sport Clubs,
School Programs, and Athletics

ESSENTIAL COMPONENTS
OF A QUALITY PROGRAM
I. Organized around content standards
II. Student-centered and developmentally
appropriate
III. Physical activity and motor skill develop-
ment form the core of the program
▲

IV. Teaches management skills and

self-discipline
▲

V. Promotes inclusion of all students

VI. Focuses on process over product
▲

VII. Promotes lifetime personal health

and wellness
▲

VIII. Teaches cooperation and responsibility

and promotes sensitivity to diversity

NATIONAL STANDARDS FOR

PHYSICAL EDUCATION*
▲

1. Demonstrates competency in motor skills

and movement patterns needed to perform
a variety of physical activities.
2. Demonstrates understanding of movement
concepts, principles, strategies, and tactics as
they apply to the learning and performance
of physical activities.
▲

3. Participates regularly in physical activity.

4. Achieves and maintains a health-enhancing
level of physical fitness.
▲

5. Exhibits responsible personal and social

behavior that respects self and others in
physical activity settings.
▲

6. Values physical activity for health, enjoyment,

challenge, self-expression, and/or social *National Association for Sport and Physical Education
interaction. (NASPE), 2004.

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• Explain many possible detrimental effects of an

athletic program.
Chapter Summary • Identify procedures for developing a high-quality
This chapter summarizes the role of intramurals, sport athletic program.
clubs, school physical activity programs, and athletics
• Defend the implementation of intramural, sport
in the total school program. These programs should
club, school physical activity programs, and athletic
be available for all students and be conducted in a
programs in an educational setting.
manner that contributes to educational objectives.
The intramural program is a voluntary laboratory situ-
ation that enables students to develop interest and
competence in a wide range of physical activities.
Intramurals offer something of interest to all students School-sponsored co-curricular programs that focus on
in the school. The programs offer a balance of com- sports, games, and physical activities are especially impor-
petitive and recreational activities. Student interest tant to students. Valuable lessons are learned that enhance
surveys give direction to activity offerings in intramu- and shape physical skills, knowledge, social skills, and atti-
ral and sport club programs. Leadership of the pro- tudes. Physical educators should be involved in the overall
gram is a joint arrangement that includes students
planning and delivery of these programs to ensure that the
and faculty.
Many motivational devices can be used to encour- educational value of these programs is enhanced. Many
age and reward students’ participation in intramurals. school districts that have cut back offerings in these areas
Facilities, equipment, officials, and equating com- are reconsidering their previous position and planning to
petition are critical elements in developing a suc- reinstitute after-school programs. These programs serve a
cessful intramural program. Types of tournaments valuable function for students. They provide adolescents
include round-robin, ladder pyramid, and elimination.
with positive alternatives to youth crimes, gangs, violence,
Properly organized tournaments are important to a
successful program. Sport clubs include students who
dropout problems, discipline problems, and drug experi-
have a common interest in a particular sport or physi- mentation, and they provide further opportunities for
cal activity. These clubs are usually organized and engagement in physical activity for health-related benefits.
funded by students. Important matters for a sport The activities are important for middle school students
club to consider are membership rules, funding proce- who are exploring and searching for programs where they
dures, use of equipment and facilities, supervision, can be involved.
legal liability, and transportation. School physical
activity programs are low key programs usually before
Intramurals, sport clubs, and out-of-class time physi-
school, at noon time or after school that provide cal activity programs are rarely priority items in middle
students an opportunity to be active at school outside and high schools. In school districts, the athletic program
of the regular class time. Leadership and supervision is the number-one after-school activity and gets most of
of these programs are very important to their success. the facilities, money, and qualified personnel. Even in
The school athletic program should contribute to districts where athletics are strong at the high school level,
educational goals. How an athletic program is con-
many middle school athletic programs are inadequate or
ducted determines whether a program is a positive or
negative experience for students. The recruitment of nonexistent. Quality programs should be offered in all
qualified coaches is the cornerstone of a high-quality four areas. A well-developed model for athletics, intramu-
athletic program. The ability to perform well as a rals, sport clubs, and physical activity programs can serve
physical educator and an athletic coach is a difficult the needs of many students while offering physical activity
challenge. and recreation in a school-sanctioned setting.
Studies have revealed that a high percentage of students
Student Outcomes who participate in athletics in elementary school drop out
After reading this chapter, you will be able to: or are eliminated during the secondary school years. This
• Explain the relationship and the differences would not be such an alarming figure (considering that
between intramurals, sport clubs, school physical athletic programs are for the elite) if there were other
activity programs, and athletics. avenues for students to enjoy sports and physical activities.
• Set up a student interest survey that could be One of the best and most economical approaches are the
used for determining the activities to be offered intramural, sport club, and out-of-class programs. If, how-
in these programs.
ever, the school district does not hire qualified personnel to
• Discuss the issues regarding programs such as lead-
administer them, these programs soon become second rate
ership, motivation, facilities, officials, competition,
and tournament construction.
and fail to attract participants. The ensuing discussion
offers direction for developing quality programs in all of
• Defend the values of a properly organized and
conducted athletic program. these areas, which are based on student interest and
conducted through student input and energy.

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INTRAMURALS programs for youth offer so many benefits at such a low

cost to society.
THE WHAT, WHO, AND WHY OF
INTRAMURAL PROGRAMS RECREATION VERSUS COMPETITION
An intramural program is an organized activity for stu-
Considering a successful intramural program should attract
dents that is an extension of the physical education pro-
all types of students, the question arises as to whether com-
gram. Student attendance and participation are voluntary,
petition or recreation should be featured. If competition is
and the program is limited to the boundaries of a specific
the overriding concern, then tournaments that identify
school. The intramural program can be a laboratory, as
champions and reinforce winners are featured. Competition
recommended by the National Intramural-Recreational
emphasizes practicing as much as possible, only playing par-
Sports Association (2004), for engagement in physical
ticipants who are the best and avoiding mistakes as much as
activity for health-related benefits, skill development, social
possible.
interaction, recreational participation, and application of
If recreation is featured, emphasis is placed on partic-
knowledge gained in the physical education program. In
ipation and playing all teams an equal number of times.
terms of supervisory personnel, equipment, and facilities,
Tournament and league standings are avoided or not
the intramural program should be funded by the school
posted, and students play each game as an entity in itself.
district. In some cases, fees might be required if the activ-
Rewarding recreation emphasizes attendance and partici-
ity involves private facilities such as climbing walls, bowl-
pation, and all students are expected to play the same
ing alleys, skating rinks, or horseback riding stables.
amount. Awards and trophies are not offered, but in some
When a broad variety of activities are offered in the
cases, certificates of participation are given.
intramural program, physical education teachers can dele-
Which direction should the intramural program take?
gate more class time to instruction because the opportunity
As usual, no easy answer exists, but several points need to
to play sports can occur in the intramural setting. Also, a
be considered. Because many students may have been cut
teacher conducting each program may use one program to
from an athletic program, they may still want to compete.
spark interest in the other. The intramural program is a
However, many of the participants may not have partici-
social meeting ground for students. Students participate in
pated on an athletic team after the elementary school
activities they may enjoy and use throughout their lives.
years, and they may simply desire a positive experience. It
Who participates in an intramural program? Hopefully,
appears that most high school students prefer an intramu-
every student in the school. The program should offer some-
ral program that is a mixture of both recreation and
thing of interest to all students and provide appropriate
competition. Students want the opportunity to match
competitive experiences for students of all sizes, shapes, and
skills and wits with an opponent in a competitive setting.
skill levels. All students need to have ample opportunity to
They also want to have an opportunity to relax, play, and
find success and enjoyment in the program, regardless of
communicate with peers. The best programs probably
their physical stature or ability level.
offer students a balance of competition and recreation.
Why have an intramural program? An intramural pro-
gram offers students an opportunity to develop interest and
competence in a wide range of recreational activities. The TYPES OF ACTIVITIES
program also gives students an opportunity to develop and The types and varieties of activities offered to students are
maintain a reasonable level of fitness. Evidence has shown the heart of the intramural program. There should be activ-
that if people do not develop competence and confidence ities to meet the desires of all students. In some cases, the
during their school years in their ability to participate in intramural program has been an outgrowth of the athletic
recreational activities, they seldom participate in later life. In program rather than the physical education program and
the intramural program, students learn to compete against has been directed by athletic coaches. The result is probably
and cooperate with each other in an environment that has a program conducted in a manner similar to the athletic
little at stake in terms of winning and losing. The program program. In most cases, this type of program may be
can be a setting for developing lifelong friendships. inappropriate. The scope of intramural activities should be
The intramural program can also be a place to learn unlimited and dictated by students. If students are expected
leadership and followership skills. Students learn to com- to participate in the program during their free time, it must
promise and assert themselves. Through these programs, cater to their desires and wants. The intramural program
students, parents, and teachers become closer friends. should not be regarded as “minor” league for athletes who
Finally, the program offers students a place to spend might make the varsity team at a later date.
some of their out-of-school time in a supervised setting, A student survey is a good idea to determine student
rather than walking the streets with nothing to do. Few interests and to establish the magnitude of those interests.

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Surveys can be conducted by homeroom teachers and ■ Public Relations. The public relations committee
returned when they are completed. A compilation of develops all materials for promoting the program,
results should then be posted so students can clearly see seeks funding from private organizations, and
that the activities offered are a result of their expressed sponsors car washes, raffles, and other fund-raising
interests. The survey is a strong tool when bargaining with activities.
the administration for program facilities and equipment. ■ Safety. The safety committee develops an approved
When principals understand that many students desire list of procedures for first aid and emergency sit-
certain activities, the physical educator then has some lever- uations, and provides a trained student capable of
age to gain program support. Figure 1 is a sample of the administering first aid who is able to be present at
type of survey that could be administered. The survey will activities.
also indicate to students the number and variety of activi-
ties that can be offered. After a survey has been ■ Eligibility for Participation and Guidelines for
administered and compiled, information about desired Continued Participation. One of the primary roles
activities, times to offer the program, and qualified super- for leadership in any intramural program is devel-
visors are identified. A program that matches student oping the standards for participation. Although
interests is easier to develop if a diagnostic instrument the rules committee will be charged with enforc-
similar to the one in Figure 1 is administered ing the rules of the program, it will be up to the
leader of the program to determine minimum
qualifications for participation. Some schools use
LEADERSHIP criteria such as grade point averages or student
Leadership of an intramural program is a joint obligation. status in regard to school discipline or attendance
School districts should fund personnel to supervise the pro- as criteria for participation. The program should
gram and to minimize liability problems. However, students reflect the values of the school but should not make
also have a responsibility to organize committees and to participation criteria so difficult that it excludes a
implement a successful program. They should develop the majority of students. An effective intramural leader
policies, rules, and procedures that guide the program. will find the right balance between punitive restric-
tions and unlimited participation.
Forming the Intramural Council
An effective way to ensure student input and energy for The formation of the student intramural council should
implementing the intramural program is to develop an not supersede the need for qualified adult personnel, and the
intramural council. The council consists of six to 10 stu- school district should be willing to hire adequate help.
dents and is balanced by gender and grade level. This Without district funding, there is usually little administrative
group makes the final decisions about the wide-ranging commitment to the program, and a lack of administra-
aspects of the program. Committees that report to the tive commitment ultimately leads to program failure.
council are developed and maintained with productive
students. Some of the following committees might be Motivating Students to Participate
organized to serve the intramural council.
Many methods are available for promoting intramural pro-
■ Activity Development. The activity development grams and encouraging participation. Regardless of the
committee is responsible for selecting intramural method used, students must see the benefits of participating
activities as well as facilities, equipment, and per- to have the program work. The program must exude a spirit
sonnel necessary for implementation. and be an “in” thing to do. Some of the following sugges-
tions have been used with success in varying situations and
■ Rules and Regulations. The rules and regulations
can be modified to meet the needs of a particular school.
committee develops guidelines for administering
the program. This committee is also the enforce- ■ Intramural Bulletin Board. Bulletin boards, located
ment body when rule infractions occur. throughout the school, display schedules, standings,
■ Scheduling and Statistics. The scheduling and sta- and future activities. Pictures of champions can
tistics committee schedules games and contests, also be posted and labeled.
maintains school intramural records and league ■ Patches. Winners are awarded arm patches with a
standings, and oversees other related matters. school designation, the year, and activity. Some
■ Referees. The officiating committee recruits refer- successful programs have awarded patches for
ees, trains them, and interprets and makes rulings participating in a certain number of activities
dealing with protests. regardless of winning or losing.

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Humerus High School Intramural Survey

Student name Grade

1. Would you participate in the intramural program if activities were offered that interest you?
Yes No If no, why not?

2. What do you like most about the present intramural program?

3. What do you like least about the present intramural program?

4. If you choose not to participate, would you be willing to help out in the program in other roles? Check
those ways in which you could offer your aid.
Officiating Publicity Secretarial Scorekeeping Other (identify)
5. It is possible to develop a program that emphasizes competition, recreation, or a combination of both.
Which would you desire?
Competition Recreation Both
6. What days and what time of the day would be best for your participation?
Day Time
Monday
Tuesday
Wednesday
Thursday
Friday
Saturday
7. Should awards be given to winning participants?
Yes No Please justify your answer.
8. Please list any other points that would make the program better suit your needs.

9. The following is a list of activities that might be offered. Please circle 5 that you would most like to be
offered in the intramural program. If an activity that you want is not offered, please write it in the blank
at the end of the form.

Archery Checkers Frisbee golf Orienteering Steeplechase

Badminton Chess Golf Paddle tennis Swimming
Bait and fly Cooperative games Driving Relays Table tennis
casting Croquet Putting Riflery Tennis
Basketball Cross country Gymnastics Roller hockey Tetherball
One on one Darts Handball Roller skating Track and field
Two on two Decathlon Horseshoes Shuffleboard Tumbling
Other Deck tennis Ice hockey Skiing Volleyball
Free-throw Fencing Judo Soccer Two player
shooting Field hockey Kite flying Softball Volley tennis
Billiards Figure skating Lacrosse Fast pitch Water basketball
Bowling Flag football Lawn bowling Slow pitch Water polo
Box hockey Flickerball Marbles One pitch Weight lifting
Cards Floor hockey New games Speed-a-way Wrestling

Others
10. Do you know of any experts who could teach and help organize any of the activities designated above?
If so, please describe how they can be contacted.

FIGURE 1 Sample high school intramural survey

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■ T-shirts. T-shirts can be given to winners or partici- use of facilities at opportune times, such as during the
pants. The school can hold a T-shirt day on which final game of the intramural tournament.
teachers and participants wear their shirts to school. Another way to work through the facility problem is to
■ Point-Total Chart. Points are given for winning schedule program activities out of season. For example,
first, second, third, or fourth place in an activity, or scheduling intramural basketball programs in the fall or
points can be awarded simply for participation. The spring would alleviate the conflict. Or, schedule intramural
points may be awarded to homeroom teams or on activities during low-demand times such as before school,
an individual basis. The point-total chart keeps a during the noon hour, and later in the evening. Community
running tally throughout the year. facilities such as churches, the YMCA or YWCA, and city
park and recreation areas, can be used at times to increase
■ Trophies. Trophies are awarded to homerooms based the number of participants who can be accommodated.
on point totals at the end of the school year. An Scheduling becomes paramount in ensuring that facilities
excellent idea is to award an “outstanding participant will be available. The scheduling committee should work
trophy” to those who earned the most participant with the athletic director and staging director to avoid
points. conflicts.
■ Newspaper Reports. These articles are written by Equipment should be provided by the district.
students and are placed in the school or local news- Some successful programs have been funded by student
paper. They motivate best when they explicitly activities such as car washes or raffles, but in general,
name students. when the district chooses not to give funding, the
■ Field Trips. Field trips are awarded to all participants program is held in low esteem. If the program involves
at the end of the activity. For instance, at the end private facilities (such as bowling alleys, golf courses, or
of the basketball tournament, all participants might skating rinks), club members will usually receive
attend a college or professional game together. reduced rates. Having an equipment committee to
determine how and when money will be spent is effec-
■ Extramural Competition. A play-day activity can be
tive. The committee is responsible for maintaining and
organized between one or more schools that have
repairing equipment. The school provides a storage area
similar activities. The participants meet at one school
for intramural equipment used solely by intramurals. It
on a Saturday and compete against each other. These
usually creates conflict when physical education pro-
students are nonathletes; the play day provides an
gram equipment is used for the intramural program.
opportunity for them to compete in a setting similar
When equipment is lost or damaged, hard feelings or
to athletic competition.
loss of program support may occur.
■ Committee Acknowledgment. Volunteers that serve
on the various committees for the program are
rewarded with the recognition they deserve. Student OFFICIALS
participants will be more likely to serve on commit- Critical to the success of any athletic endeavor is the qual-
tees if they feel appreciated for doing so. ity of the officiating. The intramural program should be
officiated by students. It is unrealistic to think teachers
Two schools of thought are involved in promoting
will be willing to work ball games. A sound approach is to
intramural programs. One awards notoriety and trophies to
develop an officiating committee with the responsibility
winners, while the other offers awards and equal publicity
for acquiring and training officials. Many students who do
to all participants. A case can be made for both approaches.
not play competitively are willing to officiate and enjoy
A consideration is that winners already receive reinforce-
being an integral part of an event.
ment, but others of lesser accomplishment may need
Students should be recruited as soon as possible so
additional positive strokes to ensure equal publicity for
they can acquire experience and work confidently with
all students in the program.
experienced officials. They should be trained in rules
and game mechanics prior to a tournament and be
FACILITIES AND EQUIPMENT allowed to practice with as little pressure as possible.
Without proper facilities and equipment, an intramural The word of the officials is absolute. If a disagreement
program has little chance for success. A major problem is arises, it is filed and resolved through proper protest
the conflict between athletics and intramurals. Much time channels.
and money has been poured into athletic programs, and Scheduling officials and ensuring they make their
athletics can be expected to take priority in terms of facil- assignments is crucial. An organized plan needs to be imple-
ity use. At best, the programs should compromise on the mented with a master chart posted where student officials

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can initial to verify that they have accepted the assignment idea of fair play, leaders might even choose teams
for the game. without knowing which team they will be on. In so
Officials can be given points for the number of games doing, leaders will ensure that each team is equally
they work; they can also be awarded patches, T-shirts, and strong.
trophies for their accomplishments in a fashion similar to 2. Students are arranged by height or weight. The
participants. Without some recognition, students will names of students within a certain range are put in
have little motivation for carrying out the thankless obli- one box, and a different range of heights in another
gations of officiating. box. Teams are then selected by drawing the names
of an equal number of students of similar size for
EQUATING COMPETITION each team.
All participants need to know they have an opportunity
to succeed in the intramural setting. Students fail to par- Whatever method is used to form teams, be sensitive
ticipate if they foresee a constant diet of losing or other to maintaining a balance of competition and preventing
negative experiences. Grouping by ability has both embarrassing situations. Teams should never be selected
advantages and disadvantages. It can be awkward to have in such a fashion that the poorest player is chosen last. The
skilled and unskilled players together when the activity intramural experience should be a positive experience that
demands a great deal of progression and skill perform- all students anticipate it with enthusiasm. If the program
ance. In those cases, having similarly skilled students is to succeed, participants are needed and should be
play together and compete against teams of similar abil- treated as important and meaningful people.
ity is probably better. However, placing less-skilled ath-
letes with skilled athletes may improve the performance TOURNAMENTS
level of the unskilled students and enhance their confi- A variety of tournaments can be organized to carry out
dence. It also provides opportunities for skilled persons the intramural program. The type will depend on the
to aid the less skilled. number of entries; the number of sessions or how many
When grouping for teams, try the following methods. days the tournament will continue; the facilities and
Allow students to choose competition levels. Provide the equipment available; and the number of officials, scorers,
opportunity for both recreation and competitive games. and other helpers on hand. The following types of tourna-
This will allow students to choose the intensity at which ments are often used with success.
they would like to participate. By allowing students to
choose this level of competition, they will be more likely Round-Robin Tournament
to choose one that is comfortable to them. There is also The round-robin tournament is a good choice when ade-
less embarrassment for them than if they were placed in a quate time is available for play. In this type of tournament,
game where the rest of the participants did not match every team or individual plays every other team or individ-
their ability level. ual once. Final standings are based on win–loss percentages.
Home rooms can compete against home rooms. This To determine the amount of time the tournament will take,
is the most heterogeneous method of grouping. Students the following formula can be used:
of varying skill levels will then play on the same team.
Grouping by home room may be effective if students are TI(TI – 1)/2
randomly placed there. Another method is to use divisions where TI = number of teams or individuals
of competition. Depending on the activity, students are For example, if there are five teams in a softball unit,
grouped by ability, size, or age. Home rooms could spon- 5(5 – 1)/2 = 10 games are to be scheduled.
sor two or more teams of different ability that play in dif-
ferent leagues. The advantage of home room sponsorship To arrange a tournament for an odd number of teams,
lies in the camaraderie developed among students and the each team should be assigned a number. (Number the
possibility of enhancing the classroom relationships. teams down the right column and up the left column.) All
Probably the best solution is to equalize the competition numbers rotate, and the last number each time draws a
regardless of home room assignments or other segregating bye. An example using seven teams follows:
factors. Choosing teams that are somewhat equal can be Round 1 Round 5
done in the following ways: 7—1 (bye) 3—1 (bye)
1. Leaders are elected by the students. The leaders then 6—1 2—4
choose teams in a private session held away from the 5—2 1—5
rest of the participants. To further strengthen the 4—3 7—6

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Round 2 Round 6 Competition occurs by challenging a higher-ranked oppo-

6—1 (bye) 2—1 (bye) nent and is supervised minimally. Various arrangements
5—7 1—3 are possible, but participants usually challenge only those
4—1 7—4 opponents who are two steps above a participant’s present
3—2 6—5 ranking. If the challenger wins, that person changes places
with the loser. The teacher can establish an initial ranking,
Round 3 Round 7 or positions can be drawn out of a hat. Figure 2 shows an
5—1 (bye) 1—1 (bye) example of a ladder format.
4—6 7—2
3—7 6—3 Pyramid Tournament
2—1 5—4
A pyramid tournament is similar to a ladder tournament,
but more challenge and variety are possible because there
Round 4
is a wider choice of opponents (Figure 3). In the pyramid
4—1 (bye)
tournament, any player challenges any opponent one level
3—5
above his or her present ranking. In another variation, any
2—6
player challenges someone at his or her level and beats
1—7
that person before he or she can challenge a person at a
higher level.
To arrange a tournament for an even number of
teams, the plan is similar except that the position of Team
1 remains stationary and the other teams revolve around Elimination Tournament
it until the combinations are completed. There are no byes The disadvantage of the elimination tournament is that
in this plan. An example of an eight-team tournament poorer teams are eliminated first and do not get to play
follows. as many games as more proficient teams. The skilled
thus get better, and less-skilled students sit out without
Round 1 Round 5 an opportunity to improve. The advantage of the elimi-
1—2 1—5 nation tournament is that it can be completed in a
8—3 4—6 shorter amount of time than, for example, the round-
7—4 3—7 robin tournament. Double-elimination tournaments
6—5 2—8 are somewhat better than single elimination because
two losses are required before a team is relegated to the
Round 2 Round 6 sidelines. Students come to intramurals to play rather
1—8 1—4 than sit on the side and watch others play. Figure 4 is an
7—2 3—5 example of a simple single-elimination tournament
6—3 2—6 with six teams.
5—4 8—7

Round 3 Round 7
1—7 1—3 Shuffleboard
6—8 2—4 Tournament
5—2 8—5 1.
4—3 7—6
2.
Round 4
3.
1—6
5—7 4.
4—8
5.
3—2
6.

Ladder Tournament 7.
A ladder format is used for an ongoing tournament
administered by a teacher or informally by students. FIGURE 2 Ladder tournament chart

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Helen

Sue Jeff Vic

Tom Eric Rick Sarah

Bill Chuck Connie Nonda Todd

Sally Bill Bob Barb Mike

FIGURE 3 Pyramid tournament chart

SPORT CLUBS 1. Determine the interests of students. A survey

instrument (see Figure 1) is used to determine stu-
Sport clubs are filled with students bonded by their
dent interests in and concerns for sport clubs. It is
common interest in some sport or activity. The concept
usually best to develop one or two clubs first to
originated in Europe and has become more common
demonstrate the effectiveness of this approach to
in the United States, largely because of the inability
the district administrators.
of school districts to fund a wide variety of activities.
The clubs are for students, are run by students, and are 2. Meet with interested students. Before the meeting
often funded by the students. They offer young people with students, find a faculty member or some other
the chance to organize a club that meets the specific person to serve as the club’s advisor. The advisor
needs of a group and the opportunity to socialize should have a keen interest in the area and at least a
with friends. minimal amount of expertise. For example, it is
foolish to appoint someone as an advisor to the
backpacking club if he or she has never backpacked.
Developing a Sport Club Network During the first meeting, dues necessary for con-
Sport clubs are often administered by guidelines set by ducting club activities should be discussed. If the
the intramural director in a school district. The clubs cost is prohibitive, many students may choose not
can be an outgrowth of either the intramural or athletic to participate. Students should also discuss the joys
program. The types of sport clubs to be developed are and dangers of participating in the activity. Discuss
usually dictated by students. The following steps are school guidelines for clubs so students understand
typical of a system for developing a sport club network the parameters involved.
in the school setting.
3. Develop a constitution. After the initial meeting,
interested students meet again to develop a constitu-
tion. This document delineates membership require-
Round 1 Round 2 Round 3 ments, the function and selection of officers, and
Team 1 meeting dates. An outline form can be used to aid in
Team 1 the development of similar club constitutions.
Bye
Team 3 4. Establish rules and regulations. Clubs need to deter-
Team 2
Team 3 mine the scope of their organization and the require-
Team 3 ments of club members to retain active membership.
Team 4
Team 4 If competition with other clubs is involved, travel
Team 4 Champion
Team 5 funding and housing requirements are explicitly out-
Team 4 lined. The need for adult chaperones and drivers and
Bye
Team 6 Finals the need for a waiver of responsibility signed by par-
Team 6 ents are vital parts of the rules. The basic premise of
Semifinals
rules is to eliminate misunderstandings and to encour-
FIGURE 4 Single-elimination tournament chart age a safe, liability-free club setting.

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5. Seek funding, facilities, and equipment. With the lacks proper training, experts outside the school should be
help of the advisor, students should determine what secured. These may be parents or interested community
facilities and equipment are available and when volunteers. In most cases, the responsibility for supplying a
they can be scheduled. Seeking outside funding safe environment falls on the school district.
from private organizations and service clubs is Procedures for handling injuries are important and may
important. In some cases, school time may be given involve having a physician on call. Written procedures
for clubs to conduct meeting and planning sessions. should be available and understood by all club members in
Appropriate facilities such as bowling alleys or case an accident occurs. For example, what steps will be
swimming pools need to be contacted to see if 1 or taken if someone is injured on a backpacking trip? Accidents
2 hours per week can be reserved for club activities. do happen, and there is much less trouble if proper emer-
6. Organize participation and competition. Once gency procedures have been planned for such an occurrence.
facilities, equipment, and participants have been
Budget
determined, a participation event will need to be
organized. No matter if the event is intramural or It is ideal when the school district funds sport clubs. In
extramural, careful planning should occur to provide some cases, student fees are assessed at the start of the
the participants a rich and rewarding experience. school year and distributed on an equal basis to all clubs.
This provides a financial foundation, but almost all clubs
7. Conduct a periodic evaluation. Clubs should be require additional funding. The most common methods
evaluated on a regular basis to see if interest is wan- used are cake sales, car washes, rummage sales, sales of old
ing, whether the needs of students are being met, and outdated equipment, candy sales, and donations.
and whether the manner of club conduct needs to When travel and lodging are necessary, students are usu-
be modified. Sometimes when clubs are developed ally expected to absorb the cost. School districts will often
based on the interests of students, that interest can provide a bus if the activity is scheduled when buses are
decrease to such an extent that the club should available. Travel by private car is the least acceptable
be discontinued. New student interests may also method of transport because of the possibility of an acci-
develop and result in new clubs. A periodic evalua- dent and subsequent liability problems.
tion can result in a new club advisor, better ways Many clubs have an equipment bank where equip-
to facilitate club goals, or an attempt to stimulate ment is stored for use year after year. The club develops an
renewed interest in the club. adequate source of equipment over a period of years. Used
equipment from local colleges and high school athletic
IMPLEMENTING A SPORT CLUB programs can sometimes be secured to augment the
The following areas should be considered when developing equipment bank.
a sport club. They are considerations that school district
personnel need to be aware of if a successful program is to Coaching
be implemented. Qualified coaches and other school-affiliated advisors are
usually involved in administration of the athletic and
Liability intramural programs. This means club advisors and
Students who participate in the club should have liability coaches may have to be selected from the community. Some
insurance. Depending on the activity, regular school insur- type of screening should be undertaken by the school
ance may cover the student during participation. However, district to see that the advisors are properly qualified. The
if the activity is exceptionally risky (e.g., skiing or rugby), club programs have to be conducted at a time when these
supplementary insurance is usually needed. Parents must people are available considering many potential advisors
certify that the student is covered by their insurance policy are employed during the school day. If the activity is recre-
if students choose not to purchase insurance offered by the ational in nature, interested parents may carry out the
district’s carrier. supervisory responsibilities. All adults involved should be
A signed parental responsibility waiver form is neces- approved by the school district and required to sign a form
sary for participation in club activities. Even though the agreeing to abide by district policies.
form does not waive the student’s right to sue and seek
redress, a signed form communicates to the school district Facilities
that the parents approve and are aware of their student’s Facilities usually have to be scheduled at low-use times.
participation in the program. Sport clubs are often last in line for facilities, after the
Instructors and advisors to the program must be compe- athletic and intramural programs. Facilities need to be
tent to administer the activity. If the school district advisor found in the community if the clubs involve sports offered

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interscholastically. For example, city parks have softball opportunity to be physically active now and to learn to
fields that can be used. Some school districts choose not to enjoy sports and physical activities for the rest of their
approve clubs dealing with sports offered at the intramural lives. Students may also develop an interest that leads
and interscholastic level. The philosophy behind this ruling them into another school activity program or into a
is that club sports should offer opportunities not available nearby community activity program (Faber, Hodges-
through other avenues. If that is the case, then most sport Kulinna, & Darst, 2007). It appears that this trend will
club programs will be conducted in private facilities such as continue to gain momentum in the schools and that
bowling alleys, swimming pools, ski areas, skating rinks, teacher education programs will start to offer more and
riflery and archery ranges, and racquetball clubs. more classes and internships that will develop leadership
skills for directing these types of programs (Castelli, D.M. &
Achievement Clubs Beighle, A., 2007).
Many of the activities suggested in the intramurals section
for motivating students can be used with sport club activ-
ities. In addition, some clubs can be formed for which stu-
INTERSCHOLASTIC ATHLETICS
dents are eligible only after they have met predetermined The interscholastic athletic program usually stands at the
standards of achievement. Examples might be a jogging top of the pyramid in terms of attention, time, and money
club, bike-riding club, distance swimming club, and a focused on the program. Sports in the school setting
weight-lifting club. In each case, students join the club and should contribute to the educational purposes of the
are a part of the group only after they have met the mini- institution. Arguments abound as to whether the athletic
mum standards. program is a negative or positive influence on students.
Athletics are not inherently good or bad. How the athletic
program is conducted makes it a positive or negative
experience for participants. It is possible to create a posi-
SCHOOL PHYSICAL ACTIVITY tive experience for students through a competitive sports
PROGRAMS (OUT-OF-CLASS TIME) program (Siedentop, 2007).
Recently, many current professional physical education
teacher education (PETE) programs have included discus- VALUES OF AN ATHLETIC PROGRAM
sions that focus on training and developing physical edu- A strong athletic program can develop a sense of belonging
cation majors with the skills to monitor and coordinate among the participants. Students like to see what they can
physical activity programs for school students outside of accomplish by themselves and with the help of peers. Team
the regular class times and yet different from the sports teach them that goals can be reached only if team-
Intramurals, Sport Clubs or Athletics programs that cur- mates are willing to cooperate. It quickly becomes apparent
rently exist in many districts (Beighle, Erwin, Castelli, & that cooperation precedes competition. Conducting a com-
Ernst, 2009; McMullen, 2010). These programs are offered petitive game is impossible when teammates do not cooper-
at schools in a less structured fashion compared to the ate and follow the established rules.
above mentioned programs. These types of programs Athletics teach students that the journey is more
encourage students to be active every day, either before important than the destination. The work done to reach a
school, at the noon hour or after the school day, on the goal is the essence of an athletic experience, and students
weekends, or during school vacation periods (Brewer, learn that after the victory, continued hard work is still
Luebbers, & Shane, 2009). These programs use the necessary. This lesson may carry over to adult life and help
schools’ facilities and equipment during down times from the participant continue to succeed.
classes, intramurals, and athletics. The specific physical Athletics give students something to talk about and
activities that have been included are the most popular something to do. Many of the problems of youth arise
sports and physical activities for school students such as because of boredom and little to do when the school day is
flag football, basketball, softball, tennis, and soccer. The over. Athletics give status to participants and make them
physical education teachers at the schools have provided feel important. The program allows students to share their
the supervision and organization of these programs due positive accomplishments with others and appreciate the
to their interests and training with sports and physical accomplishments of friends.
activities. The physical education teachers have taken on a The athletic program serves as a laboratory for gifted
new role as the school’s physical activity director or coor- students. It offers students a chance to perfect their skills
dinator. The school districts are providing the funding, to a high level with the aid of a knowledgeable coach.
the equipment, and the facilities for these programs to Students who are athletically gifted are appreciated and
encourage all types of students to take advantage of an rewarded for their accomplishments. The athletic program

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brings a community of people together for a common When this occurs, students may suffer from the coach’s
cause. Parents and business people begin to develop pride lack of concern and caring about personal problems and
in their communities and find a common ground for com- injuries. Until an equal emphasis is placed on the process
munication. The athletic team can be a unifying factor that of coaching as well as on the product, the athletic setting
brings together people of all backgrounds. will be less than a positive and developmental experience
Participation in athletics can teach students how to (Steinberg, Singer, & Murphy, 1999).
maintain a level of physical fitness and to care for their bod- At times, parents and community members can become
ies. They learn about the need for self-discipline when one so deeply involved in the athletic program that they apply
desires to reach a goal. The importance of making sacrifices, pressure on students to win at all costs. Student athletes
following training rules, and practicing regularly become an begin to feel that if they do not win, they will not be accepted
attitudinal set of the participants. Sportsmanship and self- as an integral part of the community. The athletic program
control must be practiced if students are to find success. then becomes an incessant effort on the part of students to
Rules and regulations become an integral part of sport par- achieve the adults’ goals. In these situations, adults forget
ticipation and illustrate to students the importance of follow- that the athletic program was developed for students in an
ing predetermined rules. Students learn they are penalized effort to contribute to the students’ personal growth. When
when rules are broken, and those unwilling to cooperate are the program becomes an adult program with adult goals,
seldom welcome to participate. Finally, the athletic program students cannot separate what is important from what is
shows students how highly regarded and important excel- not. Another concern for athletes is injury. All participants
lence is to people. Athletics should try to embody excellence assume the risk of injury through involvement. If the desire
and the Olympic ideal. Students set goals and make sacrifices to win exceeds the desire to provide a safe environment, then
in an attempt to achieve excellence without any guarantee of some students may be ordered to play with an injury or may
success. receive injuries caused by lack of proper care and treatment.
Concern for the health of participants is the paramount pro-
gram goal.
DETRIMENTAL EFFECTS OF AN
ATHLETIC PROGRAM DEVELOPING A QUALITY
The athletic program mobilizes large amounts of time,
energy, and money to aid a relatively small number of par- ATHLETIC PROGRAM
ticipants. This sometimes leads to neglect of less-skilled Depending on how it is organized and presented, an ath-
performers. In contrast, an athlete who receives special letic program can be a positive or negative experience for
attention can develop the attitude that athletes are better students. The following guidelines, if heeded, help ensure
than others and are eligible for personal favors and special meaningful experiences for participants. All districts have
attention. This can lead to a situation whereby student to interpret the guidelines based on their specific situa-
athletes develop a value set that is detrimental when their tions, but it is difficult to imagine that a worthwhile pro-
playing days are over. gram will result if districts deviate from the guidelines to a
Participation in athletic programs often interrupts the large degree.
educational environment. Athletes leave school to go on
Guidelines to Ensure a Quality Experience
trips or receive released time to practice during a final-
period physical education class. The athlete may begin to 1. The athletic program should be voluntary. All stu-
believe that it is more important to be a successful athlete dents who choose to participate should have an
than a competent student. Another possible effect of the opportunity to compete. All athletes should have
athletic program is a loss of personal identity. Athletes the opportunity to play if they have practiced and
are told when to eat, when to practice, when they can have disciplined themselves. Cutting players from a
free time, and when to study. They may soon begin to squad is an accepted practice, but there should be
wonder if they can make any important decisions for another arena in which players can compete. This
themselves and whether they have the right to live their may mean a junior varsity, C squad, or strong
own lives. intramural or sport club program. If athletics is
The pressures of coaching are apparent to all who regarded as an educational experience, all students
have filled a head coaching position in a major sport. This have the right to receive that experience.
pressure is often unjust and can lead to unacceptable 2. The program should be based on the maturation
coaching behavior. Athletic coaching is a good example of level of participants. This is particularly important
holding an individual accountable for the end result (win- at the middle school level because these students
ning) regardless of how that individual reaches the goal. exhibit a wide range of development. Grouping by

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age, ability, or size may be necessary if the program 10. Facilities should be shared by all facets of the ath-
is to be meaningful. letic, intramural, and sport club programs. It is
3. The athletic program should be an after-school understandable that athletics are expected to take
program. The practice of giving a period of school priority, but someone needs to direct the situation
time for practice is discriminatory and runs counter to so that all programs are given acceptable use of the
the established rule that an academic education is facilities and equipment.
the school’s priority. Along the same lines, excusing 11. Awards, trophies, and other incentives used to iden-
athletes from physical education is difficult to justify. tify outstanding achievement should be minimized.
If the program is educational, then all students, This is not to avoid rewarding excellence but to
regardless of background, should benefit from it. encourage proper discretion. If awards are given in
4. The athletic program should offer a broad spectrum excess, they become meaningless.
of activities for participants; the fewer activities 12. The athletic program should be constantly evaluated.
offered, the fewer participants. The program should In some cases, the program is seldom scrutinized until
also be balanced in offering activities to all groups— an infraction occurs. Periodic evaluations by the ath-
skilled and unskilled, boys and girls, able-bodied letic director, principal, and coaching staff can aid in
students and those with disabilities. preventing problems. Evaluation can serve to improve
5. Organization of the athletic program should meet offerings for both boys and girls, upgrade scheduling
the needs of students. The concerns of the spec- efficiency, and show the need for in-service training.
tators should be met only after the program has
been developed. Many sports are dropped because The Athletic Council
they do not draw large numbers of spectators To help ensure that a quality athletic program is maintained,
and make money. If this trend continues, football many school districts organize an athletic council. The
and basketball might represent the total athletic council is a districtwide body composed of the superin-
program. tendent (or a representative), principals, the athletic director
6. All participants should be certified as medically for the district, coaches from each of the schools, and
healthy by a physician. The program should be eval- student representatives from each school. All schools, sports,
uated regularly in terms of safety practices to ensure and genders should be equally represented.
that proper procedures are conducted. The athletic council plans and evaluates the total dis-
trict program and deals with problems such as finances,
7. Should an accident occur, procedures to be followed facilities, and personnel. The council promotes the athletic
must be written, posted, and sent to parents. Most program and serves as a screening body when outside
districts ask that parents sign a waiver of responsi- parties become involved with the program. This body is
bility form before a student can participate. This is responsible for evaluating coaches and hearing grievances.
an opportune time to explain the safety and first-aid Sometimes, for example, parents have a concern but are
procedures being followed. Insurance for all partici- hesitant to approach the coach involved. The council
pants is a must. Many states have specific guidelines hears such cases confidentially without revealing the
and requirements such as having an automated plaintiff ’s identity. The council can enhance the image of
external defibrillator (AED) on site for all athletic the coaching community. It can be a place where coaches
contests (e.g., New York). work together to achieve the highest ideals and to reach
8. As idealistic as it may sound to many coaches, the common goals. In summary, the council should be a valu-
program should emphasize enjoyment and partici- able asset for coaches, administrators, and athletes.
pation. Skill development and a positive experience
are benefits that students can take with them after SECURING QUALIFIED COACHES
graduation. One might well question what has been Qualified coaches are the cornerstone of a sound athletic
gained if students win most of their games but lose program. Most coaches are highly motivated and dedi-
the desire to participate in sports once they leave cated. In most cases, they have to be motivated by their
school. enjoyment of sport rather than the financial remunera-
9. Physical conditioning should be an important tion, for coaching is one of the lowest-paid professions.
phase of the program. Preconditioning is essential An athletic director recently calculated that assistant
to the safety and welfare of players and should pre- coaches were receiving about 50 cents per hour. Most
cede intense, early-season practice sessions. coaches enter the profession because they were successful

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athletes and found positive experiences in the athletic pro- sets the specific requirements for coaches within the schools
gram. Being an outstanding athlete seldom guarantees in that state. Some states have an age requirement only,
success in coaching, however. Coaches need to have a wide whereas others require a teaching certificate or a specific
range of abilities. The following attributes are characteris- coaching education program, such as the American Sport
tics of successful coaches: Education Program (available through Human Kinetics)
(Martens, 2004).
■ Display Strong Character. The coach should be a
model for athletes to emulate. How the coach relates
Training of Coaches
to others, the individual’s physical appearance, and
whether he or she displays honesty, integrity, and Training in many areas is necessary for coaches to be pro-
other personal qualities often teach students more ductive and motivating. A National Association for Sport
about athletics than the actual participation experi- and Physical Education (NASPE) task force of the American
ence (Alberts, 2003). Many administrators find cause Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recreation and
for concern when coaches swear, drink, or smoke Dance (AAHPERD) developed a resource text on coaching
excessively, and most students cannot deal with the standards called Quality Coaches, Quality Sports: National
double standard of a coach who advocates team fit- Standards for Sport Coaches (2006). The task force identified
ness but does not practice fitness, who tells them to 40 standards in the following eight domains:
be respectful but yells when a mistake is made, and 1. Philosophy and Ethics
who preaches honesty but shows them how to foul
without being caught. Many athletes remember their 2. Safety and Injury Prevention
coach much longer than they remember the actual 3. Growth and Development
playing experience. 4. Physical Conditioning
■ Have Knowledge of Growth and Development 5. Organization and Administration
Patterns. The coach must have a strong back-
6. Sport Skills, Tactics, and Strategies
ground in motor development and motor learning.
Understanding the physical limits of athletes is as 7. Teaching and Communication
important as understanding their capabilities under 8. Evaluation
pressure. The coach should also have some knowl-
edge of psychology and the emotional development Coaching is an impressive responsibility, and regard-
of secondary-level students. Knowing when to rein- less of certification, coaches should make an attempt to
force, when to scold, and when to praise are key seek the best possible training.
components of a successful coaching career.
The Teaching–Coaching Conflict
■ Have Knowledge of the Activity. Coaches should
know the fundamentals of the sport they are coaching A personal conflict often occurs when teachers choose
and the best ways to present and teach the basic skills. to coach. Particularly in physical education, a teacher
A good coach understands strategy and knows when required to coach long hours has a difficult task. Many
to use various types of game plans. The coach must physical education instructors are not hired for their
be an excellent teacher, and in many cases, the best expertise in teaching but rather for their ability to coach
coaches are also regarded as the best teachers. more than one sport. This policy can result in a situa-
Concurrent with a knowledge of the sport is the ability tion where teaching takes second place to coaching, and
to plan carefully. Both teaching and coaching demand most of the teacher’s planning and energy are dedicated
a high degree of planning to succeed. Effective coaches to the coaching assignment.
always attempt to account for every minute of practice Teachers who also coach often end up working 10- to
time so that idle or wasted time is minimized. 12-hour days. The pay is low, but the rewards can be great.
Coaching ability is scrutinized regularly in terms of the
winning and losing record, and teachers may become
COACHING CERTIFICATION caught up in the pressure of trying to be winning coaches
The need for certification in the coaching profession is for fear of losing their positions. In this situation, it takes a
great. The belief is still widely held that anyone can coach— strong and gifted person to place equal emphasis on teach-
regardless of background or training. Unfortunately, almost ing and coaching. Physical educators should not lose sight
anyone can find the opportunity to coach because of the of the fact that about 90 percent of their salary comes from
lack of certification requirements and standards. Each state teaching and the remaining 10 percent from coaching.

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Many more students are affected by the outstanding Positive Coaching Alliance
teacher rather than by the effective coach. The ability to www.positivecoach.org

perform well in both roles is a difficult challenge, particu- Research for Education and Learning
larly when the majority of contingencies apply to the www.mcrel.org
coaching role (Darst & Pangrazi, 1996).
REFERENCES AND
STUDY STIMULATORS SUGGESTED READINGS
Alberts, C. (2003). Coaching issues & dilemmas: Character
AND REVIEW QUESTIONS building through sport participation. Reston, VA:
1. Outline the components of a total physical edu- NASPE.
cation program and explain which types of stu- Beighle, A., Erwin, H., Castelli, D., & Ernst, M. (2009).
dents each serves. Preparing physical educators for the role of physical
activity director. Journal of Physical Education,
2. Discuss why the authors are adamant about
Recreation, and Dance, 80(4), 24–28.
advocating for intramural, sport club, and out- Brewer, J. D., Luebbers P. E., & Shane, S. D., (2009). Increasing
of-class physical activity programs for students student physical activity during the school day: Opportu-
after or during the school day. nities for the physical educator. Strategies, 22(3), 20–23.
3. Explain why an intramural program that offers Bucher, C., & Krotee, M. (2002). Management of physical
both recreational and competitive opportunities education and sport. Boston, MA: McGraw Hill.
has greater appeal to the student population. Carr, G. (2004). Sport mechanics for coaches (2nd ed.).
4. Discuss the importance of having students dictate Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
the direction and focus of the intramural program. Cassidy, T., Jones, R., & Potrac, P. (2004). Understanding
5. Defend an intramural program about to be elim- sports coaching. New York: Routledge.
Castelli, D. M., & Beighle, A. (2007). The physical educa-
inated because of a district budget crisis.
tion teacher as school activity director. Journal of
6. Construct a round-robin tournament with 10 teams. Physical Education, Recreation, and Dance, 78(5),
7. What are the differences between an intramural 25–28.
program, a sport club, and an out-of-class physi- Darst, P., & Pangrazi, R. (1996). The teaching/coaching
cal activity program? challenge. Teaching Secondary Physical Education,
8. Explain why it is less likely to see a basketball 2(6), 4–5.
sport club than a bowling sport club. Faber, L., Hodges-Kulinna, P., & Darst, P. W., (2007). Strategies
9. Discuss the possible values and detrimental effects for physical activity promotion beyond the physical
of an interscholastic athletic program. education classroom. Journal of Physical Education,
10. Why do secondary teachers often experience the Recreation, and Dance, 78(9), 27–30.
Flegel, M. (2004). Sport first aid (3rd ed.). Champaign, IL:
teaching–coaching role conflict?
Human Kinetics.
Martens (2004). Successful coaching (3rd ed.). Champaign,
WEBSITES IL: Human Kinetics.
McMullen, J. (2010) Experiences of PETE Majors
American Sport Education Program Participating in an Out-of-Class-Time Physical Activity
www.asep.com Promotion and Facilitation-based Internship Course,
Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation, Arizona State
Character Counts University.
www.charactercounts.org National Association for Sport and Physical Education.
(2006). Quality coaches, quality sports: National
National Alliance for Youth Sports
standards for sport coaches (2nd ed.). Reston, VA:
www.nays.org AAHPERD.
National Association for Sport and Physical Education.
National Association for Girls and Women in Sports
(2002a). Co-curricular physical activity and sport programs
www.aahperd.org/nagws
for middle school students. Reston, VA: AAHPERD.
National Association of Sports Officials National Association for Sport and Physical Education.
(2002b). Guidelines for after school physical activity
www.naso.org
and intramural programs. Reston, VA: AAHPERD.
National Federation of State High School Associations National Intramural-Recreational Sports Association. (2004).
www.nfhs.org Mission and bylaws. Retrieved from www.nirsa.org
Sharkey, B., & Gaskill, S. (2006). Sport physiology for coaches.
National Intramural-Recreational Sports Association Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
www.nirsa.org Siedentop, D. (2007). Introduction to physical education,
fitness, and sport (6th ed.). Boston, MA: McGraw Hill.
Physical Education Information Steinberg, G. M., Singer, R. N., & Murphy, M. (1999). Lack
www.pecentral.com of control in coaching: Potential complications and
www.pelinks4u.org strategies to help coaches. Journal of Physical
www.reach.ucf.edu/~pezone Education, Recreation, and Dance, 70(8), 39–42.

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Introductory
Activities
ESSENTIAL COMPONENTS OF
A QUALITY PROGRAM
I. Organized around content standards
▲

II. Student-centered and developmentally

appropriate
▲

III. Physical activity and motor skill develop-

ment form the core of the program
IV. Teaches management skills and
self-discipline
▲ ▲

V. Promotes inclusion of all students

VI. Focuses on process over product
VII. Promotes lifetime personal health
and wellness
VIII. Teaches cooperation and responsibility
and promotes sensitivity to diversity

NATIONAL STANDARDS FOR

PHYSICAL EDUCATION*
▲

1. Demonstrates competency in motor skills

and movement patterns needed to perform
a variety of physical activities.
▲

2. Demonstrates understanding of movement

concepts, principles, strategies, and tactics as
they apply to the learning and performance
of physical activities.
3. Participates regularly in physical activity.
4. Achieves and maintains a health-enhancing
level of physical fitness.
▲

5. Exhibits responsible personal and social

behavior that respects self and others in
physical activity settings.
▲

6. Values physical activity for health, enjoyment,

challenge, self-expression, and/or social *National Association for Sport and Physical Education
interaction. (NASPE), 2004.

From Chapter 14 of Dynamic Physical Education for Secondary Schools, Seventh Edition. Paul W. Darst, Robert P. Pangrazi, Mary Jo Sariscsany,
Timothy A. Brusseau, Jr. Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. Published by Pearson Benjamin Cummings. All rights reserved.
 INTRODUCTORY ACTIVITIES

to jog and freeze a class three times to discourage inatten-

Chapter Summary tive behavior. If the entire class is on task, then an enjoy-
able introductory activity is played. In a sense, it is a
This chapter establishes a justification for introduc-
tory activities in the daily lesson plan for secondary
reward for the class being attentive and ready to learn. If
school physical education and provides teachers the class is not attentive, then it is often best to skip the
with a variety of activity ideas that can be used with introductory activity and work on class management
students as introductory activities. Introductory skills. Another way to look at it is that it may be unwise to
activities are vigorous in nature, consist primarily of start a class that is out of control with an exciting intro-
gross locomotor movement, are not rigidly struc- duction because it will only make the problem worse. By
tured, and allow for considerable freedom of move-
ensuring the class is well managed and on task, you ex-
ment. Introductory activities serve as a psychological
and physiological warm-up for the ensuing portion press your personal expectation that “before we can enjoy
of the lesson. They are characterized by a minimum class activities, you need to be attentive and ready to par-
of instruction and a maximum of movement. Intro- ticipate properly.”
ductory activities should be selected with the inter- Most students desire immediate activity when they
ests, developmental levels, and physical abilities of arrive for class, and introductory activities meet this need.
the students in mind. Introductory activities can be
Introductory activities are vigorous and incorporate large
novel and challenging. They can also allow students
to be creative. The introductory activity period lasts muscle activity in their execution. An objective of introduc-
2 or 3 minutes and emphasizes enthusiasm and tory activities is to use movements basic to sport and leisure
motivation. Students should learn to develop intro- pursuits. When appropriate, explain how the activities apply
ductory activities that will be useful to them as a to their personal activity interests. Introductory activities
lead-up for activities they intend to pursue for a life- serve as a psychological and physiological warm-up for the
time. As long as the activities are vigorous and
rest of the lesson. Introductory activities should be selected
emphasize large muscle movement, they can be
used in this part of the lesson.
with the interests and developmental levels of the students
in mind. Junior high school students—because of their
rapid growth spurts—need activities that emphasize body
Student Outcomes control, coordination, and agility. Although not necessary,
After reading this chapter, you will be able to: senior high school students like to know how introductory
• Discuss the objectives of introductory activities for activities are related to activities in which they have devel-
secondary school physical education.
oped competency and interest.
• Select appropriate introductory activities for stu- To teach leadership skills, ask students to direct intro-
dents taking a specific unit of activity.
ductory activities they have learned. They need opportu-
• Characterize the various features of the introduc- nities to lead and become independent thinkers. Inform
tory phase of the lesson.
the class of the goal and the desired outcome. Students
• Develop a new or modified introductory activity.
can develop introductory activities suited to their needs.
As long as the activities are vigorous and emphasize large
muscle movement, they can be used in this part of the
The beginning of the lesson is important in ensuring a lesson. It is also entirely possible that the introductory
successful experience for students and teacher. Even activity may place demands on the cardiovascular system
though the introductory activity takes the least amount of and can be used for this purpose after the fitness portion
time in the lesson, it helps ensure a positive start. All of the lesson. A large variety of introductory activities
classes come to PE after a break. They have been talking should be taught and presented to show students that
with friends and want to continue chatting and enjoying there are many acceptable methods to prepare for ensuing
each others’ company. Successful teachers know that if physical activity.
they can get the class with them immediately, it sets the The introductory activities in this chapter are roughly
tone for the rest of the lesson. On the other hand, if all grouped into the following categories:
students aren’t on task and ready to participate after the
introductory activity, chances are the lesson and student ■ Agility Activities—The activities in this group are
behavior will go downhill from that point. designed to improve the aerobic power and agility
All lessons should start by getting the class quickly on of students. They are demanding and should be
the floor with nothing more than a “jog around the area” done in short bouts so excessive fatigue doesn’t
command. When a signal is given, the class freezes in the become an issue. Emphasis is placed on quick feet
ready position and stops talking. A good rule of thumb is and fast response to different commands.

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■ Sport Movement Challenges—This set of activities ARKANSAS FLIP

features giving students a variety of challenges Begin in the same position as the seat roll. Students flip
while performing sport movements that include over to the left or right, without touching their seats to
but are not limited to sliding, leaping, jumping and the floor, so they are in a crab position (half flip). The
hopping, and the grapevine step. Students should flip should be a quick, continuous movement. Students
be encouraged to perform the sport movements in can wait for the next signal in the crab position or, if the
an athletic position. teacher designates, can continue over to an all-fours
■ Individual Activities—These activities are based on position with the head up (full flip).
individual challenges while competing against
other students. Students are encouraged to see how
QUARTER EAGLE
many times they can perform an activity.
Students are in a ready position with the head up, arms
■ Partner and Small Group Activities—These are flexed in front of the body, knees slightly bent, and feet
cooperative activities that require working with a straight ahead and a shoulder width apart. The instruc-
partner or small group. This group includes a vari- tor gives a hand signal left or right. The class responds
ety of tag games that can be played in small groups by making a quarter jump turn in that direction and
or as a single class. Some of the activities may excite returning to the starting position as quickly as possible.
a class, so they should be used only if you are able to A variation involves having participants move on a
get the attention of the class back quickly when the verbal signal such as “go.” The students then make a
activity is over. quarter turn to the left or right and wait for the next
signal. They continue to make quarter turns on each
signal.
AGILITY ACTIVITIES
SEAT ROLL WAVE DRILL
Students begin on all fours with their heads up, looking at In the wave drill (Figure 1), students are in ready position.
the instructor. When the teacher gives a left- or right-hand They shuffle (without a crossover step) left, right, back-
signal, students respond quickly by rolling in that direction ward, or forward on signal. A useful variation is to place an
on their seat. Seat rolls can be alternated with running in obstacle (boundary cone) for students to shuffle over.
place or with rope jumping to increase the aerobic challenge.

FIGURE 1 Wave drill

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 INTRODUCTORY ACTIVITIES

FIGURE 2 Rooster hop drill

Variation 1. Same as original, except students use a LATERAL SHUFFLE

crossover step. Place two cones about 5 yards apart. A student stands in
Variation 2. Same as original, except students are on all the middle ands shuffles quickly back and forth between
fours. the cones, touching the cone each time. Students try to
Variation 3. Students are between two cones or bags make as many touches as possible in 15 seconds. Set up
while rapidly running in place. On a hand signal to enough pairs of cones so all students can participate
the left or right, the performer steps over the obstacle in simultaneously.
the corresponding direction and moves the feet in place
while waiting for the next signal.
ROOSTER HOP DRILL
Variation 4. Same as variation 3 except that students
Students hop 10 yards on one leg in the following se-
move left or right with both feet together (ski hop).
quence: (1) left hand touching the right toe, which is on
Emphasis is on watching the signal and moving
the ground; (2) right hand touching the left toe on the
quickly.
ground; (3) right hand touching the right toe on the
ground; and (4) left hand touching the left toe on the
LOG ROLL (THREE-PERSON ROLL) ground (Figure 2). Students can be challenged to develop
Students are in groups of three and on all fours to start the different combinations and tasks.
log roll. The instructor gives a signal left or right. The
middle person does a roll (with the body extended) in that
direction, while the person on that side rolls up and over WEAVE DRILL
the top of the middle person. The drill continues with The weave drill is similar to the wave drill except that stu-
each person rolling several times. The objective is to roll dents shuffle in and out of a series of obstacles such as
with the body straight, get up quickly, and barely touch cones, blocking dummies, or boards (Figure 3). A shuf-
anybody while going over them. fling step is used rather than a crossover step.

SQUARE DRILL RUNNING WEAVE DRILL

The class forms several 10-yard squares with boundary Students run through the maze of obstacles with a regular
cones. Students stand in the middle of each side of the running stride (Figure 4). A stopwatch can be used to
square and face the center. On signal, they shuffle around challenge students to improve their times, and the maze
the square to the left or right, depending on the signal of can be arranged in many different ways. Let students set
the teacher. A student can be in the center of the square to up the maze and time each other. Use the carioca (or
give a direction signal. grapevine) step as a variation.

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 INTRODUCTORY ACTIVITIES

FIGURE 3 Weave drill FIGURE 4 Running weave drill

LEAPING LENA WITH A FORWARD ROLL This drill can also be done with a left flip or with two
Students stand in a ready position rapidly running in place. flips, one left and one right, and so forth. Let students try
On the first command, students leap forward as far as possi- this drill with a small group. Challenge them to stay
ble and begin moving the feet again. Two more leaps are re- together and to continue enlarging the group. Partici-
peated and then a forward roll is performed if mats are avail- pants must call the numbers for their group.
able. Students return to the end of the line when finished. Another variation is to put in a push-up before the
flip. Step 4 would be the down motion, and Step 5
would be the up motion. Use caution to ensure that stu-
BURPEE-FLIP DRILL dents are far enough apart in case one student flips the
The burpee-flip can be done in small groups or in unison wrong way.
with the entire class. The teacher calls out the number, and
students yell the number while performing the move-
ment. The sequence is as follows: ALL-FOURS CIRCLE
Students lie on their stomachs with heads close together
1. Standing position and legs extended outward like the spokes of a wheel
2. Bend the knees, hands on the floor or ground (Figure 5). One person starts by placing the hands in the
3. Legs kick back into an all-fours position, head up center and moving around the circle over the other stu-
dents without touching anyone. The last person who is
4. Half flip right to a crab position passed is the next participant. The drill can be done with
5. Half flip right to an all-fours position four to 12 people.

FIGURE 5 All-fours circle

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 INTRODUCTORY ACTIVITIES

4. Hands left: Students shuffle left with hands in defen-

sive position.
5. Hands make a circle: Students do a forward roll and
get up stuttering.

SPORT MOVEMENT CHALLENGES

The following activities can be done with sport movements
such as sliding, carioca steps, power skipping, running, and
jumping. The locomotor movement is then combined with
a challenging activity used in sport such as a pivot, stop, or
change of direction.
FIGURE 6 Coffee grinder square
MOVE AND CHANGE DIRECTION
Students run in any direction and change direction on sig-
COFFEE GRINDER SQUARE nal. The change in direction can be specified or student
With the coffee grinder square (Figure 6), students start at selected. If specified, the commands might be “reverse,
one corner of the square, run to the next corner, and per- right angle, 45 degrees,” or “left turn.” The change in direc-
form a coffee grinder on the right arm (arm extended on tion should be made quickly in pivot-like fashion.
the ground, supporting the body weight, while the feet walk
360° around the arm). At the next corner, they put their left
MOVE AND CHANGE SPEED OR LEVEL
arms down and do another coffee grinder. This continues
through the four corners. The square should be marked Students move throughout the area. On signal, they are
with something flat, such as beanbags or spots. Students challenged to lower their centers of gravity or to move
should move in the same direction around the square. slower or faster. They can be challenged to touch the floor
or give a high five while moving. Combinations of chang-
FLASH DRILL ing the level (as well as changing the speed of the move-
ment) can be developed.
To begin the flash drill (Figure 7), students stand in a
ready position facing the teacher. The teacher exclaims
“feet,” and students stutter the feet. The teacher then MOVE AND CHANGE THE
“flashes” the following hand signals: TYPE OF LOCOMOTION
1. Hands up: Students jump up and return to stutter- Students move using a specified sport movement. On sig-
ing feet. nal, they change to another type of movement. Challenges
can be given to do the movements forward, backward,
2. Hands down: Students touch the floor and return
sideways, or diagonally.
to stuttering feet.
3. Hands right: Students shuffle right with hands in
MOVE AND QUICKLY STOP
defensive position.
Students move throughout the area and quickly stop
under control. Emphasis should be placed on stopping
using proper technique. Students should lower the cen-
ter of gravity, widen the base of support, and place one
foot in front of the other to absorb the force.

MOVE AND PERFORM ATHLETIC

MOVEMENT
Students move and stop on signal. They then perform an
athletic skill move, such as a basketball jump shot, leaping
football pass catch, volleyball spike, or soccer kick. Students
should place emphasis on correct form and timing. A varia-
tion of the activity is for students to move with a partner
FIGURE 7 Flash drill and throw a pass on signal, punt a ball, or shoot a basket.
The partner catches the ball or rebounds the shot.
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 INTRODUCTORY ACTIVITIES

MOVE, STOP, AND PIVOT RUBBER BAND

Students move under control throughout the area. On sig- Students begin from a central point with the instructor.
nal, they stop, pivot, and resume moving. Emphasis should On signal, the students move away from the instructor
be placed on making a sharp pivot and a rapid acceleration. using a designated movement such as a jump, run, power
The skill is similar to running a pass pattern in football. skip, slide, carioca movement, or walk. On the second sig-
nal, students sprint back to the instructor’s position
MOVE AND PERFORM A FITNESS TASK where they form a tight circle around the teacher. The
The class moves throughout the area. When a signal is cycle is repeated with different movements. As a varia-
given, students perform a predesignated fitness task. tion, students can perform one or two stretching activi-
Examples of tasks are push-ups, sit-ups, squat thrusts, and ties when they return to the teacher.
crab kicks. The fitness tasks can be written on a card and
flashed to the class to signal the next challenge. ROPE JUMPING
Each student has a jump rope. On the first signal, they
MOVE AND PERFORM A STRETCH begin jumping rope. On the second signal, they drop the
The class is challenged to run throughout the area. On sig- rope and perform a stretching activity. A third signal can
nal, students stop and perform a designated stretching be used to designate performing a light, easy run.
activity. A list of stretches that covers all body parts can be Emphasis should be placed on warming up students for
posted so students perform a different stretch after each sig- fitness activity rather than offering an intense workout.
nal.
BALL ACTIVITIES
INDIVIDUAL ACTIVITIES Each student has a ball and dribbles it throughout the area
while moving. On signal, students stop and move the ball
NUMBER CHALLENGES behind the back, around each leg, and overhead. Emphasis
Students are challenged to move and perform to a set of is on learning to handle the ball as well as on moving.
three to four numbers. For example, the given set of num- A variation is to drop one ball on signal and play catch
bers might be 25, 10, and 30. The first number would sig- with a partner until the signal to resume dribbling is given.
nify some type of sport movement, the second number a
set of stretching exercises, and the last an activity with
BEANBAG TOUCH AND GO
equipment. Implemented, this challenge might be 25 run-
ning steps, 10 repetitions of a stretching activity, and Spread different colored beanbags throughout the area. On
30 rope-jumping turns. signal, students run to a beanbag, touch it, and resume run-
ning. To increase the challenge, the color of the beanbag can
be specified, and the touch must be made with a designated
FOUR CORNERS body part. An example might be,“Touch six yellow beanbags
A square or rectangle is marked using four boundary cones. with your left hand.” Students can also move to a beanbag,
Students spread out around the perimeter of the square or perform a 90° pivot (or 180°), and resume running.
rectangle. On a signal, they move in the same direction
around the perimeter. As they pass a corner, they change the
movement they are doing. On the short side, some of the VANISHING BEANBAGS
challenges would be to move on all fours, in crab position, Spread beanbags throughout the area to allow one per stu-
or with a bear crawl to focus on the upper body area. dent. Students move around the area until a signal is
given. On the signal, they find a beanbag and kneel on it.
The instructor then signals for the class to move again,
GAUNTLET RUN
and one or more beanbags are removed during this inter-
Students line up at one end of a football field or an area of val. Now when students are signaled to find a beanbag,
similar size. Challenges are placed every 10 yards. Examples some will be left without one. A challenge is offered to not
of challenges might be to jump over hurdles, crawl through be left out more than five times. Locomotor movements
hoops, run through tires, perform a long jump to a certain and different body parts can be specified to add challenge
distance, hop backwards, high-jump over a bar, do a for- and variety.
ward roll, or perform a sport movement. Students can
begin with different challenges so the activity does not
become a race. Emphasis should be placed on warming up HOOPS AND PLYOMETRICS
and achieving quality movement. Each student has a hula hoop and rolls it alongside or
carries the hoop while jogging. On the signal, the hoops
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 INTRODUCTORY ACTIVITIES

are dropped, and students are challenged to move in MARKING WITH ADDITION
and out of as many hoops as possible during the time
OR MULTIPLICATION
given. The number and color of hoops to move in and
With a partner, students perform a rock-paper-scissors
out of can be specified as well as the type of activity to
sequence and then display a number from one to five
perform. Students can be asked to do plyometric-type
with one hand. Students quickly add or multiply the
movements with two feet, one foot, or alternating feet.
numbers. Whoever calls out the correct sum or product
When the teacher gives the next signal, the students pick
of the two numbers first runs and tries to get away from
up the hoop and resume jogging with the hoop or
their partner. Students can line up with their partners in a
rolling it.
scattered formation or in a line at midcourt facing their
partners. The teacher can control all of the starts and
MUSICAL HOOPS stops or allow students to start and stop on their own.
This activity is similar to musical chairs. Hoops are spread
over the floor space with each student putting one foot or
PAC-MAN
two feet in a hoop (depending on how many hoops are
Students must walk on any line on the gym floor. About
available). Play a musical tape with random pauses. The
five students are given a Pac-Man designation (carrying a
teacher collects some of the hoops during the music so that
ball or rubber chicken, etc.). The Pac-Men are the taggers.
some students will be eliminated when the music stops.
Students move along the lines and try to avoid being
The eliminated students go to the perimeter and perform a
tagged. Pac-Men try to tag the others and give them the
designated stretch or some type of exercise until the music
piece of equipment after tagging them. Locomotor move-
stops and then return to the game. The sport movement
ments can be changed for each round.
can be changed each round.

PENTABRIDGE HUSTLE
ANIMAL WALKS AND SPORT
To start the Pentabridge hustle (Figure 8), students form
MOVEMENTS groups of five. They spread out as far as possible in the
Two parallel lines marked with boundary cones are playing area and form individual bridges that another per-
placed 10 to 20 yards apart. Half of the class lines up on son can move under. On signal, the first person in the
one line and the other half on the opposite line. On sig- group of five moves under the other four bridging stu-
nal, students walk like an animal or perform a locomotor dents and runs ahead 6–10 steps and forms a bridge. The
movement from one line to the other. Students must be next person in sequence moves under the four bridges.
careful as they cross over in the middle of the cones. This becomes a continuous movement activity. Activity
Examples of walks that can be done are the forward crab success depends on making sure that students form
walk, the backward crab walk, forward bear crawls, and bridges that are quite a distance apart so that enough run-
sideways bear crawls. Movements include sliding, doing ning occurs to ensure warm-up.
carioca, walking, doing crossover steps, or performing
power skips.
OVER, UNDER, AND AROUND #1
To begin this activity (Figure 9), students find a partner.
PARTNER AND SMALL-GROUP One person gets in position on all fours while the other
stands alongside, ready to begin the movement challenge.
ACTIVITIES The challenge is given to move over, go under, and run
MARKING around the partner a certain number of times. For exam-
Marking is an excellent activity for learning to elude an ple, move over your partner five times, go under eight
opponent and for learning to stay defensively near some- times, and run around 10 times. When the task is com-
one. Partners are selected, and one elects to stay near the pleted, partners change positions and the challenge is
other. On the first signal, the challenge is to stay as close as repeated. To increase motivation, the challenge can be
possible to the partner attempting to get away. When a made to move over, under, and around different students.
second signal is given, both partners must immediately For a more difficult challenge, the students move on all
freeze. If the chaser can reach out and “mark” the partner, fours slowly throughout the area.
the chaser scores a point. Roles are reversed each time a
signal is given. Sport movements can be changed for each OVER, UNDER, AND AROUND #2
round, for example, walking, fast walking, jogging, sliding, A variation of the previous activity is to have three stu-
and doing carioca. dents work together. Two students hold hands and the

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 INTRODUCTORY ACTIVITIES

FIGURE 8 Pentabridge hustle

third student goes over the hands, around the group, and Each person in the group is one behind the person in front
then under the hands for 15 seconds; then everyone of them in terms of the activity.
changes places. This variation is excellent for a situation
where students cannot get on all fours because of the grass, TAG GAMES
heat, or teaching area.
A variety of tag games can be used to motivate students to
move. They are excellent for teaching students to elude and
NEW LEADER chase each other while staying under control. Examples of
Students work in small groups. The task is to continuously tag games include the following:
move in a productive fashion that will warm up the group.
One person begins as the leader. When a signal is given, a 1. Balance tag. To be safe, balance in a stipulated po-
new leader steps up and leads the next activity. sition (e.g., one hand and one foot on the floor or
one foot on the floor).
ONE BEHIND 2. Push-up tag. Assume the push-up or another des-
Students are in groups of three. One person is the leader, ignated position to avoid being tagged.
and he or she begins an exercise. The leader moves on to a 3. Blob tag. Two people begin by being “it.” When
second exercise, and the next person begins the first activity. they tag someone, they hold hands or lock elbows.

FIGURE 9 Over, under, and around

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 INTRODUCTORY ACTIVITIES

As a number of people are tagged, the chain or blob marked by boundary cones. When the game is
of people becomes long, and only those at the end started, students try to grab other students’ clothes-
of the chain are eligible to tag. pins and try to avoid getting their clothespins taken.
4. Addition tag. This is similar to blob tag, but stu- As students acquire other clothespins, they place
dents try to move across the gym floor (or a rectan- them on the front of their shirts. The game should
gle area) with their partners and avoid the taggers in be stopped and started often, and the means of
the middle of the floor. If tagged, the partners trade locomotion (walk, jog, slide, carioca steps) should
places or stay in the middle to make it more difficult be changed.
for others to cross the floor. Locomotor movement 12. Heads and tails tag. The teacher flips a large coin
is changed to add variety and more of a challenge. or floor spot with the picture of a head and a tail of a
5. Frozen tag. When tagged, the person must freeze donkey taped on opposite sides of the spot. Half the
in a designated position (e.g., stork stand or strad- students are heads (they put a hand on their head)
dle stretch position). To be able to resume play, a and half are tails (they put a hand on their tail).
classmate must “high-five” the “frozen” person. Whichever side comes up is the winner and chaser
of the opposite group. Modify the type of move-
6. Spider tag. Students stand back to back with a ment to add a variation.
partner with the elbows hooked. A pair of people
are “it” and chase the other pairs. If a pair is tagged 13. Help me tag. Start with four or five taggers in a
(or becomes unhooked), they are “it.” large area. Three or four students hold a rubber
chicken as a safe area. Three students can be touch-
7. Triangle-plus-one tag. Three students hold hands ing a chicken at one time. The chicken must be
to form a triangle. One person in the triangle is the passed on before 30 seconds or the holder becomes
leader. The fourth person outside the triangle tries a tagger. Students can yell “help me” for a chicken
to tag the leader. The triangle moves around to when they are about to be tagged.
avoid getting the leader tagged. Leader and tagger
are changed often. 14. Hospital tag. Four or five taggers have some type of
soft ball or equipment for tagging (no throwing or
8. Fugitive tag. One person is the fugitive and is hard hitting). If a student is tagged, he or she must
given a head start. The partner is a police person hold the injury with the other hand. If tagged twice,
trying to tag the fugitive. Flag belts can be used by the two wounds are held with each hand. On the third
the fugitive. Various movements can be used. tag, student must go to one knee and wait for a rehab
9. Fastest tag. All students are “it” at the same time. high five from a classmate. Change the taggers often.
Use only short bouts of activity to be safe. Start a 15. True or false partner tag. Students face a partner
new bout often in this warm-up period. Start stu- down the middle line in the gym. A safe zone is
dents with a walk, then slide, then skip, and then about 10 yards behind each line. The teacher calls
carioca steps. When students are tagged, they can out a true or false question, and the line that has the
kneel and then tag others from that position. Focus correct answer (either the true line or the false line)
students on safety and have them watch where they chases the other group and tags them before the
are moving and be under control at all times. safe zone. If a student gets tagged outside the safe
10. Triangle-and-two tag. Students are in groups of zone, he or she changes sides.
five. Three students hold hands and form a triangle. 16. Four Corners tag. Student are in groups of six or
One other student is the chaser, and the other stu- more in single file line facing in toward the middle
dent is a fugitive trying to keep from being tagged. of a square. Each group is on the corner of the
The triangle tries to help the fugitive stay untagged square made by poly spots or some type of court or
by moving around and blocking the chaser. Rules field markers. In the middle of the square, there is a
include no jumping over the triangle or pushing the tagger and a loose person. On the “go” of the
triangle out of the way. The triangle must stay teacher, the loose person tries to get to a safe posi-
together. The chaser must go around the triangle to tion at the end of one of the four lines and hooks
tag. Students switch roles after a tag or a certain on and yells, “go” so the front person is now the
amount of time. loose person trying to get to a safe position.
11. Clothespin tag. Students place two or three clothes- Multiple games should be going at the same time.
pins on the back of their shirts. The game starts in a Change the tagger often if they are having a hard
scatter formation with specific boundaries, usually time tagging some one.

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 INTRODUCTORY ACTIVITIES

ANIMAL GRAB (BEAN BAGS) with their line of three. The teacher blows one whistle, the
Students sit cross-legged with a partner across from them. inside person changes directions, the middle person stays
The bean bag is set arm’s length in the middle of the part- still, and the outside person continues walking. When the
ners. Teacher calls out “right hand” or “left hand” and part- music stops, the students run back to their middle person
ners try to be the quickest to get the bean bag (animal). and stoop down. The fastest group to stoop is the winner.
After a couple of rounds, try laying on your stomach facing
away from the bean bag. FOLLOW THE LEADER
Students are grouped by pairs. On signal, the leader per-
HALLOWEEN TRADES forms all types of movements to elude his or her partner.
Divide your class into two teams facing each other in a Zigzags, rolls, 360° turns, and jumps are encouraged.
long straight line about 20 yards apart. Taking turns, each Partners switch after 30 seconds. The same drill can be
team will be shown a card with a Halloween character on done with one leader and two or more followers.
it. The team must act out the character for the opposing
team. Raising their hand, the other team must guess the HOOPS ON THE GROUND
character. Once they guess correctly, they try to tag them Students run around the area where hoops are spread.
before they can cross a safe line or zone behind them. When the teacher calls a number, students must get that
number of students inside one hoop in 5 seconds or less.
JUMPING JACK ELIMINATION
Students are standing in their squads. Choose two leaders MIRROR DRILL IN PLACE
to stand in front of the group. Teacher chooses a number of Each student faces a partner (Figure 10). One person is the
jumping jacks. If the number is 10, the leaders say “ready, leader and makes a quick movement with the hands, head,
go,” and the whole group does 20 jumping jacks together. If legs, or body. The partner tries to be a mirror and perform
a student does an incorrect number, they jog around the the exact movement. The leader must pause briefly be-
group until the activity ends. After the 10 jumping jacks, tween movements. Leader and partner exchange places af-
each time the group does one less. The leaders can help the ter 30 seconds.
group or try to mess them up depending on how many
times the class has done the intro. FORMATION RHYTHMIC RUNNING
The class begins in a circular formation. Students move to
TRIPLET STOOP a drumbeat or other steady beat. They attempt to run
Students walk around the gym floor on the out of bounds rhythmically to the beat, lifting the knees and maintaining
line for the basketball court. One student is designated as a formation or line with even spacing between students.
the inside the line, one is on the line, and the third is outside Challenges can be added, such as clapping hands on the
the line. When the music starts, all students walk together first beat, stamping the feet on the third beat, and thrusting

FIGURE 10 Mirror drill

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 INTRODUCTORY ACTIVITIES

a hand into the air on the fourth beat of a four-count two partners. The teacher calls out “right” or “left,” and the
rhythm. students try to quickly grab the beanbag with the appro-
As students become experienced at maintaining the priate hand that was called by the teacher. The same activ-
formation and rhythm of the activity, they can be led into ity can be performed from a push-up position or a sit-up
different formations such as a rectangle, square, triangle, or position with partners facing each other and then quickly
line. Students can also “wind up” and “unwind” the line and trying to grab the beanbag as the right or left hand is
can learn to cross in front of each other to “break a line.” called by the teacher.

LOOSE CABOOSE BUILDERS/DESTROYERS

All students are hooked together in groups of two or three Place about 30 cones on the gym floor in a scatter forma-
by having the rear person put their hands on the waist of tion with half the cones tipped over. Half of the students
the front person. The teacher picks several students to move are the builders trying to set up all of the cones, and the
without a partner. These students are termed the loose other half of the students are the destroyers tipping over
cabooses. The loose cabooses try to hook on with another the cones. After 15–20 seconds, stop the activity and see
set of students by grabbing the waist of the rear student. how many cones are in each position. Challenge the
When this happens, the front student is now loose and groups to improve that number during the next time
attempts to hook on with another pair of students. The frame.
teacher can vary the means of locomotion for the students.

FLAG GRAB HOOPS CIRCLE PASS

All students have a flag belt and are scattered around the Divide the class into three or four groups that form cir-
gym. On the start signal, students try to grab the flags of cles while holding hands. A hula hoop is started between
others while trying to avoid getting their flag taken. two connected hands. The hoop is passed around the
Students drop the flags they took immediately, and the circle without letting go of hands. Students need to
other students put the flags back on and continue in the work together to help others through the hoop in the
game. Teachers vary the movements to include walk, jog, most efficient manner. After a couple of practice runs, a
slide, and carioca steps. race can be held to see which group performs the pass-
ing techniques the fastest.
RUNNING HIGH FIVES
Use a music interval of 15 seconds on and 15 seconds off. QUICK LINEUP
When the music is playing, students walk the first interval, The class is divided into four equal groups. Each group
then jog, slide, skip, do carioca, or stretch. When the music decides on a team name and lines up single file, facing one
goes off, students give high fives to other students. After a assigned side of the teacher (front, back, right side, or left
couple of intervals, students can give low fives, then alter- side). All students close their eyes, and the teacher moves
nate between high and low fives, then medium fives, then to a new position and rotates her or his body position. On
alternate between right hand and left hand, and so on as the teacher’s signal, students run to the new position and
the teacher varies the activity. line up in the same order, facing the same side of the
teacher and yell out their team name as they finish. The
STANDING HIGH FIVES first team finished gets a point.
Students get a partner about the same height. Students
start with a jump and right-hand high five, then use the MOVING THROW AND CATCH
left hand, and then use both hands. Next, students add a Move and play catch with your partner under control
quarter turn and the various high fives. Next, students add from about 5 yards apart. Any type of ball, beanbag,
a half turn and then the high fives. Then they add a three- throton, rubber chicken, and so forth, can be used for
quarter turn and, finally, a full turn. Students should try this activity. Students need to remain safe and under
turning to the right and left and using both hands with control with their movements and equipment. Teachers
each turn. Encourage body control and teamwork. can stop the action often and do a large group stretch or
exercise to maintain control. The locomotor movements
QUICK HANDS WITH BEANBAGS can be changed to add variety for this activity. Challenge
Students sit facing a partner with legs crossed or extended. students to add different pivots, such as front, back, 90°,
One beanbag is placed on the floor equally between the 180°, or 360° during this activity.

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6. Why should the introductory activity be short

in length (2–3 minutes) with an atmosphere of
STUDY STIMULATORS AND enthusiasm, motivation, and fun?
REVIEW QUESTIONS 7. What can a teacher do to make an introductory
activity novel and challenging for students?
1. Explain the primary purposes of introductory
activities.
2. Describe the characteristics of an effective intro- WEBSITES
ductory activity. Human Kinetics (books and materials)
3. Cite four reasons for using introductory activities www.humankinetics.com
in secondary school lessons. National Association for Sport and Physical Education
4. Why should the interests, physical abilities, and (books, materials, and workshops)
developmental levels of students be considered www.aahperd.org/naspe
in the selection of introductory activities? Physical Education Teaching and Curriculum Information
5. Discuss the transition from introductory activi- www.pecentral.com
ties to physical fitness activities. Why is this tran- www.pelinks4u.org
sition important in secondary classes? www.pe4life.org

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Physical Fitness
ESSENTIAL COMPONENTS OF
A QUALITY PROGRAM
I. Organized around content standards
▲

II. Student-centered and developmentally

appropriate
III. Physical activity and motor skill develop-
ment form the core of the program
IV. Teaches management skills and
self-discipline
▲

V. Promotes inclusion of all students

VI. Focuses on process over product
▲

VII. Promotes lifetime personal health

and wellness
VIII. Teaches cooperation and responsibility
and promotes sensitivity to diversity

NATIONAL STANDARDS FOR

PHYSICAL EDUCATION*
1. Demonstrates competency in motor skills
and movement patterns needed to perform
a variety of physical activities.
2. Demonstrates understanding of movement
concepts, principles, strategies, and tactics as
they apply to the learning and performance
of physical activities.
▲ ▲

3. Participates regularly in physical activity.

4. Achieves and maintains a health-enhancing
level of physical fitness.
5. Exhibits responsible personal and social
behavior that respects self and others in
physical activity settings.
▲

6. Values physical activity for health, enjoyment,

challenge, self-expression, and/or social *National Association for Sport and Physical Education
interaction. (NASPE), 2004.

From Chapter 16 of Dynamic Physical Education for Secondary Schools, Seventh Edition. Paul W. Darst, Robert P. Pangrazi, Mary Jo Sariscsany,
Timothy A. Brusseau, Jr. Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. Published by Pearson Benjamin Cummings. All rights reserved.
 PHYSICAL FITNESS

All students want to be fit and active. Physical education

Chapter Summary programs that do not make time for fitness development
indirectly teach students that fitness is not important for
The purpose of this chapter is to explain the
importance of including physical fitness activities in
a healthy lifestyle. At the secondary school level, students
the lesson plan and identifying novel strategies and should have the opportunity to experience and design
techniques that could be used to implement fitness fitness routines that are useful and motivating to them
into the lesson structure. A variety of exercises and personally. Physical fitness activity should be offered as a
techniques that can be used to develop physical fitness positive contribution to total wellness. It should be some-
are discussed. Fitness is defined into two categories: thing that benefits those who participate and not be used
health related and skill related. Health-related fitness
as punishment for misbehavior.
is selected for the vast majority of people. A selected
few who care about their athletic performance or per-
sonal accomplishments will choose skill-related fitness
as their outcome of choice.
Fitness performance is strongly controlled by THE FITNESS OF AMERICA’S
genetic factors, including how students respond to
training. The relationship between activity and YOUTH
fitness performance is weak and leads to miscon- A popular point of view among physical education teach-
ceptions about the importance of training and ers is that youth today are less fit than they were in the
passing fitness tests. Newer fitness tests evaluate past. This opinion is often used as a justification for more
the amount of fitness necessary for good health
physical education time in the schools. However, no lon-
using criterion standards. Secondary school stu-
dents need the opportunity to experience and gitudinal studies have been done to support this claim.
select fitness routines that are useful and motivat- Historical evidence indicates that youth may have had
ing to them personally. Physical fitness activities slight increases in muscular strength/endurance. For
should be offered as a positive contribution to example, when data were compared across four national
total wellness. These activities should not be used youth fitness surveys (1957 to 1985) conducted by the
as punishment. Using a wide variety of fitness rou-
American Alliance for Health, Physical Education,
tines helps motivate students toward a lifetime of
fitness activities. The school physical education pro- Recreation, and Dance (AAHPERD) and the President’s
gram should help students make the transition into Council on Physical Fitness and Sports, the only items
community-based physical activity programs, par- used in all four surveys were pull-ups and the flexed-arm
ticularly health and fitness clubs. Instruction and hang. Young people, both boys and girls, showed an
participation relative to physical fitness should be increase in upper-body strength when these two items
done in a positive atmosphere. were compared over 4 decades (Corbin & Pangrazi, 1992).
Unfortunately, it is difficult to compare other fitness
Student Outcomes results across generations, as the testing procedures have
After reading this chapter, you will be able to: constantly changed and/or evolved (Morrow, Zhu,
• Differentiate between skill-related and health- Franks, Meredith, & Spain, 2009).
related physical fitness. The area where youths have shown a serious and
• Understand how genetic endowment impacts documented decline is body composition. Currently, 16
physical fitness performance on skill-related tests.
percent of youth age 6 through 19 years old (1999–2002)
• Identify the various components of physical fitness are overweight, and another 31 percent are at risk for
and how they can be measured and evaluated.
being overweight (85th percentile of sex-specific body
• Describe the impact that physical fitness can have mass index [BMI]-for-age growth charts) (Hedley et al.,
on the overall wellness of a person.
2004). This large increase in overweight youth takes its
• Explain the relationship between fitness and toll on fitness scores. Common sense would dictate that
activity and what impact this relationship has on
performance on fitness tests.
if someone can do 50 push-ups at normal weight, put-
ting 20 lbs. of sand on his or her back will decrease the
• Cite strategies and techniques to motivate stu-
dents to develop and maintain physical fitness. number of push-ups he or she is able to perform. Body
fat is dead weight and does not contribute to muscular
• Demonstrate the instructional procedures associ-
ated with exercise routines included in this chapter. or cardiovascular performance. Thus, all strength and
• Develop new and different physical fitness rou-
aerobic performance scores decrease as being overweight
tines that will accomplish fitness objectives and increases at a rapid rate among youths. Recent National
motivate students to continue to be active for a Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES)
lifetime. results support this by indicating that one-third of U.S.
youth aged 12 to 19 fail to meet the desired levels of

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cardiorespiratory fitness as set by experts (Pate, Wang, people benefit from regular physical activity. Even
Dowda, Farrell, & O’Neil, 2006). though some students will not show much improvement
in their physical performance, physical activity offers
them health benefits. Regardless of desired outcomes,
GENETIC ENDOWMENT AND FITNESS less-gifted students will always need more encourage-
PERFORMANCE ment and positive feedback because their improvement
will be in smaller increments and of a lesser magnitude.
Physical fitness tests often lead students down a path of
failure regardless of how much they train to improve.
Heredity directly impacts all aspects of health-related
fitness (Corbin, Welk, Corbin, & Welk 2008). Various
THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN FITNESS
factors, such as environment, nutrition, heredity, and RESULTS AND ACTIVITY
maturation, affect fitness performance as reflected in Teachers and parents want to believe that fitness in
physical fitness test scores. Research clearly shows that young people is primarily a reflection of how active they
heredity and maturation strongly impact fitness scores are. A common belief is that because students excessively
(Pangrazi, 2000). In fact, these factors may have more to watch television and play video games, they score poorly
do with youth fitness scores than activity level. Lifestyle on fitness tests. (Morrow & Freedson, 1994). The mis-
and environmental factors can also make a difference. taken belief that being physically active builds fitness
For example, nutrition is a lifestyle factor that can influ- may lead teachers to the conclusion that students who
ence test scores, and environmental conditions (heat, score high on fitness tests are active, and those who don’t
humidity, and pollution) strongly modify test perform- score well are inactive. Physical activity is an important
ances. Fitness performance is only partially determined variable in fitness development, but other factors can be
by activity and training. of equal or greater importance. If teachers make the mis-
Some youth have a definite advantage on tests because take of assuming that a student is inactive because of
of the types of muscle fibers they inherit. Others inherit a scores on a fitness test, misunderstandings and misinter-
predisposition to perform well on tests. In other words, pretations can result.
even in an untrained state, some students score better For example, consider the problems that occur when
because of heredity. On the other hand, some students who teachers mistakenly assume that fitness and activity are
train will not score as well as others who are untrained highly related. If students are encouraged to do regular
because of their genetic predispositions. Beyond heredity exercise and training to improve their fitness scores, many
lies another genetic factor that predisposes some young will take the challenge seriously. When fitness tests are
people to higher performance. Recent research has shown given, students will expect to do well on the tests if they
that trainability is inherited (Issurin, Lustig, & Szopa, have been training regularly, and of course, teachers will
2004), which means some people receive more benefit also expect them to do well. If, however, they receive scores
from training (regular physical activity) than others. As an that are lower than expected, they will be disappointed.
example, assume that two students perform the same They will be especially discouraged if the teacher con-
amount of activity throughout a semester. Student A cludes that their low fitness status is a reflection of not
shows dramatic improvement immediately, while Student training and being active. Such a conclusion as, “You are
B does not. Student A simply responds more favorably to not as fit as you should be compared to other students,
training than Student B. Student A inherited a system that therefore you have not been active,” is often not true. This
is responsive to exercise. Student A not only gets fit and type of dialogue from teachers will cause a loss of self-
scores well on the test but gets feedback that says, “The esteem and respect between student and teacher.
activity works—it makes me fit.” The less-responsive stu- The other side of this issue can just as easily be
dent scores poorly, receives no feedback, and concludes untrue, that is, assuming that students who make high
that, “Activity doesn’t improve my fitness, so why try?” The scores on fitness tests are training the hardest and being
unfortunate thing is that Student B will improve in fitness the most active. Young people who are genetically gifted
but to a lesser degree than Student A and will take longer to may be inactive yet still perform well on fitness tests.
show improvement. Student B will probably never achieve Students are always aware of peers who don’t train, aren’t
the fitness level attained by Student A. Trainability and active, and maintain poor health habits yet still perform
genetic endowment differences limit performance, making well on fitness tests. If teachers do not teach students why
it important to have different expectations for students. these cases occur, students soon question the integrity of
Does this mean there is little use in helping students the teacher. Teach students that some people are most
become more fit and active? Certainly not. Whereas gifted in the area of fitness performance. It is easier for
heredity plays an important role in fitness, all young such students to show fitness improvement over those

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students who lack the genetic predisposition for fitness Specific components include cardiovascular fitness, body
performance. composition (ratio of leanness to fatness), abdominal
strength and endurance, and flexibility. When measuring
health-related fitness, criterion standards are used to indi-
HEALTH-RELATED AND SKILL- cate levels of good health. The Fitnessgram (Cooper
RELATED PHYSICAL FITNESS Institute, 2004) uses criterion-referenced health standards
that represent good health instead of traditional percentile
A general definition regarding the precise nature of physi-
rankings often found in skill-related fitness tests. These
cal fitness has never been universally accepted. However,
standards represent a level of fitness that offers some de-
two types of physical fitness are most often recognized:
gree of protection against diseases resulting from seden-
health-related physical fitness and skill-related physical
tary living. The Fitnessgram uses an approach that classi-
fitness. The differentiation between physical fitness related
fies fitness performance into two categories: needs
to functional health and physical performance related to
improvement and healthy fitness zone (HFZ). All stu-
athletic ability makes it easier to develop proper fitness
dents are encouraged to score in the HFZ; however, there
objectives and goals for students. The components of
is little health advantage to scoring outside the HFZ.
health-related physical fitness are a subset of skill-related
Criterion-referenced health standards do not compare
fitness components. Health-related fitness is characterized
students against each other. The goal is for all students to
by moderate and regular physical activity. Lifetime activi-
achieve and move their personal performance into the
ties are often used by adults as a medium to maintain
HFZ.
health-related fitness. These activities are designed for the
masses who are generally unwilling to exercise at high in-
tensities. Health-related activities can be integrated into HEALTH-RELATED FITNESS COMPONENTS
regular everyday lifestyles. Health-related physical fitness includes aspects of physio-
In contrast, skill-related physical fitness not only logical function that offer protection from diseases caused
includes the health-related components, but also compo- by a sedentary lifestyle. Health-related fitness is often
nents that are in part controlled by genetic factors. Skill- called functional fitness because it helps ensure that a per-
related fitness is the right choice for people who want to son will be able to function effectively in everyday tasks.
perform at a high level (usually in an athletic setting) but Such fitness can be improved and/or maintained through
is less acceptable for the masses because it requires train- daily moderate physical activity. Specific components
ing and exercising at high intensities. In addition, many include cardiovascular fitness, body composition (ratio of
individuals cannot reach high levels of skill-related fitness leanness to fatness), abdominal strength and endurance,
because of their genetic limitations. The following discus- and flexibility. These are the components measured in the
sion describes and contrasts the differences between Fitnessgram test (Cooper Institute, 2004). The following
health-related and skill-related fitness. are the major components of health-related fitness.

HEALTH-RELATED PHYSICAL FITNESS Cardiovascular Fitness

Teaching health-related fitness should be the focus in Aerobic fitness is important for a healthy lifestyle and may
physical education. The benefit of health-related fitness is be the most important element of fitness. Cardiovascular
that all students can improve their health status through endurance is the ability of the heart, the blood vessels, and
daily physical activity. Health-related fitness is one of the the respiratory system to deliver oxygen efficiently over an
few areas where all students can succeed regardless of abil- extended period of time. At least 60 minutes of moderate
ity level and genetic limitations. Students can be assured to vigorous aerobic activity should be accumulated daily
that, “If you are willing to be active, you will enhance your (Corbin & Pangrazi, 2007) to ensure good health. Activities
health status.” This contrasts with skill-related fitness, that stimulate development in this area are walking, jog-
which is sport performance oriented and influenced by ging, biking, rope jumping, aerobic dance, swimming, and
genetic traits and abilities. A primary reason for teaching active sports such as basketball or soccer.
health-related fitness is that it gives students activity The exercise prescription model is best for individuals
habits they can use throughout their lifespans. interested in cardiovascular or aerobic fitness improve-
Health-related physical fitness includes those aspects ment. Among those for whom these guidelines are particu-
of physiological function that offer protection from dis- larly desirable are athletes and those in jobs requiring great
eases related to a sedentary lifestyle. It can be improved physical demands such as law enforcement or fire safety.
and/or maintained through regular physical activity. To improve skill-related cardiovascular fitness, the FIT
(frequency, intensity, and time) formula is used to identify

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the necessary exercise prescription. Working out for the dependent on body composition, students must learn
sake of fitness improvement should be done at least 3 days about concepts and consequences in this area.
per week (frequency), at a heart rate of 70 to 85 percent of Another way to determine body composition and one
predicted maximum heart rate (intensity), and for at least that is much less intrusive is by using the body mass index
20 minutes (time) (American College of Sports Medicine (BMI). BMI is a number calculated by using a person’s
[ACSM], 2000). Maximum heart rate is calculated roughly weight and height. BMI is being used in many states to
as 220 minus your age. Thus, the maximum heart rate for a evaluate body fatness among students. It is generally a reli-
15-year-old student would be 220 – 15 = 205. For this stu- able method and has the advantage of providing feedback
dent, 70 to 85 percent of 205 would mean keeping the without touching the body. Research shows that BMI cor-
heart rate between 144 and 174 beats per minute while relates to direct measures of body fat such as underwater
participating in aerobic activities. Calculating target heart weight. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
rate zones may be useful in determining which level of ac- (CDC) and the American Academy of Pediatrics recom-
tivity is necessary for youth to improve cardiovascular fit- mend that BMI be used to screen for overweight youth. For
ness. For example, in order to maintain low fitness levels, teenagers, a sex- and age-specific table of percentiles is
youth may need to regularly participate in activity at 55–65 used to determine the BMI.
percent of their max heart rate. For good fitness, youth
may need to regularly participate in activity at 75–90 per- Flexibility
cent of max heart rate. More specific calculations can be Flexibility is the range of movement through which a joint
found in Physical Education for Lifelong Fitness: The or sequence of joints can move. Inactive individuals lose
Physical Best Teacher’s Guide (National Association for flexibility, whereas frequent movement helps retain the
Sport & Physical Education [NASPE], 2005). range of movement. Through stretching activities, the
Heart rate monitors, although not necessary, provide length of muscles, tendons, and ligaments is increased.
an exciting tool for teaching about cardiovascular fitness. The ligaments and tendons retain their elasticity through
These instruments provide accurate information and constant use. People who are flexible may be less subject to
eliminate the need for the manual calculation of heart injury in sport, usually possess sound posture, and have
rates (NASPE, 2005). Heart rate monitors are typically less lower back pain.
worn across the chest (the newest versions calculate heart
rate via the wrist) and transmit to a wrist receiver which Muscular Strength and Endurance
will provide instant feedback on heart rate. This provides Strength is the ability of muscles to exert force; it is an
continuous personal feedback and can serve as a self- or important fitness component that facilitates learning
teacher-directed assessment. Students will immediately motor skills. Most activities in physical education do not
know if the activity they are participating in is causing build strength in the areas where it is most needed: the
their heart rate to rise and if it is within their target heart arm–shoulder girdle and the abdominal region. Muscular
rate zone. Heart rate monitors do take some training and endurance is the ability to exert force over an extended
getting used to. Teachers will need to spend time allowing period. Endurance postpones the onset of fatigue so that
the students to get comfortable wearing the instruments activity can be performed for lengthy periods. Most sport
and teaching their proper use. Swaim and Edwards (2002; activities require that muscular skills, such as throwing,
2003) provide a middle school and high school fitness kicking, and striking, be performed many times without
program specifically designed around the heart rate mon- fatigue.
itor. Heart rate monitors can be used with any fitness or
physical activity to monitor its effect on the heart.
SKILL-RELATED FITNESS COMPONENTS
Body Composition Skill-related fitness includes those physical qualities that
Body composition is an integral part of health-related fit- enable a person to perform in sport activities. Skill-related
ness. Body composition is the proportion of body fat to fitness is closely related to athletic ability. The traits of
lean body mass. After the thickness of selected skinfolds speed, agility, coordination, and so on form the basis of
has been measured, the percentage of body fat can be the ability to excel in sports. Because skill-related fitness is
extrapolated from tables. The conversion of skinfold thick- strongly influenced by one’s natural or inherited traits, it
ness to percent body fat can be a less-accurate measure, but is difficult for the majority of students to achieve. In con-
it is easier to communicate to parents than skinfold thick- trast to health-related tests, skill-related fitness tests often
ness. Considering the wellness status of individuals is use norm-referenced standards where students are com-
pared in terms of where they rank compared to their
peers. For some students, the goal becomes trying to do

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better than other students rather than learning to do the Reaction Time
best they can regardless of peer scores. Reaction time is the response time it takes to move once
Skill-related fitness components are useful for per- you realize the need to act. Reaction time is important for
forming motor tasks related to sports and athletics. The fast starts in swimming or track, for reacting to a thrown or
ability to perform well depends largely on the genetic batted ball in baseball or when dodging an opponent in
endowment of the individual. Where it is possible for all many team sports.
students to perform adequately in health-related fitness
activities, it is difficult, if not impossible, for a large num- Speed
ber of young people to excel in this area of fitness. Asking Speed is the ability of the body to perform movement in a
students to “try harder” only adds to their frustration if short period of time. Usually associated with running for-
they lack native ability because they see their more-skilled ward, speed is essential for the successful performance of
friends perform well without effort. When skill-related most sports and general locomotor movement skills.
fitness is taught, it should be accompanied by an explana-
tion of why some students can perform well with a mini-
mum of effort whereas others, no matter how hard they CREATION OF A POSITIVE
try, never excel. Many examples can be used to illustrate
genetic differences, such as speed, jumping ability, FITNESS EXPERIENCE
strength, and physical size in individuals. The bottom line How the fitness program is taught increases the possibil-
for teachers is to understand that some students will want ity of students being “turned on” to activity. Fitness activ-
to work hard to improve their fitness performance while a ity in and of itself is neither good nor bad. Instead, how
majority will probably be satisfied to play, be active, and fitness activities are taught influences how students feel
enjoy their bodies in a less demanding manner. For these about making fitness a part of their lifestyles. Physical
students, health-related fitness will be an important educators should keep in mind that the majority of youth
outcome. (unless it is a class designed for athletes) are more inter-
Skill-related physical fitness includes the health- ested in good health than high levels of skill-related fit-
related items listed previously plus the following: ness. Consider the following strategies to make activity a
positive learning experience.
Agility
Agility is the ability of the body to change position rapidly INDIVIDUALIZE FITNESS WORKLOADS
and accurately while moving. Wrestling and football are Students expected to participate in fitness activities who
examples of sports that require agility. find themselves unable to perform exercises are not likely
to develop a positive attitude toward physical activity.
Balance Allow students to determine personal workloads and
Balance refers to the body’s ability to maintain a state of capabilities. Use time (instead of repetitions and distance)
equilibrium while remaining stationary or moving. as the workload variable and ask students to do the best
Maintaining balance is essential to all sports but is espe- they can within the time limit. People dislike and fear
cially important in the performance of gymnastic activities. experiences of failure they perceive to be forced on them
from an external source. Voluntary long-term exercise is
Coordination more probable when individuals are internally driven to
Coordination is the ability of the body to smoothly and do their best. Fitness experiences that give control to stu-
successfully perform more than one motor task at the dents offer better opportunity for development of positive
same time. Needed for football, baseball, tennis, soccer, attitudes toward activity.
and other sports that require hand–eye and foot–eye
skills, coordination can be developed by repeatedly prac-
ticing the skill to be learned.
PRESENT A VARIETY OF PHYSICAL
FITNESS ROUTINES AND EXERCISES
Power Teaching a variety of fitness opportunities decreases the
Power is the ability to transfer energy explosively into monotony of doing the same routines week after week
force. To develop power, a person must practice activities and increases the likelihood that students will experience
required to improve strength but at a faster rate involving fitness activities that are enjoyable. Most students are
sudden bursts of energy. Skills requiring power include willing to accept activities they dislike if they know there
high jumping, long jumping, performing the shot put, will be a chance to experience routines they enjoy in the
throwing, and kicking. near future. A yearlong routine of “doing calisthenics and

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running a mile” forces students, regardless of ability and feelings of students. Training does not equate to lifetime
interest, to participate in the same routine whether they fitness. When students are trained without concern for
like it or not. When young people know that a new and their feelings, it is possible the result will be fit students
exciting routine is on the horizon, their tolerance for rou- who dislike physical activity. Once a negative attitude is
tines or activities they dislike will increase. Avoiding developed, it is difficult to change. This does not mean that
potential boredom by systematically changing fitness young people should avoid fitness activity. It means that
activities is a significant way to help students perceive fit- fitness participation must be a positive and success-based
ness in a positive way. experience. Avoid funneling all students into one type of
fitness activity. For example, running may be an inappro-
PROVIDE MEANINGFUL FEEDBACK priate activity for overweight youth, and lean, uncoordi-
nated students may not enjoy contact activities. The fitness
Teacher feedback contributes to the way students view
experience must be a challenge rather than a threat. A chal-
fitness activities. Immediate, accurate, and specific feed-
lenge is an experience that participants feel they can
back regarding performance encourages continued par-
accomplish. In contrast, a threat appears to be an impossi-
ticipation. Provided in a positive manner, this feedback
ble undertaking—one where there is no use trying. As a
can stimulate youths to extend their participation habits
final note, remember that whether activity is a challenge or
outside the confines of the gymnasium. Reinforce every-
a threat depends on the perceptions of the learner, not the
body, not just those who perform at high levels. All stu-
instructor. Listen to students express their concerns. Don’t
dents need feedback and reinforcement, even if they are
tell them to “do it for your own good.”
incapable of performing at an elite level.

TEACH PHYSICAL SKILLS AND FITNESS START EASY AND PROGRESS SLOWLY
Physical education programs teach skill development and Fitness development is a journey, not a destination. No
fitness. Some states mandate fitness testing, which may teacher wants students to get fit in school only to become
make teachers worry that their students “will not pass.” inactive adults. A rule of thumb is to allow students to
This concern can lead to the skill development portion of start at a level they can accomplish. This means offering
physical education being sacrificed in order to increase the the option of self-directed workloads within a specified
emphasis on teaching fitness. Skills are the tools that most time frame. Don’t force students into heavy workloads too
adults use to attain fitness. The majority of individuals soon. It is impossible to start a fitness program at a level
maintain fitness through various skill-based activities that is too easy. Start with success and gradually increase
such as tennis, badminton, swimming, golf, basketball, the workload to avoid the discouragement of failure and
aerobics, cycling, and the like. People have a much greater excessive muscle soreness. When students successfully
propensity to participate as adults if they feel competent accomplish activities, they learn a system of self-talk that
in an activity. Skills and physical activity go hand in hand expresses exercise behavior in a positive light. This avoids
for an active lifestyle. the common practice of self-criticism when students fail
to live up to their own or others’ standards.
BE A POSITIVE ROLE MODEL
Appearance, attitude, and actions speak loudly about ENCOURAGE ACTIVITIES THAT
teachers and their values regarding fitness. Teachers who ARE POSITIVELY ADDICTING
display physical vitality, take pride in being active, partici-
Teachers want students to exercise throughout adulthood.
pate in fitness activities with students, and are physically
Certain activities may be more likely to stimulate exercise
fit positively influence young people to maintain an active
outside of school. Some evidence (Glasser, 1985) shows
lifestyle. It is unreasonable to expect teachers to complete
that if the following activity conditions are met, exercise
a fitness routine each period, 5 days a week. However,
will become positively addicting and a necessary part of
teachers must exercise with a class periodically to assure
one’s life. These steps imply that many individual activi-
students they are willing to do what they ask them to do.
ties, including walking, jogging, hiking, biking, and the
like, are activities students might regularly use for fitness
FOSTER THE ATTITUDES OF STUDENTS during adulthood.
Attitudes dictate whether youths choose to participate in
activity. Teachers and parents sometimes take the approach ■ The activity must be noncompetitive; the student
of forcing fitness on students in order to “make them all chooses and wants to do it.
fit.” This can lead to resentment and insensitivity to the ■ It must not require a great deal of mental effort.

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■ The activity can be done alone—without a partner recommended alternative to a yearlong pro-
or teammates. gram of regimented calisthenics and running.
■ Students must believe in the value of the exercise Considering different people like different forms
for improving health and general welfare. of exercise, a diverse array of routines should re-
place the traditional approach of doing the same
■ Participants must believe that the activity will routine day in and day out.
become easier and more meaningful if they persist.
To become addicting, the activity must be done for 5. The fitness routine should be conducted during the
at least 6 months. first part of the lesson. Relegating fitness to the end
of the lesson does little to enhance the image of
■ The activity should be accomplished in such a man- exercise. Further, by having the exercise phase of the
ner that the participant is not self-critical. lesson precede skill instruction, the concept of get-
ting fit to play sport, instead of playing sport to get
fit, is reinforced.
EXERCISES FOR DEVELOPING 6. Teachers should assume an active role in fitness
BALANCED FITNESS ROUTINES instruction. Students respond positively to being a
Exercises discussed in this section are divided into four role model. This does not imply doing all exercises
groups. All groups of exercises should be represented with all classes; however, students must see an
when developing routines that exercise all parts of the instructor’s willingness to exercise.
body. The first group consists of warm-up and flexibility 7. When determining workloads for exercise, the
activities. These groups of exercises primarily develop available alternatives are time, speed, or repetitions.
muscular strength and endurance in the upper body, mid- It is best to base the workloads on time rather than
section, and lower body. When exercise routines are on a specified number of repetitions so students
planned, they should contain a balance of activities from can adjust their workloads within personal limits.
all groups. The following instructional procedures (and Having students perform as many repetitions as
exercises to avoid) should be considered carefully when they are capable of in a given amount of time will
developing exercise routines. result in successful and positive feelings about
activity.
INSTRUCTIONAL PROCEDURES 8. Use audiotapes to time fitness activity segments so
Fitness instruction is exclusively dedicated to the pre- teachers are free to move throughout the area and
sentation of a variety of fitness activities. The following offer individualized instruction. Participation and
suggestions can aid in the successful implementation of instruction should be enthusiastic and focus on
the fitness module. positive outcomes. If the instructor does not enjoy
physical fitness participation, such an attitude will
1. Fitness instruction should be preceded by a 2- to be apparent to students.
3-minute warm-up period. The introductory activity
is useful for this purpose because it allows young 9. Fitness activities should never be assigned as
people the opportunity to “loosen up” and prepare punishment. Such a practice teaches students that
for strenuous activity. push-ups and running are things you do when you
misbehave. The opportunity to exercise should be a
2. The fitness portion of the daily lesson, including the privilege as well as an enjoyable experience. Think of
warm-up, should not extend beyond 15 to 20 min- the money adults spend to join a health club. Take a
utes. Some argue that more time is needed to positive approach and offer students a chance to jog
develop adequate fitness. However, there is a limited with a friend when they do something well. This not
amount of time for fitness and skill instruction. only allows them the opportunity to visit with the
Because skill instruction is part of a balanced physi- friend, but to exercise on a positive note. Be an effec-
cal education program, compromise is necessary to tive salesperson; sell the joy of activity and benefits
ensure that all phases of the program are covered. of physical fitness to students.
3. Activities should be vigorous in nature, exercise all 10. When a new exercise is introduced, it should be
body parts, and cover the major components of demonstrated and broken into components, and its
fitness. value should be explained. It should be practiced at
4. A variety of fitness routines comprising sequen- a slower-than-normal pace and then accelerated.
tial exercises for total body development is a Proper form should be emphasized.

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11. Proper form is important when performing exer- discomfort, backing off slightly to where the posi-
cises. For instance, in exercises requiring the arms tion can be held comfortably, and maintaining the
to be held in front of the body or overhead, the stretch for an extended time. Static stretching has
abdominal wall needs to be contracted to maintain been advocated because it was thought to reduce
proper positioning of the pelvis. The feet should be muscle soreness and prevent injury. A review article
pointed reasonably straight ahead, the chest should (Hebert & Gabriel, 2002) suggested that stretching
be up, and the head and shoulders should be in before or after exercise does not protect one from
good postural alignment. muscle soreness or reduction of injury. Static
12. Vary the aerobic activity used in classes. Too often, stretching is a better choice for improved flexibility,
such activity consists of everybody running a lap. but ballistic stretching is probably not as harmful as
This practice is not only boring; it does little to once thought and often recommended for sport
meet the personal needs of all students. Exercise performance (beyond the age of 15).
substitutes for running might be interval training, 3. If forward flexion is done from a sitting position in
rope jumping, obstacle courses, astronaut drills, an effort to touch the toes, the bend should be from
brisk walking, rhythmic aerobic exercise, and para- the hips, not from the waist, and should be done
chute movements. with one leg flexed. To conform with this concern,
the new Fitnessgram sit-and-reach test item is now
performed with one leg flexed to reduce stress on
AVOIDANCE OF HARMFUL the lower back.
PRACTICES AND EXERCISES 4. Straight-leg raises from a supine position should be
The following points contraindicate certain exercise avoided because they may strain the lower back.
practices and should be considered when offering fitness The problem can be somewhat alleviated by placing
instruction. For in-depth coverage of contraindicated the hands under the small of the back, but it is
exercises, consult Concepts of Fitness and Wellness by probably best to avoid such exercises.
Corbin and colleagues (2008). 5. Deep knee bends (full squats) and the duck walk
should be avoided. They may cause damage to the
1. The following techniques (Macfarlane, 1993) should knee joints and have little developmental value.
be avoided when performing abdominal exercises Much more beneficial is flexing the knee joint to
that lift the head and trunk off the floor: 90° and returning to a standing position.
■ Avoid placing the hands behind the head or high on 6. When doing stretching exercises from a standing
the neck. This may cause hyperflexion and injury to position, the knees should not be hyperextended.
the discs when the elbows swing forward to help The knee joint should be relaxed rather than
pull the body up. locked. It is often effective to have students do their
■ Keep the knees bent. Straight legs cause the hip stretching with bent knees; this will remind them
flexor muscles to be used earlier and more force- not to hyperextend the joint. In all stretching activi-
fully, making it difficult to maintain a proper ties, participants should be allowed to judge their
pelvic tilt. range of motion. Expecting all students to be able
■ Don’t hold the feet on the floor. Having another stu- to touch their toes is an unrealistic goal. If con-
dent secure the feet places more force on the lumbar cerned about touching the toes from this position,
vertebrae and may lead to lumbar hyperextension. do so from a sitting position with one leg flexed.
■ Don’t lift the buttocks and lumbar region off the 7. Activities that place stress on the neck should be
floor. This also causes the hip flexor muscles to con- avoided. Examples of activities in which caution
tract vigorously. should be used are the inverted bicycle, wrestler’s
2. Two types of stretching activities have been used bridge, and abdominal exercises with the hands
to develop flexibility. Ballistic (sometimes called behind the head.
dynamic) stretching (strong bouncing movements) 8. The so-called hurdler’s stretch should be avoided.
formerly was the most common stretching used, but This activity is done in the sitting position with one
this has been discouraged for many years because leg forward and the other leg bent and to the rear.
it was thought to increase delayed-onset muscle Using this stretch places undue pressure on the
soreness. The other flexibility activity, static stretch- knee joint of the bent leg. Substitute a stretch using
ing, involves increasing the stretch to the point of a similar position with one leg straight forward and

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the other leg bent with the foot placed in the crotch Leg Pickup
area. Sit on the floor with the legs spread. Reach forward and
9. Stretches that demand excessive back arching grab the outside of the ankle with one hand and the out-
should be avoided. For example, while lying in the side of the knee with the other. Pick the leg up and pull the
prone position, the student reaches back and grabs ankle toward the chin. The back of the upper leg should be
the ankles. By pulling and arching, the exerciser can stretched. Repeat the stretch, lifting the other leg.
hyperextend the lower back. This places stress on
the discs and stretches the abdominal muscles (not Side Leg Stretch
needed by most people). Lie on the floor on the left side. Reach down with the right
hand and grab the ankle. Pull the ankle and upper leg
toward the rear of the body. Pull the ankle as near to the
FLEXIBILITY AND WARM-UP EXERCISES buttocks as possible and hold, stretching the front of the
The exercises in this section increase the range of motion thigh. Repeat with the other side of the body.
at various joints. They also prepare the body for more
strenuous activity that may follow. In the beginning, the New Hurdler’s Stretch
stretching positions should be held for approximately Sit on the floor with one leg forward and the other leg bent
10 seconds. As flexibility increases, the stretches can be at the knee with the foot tucked into the crotch. Lean gradu-
held for up to 30 seconds. ally forward, bending at the hips and tucking the head.
Allow the forward leg to flex at the knee. This stretches the
Lower-Leg Stretches back of the thigh. Next, lean backward, away from the for-
Lower-Leg Stretch ward leg, to stretch the top of the thigh. Repeat, reversing leg
Stand facing a wall with the feet about a shoulder width positions.
apart. Place the palms of the hands on the wall at eye level.
Walk away from the wall, keeping the body straight, until Groin Stretch
the stretch is felt in the lower portion of the calf. The feet Sit on the floor with the legs spread as far apart and kept as
should remain flat on the floor during the stretch. straight as possible. Slowly lean forward from the hips and
reach with the hands. Do not bend at the neck and shoul-
Achilles Tendon Stretch ders because that puts pressure on the lower back. Stretch
Stand facing a wall with the forearms on it. Place the fore- and hold in three positions: left, right, and directly ahead.
head on the back of the hands. Back 2 to 3 feet away from
the wall, bend, and move one leg closer to the wall. Flex Lower-Back Stretches
the bent leg with the foot on the floor until the stretch is Back Bender
felt in the Achilles tendon area. The feet should remain flat Stand with the feet about shoulder width apart. Bend the
on the floor as the leg closest to the wall is flexed. Repeat, knees slightly and gradually bend the lower back, starting at
flexing the other leg. the hips. Relax the arms and neck and let the upper body
hang. If more stretch is desired, gradually straighten the legs.
Balance Beam Stretch
Place one foot in front of the other, about 3 feet apart. The Ankle Hold
feet should be in line as though one were walking a bal- From a standing position with the knees bent, reach down
ance beam. Bend the forward leg at the knee, lean forward, and hold both ankles with the hands. Gradually straighten
and keep the rear foot flat on the floor. Repeat with the the legs, applying the stretch to the lower back.
opposite leg forward. The calf of the rear leg should be
stretched. Sitting Toe Touch
Sit on the floor with the legs straight and together. Reach
Upper-Leg Stretches forward and grab the lower legs. Gradually walk the hands
Bear Hug down the legs toward the ankles; continue to walk the
Stand with one leg forward and the other to the rear. Bend hands down and touch the toes. Bend from the hips, not
the forward knee as much as possible while keeping the the upper back.
rear foot flat on the floor. Repeat the exercise with the
other foot forward. Variation: different muscles can be Feet-Together Stretch
stretched by turning the hips slightly in either direction. Sit with the knees bent and the soles of the feet touching.
To increase the stretching motion, look over the shoulder Reach forward with the hands and grasp the ankles.
and toward the rear foot. Gently bend forward from the hips, applying stretch to the

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inside of the legs and lower back. To increase the stretch- and forth gently. The rolling action should be slow and
ing effect, place the elbows on or near the knees and press should stretch the length of the back. Variation: perform
them toward the floor. the same stretch but cross the legs and tuck them close to
the buttocks.
Cross-Legged Stretch
Sit on the floor with the legs crossed and tucked toward Straight-Leg Roller
the buttocks. Lean forward with the elbows in front of the In a sitting position, roll backward and allow the legs to
knees. To stretch the sides of the lower back, lean forward move overhead. Support the hips with the hands to con-
to the left and then the right. trol the stretch. The legs can be straightened and moved to
different positions to vary the intensity and location of the
Body Twist stretch.
Figure 1 shows the body twist. Sit on the floor with the right
leg straight. Lift the left leg over the right leg and place it on Squat Stretch
the floor outside the right knee. Move the right elbow outside Begin in a standing position with the legs a shoulder
the upper left thigh and use it to maintain pressure on the leg. width apart and the feet pointed outward. Gradually move
Lean back and support the upper body with the left hand. to a squatting position, keeping the feet flat on the floor if
Rotate the upper body toward the left hand and arm. Reverse possible. If balance is a problem, the stretch can be done
the position and stretch the other side of the body. while leaning against a wall.

Table Stretch Side-of-the-Body Stretches

Stand facing a table, chair, or similar platform. Place one Wall Stretch
leg on the table while maintaining the weight on the other Stand with one side toward the wall. Lean toward the
leg. Lean forward from the hips to apply stretch to the wall and support the body with the hand. Walk away
hamstrings and lower back. Repeat with the other leg on until the feet are 2 to 3 feet from the wall. While support-
the table. Variation: stand with the side of the body facing ing the weight in the leaning position, bend the body
the table. Place one leg on the table and bend toward the toward the wall, stretching the side. Reverse and stretch
table to stretch the inside of the leg. Repeat with the other the other side.
side of the body facing the table.
Elbow Grab Stretch
Back Stretches In a standing position with the feet spread, raise the hands
Back Roller Stretch above the head. Grab the elbows with the hands. Lean to
Curl up by holding the lower legs with the arms. Tuck the the side and pull the elbow in that direction. Reverse and
head gently on the knees. Tip backward and then roll back pull to the opposite side.

FIGURE 1 Body twist

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Standing Hip Bend together, greater demands are placed on the triceps.
Stand with one hand on the hip and the other arm over- Spreading the arms beyond shoulder width increases the
head. Bend to the side with the hand resting on the hip. workload on the muscles across the chest (pectorals).
The arm overhead should point and move in the direction Variation: if it is difficult to perform a full push-up, the
of the stretch with a slight bend at the elbow. Reverse and half (knee) push-up is excellent. Movement is the same as
stretch the opposite side. the push-up, but the body is supported by the hands
and knees.
Sitting Side Stretch
Sit on the floor with the legs spread as far apart as possi- Inclined Wall Push-Ups
ble. Lift the arms overhead and reach toward one foot. This exercise can be done with either the feet or the hands
Reverse and stretch in the opposite direction. Try to main- on the wall. The hands version is easier and should pre-
tain an erect upper body. cede the push-up with feet on the wall. In the hands ver-
sion, the hands are placed on the wall while the feet walk
Arm and Shoulder Girdle Stretches as far from the wall as possible. The farther the per-
Arm and Shoulder Stretch former’s feet move from the wall, the more inclined and
Standing, extend the arms and place the palms of the difficult the push-up.
hands together. Move the arms upward and overhead. Lift When the student is able to do the inclined push-up
the arms as high as possible over the head. with the hands on the wall, the feet-on-the-wall version
can be attempted. This exercise is similar to doing a push-
Elbow Puller up in the handstand position and demands a great deal of
Bend the right arm and place it behind the head. Reach to strength. As the hands are walked closer to the wall, the
the right elbow with the left hand. Pull the elbow to the incline becomes less, and a greater demand is placed on
left to stretch the triceps and the top of the shoulders. the shoulder girdle muscles.
Reverse the positions of the arms and repeat.
Reclining Partner Pull-Ups
Elbow Pusher Students find a partner of similar strength. One partner
Place the right arm over the left shoulder. Push the right assumes a supine position on the floor, while the other
elbow toward the body with the left hand and hold. stands in a straddle position at chest level. Partners use a
Repeat in the opposite direction. wristlock grip with both hands. The standing partner stands
erect while the partner in the supine position attempts to
Wishbone Stretch do a reclining pull-up (Figure 2). The upward pull is done
Move the arms behind the back and clasp hands. Keep the completely by the person in supine position bending at the
arms straight and raise the hands toward the ceiling to elbows. The standing person’s task is to remain rigid and
stretch the shoulder girdle. Variation: stand near a wall erect.
(back toward the wall) and place the hands on it. Gently It is helpful for the person in the supine position to
bend at the knees and lower the body while keeping the start this exercise with the feet against a wall. This will pre-
hands at the same level. vent the person from sliding and will keep the focus of the
activity on upper-body development.
EXERCISES FOR UPPER-BODY Rocking Chair
DEVELOPMENT The exerciser moves to a prone position on the floor.
Push-Ups With the arms out to the sides of the body, the back is
The basic push-up is done from the front leaning rest posi- arched in an attempt to raise the upper body off the floor.
tion. Only the hands and toes are on the floor, and the While the upper body is elevated, different activities and
body is kept as straight as possible. The exercise is a two- arm positions can be attempted. For example, arm cir-
count movement as the body is lowered by bending only at cling, waving, clapping hands, or placing the hands
the elbows and then returned to the starting position. behind the head can add challenge to this upper-back and
As the body is lowered, only the chest touches the shoulder development activity. Variation: the lower body
floor before the return to starting position. The push-up can be elevated instead of the upper. Various movements
should be done with controlled movement. The arms can can then be done with the legs. In either exercise, a part-
be adjusted together or apart, depending on the desired ner may be required to hold the half of the body not
muscles to be exercised. As the arms are moved closer being moved.

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back, bringing it closer to the floor by tensing the lower

abdominals and lifting up on the pelvis. Hold for eight to
12 counts. Tense slowly and release slowly.

Knee Touch Curl-Up

Lie on the back, with feet flat and knees bent, and with
hands flat on top of thighs. Leading with the chin, slide
the hands forward until the fingers touch the kneecaps
and gradually curl the head and shoulders until the shoul-
der blades are lifted off the floor. Hold for eight counts
and return to the original position. To avoid stress on the
lower back, the performer should not curl up to the sitting
position.

Curl-Up
Lie on the back with feet flat, knees bent, and arms on the
floor at the side of the body with palms down. Lift the
head and shoulders to a 45° angle and then back in a two-
count pattern. The hands should slide forward on the
floor 3 to 4 inches. The curl-up can also be done as an
eight-count exercise, moving up on one count, holding for
six counts, and moving down on the last count.
FIGURE 2 Reclining partner pull-ups Curl-Up with Twist
Lie on the back with feet flat and knees bent. Arms are
folded and placed across the chest with hands on shoul-
Crab Walk ders. Do a partial curl-up and twist the chest to the left.
This activity can be modified in several ways to develop Repeat, turning the chest to the right.
trunk and upper-body strength. The crab position is an
inverted walk on all fours. The stomach faces the ceiling Leg Extension
with the weight supported on the hands and feet. Crab Sit on the floor with legs extended and hands on hips.
walking can be done in all directions and should be per- With a quick, vigorous action, raise the knees and bring
formed with the trunk as straight as possible. Variations: both heels as close to the seat as possible (Figure 3). The
the crab kick can be executed from this position by alter- movement is a drag with the toes touching lightly. Return
nating forward kicks of the left and right leg. The double to the original position.
crab kick is done by kicking both feet forward and then
backward simultaneously. Abdominal Cruncher
Lie in supine position with feet flat, knees bent, and palms
EXERCISES FOR THE MIDSECTION of hands cupped over the ears (not behind the head). An
Reverse Curl alternate position is to fold the arms across the chest and
Lie on the back with the hands on the floor to the sides of place the hands on the shoulders. Tuck the chin and curl
the body. Curl the knees to the chest. The upper body upward until the shoulder blades leave the floor. Return to
remains on the floor. Try to lift the buttocks and lower the the floor with a slow uncurling.
back off the floor. To increase the challenge, do not return
the feet to the floor after each repetition, lowering them to Plank Variations
within 1 or 2 inches off the floor. This activity requires Create a bridge with your body where only your toes and
greater abdominal strength as there is no resting period forearms (forearms are directly under your chest) are
(feet on floor). touching the ground, keeping your back as flat as possible,
while making sure that the hips do not raise or sag.
Pelvis Tilter Beginners can start by holding this for 10 seconds; more
Lie on the back with feet flat on the floor, knees bent, arms advanced performers can hold it as long as possible. The
out in wing position, and palms up. Flatten the lower side plank requires the bridge to be on one forearm and

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body, and in different patterns. The legs can be split for-

ward and backward, crossed in front of each other, and
swung to the front of the body.

Running in Place
Running in place is most beneficial when the upper leg is
lifted parallel to the floor. The thighs can touch the hands
held slightly above the parallel line to encourage the high lift.

Side-Leg Flex
Lie on your side on the floor. Rest the head in the right
hand and place the left hand along the side of the body.
On the first count, lift the left leg and arm and point them
toward the ceiling. Return to the starting position on the
second count. Rotate to the other side of the body after
performing the desired number of repetitions. Variation:
the double side-leg flex is an exercise that demands more
effort. Both legs are lifted simultaneously as far off the
floor as possible.

Front-Leg Kick
From a standing position, alternately kick each leg for-
ward and as high as possible. This exercise should be done
FIGURE 3 Leg extension rhythmically so that all movement occurs on the toes.
When the leg is kicked upward, the arm on the same side
should be moved forward in an attempt to touch the toe
of the lifted leg.
the outside of one foot, the body still needs to be straight,
and both sides should be done.
ACTIVITIES AND ROUTINES FOR
EXERCISES FOR THE LOWER BODY DEVELOPING FITNESS
Squat Jumps The following are methods of organizing exercises and aer-
Begin in a squatting position with one foot slightly ahead obic activities to develop total body fitness. All of the rou-
of the other. Assume part of the weight with the hands in tines should enhance muscular strength and endurance, as
front of the body. Jump as high as possible and return to well as cardiovascular endurance.
the squatting position. Taking some of the body weight
with the hands is important to avoid stressing the knee
joints.
TEACHER AND STUDENT LEADER
EXERCISE ROUTINES
Treadmill During the first part of the school year, teachers should
Begin on all fours with one foot forward and one behind. lead and teach all exercises to ensure they are learned cor-
Rapidly alternate foot positions while taking the weight of rectly. It is also important that teachers stay involved in fit-
the body on the arms. The movement of the feet can be ness activities throughout the year to demonstrate their
varied by moving both feet forward and back simultane- willingness to do the activities they are asking students to
ously or by moving the feet apart and together. perform. In some cases, teachers ask students to exercise
and maintain fitness while they choose not to do either.
Jumping Jacks Pushing others to be fit is difficult if the teacher does not
Begin in standing position with the arms at the sides make a similar personal commitment.
and feet together. Simultaneously lift the arms overhead When a wide repertoire of exercises has been learned,
and spread the legs on the first count. On the second students can begin to lead the exercise routines. Leading
count, return arms and legs to the starting position. not only means starting and stopping the exercises but
Variations: feet and arm movements can be varied. The includes designing well-balanced routines that offer total
arms can be moved in front of the body, behind the body development. Students can be guided in the desirable

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number of repetitions and how to count exercises as they selection, sequence, and number of exercises and repeti-
are performed. In any case, students should not be forced tions. The routines can be adapted to particular needs and
to lead the exercises; leading should be a personal choice. characteristics of the group. Procedures for starting and
More than one student leader can be used at a time. stopping exercises can be incorporated easily in the taping.
For example, if four leaders are selected, each can be think-
ing of the exercises to choose when it is his or her turn.
Leaders can be placed on four sides of the class, with the
CONTINUOUS MOVEMENT ACTIVITIES
class rotating one-quarter turn to face a new leader after Jogging
each exercise. If a leader cannot think of an appropriate Jogging is running at a slow pace. It is faster than walking
exercise, the class can be asked to volunteer one. In any but slower than sprinting. Jogging is an excellent condi-
case, emphasis should be placed on learning to weave tioner for the cardiovascular system and can be done by
together a set of exercises that offers total body develop- virtually all students. It does not require specialized equip-
ment. Continuous movement activity should also be ment or specialized skill.
added to the exercise routines to ensure cardiovascular Any one of three approaches can be used to develop a
endurance development. jogging program. The first is the jog–walk approach, which
emphasizes the amount of time that one is involved in con-
SQUAD LEADER EXERCISES tinuous movement. Students determine how far they can
jog before they need to slow down and walk. Walking is
Squad leader exercises offer students the opportunity to
continued until the exerciser is again ready to jog. The goal
develop fitness routines without teacher intervention.
is to decrease the length and time of the walking episodes
Squad leaders take their squad to a designated area and
and to increase the jogging.
put the squad through a fitness routine. It is helpful if a
A second approach to increasing endurance through
blank exercise card is given to each squad leader a few days
jogging is to set up definite and measured intervals. An
before the student will lead. The leader can develop a rou-
example would be setting up cones to mark jogging inter-
tine and write down the exercises and repetitions or dura-
vals of 110 yards and walking intervals of 55 yards. As the
tion of each.
fitness level increases, the length of the jogging interval is
Squad leaders can also assign members of the group
increased and the walking interval decreased.
to lead or to offer certain activities. A number of exercises
Finally, the workload can be increased by increasing
can be specified to develop a particular area of the body.
either the duration or the pace of the jogging. The goal is
For example, ask leaders to develop a routine that has two
either to maintain a constant pace and to increase the
exercises for the arm–shoulder girdle area, two for the
distance run or to run the same distance at an increased
abdominal region, one for the legs, three for flexibility,
pace. Increasing the speed is usually the less desirable
and 2 minutes of continuous movement. The responsibil-
alternative because the intensity of the exercise may dis-
ity for planning a fitness routine that is balanced and
courage students.
developmental should shift gradually from the teacher to
Jogging is performed in an erect body position with a
the students.
minimal amount of leaning. Excessive leaning is less effi-
cient and demands a greater amount of energy. The elbows
EXERCISES TO MUSIC should be bent and the arms carried in a relaxed manner.
Without question, music increases the motivational level of Most joggers strike the ground with a flat foot. This allows
students during exercise. While many commercial exercise- the force of impact to be absorbed over a larger surface
to-music records are available, they all suffer from two area, which seems to be more desirable. Some joggers land
major problems: they seldom meet the specific workload on the heel and then rotate to the toe. In either case, trying
requirements of different groups of students, and they can- to change a jogger’s foot action is often ineffective.
not provide the necessary systematic overload. Teachers Jogging should be a noncompetitive activity. Students
therefore need to develop their own homemade exercise- should be encouraged to look for self-improvement
to-music tapes that can be tailored to meet the needs of a instead of comparing their performance with others. An
specific class or grade. enjoyable technique is to ask students to jog with a partner
Homemade exercise CDs or iPod playlists can be uti- who has similar ability. They should be encouraged to talk
lized. Music that is currently popular can be combined with and visit while they jog. Suggest that if they find it difficult
exercises that students have already learned. Avoid music to talk while jogging, they are probably running too fast.
that might affront some members of the community. Either Endurance and continuous activity should be rewarded.
the teacher or a group of students can make the playlist. Teachers sometimes have a tendency to ask students to run a
When students do the taping, they have control over the certain distance, and then they reward those students who

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complete the distance first. This is discouraging to the activity is then performed to push the heart rate into the
majority of the joggers. Students should be permitted to run 170 to 180 beats-per-minute range. At this point, the run-
in any direction they desire until a certain amount of time ner begins the rest interval (usually walking) until the heart
has elapsed. This prevents the situation in which a few gifted rate returns to 120 to 140 beats per minute. Theoretically,
runners finish first and have to sit and wait for the rest of the the amount of time it takes for the heart rate to return to
class to complete a given distance. 120 to 140 beats per minute should not exceed 90 seconds.
A general rule of thumb for beginning a jogging pro- The major advantage of interval training is that endurance
gram is to ask students to walk and jog continuously for can be increased markedly in a short period of time.
5 minutes. Increase the amount of time 1 minute per Interval training can be used with various locomotor
week up to 15 minutes. Individuals can increase the total movements. For example, the following work and rest
amount of time while they also try to reduce the amount activities can be alternated. Intervals can be measured in
of walking. either distance or time.

Rope Jumping Work Activities Rest Activities

Rope jumping is a demanding activity that requires little Brisk walking Slow walking
equipment. For some participants, it can be a valuable Jogging Walking
approach to cardiovascular fitness. The energy demands Sprinting Jogging
of rope jumping are similar to jogging. Rope jumping can
Rope jumping Walking
be performed for a specified amount of time or for a spec-
ified number of jumps. Jumping in place Walking
A variety of activities can be done with a jump rope to
help avoid the monotony and excessive fatigue of continu- CIRCUIT TRAINING
ous jumping. The rope can be turned at fast or slow speeds Exercise stations are organized into a circuit for the sake of
while different foot steps are performed. If rope jumping is fitness development. Each of the stations contributes, in part,
used for the fitness portion of the lesson, it should be alter- to the total fitness of the participant. The components of
nated with stretching activities to give students an oppor- fitness—flexibility, muscular strength and endurance, and
tunity to recover from aerobic demands. cardiovascular endurance—are represented in the circuit.

Four Corners Development of a Circuit

A large rectangle is formed using four cones as markers. 1. If the circuit is to be used as a group activity, all
Students move continually around the perimeter of the rec- class members must be capable of performing each
tangle. At each corner, a different movement is performed. of the exercises.
Examples of activity alternatives that can be performed on
2. Organize the stations so different muscle groups or
the long sides of the rectangle are jogging, power skipping,
fitness components are exercised; in other words,
sliding, jumping, and hopping. On the short sides of the
consecutive stations should not place demands on
rectangle, movements on all fours (for example, bear walk
the same area of the body.
and crab walk) can be performed. Another interesting vari-
ation is to use tumbling activities or use tires and challenge 3. Students should know how to perform all of the
students to go over, around, and through them. The need activities correctly. Proper form is important. Ins-
for continuous movement should be emphasized, and the truction can be done verbally, or descriptive posters
rectangle should be large enough to provide a challenging can be placed at each station.
workload for the cardiovascular system. 4. Distribute students evenly among the stations at
the beginning of the exercise bout. A rotation plan
ensures that students move to the correct station.
INTERVAL TRAINING
Interval training involves carefully controlling the work and 5. Measure dosage in time or repetitions. Students can
rest intervals of the participant. Intervals of work (exercise) move on their own to the next station if they have
and rest can be measured in distance, repetitions, or time. completed the required number of repetitions. If a
Interval training is done by monitoring the heart rate. The time criterion is used, the class moves as a whole
student first needs to get the heart rate up to 120 to when students have exercised for a specified amount
140 beats per minute with a warm-up routine. Strenuous of time.
6. To increase the demands on the cardiovascular sys-
tem, one or two of the stations can include rope
jumping or running in place. Another alternative is
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to have students run around the perimeter of the 3. Performing exercises, such as arm circles, body
entire circuit a certain number of times before twists, and trunk and upper-body stretches, while
moving to the next station. moving around the area.
7. The circuit should contain no fewer than 10 stations. 4. Performing stationary exercises, such as push-ups,
The result of participation in the circuit is a total sit-ups, and jumping jacks, to stress development of
body workout. the upper body and abdominal wall.

Timing and Dosage Students move throughout the area and perform as
Workload at each station should be based on time, and many exercises as possible. They can also develop individ-
each student should be asked to do their best within that ual routines that control the amounts of time allotted for
time. Signals to start exercising, stop exercising, and rotate movement activity and stationary activity. The following
to the next stations are given. This allows accurate timing is an example of an astronaut drill that might be imple-
of intervals. A reasonable expectation for beginning cir- mented. The duration of the movements is timed, and
cuit training is 40 seconds per station. The amount of rest students are encouraged to do the best they can within the
between stations can also be monitored to increase or specified time.
decrease the workload. An effective way of timing the
1. Walk throughout the area.
circuit is to use a tape recording of popular music that
students enjoy, with signals to stop and start activities 2. Run and hurdle.
interspersed at proper intervals. 3. Stop and perform push-ups.
Figure 4 is an example of a circuit that might be de-
4. Walk and do arm circles.
veloped for middle school students.
5. Do a crab walk.
ASTRONAUT DRILLS 6. Stop, find a friend, and perform partner strength
Astronaut drills are continuous movement activities that exercises.
combine exercises with walking and jogging. Students 7. Hop for a period of time on each foot.
move randomly throughout the area or follow each other 8. Walk on all fours (bear crawl).
in a circle formation. The drills begin with brisk walking.
On signal, the teacher or selected students lead the class in 9. Run, with the knees lifted as high as possible.
exercises or stunt activities. If a movement is not devel- 10. Stop and perform a treadmill.
oped immediately, the class runs or walks in place. Com- 11. Repeat the previous steps.
binations of the following activities can be arranged to
develop a demanding routine:
CONTINUITY EXERCISES
1. Performing various locomotor movements such as
Continuity exercises can be done in squad formation or
hopping, running, jumping, leaping, skipping, and
scatter formation. Because each student has a jump rope,
running on the toes.
students must have plenty of room to avoid hitting each
2. Moving throughout the area on all fours in the front other. Performers alternate between rope jumping and
crab position, reverse crab position, or the bear exercises. Rope jumping is done for timed episodes with
crawl position. music to help maintain the rhythm. At the signal to stop
rope jumping, students quickly drop the rope and move
into position for the exercise. Selected exercises should be
Nine-Station Course performed in a down position with a leader who says,
“Ready,” and the students respond, “One-two,” while per-
1 2 3 4 forming the exercise. For each repetition, students wait
Rope Push-ups Agility Arm until the command “Ready” is given. Students are allowed
jumping run circles
to monitor their own speed and intensity. The following is
8 7 6 5 an example of a routine:
Windmill Treadmill Crab walk Rowing
First signal. Begin rope jumping.
9 Second signal. Stop jumping, drop ropes, and move to
Hula-hooping (or any relaxing “fun” activity) the push-up position. On each command of “Ready,”
do one push-up.
FIGURE 4 Circuit-training stations Third signal. Resume rope jumping.
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 PHYSICAL FITNESS

Fourth signal. Drop ropes and move into supine posi- Forearm Flex
tion on the floor with the arms overhead, prepared to The exerciser places the hands, palms down, on the part-
do the rowing exercise. On the command “Ready,” ner’s shoulders. The exerciser attempts to push the partner
perform the exercise. into the floor. The partner may slowly lower the body to
Fifth signal. Resume rope jumping. allow the exerciser to move through the full range of
Sixth signal. Drop the ropes, and move into crab posi- motion. Try the exercise with the palms up.
tion. Prepare to do the double crab kick. On the signal
Fist Pull-Apart
“Ready,” both feet are extended forward and back.
The exerciser places the fists together in front of the body
Seventh signal. Resume rope jumping.
at shoulder level. The exerciser attempts to pull the hands
Eighth signal. Move into position for the side-leg flex apart while the partner forces them together with pressure
exercise. On the command “Ready,” lift the upper leg on the elbows. Reverse this exercise and begin with the
and return it to the starting position. fists apart. Partner tries to push them together by grasping
Ninth signal. Resume rope jumping. the wrists.
Tenth signal. Move into position for the reclining
partner pull-up. On signal, pull the body up on count Pec-Deck
one, and return to the floor on count two. Switch posi- The exerciser holds the arms up at a 90° angle at shoulder
tions with your partner after the proper number of height. The exerciser then pushes the arms together in
repetitions has been performed. front of the body, similar to the motion on a Pec-Deck
machine. The exercise may be reversed while resistance is
The number of repetitions and the duration of the provided on the inside or outside of the arms, depending
rope-jumping episodes should be determined by the fitness on which direction the exerciser is moving.
levels of the students. More exercises can be added to the
routine. Instructors can use a tape recorder to signal the Butterfly
start and finish of the rope-jumping episodes. Continuity The exerciser holds the arms straight, forming a right
exercises are an example of interval training. The rope angle with the side of the body (Figure 5). The partner at-
jumping stresses the cardiovascular system, while the exer- tempts to hold the arms down, while the exerciser lifts
cises develop strength and allow the performer to recover. with straight arms to the sides. Try the activity with the
arms above the head; move them down to the sides against
partner’s effort to hold them up.
PARTNER RESISTANCE EXERCISES
Partner resistance exercises are enjoyable for students Camelback
because they offer variable workloads and a chance to The exerciser is on all fours with the head up. The partner
work with a partner. Partners must be matched in size and sits or pushes on the exercisers back while the exerciser
strength so they can challenge each other. The exercises tries to hump the back like a camel.
should be performed throughout the full range of motion
at each joint and take 8 to 12 seconds each to complete. Back Builder
The partner providing the resistance gives the “Begin” The exerciser spreads the legs and bends forward at the
command and counts the duration of the exercise. Three waist with the head up. The partner faces the exerciser and
sets of each exercise are done by each student as they alter- clasps the hands together behind the exerciser’s neck. The
nate the exercise and resistance roles. exerciser then attempts to stand upright while the partner
The following are examples of exercises that can be pulls downward.
performed. Challenge students to invent their own part-
ner resistance exercises and to develop a set of exercises Scissors
that strengthens all body parts. The exerciser lies on one side while the partner straddles
him or her and holds the upper leg down. The exerciser
Arm Curl-Ups attempts to raise the top leg. The exercise is reversed and
The exerciser keeps the upper arms against the sides of the performed with the other leg.
body, bends the elbows, and turns palms up. The partner
puts fists in the exerciser’s palms. The exerciser then Bear Trap
attempts to curl the forearms upward to the shoulders. To The exerciser performs as in the scissors but spreads the
develop the opposite set of muscles, push down in the legs first and attempts to move them together while the
opposite direction, starting with palms at shoulder level. partner holds them apart.

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FIGURE 5 Butterfly

Knee Bender to ensure balanced fitness development. Courses should be

The exerciser lies in prone position with legs straight and developed to exercise all parts of the body. A variety of
arms ahead on the floor. The partner places the hands on activities, such as stretching, vaulting, agility runs, climbing,
the back of exerciser’s ankle. The exerciser attempts to flex hanging and chinning, and crawling, can be included to
the knee while the partner applies pressure. Reverse legs. place demands on all aspects of fitness. Figure 6 represents
Try this exercise in the opposite direction with the knee an indoor challenge course that might be constructed for
joint at a 90° angle. students.

Resistance Push-Up
The exerciser is in push-up position with arms bent so PARACHUTE EXERCISES
that the body is halfway up from the floor. The partner The parachute can be used to develop fitness activities that
straddles or stands alongside the exerciser’s head and puts are exciting and challenging. Through these activities, stu-
pressure on the top of the shoulders by pushing down. dents work together to enhance their fitness levels. They
The partner must judge the amount of pressure to apply should be encouraged to develop personalized group
in order to prevent the exerciser from collapsing. activities. The following are examples of exercises that use
Aerobic movements such as walking, jogging, sliding, the parachute.
skipping, and so on can be alternated with the partner
resistance exercises to create a balanced fitness routine. We Toe Toucher
suggest devoting 45 seconds to partner resistance and 20 Sit with the feet extended under the parachute and hold it
to 30 seconds to aerobic movements. Creative signs can taut with a two-hand grip, drawing it to the chin. Bend
help structure this routine. forward and touch the grip to the toes. Return the para-
chute to the stretched position.
CHALLENGE COURSES
Challenge courses, or parcourses, are popular throughout Curl-Up
the country. Different stations are developed, and the par- Extend the body under the parachute in curl-up position
ticipants move from station to station as they cover the so it comes up to the chin when held taut. Do curl-ups,
course. The type of movement done between stations can returning each time to the stretched position. Encourage
also place demands on the participants’ body systems. students to work together and snap the parachute tight
Courses can be run for time, or repetitions can be increased each time they recline.

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6. Do an agility run (figure

eight) around 3 chairs

7. Climb to top of a rope or 5. Do a crab walk the length

hang for 20 seconds of the mat, feet first

4. High-jump over a 30-inch-

high bar
8. Do a forward roll the
length of the mat

3. Crawl through 4 tires

9. Vault a 36-inch box

or horse

2. Hurdle over 3 benches

10. Cross the finish line

1. Run around 2 chairs

FIGURE 6 Challenge course

Dorsal Lift above the head, lowering it to eye level, and lowering it to
In prone position, lie with the head toward the chute. waist level. Emphasis should be placed on using the arms
Grasp the chute with the arms extended overhead. On and shoulder girdle to apply force rather than leaning.
signal, raise the chute off the floor while simultaneously
raising the head and chest. Encourage students to lift All-Fours Pulls
the chute high enough so they can “see a friend” across Get on the floor in a crab-, bear-, or seal-walk position.
the way. Grasp the parachute with one hand. On signal, pull and
hold the contraction for 6 to 10 seconds. Repeat, using the
Sitting Leg Lift other hand and different positions.
In a sitting position with the legs under the chute, lift the
legs on signal while holding the chute taut, and lift the Isometric Exercises
chute off the floor. Hold the position for 6 to 10 seconds. A wide variety of isometric exercises can be done using the
Try to keep the legs straight. As a variation, start in a parachute. Various body parts can be exercised by applying
supine position with the legs under the parachute and do pressure to the chute. The exercises should be held for 6 to
a V-seat. 10 seconds. Encourage students to develop new isometric
techniques.
Sitting Pulls
Sit with the back to the parachute. Grasp it and raise it over- Rhythmic Aerobic Activity
head. On signal, try to pull the parachute down to the knees. The parachute is excellent for stimulating aerobic activ-
Other variations are done facing the parachute and raising it ity. For example, students can do various locomotor

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movements while holding onto the parachute. A sample 3. Bend elbows approximately 90°, and move the arms
routine with the parachute follows: straight forward and back with no lateral move-
ment across the chest. Arms gently brush the sides
1. Skip clockwise. of the body.
2. Skip counterclockwise.
4. Align the feet straight ahead. Knees drive straight
3. Jump to the center of the parachute. ahead rather than upward. High knee action can be
4. Hop backward and tighten the chute. used as another variation, although it is not neces-
sary for good running form. The heel of the foot
5. Slowly lift the parachute overhead.
should come close to the buttocks.
6. Slowly lower the parachute to toes.
5. Align the foot, knee, and hip. The body tilts forward
7. Quickly lift the parachute overhead. about 5° from the feet, not from the hips.
8. Quickly lower the parachute to toes.
6. The length of the stride is usually shorter for longer
9. Repeat steps 5 through 8. runs (i.e., a longer stride for sprinting and a shorter
10. Run clockwise with the parachute held overhead. stride for distance running).
11. Run backward with the parachute held at waist level. Give students only one aspect of running form to
12. Make a dome. concentrate on during each trip across the field so that
13. Repeat steps 10 through 12. they can emphasize and over learn each point. Beginning
slowly and increasing the speed gradually works best. Start
14. Finish with a parachute lift and release. the drill at half speed, then proceed to three-quarter
speed, and finally, increase to full speed.
RUNNING ACTIVITIES AND DRILLS This same drill format can also be used with other
A number of running drills and activities can be used to running activities.
improve running techniques, agility, and fitness levels,
1. Backwards running. Stay on the line. Roll the
depending on how they are administered. Aerobic ability
shoulders forward and keep them forward while
varies widely in classes, and many students may not be
running. Emphasize the arm movement forward
able to do much running because of being overweight and
and back. Pull that arm through with each step.
other disabilities. Offer other options, or allow them to
perform the drill while walking. 2. Crossover-step backward. The teacher stands on
the boundary line and the first wave of students
Form Running moves 5 yards out on their respective yard lines
This drill works well on a football field using the yard facing the teacher. The teacher gives a left- or
lines as markers. A squad of students lines up on the right-hand signal. The students start backward
boundary line at the goal line, 10-yard line, 20-yard line, with a crossover step. When the teacher changes
30-yard line, and so forth. The teacher stands on the hash the direction signal, students rotate their hips
mark closest to the students, on about the 25-yard line. and do a crossover step on the opposite side.
On signal, the first student in each line runs across the Students must keep their eyes on the teacher and
field on the respective yard line. The teacher continues to concentrate on rotating their hips and staying on
give a starting signal for each wave of students until all of the line.
the students are on the opposite boundary line. The
3. Crossover-step forward. As students run forward,
teacher then moves to the opposite hash mark and starts
they concentrate on stepping across the line with
the students running back across the field. Each time
each step. It is important to start slowly and to
the students run across the field, they should be told
increase the speed gradually.
to concentrate on one aspect of their running form. The
following aspects can be emphasized: 4. Carioca step. Students stand sideways on the line
with their arms held out, parallel to the ground. On
1. Keep the head still—no lateral or turning move- a signal, the students move sideways down the line
ments. Eyes should be focused straight ahead. Keep by using a crossover step in front and a return step,
the chin down. a crossover step in back, and finally another step.
2. Relax the hands. Place the thumb on the first pad of This process is repeated for the length of the field.
the index finger. Put hands beside the front pocket Students should make sure that they lead with both
as they move backward. the right and left shoulder.

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5. Shuffle sideways. Students stand sideways on the

line in a ready position (feet shoulder width apart, Times for 40- and 100-Yard Dashes
knees bent, head up, arms flexed in front of the
You would Or run the
body). On signal, students shuffle down the line
have to run 100-yard
without a crossover step. Students should also lead the 40-yard dash 17.6
with both the left and right sides. A variation is to dash 44 times, times, with
have students spread out down the line and face the To run with each each dash
teacher, who is standing in front of the entire group. 1 mi in: dash runin: run in:
The teacher gives a left- or right-hand signal to start
the group moving. 3:48 min 5.18 sec 12.95 sec
(world record
time)
Form-running drills can be done without lines if
necessary. Use boundary cones to mark the beginning and 5:00 min 6.81 sec 17.04 sec
end of each running section. Another variation is to place 6:00 min 8.18 sec 20.45 sec
cones at one third and two thirds of the distance and ask 7:00 min 9.55 sec 23.87 sec
students to vary their speed in each third. For example, 8:00 min 10.90 sec 27.25 sec
students could jog the first third, sprint the second, and 10:00 min 13.62 sec 34.08 sec
ease to three-quarter speed during the last third. Or they
can change the type of running during each third. The FIGURE 7 Pace chart for 40- and 100-yard dashes
following combinations might be used:
given number of minutes. The high fitness group will
1. Jog, shuffle right, and shuffle left.
cover more distance in a given time.
2. Carioca step, shuffle, and sprint.
3. Backward run, crossover left, and crossover right. Walk-Jog-Sprint
This is a continuous movement activity in which the
4. Form run, crossover front, and form run.
teacher controls the speed of movement with a whistle
5. Carioca step left, carioca step right, and sprint. signal. Three whistles mean sprint, two mean jog, and
one means walk. The students start by walking around a
File Running given area (track, field, or boundary cone). The teacher
Divide the class into two or three groups according to then alternates the periods of jogging, sprinting, and
cardiovascular fitness level: high, medium, and low. Each walking for a number of minutes or for a given distance. It
group lines up single file and begins to jog around a given is important to progressively build up the time or distance.
distance, such as a quarter-mile track, a field, or a set
of boundary cones. Students should keep a 2- to 3-yard Pace Work
distance between each person. The last person in line Students need to practice running at an even pace for a given
sprints past the file and becomes the leader. When the new distance, such as a 6-, 8-, or 10-minute mile. Pacing can be
leader is in place, the new last person begins to sprint past practiced by running shorter segments of the distance at
the file. This procedure continues for a given distance or a the correct speed. Figures 7 and 8 show the required time for

To run 1 mile (1760 yd) in: (min)

Interval (miles) 4:00 5:00 6:00 7:00 8:00 9:00 10:00 11:00 12:00
3
⁄4 (1320 yd) 3:00 3:45 4:30 5:15 6:00 6:45 7:30 8:15 9:00
1
⁄2 (880 yd) 2:00 2:30 3:00 3:30 4:00 4:30 5:00 5:30 6:00
1
⁄4 (440 yd) 1:00 1:15 1:30 1:45 2:00 2:15 2:30 2:45 3:00
1
⁄8 (220 yd) :30 :37 1 ⁄2 :45 :52 1 ⁄2 1:00 1:07 1 ⁄2 1:15 1:22 1 ⁄2 1:30
1
⁄16 (110 yd) :15 :18 3 ⁄4 :22 1 ⁄2 :26 1 ⁄4 :30 :33 3 ⁄4 :37 1 ⁄2 :41 1 ⁄4 :45

FIGURE 8 Pace chart for 1-mile run

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covering certain distances in order to maintain correct pac- usually done on soft surfaces. A typical workout for an
ing. It is easiest to use a marked track, but a workable track athlete in training might be as follows:
can be developed through placement of boundary cones.
Using a rectangle is helpful for ease of measurement. 1. Five to 10 minutes of easy jogging.
Students are divided into groups and challenged to run 2. Steady, intense speed for 1 to 2 kilometers.
distances at a given time. For example, the fast group might 3. Five minutes of rapid walking.
work on a 6-minute-mile pace: 110 yards in 22.5 seconds,
220 yards in 45 seconds, and 440 yards in 90 seconds. The 4. Easy running broken by 50 to 60 meters of acceler-
medium group could work on an 8-minute pace, and the ated runs that cause moderate fatigue.
slow group could focus on a 10-minute-mile pace. It is inter- 5. Easy running with 2 to 5 intermittent swift strides
esting to have students calculate a world record pace for a every 100 meters until moderate fatigue results.
given distance and then try to run a small segment of 6. Full uphill effort for 150 to 200 meters.
that distance at the record pace. For instance, have them run
50 yards at a 4-minute-mile pace, or 440 yards at a 2.5-hour- 7. One minute of fast-paced running on level ground.
marathon pace. 8. Easy running for 5 to 10 meters.
Another strategy for teaching students about pace is to
set up a square, 50 yards on a side. Place a cone at every This workout illustrates the variation involved in
corner and in the middle of each side. Put an equal number Fartlek. Students can be given a workout that might
of students at each cone. Calculate the 25-yard time for last 10 to 20 minutes and encompasses the many dif-
various speeds (such as a 6-, 8-, or 10-minute mile). Have ferent tempos and geographic features described. The
students try to run at a given speed, and blow a whistle each run challenges can be written on cards, and students
time they should have completed a 25-yard run. The select runs of varying difficulty (easy, moderate, difficult,
students should be at a cone each time the whistle sounds. and strenuous).
This way, they can tell if they are going too fast or too slow.
MONOPOLY FITNESS
Random Running
Place students in groups of two to three at 12 to 14 fit-
Random running is a simple and effective way to improve ness stations around the perimeter of the area. Station
cardiovascular fitness. The emphasis is on long, slow ideas could include stretch-band exercises, stretches,
distance (LSD) running. Students are allowed to run jump-rope activities, strength-development exercises,
randomly throughout the area at a pace that is comfort- and jump-band activities. Students perform curls with
able for them. They are encouraged to find a partner and exercise tubes in Figure 9. Have a student roll the dice.
to talk while jogging. All students add the numbers when the dice stop rolling
Students who need to walk because of their subpar and jog forward the corresponding number of stations.
level of fitness can do so without experiencing the They then perform the exercise listed at that station.
stigma of finishing last during a run. The distance each Students may repeat some stations. Use music intervals
student runs is not charted. Effort is acknowledged to signal when to exercise and when to roll the dice.
rather than speed or distance-running ability. Emphasis
is placed on being active, involved, and moving during
the entire episode rather than on seeing how far one can TRACK AND FIELD FITNESS
run or jog. Position a cardiovascular exercise station in each corner
Students can begin with a 10-minute random run- of the teaching area. In each of these corners, there
ning episode three times per week. The duration of the should be a mat or a bench for step-ups and at least five
run can be increased 1 minute per week until a maxi- to six jump ropes. Establish a predetermined spot on
mum 20-minute episode is achieved. This allows the the floor for the rope jumping and a designated jogging
majority of students to increase their workload in a area. Other signs should be placed within the four corners
gradual and palatable manner. to complete the circuit. A music tape with intervals of
30 seconds of music followed by a 6-second pause can
Fartlek be used to signal changes. Students perform the exercise
Fartlek is a form of training that was developed in Sweden challenges while the music is playing and move to the
in the 1930s and 1940s. (The term Fartlek means “speed next station on the pauses. This routine provides stu-
play.”) The training is aerobic in nature and entails hard dents with the opportunity to choose an appropriate
but untimed long-distance efforts over topographic chal- fitness challenge at each station.
lenges. The hilly terrain is run at varied tempos. Fartlek is

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FITNESS SCAVENGER HUNT

Students can work together in teams or small groups.
The teams stay together and “hunt” for the exercise area
of the gym or field space. The teams are given a lami-
nated sheet or card that lists the area to find and the
activities to perform at the designated area. The sheets
could have eight to 12 activities, depending on how
long the fitness segment of the lesson is going to last.
Each group can be assigned a different starting point to
ensure that students are spread across all areas and that
a backup of students does not occur at one of the fitness
areas. Examples of entries on the exercise sheet or card
could be the following:

■ Run to each corner of the gym and perform 25 curl-

ups. All team members should work together.
■ Run to the open set of bleachers and perform 25 step-
ups on the first row. The count should be “up, up,
FIGURE 9 Curls with exercise tubes on a fit- down, down,” with your steps.
ness circuit ■ Do carioca steps to each of the other groups and tell
them they are doing a good job.
■ Jog to the tumbling mats and perform two sitting
JUMP-BANDS CIRCUIT stretches; hold each for 8 counts.
Arrange this fitness routine as a circuit of stations around ■ Run and find the short jump ropes. Complete 25
the area. Place the students in groups of four with two jumps at a “fast-time” pace.
jumpers and two band holders. Exercisers use the basic ■ Jog and touch five walls, two different red lines, and
four-count step of “in, in, out, out.” Students are encour- three different black lines. Stay together with your
aged to make a quick choice while working at each station group.
and to choose an activity that will challenge their own lev- ■ Jog to the “jumping jacks” sign and perform 25
els of fitness. Other stations that can be integrated into jumping jacks with at least four different variations
this circuit include abdominal strength choices, upper- in arm or foot patterns.
body strength choices, and flexibility choices. A tape of 30
seconds of music and 10 seconds of silence can be used to Students can complete all seven activities and then
signal station changes. return to their squads and wait for the next activity.

CARDIO-CHOICE FITNESS FITNESS COOKIE JAR EXCHANGE

Create a circuit with a number of stations around the A variation of the fitness scavenger hunt is called the “fit-
perimeter of the area. Use four cardio-choice signs, one ness cookie jar.” A variety of fitness activities are written
placed in each corner of the room. Students are encour- on different index cards and then placed in a “cookie jar”
aged to make a quick choice while working at each station (shoe box). The shoe box can then be placed at the center
and to choose an activity that will challenge their personal of the gym or at another convenient place for students to
levels of fitness. Other stations in the circuit include pick up and return the cards. Students can work alone or
abdominal strength choices, upper-body strength choices, with a partner. Partners take turns selecting the fitness
and flexibility choices. A tape of 30 seconds of music and card from the box. The activities can be similar to the
10 seconds of pause can be used to signal rotation to the scavenger hunt activities or could also include ball han-
next station and free the teacher. Cardio-choice signs dling skills with a specific area designated for the use of
include the following: Cardio-choice A (2 of each): power equipment. Examples could include the following:
walk and talk with a friend, jump rope, slide halfway,
pivot, and do carioca steps; and Cardio-choice B (2 of ■ Dribble the basketball down and back up the length
each): jog around the perimeter of the area, jump rope, of the gym.
and do step-ups. ■ Do a crab walk across the width of the gym.

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■ Jog and shake hands with eight different people. 3. coffee-grinders (third leader adds on)
Tell them to have a good day. 4. crab kicks (fourth leader adds on)
■ Perform two layup shots at three different baskets. 5. golden rests (fifth leader adds on)
■ Slide to the drinking fountain and get a drink. 6. leaping leaps (sixth leader adds on)
■ Do carioca steps around the basketball court two 7. jumping jacks (seventh leader adds on)
times.
8. forward lunges (eighth leader adds on)
■ Perform a “mirror drill” with a partner for 30 seconds.
9. carioca steps (ninth leader adds on)
■ Jog over and tell your teacher that physical education
is a fun activity. 10. skipping skips (10th leader adds on)

■ Perform three partner resistance exercises with a 11. rooster hops (11th leader adds on)
different partner. 12. running steps (last student leader adds on)

Music can be programmed on a tape for 30-second

intervals to structure the transitions for students. A 10-second LONG JUMP-ROPE FITNESS ROUTINE
interval without music could be used for getting a new card. Students are in groups of three with a long jump rope.
Students could then perform as many repetitions as possible Two students are turning the rope, and the third student
while the music is playing. This allows more individual- is the jumper. When the music comes on, the jumper
ization for students with varying fitness and skill abilities. makes three jumps and begins running a figure eight
Students should be challenged to do as many as possible and around the turners. Jumpers make three jumps each time
try to improve as the units continue. they enter the center of the figure eight. The focus is on
entering the jumping area with the turning rope, making
PARTNER RACETRACK FITNESS the three jumps, and then continuing on around the
figure eight. When the music stops, a new jumper starts
Students begin work with a partner at one of five or six
and the old jumper becomes a turner. The music should
stations in the gym or on a field outside. The stations are
be programmed for 30 to 45 seconds of music and 10 to
arranged in a circle or rectangle around the area. Each
15 seconds of no music for change time.
station has a sign with five or six exercises or stretches to
perform. On the start signal, one partner begins the first
exercise or stretch on the card, while the other partner jogs JUMP AND JOG FITNESS
around the perimeter of the stations. Upon returning, the Set up five or six cones in a circle around the gym with
partners switch roles and then move down the list of two or three jump ropes at each cone. Students need to get
activities on the cards. The teacher can also change the a partner and start at one of the cones. One partner jumps
locomotor movement for the students going around the rope at the cone, while the other partner jogs around the
cones. For example, in addition to jogging, students could circle. Partners switch roles with the completion of each
do carioca steps, slide, run backwards, skip, or hurdle lap. Teachers can vary the student movement around the
around the stations. The signs at the stations could include cones with the following: walk, jog, slide, do carioca steps,
stretches, jumping jacks, crab kicks, treadmills, sit-ups, power skip, and perform butt kickers (heels hit the butt).
push-ups, body twists, and other variations. Continuous As students improve their rope-jumping skills, the
music could be used to motivate students. Stability balls teacher can vary the foot patterns with the following:
and medicine balls can be added to the racetrack stations. two-foot basic step, jog step, side swings (left and right),
(See the following sections on the two types of balls and jumping-jack step, ski jump step, scissors step, crossovers,
the exercises that can challenge your students.) and double jumps. Teachers can also stop the action and
lead the class in a strength or flexibility exercise and then
THE 12 WAYS OF FITNESS return the students to the jump and jog activities.
This is an add-on fitness game using 12 student leaders. It
follows the same format as the song “The Twelve Days of CIRCUIT TRAINING FITNESS WITH A JOG
Christmas.” Students could be in groups of 12, or a large Create stations for jumping rope, crab kicks, stretching, and
group could be used with the student leaders. Each student doing sit-ups, treadmills, arm circles, agility runs, and push-
adds on the next number of exercises. Here is an example: ups. Students exercise for 30 seconds at each station for the
first week and have 5 to 10 seconds to move up to the next
1. push-up (first student leader) station. During the next week, the station intervals can be
2. sit-ups (second leader adds on) longer, and a jog can be added around the circuit stations

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before moving up. The jog can be varied with a slide, power obvious beat. Other variations of aerobic dance are step
skip, carioca steps, and backward run. Variations for each aerobics and low-impact aerobics. These are popular
station can be added or substituted. Station cards can have because they eliminate some of the stress on the legs and
two or three variations of the exercise. joints. The height of the steps can help determine the
desired workload.
PARTNER RESISTANCE AND AEROBIC The activities and routines should ease the burden of
learning. If the movement patterns are too difficult, stu-
MOVEMENT FITNESS
dents become self-conscious and discouraged. Use the
Students alternate between a partner resistance activity and following points as guidelines when teaching new aerobic
an aerobic activity. The intervals for the partner resistance exercise routines.
activities should be 45 to 60 seconds and 30 seconds for the
aerobic movement intervals. Students can work with a ■ Alternate the intensity of the activities. This allows in-
partner at a station that has a card listing the various terval training to be built into the routines. Stretching
resistance activities and aerobic activities. The resistance movements can be alternated with demanding loco-
activities can be grouped into upper-body and lower-body motor movements.
activities. Each resistance activity should take 8 to 10 seconds ■ Routines motivate more students when they appear
through the full range of motion. Partners should provide not to be dance activities. The challenge is to develop
enough resistance to allow the exerciser to complete the demanding routines that will increase the endurance
repetition in 8 to 10 seconds. After one repetition, the part- level of all participants. All students should feel com-
ners change roles. The aerobic activities can be done in fortable performing the routines.
place (jumping-jack variations) or moving around the sta-
■ Follow-the-leader activities work well with students
tions (jog, skip, or slide). Several variations will be demon-
after they have developed a repertoire of move-
strated.
ments. Each student can be responsible for leading
one activity.
HEALTH CLUB WORKOUTS ■ Energetic and positive teachers strongly influence
This group of activities is generally taught in health clubs. the success of the presentations. Students need to
An important outcome for quality physical education see teachers enjoying fitness activities.
programs is to graduate students who feel comfortable
The following steps and movements can be used to
joining a health club. Students must leave high school
develop a wide variety of routines. The majority are per-
having the perceived competence to participate with older
formed to four counts, although this can be varied
adults. Many people will not join community clubs and
depending on the skill level of the students.
organizations because they feel they are incompetent and
will embarrass themselves. There are many popular activi- Running and Walking Steps
ties in clubs, including spinning, aerobic dance, kickbox-
1. Directional runs can be done forward, backward,
ing, and Pilates. The intent of the following activities are to
diagonally, sideways, or turning.
stimulate teachers to teach and stay current with activities
taught in nearby health clubs. These activities change regu- 2. Rhythmic runs integrate a specific movement (knee
larly, and course instruction in physical education will have lift, clap, jump, and jump–turn) on the fourth beat.
to stay current to be relevant to juniors and seniors taking 3. Runs with stunts are performed while lifting the
physical education classes. knees, kicking up the heels, or slapping the thighs or
heels. Runs can also be done with the legs extended,
AEROBICS WORKOUTS such as the goose step.
At present, many types of aerobic activities are taught in 4. Runs with the arms in various positions can include
health clubs. Aerobic dance is the basis for many varia- the arms on the head, straight up or down, or on
tions of rhythmic exercise now implemented. These rou- the hips.
tines develop a high level of cardiorespiratory fitness as
well as strength and flexibility. Popular music is used to Movements on the Floor
increase the activity enjoyment. Rhythmic aerobic exercise 1. Sit-ups or curl-ups can be used in many ways. For
consists of a mixture of fundamental movements—dance example, use four counts: (1) up to the knees,
steps, swinging movements, and stretching exercises. (2) touch the floor, (3) back to the knees, (4) return
Routines are developed to music that has a definite and to the floor. A V-seat can be held for two counts and
rested for two counts.

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 PHYSICAL FITNESS

2. Side-leg raises can be done with a straight leg on the 3. Three Bounces and Clap. Bounce three times and
side or the lower leg can be extended while posi- then clap and bounce on the fourth beat. Turns can
tioned on your back with bent knees. be performed using the four counts.
3. Alternate leg raises are performed in supine posi- 4. Bounce and Rock Side to Side. Transfer weight from
tion with one leg raised to meet the opposite hand. side to side and forward and backward. Add clap-
Repeat using the opposite leg or both legs. ping or arm swinging.
4. Push-ups can be done in two- or four-count move- 5. Bounce with Body Twist. Hold the arms at shoul-
ments. A four count would be as follows: (1) halfway der level and twist the lower body back and forth on
down, (2) touch chest to floor, (3) halfway up, each bounce.
(4) arms fully extended. 6. Bounce with Floor Patterns. Bounce and make
5. Crab kicks and treadmills can be performed to different floor patterns such as a box, diagonal, or
four-count movements. triangle.
7. Bounce with Kick Variations. Perform different
Standing Movements kick variations such as knee lift, kick, knee lift, and
1. Lunge Variations. To perform a lunge, step forward kick; double kicks, knee lift, and slap knees; kick
onto the right foot while bending at the knees and and clap under the knees. Combine the kicks with
extending arms into the air (counts one and two). two- or four-count turns.
Return to the starting position by bringing the right
foot back and pulling arms into a jogging position Activities with Manipulative Equipment
(counts three and four). Vary the exercise by chang-
1. Jump Ropes. Using the jump rope, perform basic
ing the direction of the move or the depth and
steps such as forward, backward, slow, and fast
speed of the lunge.
time. Jump on one foot, cross arms, and jump while
2. Side Bends. Begin with the feet apart. Reach over- jogging. Swing the rope from side to side with the
head while bending to the side. This movement is handles in one hand and jump over it.
usually done to four beats: (1) reach, (2) bend,
2. Beanbags. Toss and catch the beanbags while per-
(3) return, and (4) arm down.
forming various locomotor movements. Challenge
3. Reaches. Alternate reaching upward with the right students using different tosses.
and left arms. Reaches can be done sideways also
3. Hoops. Rhythmically swing the hoop around different
and are usually two-count movements.
body parts. Perform different locomotor movements
4. Arm and Shoulder Circles. Make arm circles with around and over hoops.
one or both arms. Vary the size and speed of the
4. Balls. Bounce, toss, and dribble balls; add locomo-
circles. Shoulder shrugs can be done in similar
tor movements while performing tasks.
fashion.

Jumping-Jacks Variations Sample Routine

1. Arms Alternately Extended. Jump with the arms 1. March, moving arms in large circles.
alternately extended upward and pulled into the 2. Hold a side lunge position and circle the right arm.
chest. Do reverse circling with the left arm.
2. Side Jumping Jacks. Use regular arm action while 3. Bounce forward twice, slapping thighs; then bounce
the feet are kept together for jumping forward, backward twice, thrusting arms in the air.
backward, and sideways. 4. Bounce and clap. Perform a quarter turn on every
3. Variations with Feet. Try forward stride alternating, second bounce. Perform movement clockwise and
forward and side stride alternating, kicks or knee counterclockwise.
lifts, crossing the feet, and a heel–toe step. 5. Do a grapevine step with a clap on the fourth beat.
Repeat it to the left.
Bounce Steps
1. Bounce and Clap. The step is similar to the slow-time 6. Perform a jumping-jack variation, extending arms
jump-rope step. Clap on every other bounce. up and out.
2. Bounce, Turn, and Clap. Make a quarter- or half-turn 7. Bounce and twist.
with each jump. 8. Do a two-count version of side jumping jacks.

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9. Bounce, bounce, bounce, and clap to a four-count ■ Spot weight lifters. Spotters are absolutely necessary
movement. when near-maximum weight is lifted. Exercises
10. Do rhythmic running with a clap on the fourth such as the bench press, squats, and declined presses
beat. While running, move into a circle formation. should always have two students present to spot.

11. Bounce and twist. ■ Check the equipment regularly. Weights should be
checked by the instructor before each period and
12. Perform side leg raises with each leg. by students each time they use them. Collars
13. Do rhythmic running with a clap on every fourth should be tightly fastened, cables checked, and
beat. bolts on machines periodically tightened.
■ Wear wide leather practice belts when heavy lifting
is performed. This prevents injury to the lower back
STRENGTH TRAINING
and abdominal wall.
Most teachers use strength development through strength
training. Physical education programs should instruct ■ Explain all exercises in class before implementation.
students in the use of weights and weight machines for This implies that proper form, points of safety, and
proper development with an emphasis on safety. Using necessary spotting be discussed before students
strength training as an instructional unit is often difficult participate.
because of lack of equipment and facilities.
Repetitions and Sets
Strength-training routines should develop all major
body parts. This prevents the excessive development of There are many theories about the proper number of
specific body parts, which can lead to postural or joint repetitions and sets that need to be performed to achieve
problems. Exercises should be performed through the full optimum results. Repetitions are the number of times a
range of motion. If training is done for a specific sport, it participant performs an exercise to make a set. Each set,
may be important to analyze the sport and develop exer- in turn, consists of a specified number of repetitions of
cises that replicate the range of motion it uses. the same exercise. Determining the proper number of
Strength exercises should be performed at a speed repetitions or sets is difficult. Dozens of experts have
similar to the movements performed in various physical researched this area without agreement. For physical
activities. If a student is involved in an activity requir- education classes, a middle-of-the-road approach is
ing speed, then the exercises should be performed at a probably best. Three sets of 10 repetitions should be per-
similar speed. Similarly, if a student is training for formed for each exercise.
activities demanding high levels of endurance, the exer-
Strength or Endurance?
cises should be designed to increase this attribute.
When the sport or activity demands strength, the train- Muscular strength and endurance are developed using
ing program can be geared to develop muscular different methods. If maximum strength is desired, the
strength. In each case, students should understand pro- exercise program should emphasize heavy strength and
gram differences and be able to develop a personal fewer repetitions. If endurance is the desired outcome,
program. the program should emphasize a high number of repeti-
tions with less strength. Some strength and endurance
will be developed regardless of the type of program, but
Safety major gains will depend on the selected emphasis.
Students must know and practice necessary safety precau-
tions. The following points should be clear and reinforced Frequency and Rest Intervals
regularly. It is wise to post safety rules as a further reminder Frequency is the number of workouts per week. The most
and to avoid possible lawsuits. common pattern is lifting every other day, leaving 3 days
to recover and dissipate waste products. Some participants
■ Perform warm-up exercises before intense lifting. alternate by exercising the upper body and the lower body
These may be a set of calisthenics or a set of strength on different days. This results in a 6-day program while
exercises at a lower level. retaining the day of rest between workouts.
■ Use correct form to prevent injury as well as to The rest interval between repetitions and sets can be
develop strength. When a heavy weight is lifted timed carefully to increase the intensity of the workout. By
from the floor, the lift should be done with bent organizing the exercises in a circuit stressing different
knees, straight back, and head up. muscle groups, the amount of time needed for a total
workout can be reduced. In other words, less recovery

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time is needed between sets if the next exercise places

demands on a different group of muscles.

Body Bar Exercises

Body Bars are new and innovative fitness equipment that
can be used to supplement the strength-training component
of the health club physical education program. Body Bars
are fitness bars that were developed in 1987 and are available
in regular length, which is 4-feet long (3, 6, 9, 12, 15, 18, and
24 lbs.), mini-length, which is 2-feet long (4 and 6 lbs.), and
the heavy model, which is 5-feet long (30 and 36 lbs.). Flex
bars are also available in 3- and 4-foot lengths with varying
resistance depending on the students’ abilities. Most high
school girls should consider the regular length at 18 lbs. Boys
should consider the 18- or 24-lbs. versions or the heavier
models, but it is still an individual approach, so it is nice to
have a variety of lengths and weights.
Body Bars can be combined with stability balls or
medicine balls in a variety of lessons and circuit-training
situations. We suggest the following lifts with the Body
Bars.

Lower Body
■ Squat—quadriceps FIGURE 10 Pull-ups using a Body Bar and
■ Squats with military press—quadriceps and del- two partners
toids
■ Squats with toe raises—quadriceps and gastrocne- Core
mius muscles
■ Sit-ups with bar at chest
■ Lunges—gluteus maximus
In Figure 11, student performs sit-ups using a Body Bar
■ Straight leg dead lift—hamstrings with a partner. The standing partner can perform an arm
■ Wide leg squats and plies—adductors curl with each repetition.
■ Toe raises—gastrocnemius muscles ■ Bar on shelf sit-ups (sit-up with bar at the chest and
then a military press at the top of the sit-up)
Upper Body
Figure 10 depicts a student performing pull-ups using a CARDIO KICKBOXING
Body Bar with the help of two other students. Cardio kickboxing is a popular physical activity that is
offered in many health clubs and fitness centers to attract
■ Bench press—pectorals new participants and motivate continuing members. Cardio
■ Bent-over rows—latissimus dorsi kickboxing—also sometimes known as aerobic kickboxing,
■ Military press—deltoids Tae Bo, or cardio karate—is a rhythmic repetition of boxing
jabs and punches, karate kicks and blows, combined with the
■ Forward raises—deltoids
movements or elements of aerobic dance. This activity can be
■ Standing rowing—deltoids used to attract and challenge all levels of students in the
■ Arm curls—biceps schools. Cardio kickboxing can be incorporated into the pro-
gram as a stand-alone unit or as a part of a variety of fitness
■ Arm curl “sevens”—biceps (seven counts halfway
up and continue seven counts for the second half of
the repetition, followed by seven counts for the full
range of motion during the next repetition).
■ Tricep extensions—triceps

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shoulder turn and a pivot on the rear foot. The uppercut

involves dropping the knee and starting a circular wind-
mill motion with the arm. This is followed by rotating
the hips and extending the knee upward as the punch
comes up and forward. The hook can be performed
with either arm and involves a slight drop of the arm
and a rounded hooking motion to hit the side of the
target. Blocks involve moving either arm upward in an
L shape to block a punch. Flutter jabs can be done
from the center jog stance and involve a burst of con-
tinuous jabs.
Kicks: front, side, and roundhouse
The front kick involves a step with the opposite foot fol-
lowed by bringing the knee up with a flexed ankle and
extending the kick forward. The right side kick involves
stepping sideways with the right foot, then crossing over
with the left foot, bringing the right knee up, and extend-
ing the kick to the side (see Figure 12). The roundhouse
FIGURE 11 Partner sit-ups with a Body Bar kick involves stepping forward with the opposite foot,
raising the kicking leg to a flexed position, pivoting on the
rear foot, and exploding the kick forward with the toes
routines that are a segment of each day’s lesson. Videotapes pointed.
and/or DVDs are available that offer easy-to-understand An effective lesson sequence would involve the following:
instruction in developing lessons and kickboxing routines.
1. Boxer’s jog with bobbing and weaving, jabs and
Start with a direct instruction style with students in a scatter
blocks.
formation by leading students through basic techniques on
the boxer’s stance and shuffle. Then progress into various 2. Left jabs and right jabs.
punches and kicks. Once the basic skills have been learned 3. Left hooks and right hooks.
and students are comfortable, a variety of routines can be
4. Left uppercuts and right uppercuts.
introduced to incorporate all of the skills.
5. Left jab combos (jab, jab, cross) and right jab combos.
Cardio Kickboxing Basic Skills
6. Left forward kicks and right forward kicks.
Boxer’s stance
7. Left side kicks and right side kicks.
This is the ready position for most kicks and punching
activities. Hands are held about chin high, with the domi- 8. Left roundhouse kicks and right roundhouse kicks.
nant hand slightly behind the opposite hand in most 9. Left combo kicks and right combo kicks.
cases. Carry the weight on the balls of the feet, with the
feet pointed straight ahead and the dominant foot to the
rear of the front foot. Most punches require a weight
transfer and a pivot off the rear foot.
Boxer’s center jog stance
This stance involves bouncing on both feet, with the
hands up to the chin, and the feet even, parallel, and
shoulder width apart. This stance is used to lead into the
boxer’s stance described previously. It is also an effective
position to practice bobbing and weaving to each side by
dropping the head and upper body.
Punches and blocks: jab, cross, uppercut,
hook, blocks, and flutter jabs
The jab is with the lead arm and it snaps forward and FIGURE 12 Side kicks in cardio kickboxing
back. The cross is made with the rear arm and involves a

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FIGURE 13 Sparring with partners wearing

sparring mitts

After these skills have been introduced in a scatter for-

mation and students are comfortable performing, all of
these combinations can be put into fun and challenging FIGURE 14 Stretching on the ball
routines with music. One option is to have students mov-
ing in waves across the length of the floor in continuous
movement. When all students get to the opposite end of
the floor, give them a new variation routine to follow for or stretch bands, yoga activities, and Pilates. You can even do
going back across the floor. Remind students to focus on a line dance using the arms and upper body, such as the
their skills and to do their best. The next instructional “Macarena.” Students can use the balls to personalize their
variation is to have partners or small groups work with workouts and improve their performance in other sports or
the sparring mitts so they practice striking the mitts (see activities. There are varying sizes and quality of the balls, so
Figure 13). Remind students that this class is not a self-de- it is important to research prices and sizes.
fense class and the focus is on the physical workout. The
kicks and punches may be the same as a self-defense class, Basic Skills for the Stability or Exercise Ball
but students are not taught the overall philosophy of self- Safety
defense and need to be careful with these ideas.
It is important to teach students safety for getting on and
off the ball and staying on the ball. Always use two hands
STABILITY BALLS and both feet in a stable position and move slowly and
The exercise or stability balls have been gaining popularity carefully. Many activities are performed with the ball
with schools and health clubs and offer an activity that can against the wall or with a partner for stability. It takes time
be done at home, work, or in a club. The physical education and practice to get used to the motion of the ball.
program is an excellent place to get started and learn the
basics of the balls. Activities on the balls can be modified Basic Sit, Lie, All Fours
many ways by varying the position of the ball to ensure that These are basic positions and serve as starting points for
all students are being challenged and can find success many of the exercises. In the sitting position, the feet
quickly. The ball provides an unstable base for exercising and should be shoulder width apart with the thighs parallel to
adds challenge for the core muscles of the stomach, back, the ground and a 90° angle formed with the lower legs.
sides, and buttocks. Many stretching and flexibility activities Good posture should always be practiced (head up, shoul-
can be done on the balls (see Figure 14). Work on the balls ders back, stomach in and relaxed). Have students move
helps to remind students about good posture and proper into the lying position on all fours and move around
alignment of the body. Work on the balls can tie to other ac- slightly side to side, forward and back, and in a circular
tivity programs such as strength training with hand weights motion to get comfortable on the balls (Figure 15).

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 PHYSICAL FITNESS

difficulty of the curl-ups. Hold the hands near the ears

and add a slight twist to each side as you come up.
Squats with the Ball
Move the feet to a shoulder width position with the ball
pressed against a wall. Position the ball in the lower-back
area. Slowly roll down on the ball into a squat position
with the thighs parallel to the floor. Small dumbbells can
be added to increase the strength.
Superperson Challenge Position
A more challenging skill involving multiple muscle groups
begins in the all-fours position while lifting the left arm
and the right leg in superperson style. Work on balance
and then try the opposite side. Next, try both hands held
in the air with one leg and then switch legs. Eventually, try
both arms and legs in the air like the “real” superperson.

Additional Stability Ball Exercises

Lower Body
FIGURE 15 Additional challenges on ■ Wall squats—quadriceps
the ball
■ Lunges with Russian twist—gluteus maximus
■ Woodchoppers with toe raise—quadriceps and gas-
Hand Walk with the Ball (Push-up Variations) trocnemius muscles (place the ball up, over, and
From the all-fours position, move forward by walking the behind the head and then down to the toes)
hands forward until the hips and thighs are on the ball. Try ■ Glute lift (two legs/one leg)—gluteus maximus
to work under control and balance. Continue to move for- ■ Hamstring press—hamstrings
ward until the knees are on the ball and then forward until
■ Hamstring lift—hamstrings
your shins and ankles are on the ball. If you can, try some
slight push-ups in any of these positions (see Figure 16). ■ Adductor presses—adductors
■ Bent-over glute raises—gluteus maximus
Sit-ups on the Ball
Move to a lying position on the ball. Roll forward and Upper Body
lower the buttocks toward the floor while keeping the up- ■ Bench press with Body Bar—pectorals (see
per body more vertical. Try crunches from this position. Figure 17)
Continue to roll back farther up on the ball to increase the ■ Flies with dumbbells—pectorals

FIGURE 17 Bench press with Body Bar on

FIGURE 16 Push-ups on the ball stability ball

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■ Push-ups with legs on ball—pectorals ■ Partner A performs a supine reverse trunk curl,
■ One handed bent-over rows with dumbbell— while partner B performs carioca steps around the
latissimus dorsi perimeter once. The reverse trunk curl is done by ly-
ing flat on the floor with both feet on top of the ball;
■ Military press with Body Bar or dumbbells—deltoids
partner A grips the ball with heels and hamstrings
■ Lateral raises with dumbbells—deltoids and pulls ball in to the body. This is repeated until
■ Forward raises with Body Bar or dumbbells while partner B returns. Partners then switch activities.
performing wall squats—deltoids ■ Partner A uses the stability ball to perform wall
■ Arm curls sitting or preacher curls—biceps squats against a wall, while Partner B performs a
■ Tricep extensions sitting or laying with Body Bar or two-step around the perimeter once. The partners
dumbbells—triceps switch roles.
■ Kickbacks with dumbbells—triceps ■ Partner A performs a hamstring curl, while part-
■ Dips—triceps ner B jogs backward around the perimeter. The
hamstring curl is performed by lying face down
Core on the floor and the stability ball, resting on top
■ Crunches of the hamstrings. Partner A uses his or her heels
to squeeze the ball against the gluteus maximus
■ Hand-to-opposite-knee crunches
for 5–7 seconds. He or she squeezes and releases
■ Plank the ball until partner B returns. The partners
■ Plank knees to chest switch roles.
■ Plank to V ■ Partner A performs a side-lying abduction, while
■ Russian twists (in partial sit-up position, twist left partner B jogs around the perimeter twice.
and right, and touch the ball to the floor) Abduction is performed by starting in a side-lying
position with the bottom leg bent. The top leg is
■ Ball-on-shelf sit-ups extended out to the side with the foot resting on the
■ Hand-to-feet switch floor. Both hands are supported on the front of the
■ Suitcase with ball and barbells (sit on ball and then ball. Partner A slowly abducts the top leg until it is
tilt left and right as if you are holding a suitcase) parallel to the floor then pauses at the top and low-
ers the leg. Partner A repeats this activity until part-
■ Side twists with wall
ner B completes one lap. Partner A then switches
■ Roll outs sides while partner B jogs the second lap. After that,
■ Sit, lay, sit partners switch roles.
■ Partner A performs a side-lying adduction, while
Stability Ball Fitness Routine partner B skips around the perimeter twice.
The following is an example of a stability ball fitness Adduction starts in a side-lying position on the floor
routine developed by Ron Schoenwetter at Greenfield with an elevated leg. The ball is centered under the
Junior High School in Gilbert, Arizona. Students work ankle. The lower leg is flexed to 90 degrees and rests
with a partner and are equipped with a stability ball. on the floor under the top leg. The head rests on one
Partner A performs any type of locomotor movement arm, and the other arm is on the floor in front of the
once or twice around the perimeter (basketball floor, body. Partner A adducts the lower leg until it lifts off
gymnasium, rectangle of cones, etc.), while partner B the floor 3–4 inches, then pauses at the top and
performs an exercise on the stability ball. lowers the leg. Partner A repeats this activity until
partner B finishes his or her first lap; then switch
■ Partner A performs sit-ups, balancing on the stabil- legs on his or her second lap. After that, partners
ity ball, while partner B jogs around the perimeter switch roles.
twice. Upon his or her return, both partners switch ■ Partner A performs a supine leg curl, while partner
roles and repeat the exercise. B performs carioca steps around the perimeter
■ Partner A performs push-ups on the stability ball, once. This begins in a supine position with the heels
while partner B performs a basketball slide around on top of the ball. The hands rest on the floor, and
the perimeter once. When partner B returns, partner the lower back and buttocks are slightly off the
A then slides while partner B performs push-ups. floor. Partner A curls the ball in toward the buttocks

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 PHYSICAL FITNESS

and rolls it back to the starting position. This is Wood Choppers

repeated until partner B returns. Then the partners The student holds the ball between the legs, brings it up
switch roles. above the head, and returns it down between the legs
■ Partner A performs a Russian twist, while partner (simulating chopping wood).
B performs power skips around the perimeter once.
The twist begins with the performer sitting on the Lower-Body/Upper-Body Exercises
floor and the ball on one side of the body. Partner Overhead Lunges/Power Squats
A begins by touching the ball to the floor on each Partners are side by side with one holding the medicine
side of his or her body continuously and as fast as ball above the head. Both partners perform 10 walking
possible. It is important not to sacrifice good tech- lunges. Partners then exchange the ball, change direction,
nique for speed. (An advanced version requires the and continue the activity. This is performed three times
performer to keep his or her feet 3 inches off the each. It is important to keep the knee parallel to the toe
ground throughout the routine). Partner A per- when lunging.
forms this until partner B returns, when the part-
Toss Series A
ners switch roles.
Chest Toss, Overhead Toss, Underhand Toss, Combinations

MEDICINE BALLS ■ Chest Toss. Partners face each other approximately

The medicine ball has gained popularity and can add a 5–10 feet apart. Partners perform a chest pass with
nice challenge for students in a fitness workout. They can the ball back and forth for about 20 seconds. It is
be used in a variety of ways to focus on all parts of the important to keep hands out to give the partner a
body. After students become comfortable with them, they target and to help catch the ball safely.
can be used in a circuit with combinations of other pieces ■ Overhead Toss. Partners stand approximately 5–10
of equipment such as jump bands, jump ropes, or stability feet apart. Partners perform the overhead pass back
balls. We suggest that students start with a partner who and forth for approximately 20 seconds. It is impor-
has about the same height or strength ability. Most girls tant to toss the ball above the partner’s head.
should start with a 2-kg (4.4-lbs.) ball and boys with a
■ Underhand Toss. Partners stand approximately 5–10
3-kg (6.6-lbs.) ball. Organize students in two lines facing
feet apart. Using both hands, each partner tosses the
each other and use the length of the gym to avoid injuries
medicine ball back and forth with an underhand
with overthrows, missed catches, and runaway balls. We
motion for about 20 seconds.
suggest a ball that bounces and has a good grip.
The following is a list of exercises for medicine ball ■ Combinations. After the previous three exercises
routines, developed by Maria Corte at Mesa High School in are completed, they are put into a combination rou-
Mesa, Arizona. Students work in pairs with partners of their tine. Partners complete 10 repetitions of each, one
choice. Each pair is equipped with a 4-lbs. medicine ball. after the other for 60 seconds.
Toss Series B
Warm-ups Left Lateral Toss, Right Lateral Toss, Chest Squat Toss,
Around the World Combinations
One partner has a medicine ball, while the opposite part-
ner faces him or her. Both partners begin by holding the ■ Left Lateral Toss. Partners face each other approxi-
ball or his or her hands above the head. Partner A rotates mately 5–10 feet apart. The partner with the ball
in a clockwise direction, bringing the ball all the way to twists to his or her left and tosses the medicine ball
the floor and back above the head. Partner B does the to his or her partner. Upon catching the ball, the
same without the ball. This is done five times and then the next partner twists to the left and tosses the ball
partners switch directions for five rotations. Then part- back to his or her partner. It is important for both
ners exchange the ball and repeat the activity. partners to bend down as they twist. This exercise is
done for 10 repetitions each.
Good Mornings ■ Right Lateral Toss. Partners face each other approx-
Partners again face each other about 10 feet apart with imately 5–10 feet apart. The partner with the ball
one ball. Keeping the back straight and the ball or hands twists to his or her right and tosses the medicine ball
above the head, both partners bend at the waist and back to his or her partner. Upon catching the ball, the
up to a straight position. It is important to keep the head next partner twists to the right and tosses the ball
up and back straight. back to his or her partner. It is important for both

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partners to bend down as they twist. This exercise is the outside of the area and return to the line. This exercise
done for 10 repetitions each. is repeated for five repetitions each.
■ Chest Squat Toss. Partners face each other approxi- Abdominal Exercises
mately 5–10 feet apart. Both partners simultaneously
Russian Twists
perform a squat. As the partner with the medicine
ball comes up out of his or her squat, he or she gives a Partners sit in pairs, facing the same direction about 5 feet
chest pass to the partner. Both partners perform apart and keeping their feet slightly off the ground. The
squats again. As the partner with the ball comes out of partner on the right side starts with the ball. He or she taps
his or her squat, he or she gives a chest pass back to the ball on the ground to the right side, left side, and then
the partner. This is repeated for 10 repetitions each. right side. After the third tap, he or she passes the ball to the
partner on the left. He or she catches the ball and repeats the
■ Combinations. After the previous three exercises same exercise (left, right, left), then passes the ball back to his
are completed, they are put into a combination rou- or her partner. This sequence is repeated approximately five
tine. Partners complete 10 repetitions of each, one times each. Figure 18 shows the Russian twist with a partner
after the other for 60 seconds. toss.
Cardiovascular Exercises Straddle Chest Passes
1, 2, 3, Switch Chest Passes Partners face each other in a sit-up position. The partner
Partners face each other approximately 5–10 feet apart. with the medicine ball performs a sit-up and makes a chest
Partners perform three chest passes (total) and then run pass to his or her partner, who is in the upright sit-up posi-
to switch places with each other. They continue the exer- tion. The partner catches the ball and performs a sit up. This
cise for 10 repetitions. sequence is repeated approximately 10 times each.
Chest Pass Switch Chest Pass Sit-Ups
Partners face each other approximately 5–10 feet apart. This is performed the same way as straddle chest passes
Partner A gives a chest pass to partner B; then partners with one difference. Both partners perform a sit-up simul-
switch places. The exercise continues for 20 repetitions. taneously as they pass and catch the medicine ball. This
sequence is repeated approximately 10–15 times.
Roll Pass
Partners form two single-file lines approximately 10 feet Standing Twists
apart. The first two partners begin with partner A rolling Partners stand back to back. The partner with the ball turns
the medicine ball diagonally down the court or field. Both to his or her left and hands the medicine ball off to the part-
partners run in a straight line down court. Partner B must ner, who is turning to his or her right. Partners work quickly
pick up the ball and make a diagonal pass back to partner but must maintain a quality position throughout. This
A. At this point, the next group of two may begin. This pattern continues about 10–15 times, then partners change
continues until they have reached the end of the exercise the direction of the handoff for another set of 10–15.
area. Upon finishing, both partners move to the outside of
the area and hustle back to the original lines. This is done
five times each.

Chest Pass
Partners begin in the same formation as the roll pass. Both
partners slide down court while performing chest passes
back and forth. It is important to lead the partner to the
spot where he or she will be at the completion of the pass.
Upon reaching the end of the designated area, both part-
ners move to the outside of the area and return to the line.
This exercise is performed five times each.

1, 2, 3, Switch
This is the same exercise as the chest pass (previous activ-
ity) except that partners must switch places after every FIGURE 18 Russian twist with a partner toss
third chest pass as they slide down the court. Upon reach- using medicine balls
ing the end of the designated area, both partners move to

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Upper Body Exercises order to produce a low-intensity, calorie-burning work-

Plank Hold out that sculpts the muscles. In addition, Pilates works
Partner A assumes the plank position on the floor. Partner the core muscle groups (abdominal, lower back, hips, and
B places the medicine ball on his or her partner’s back. buttocks) to produce a streamlined, longer, leaner body
Partner A must keep the ball steady for approximately look. Advocates argue that Pilates makes them look and
30 seconds. Partners then switch roles and repeat. feel great. Pilates can be added to a physical education
program in many ways. Many books and videos with dif-
Trunk/Plank Rolls ferent combinations of Pilates can be used to get students
Partners face each other in a push-up position about 3 feet started on a program.
apart. One partner rolls the ball diagonally across to his or The following is an example of a beginner sequence of
her partner. The partner receives the pass with one hand exercises:
and then rolls the ball to the other hand. The ball is then
Stretch with Knee Sway
passed diagonally back to the first partner. The activity
continues for 10 transfer passes. Directions of the ball can On your back, pull your knees up to your chest, flatten
be changed to use both hands many times. Figure 19 your lower back, and hold this pose. Then slowly lower
shows the trunk/plank roll. your knees to one side and then the other.

Spinal Rotation
Cool Down
Sitting in a slight straddle position with the legs extended
Cool Down/Stretch
and the arms out to the side, slowly rotate the upper body
Partners sit facing each other on the floor with feet
to the left and right.
spread in a straddle position. The partner with the med-
icine ball begins to roll the ball slowly with his or her The Hundred
fingers toward the partner, stretching the hamstrings
On your back with the legs at a 90° angle, lift the shoulders
and lower back. At the peak of the stretch, he or she
and arms up slightly and exhale five times pressing the
slowly releases the ball to the partner who receives the
hands down and then five times pressing the hands
ball and repeats the stretch. This sequence is repeated
upward. Increase the repetitions until this sequence can be
five times each.
done 10 times for 100 breaths.

PILATES Abdominal Strengthener

The Pilates training program originated with Joseph Lie on your back with hands behind the head and knees
Pilates in Germany more than 80 years ago. The program flexed; exhale and curl up slowly using just the abdominal
has evolved over that time into a popular worldwide exer- muscles. Repeat five to six times. Figure 20 shows another
cise program that has attracted millions of people of abdominal strengthener, the crisscross.
varying ages and physical abilities. It focuses on good
posture, proper breathing, and fundamental exercises
that stretch and strengthen the muscles. Pilates is a set
of exercises done in a dynamic and rhythmic sequence in

FIGURE 19 Trunk/plank roll with a FIGURE 20 The crisscross abdominal

partner strengthener

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 PHYSICAL FITNESS

Lower Abdominal Strengthener

Use the same position as before with a mat under the hips.
Start the knees at 90° with the ankles crossed and slowly
curl the hips up toward your chest.

Rolling Ball
Sit curled up by hugging the ankles and curling the spine.
Slowly roll backward while maintaining the position.
Repeat five to six times. (a)

Single-Leg Stretch
Lie on your back with one leg extended about 12 inches
off the floor. Flex the other leg and bring the knee to
the chest. Hold the flexed leg and raise the shoulders
slowly. Hold the position while rotating the position of
the legs.

Double Straight Leg (b)

Lie on your back, hands behind your head with the legs
FIGURE 21 Side plank with twist in (a) the
pointed toward the ceiling while held tight together. Lift
starting position, and (b) the down position
the chin and shoulders slightly off the mat and lower the
legs about 1 foot. Keep the lower back tight to the floor.
Repeat five to six times.

Forward Spine Stretch and Roll-Ups

Start in a sitting position with the legs and arms extended YOGA
forward. Stretch forward and exhale. Repeat five to six Yoga is one of the most popular fitness practices of
times and then add the roll-up by slowly going backward today. Considering the fast pace and multiple activities
to the mat with the arms extended. of our lives, yoga can provide a mental and physical
focus that helps people deal with their lives. It can be
Bridge implemented into the physical education program as a
Lie on your back with the arms extended, the palms down, brief 10- to 15-minute fitness routine as a part of a four-
and the knees bent. Lift the upper body upwards using the part lesson, as a 2-week unit that meets daily, or as part
abdominal muscles only. Hold for eight counts and repeat of a semester unit that combines many health-club–type
several times. activities such as Pilates, kickboxing, and stability and
medicine ball routines. Yoga has grown in popularity
Back Strengthener because of the variety of holistic mind–body benefits it
can provide for students of any ability level, from excel-
Start in an all-fours position. Lift and extend the opposite
lent athletes to average-skilled students and anyone in
arm and leg and hold the position several seconds and
between those levels. There are many different forms
then switch arms and legs. Repeat several times.
and variations of yoga. Many of these forms focus on
Side Plank with an Oblique Twist multiple topics including breathing, diet, personal be-
havior, meditation, relaxation, stress management, and
In Figure 21, students demonstrate the starting position of
health promotion. It can be a wonderful addition to
Pilates exercise side plank with twist (a), and the twist
your program.
down to the floor. (b)

Total Rest Pose Power Yoga

Start in an all-fours position. Push the hips to your heels Power yoga is an active form of yoga that links a flowing
and your stomach to your thighs. Slowly extend the arms sequence of poses together in continual succession. The
forward with your palms flat on the floor and hold for a sequence of poses or postures are designed to warm up
longer count. the body, increase circulation, improve muscular strength

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 PHYSICAL FITNESS

FIGURE 22 Star position

FIGURE 24 Sun salutation

■ Child’s Pose
■ Downward-facing Dog
■ Mountain Pose
FIGURE 23 Triangle pose
■ Stork to Knee
■ Stork to Thigh
and endurance, increase flexibility and range of motion, ■ Side Bending
and relieve mental and physical stress. ■ Star (see Figure 22)

Strength Yoga ■ Forward Lunge

Strength yoga incorporates more challenging arm balanc- ■ Plank
ing poses into the power yoga sequence to help develop ■ Seal
muscular strength in the upper body and improve posture.
This workout is effective in improving physical perform- ■ Triangle (see Figure 23)
ance and confidence, releasing tension, and promoting ■ Forward Lunge with Yoga Arms
peace of mind.
■ Proud Warrior

Basic Beginning Poses ■ Downward-facing Dog with Leg Lift

The following are recommended poses for your begin- ■ Side One Arm
ning classes. Students need to learn these yoga terms ■ Side One Arm with Leg Lift
and poses. It will take beginners a while to get comfort-
able with them and feel like they are having success. ■ Sun Salutation (see Figure 24)
Detailed information on all of these poses is available ■ Triceps Plank
from many sources including Internet searches, DVDs, ■ L Sit
and texts in our suggested readings. Most state and
district AAHPERD associations will provide yoga infor- ■ Rocking Horse
mation and certifications. ■ Relaxation Supine with Breathing
■ Basic Sitting ■ Yoga Sitting
■ Breathing Arms ■ Side Leans

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 PHYSICAL FITNESS

STUDY STIMULATORS Corbin, C. B., & Pangrazi, R. P. (2004). Physical activity for
children: A statement of guidelines for children ages
AND REVIEW QUESTIONS 5–12 (2nd ed.). Reston, VA: National Association for
Sport and Physical Education.
1. What are the main differences between the
Corbin, C. B., Welk, G. J., Corbin, W. R., & Welk, K. A. (2008).
criterion-referenced and norm-referenced fitness Concepts of fitness and wellness: A comprehensive
tests? lifestyle approach (7th ed.). Boston: McGraw-Hill.
2. Identify the different types of standards often Craig, C. (2003). Pilates on the ball. Rochester, VT: Healing
used with health-related and skill-related fitness Arts Press.
tests. Darst, P. W., Pangrazi, R. P., & Stillwell, B. (1995). Middle
3. Explain the influence of heredity on students’ school physical education—Make it more exciting.
ability to perform well on physical fitness tests. Journal of Physical Education, Recreation, and Dance,
4. What are the consequences of the belief that 66(8), 8–9.
physical activity and fitness performance are Fronske, H. (2008). Teaching cues for sport skills (4th ed.).
San Francisco: Benjamin Cummings.
highly related?
Gallagher-Mundy, C. (2004). Exercise ball for beginners.
5. Discuss the basis for the recommendation that
New York: HarperCollins.
every U.S. adult should accumulate 60 minutes Glasser, W. (1985). Positive addiction. New York: Harper
or more of moderate to vigorous physical activ- and Row.
ity on most, preferably all, days of the week. Groves, B. (2002). Weight training. In N. Dougherty (Ed.),
6. Describe the main purpose for the development Physical activity and sport for the secondary school
of the Physical Activity Pyramid. student (5th ed.). Reston, VA: NASPE and AAHPERD.
7. Explain why “lifestyle activities” make up the Hedley, A. A., Ogden C. L., Johnson, C. L., Carroll, M. D.,
base of the Physical Activity Pyramid. Curtin, L. R., & Flegal, K. M. (2004). Prevalence of
8. Discuss four strategies teachers should employ overweight and obesity among U.S. children, adoles-
to create more positive fitness experiences for cents, and adults, 1999–2002. Journal of the American
Medical Association, 291(23), 2847–2850.
students.
Herbert, R. D., & Gabriel, M. (2002). Effects of stretching
9. What guidelines are offered for flexibility and
before and after exercising on muscle soreness and
stretching exercises? risk of injury: Systematic review. British Medical
10. What legacy should a quality physical education Journal, 325, 468–470.
program offer its graduates? Issurin, V., Lustig, G., & Szopa, J. (2004). Determinant of
heredity related trainability. Journal of Human
Kinetics, 11, 35–46.
WEBSITES Macfarlane, P. A. (1993). Out with the sit-up, in with the
curlup. Journal of Physical Education, Recreation, and
Fitness for Youth
Dance, 64(6), 62–66.
www.americanheart.org/presenter McCurdy, K. W., Langford, G. A., & Maina, M. P. (2004).
www.cdc.gov/nccdphp/dash/presphysactrpt Inclusion of appropriate resistance exercises in physi-
www.fitnessgram.net cal education. Teaching Elementary Physical
Education, 15(3), 30–34.
Physical Activity Reports
Mood, D. P., Musker, F. F., & Rink, J. E. (2007). Sports and
www.cdc.gov/nccdphp/sgr/sgr recreational activities (14th ed.). Boston: McGraw-Hill.
www.health.gov/healthypeople Morrow, J. R., Zhu, W., Franks, D., Meredith, M. D., &
Spain, C. (2009). 1958–2008: 50 years of youth fitness
Physical Fitness Assessment
tests in the United States. Research Quarterly for
www.fitnessgram.net Exercise and Sport, 80, 1–11.
www.presidentschallenge.org Morrow, J.R., & Freedson, P.S. (1994). Relationship between
habitual physical activity and aerobic fitness in adoles-
cents. Pediatric Exercise Science, 6, 315-329.
REFERENCES AND National Association for Sport and Physical Education.
(2004). Physical activity for children: A statement of
SUGGESTED READINGS guidelines (2nd ed.). Reston, VA: Author.
American College of Sports Medicine. (2000). Guidelines for Pangrazi, R. P. (2000). Promoting physical activity for
exercise testing and prescription (6th ed.). Baltimore, youth. The ACHPER Healthy Lifestyles Journal, 47,
MD: Williams and Wilkins. 18–21.
Austin, D. (2002). Pilates for everybody. New York: Rodale. Pangrazi, R. P. (1994). Teaching fitness in physical educa-
Brown, C. (2004). The Pilates Program for everybody. tion. In R. R. Pate & R. C. Hohn (Eds.), Health and fitness
Pleasantville, NY: Reader’s Digest with Tucker Slingsby through physical education (pp. 75–80). Champaign, IL:
Ltd. Human Kinetics Publishers.
Cooper Institute, Meredith, M., & Welk, G. (Eds.). (2004). Pangrazi, R. P., & Corbin, C. B. (1994). Teaching strategies
Fitnessgram test administration manual (3rd ed.). for improving youth fitness (2nd ed.). Reston, VA:
Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics Publishers. AAHPERD.
Corbin, C. B., & Pangrazi, R. P. (1992). Are American chil- Pate, R. R., Wang, C. Y., Dowda, M., Farrell, S. W., & O’Neil,
dren and youth fit? Research Quarterly for Exercise J. R. (2006). Cardiorespiratory fitness levels among US
and Sport, 63(2), 96–106. youth 12 to 19 years of age: Findings from the

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1999–2002 National Health and Nutrition Examination U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. (1996).
Survey. Archives of Pediatric and Adolescent Medicine, Physical activity and health: A report of the surgeon
160, 1005–1012. general. Atlanta, GA: U.S. Department of Health and
Sallis, J. F., & Patrick, K. (1994). Physical activity guidelines Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and
for adolescents: Consensus statement. Pediatric Prevention, National Center for Chronic Disease
Exercise Science, 6(4), 302–314. Prevention and Health Promotion.
Schmottlach, N., & McManama, J. (2006). The physical U.S. Public Health Service. (1990). Healthy people 2000:
education handbook (11th ed.). San Francisco: Benjamin National health promotion and disease preventive
Cummings. objectives. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing
Swaim, D., & Edwards, S. (2003). High school healthy Office.
hearts in the zone: A heart rate monitoring pro- U.S. Public Health Service. (2000). Healthy people 2010:
gram for lifelong fitness. Champaign, IL: Human National health promotion and disease objectives.
Kinetics. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.
Swaim, D., & Edwards, S. (2002). Middle school healthy Walters, R. S. (2002). Aerobic fitness. In N. Dougherty (Ed.),
hearts in the zone: A heart rate monitoring pro-gram Physical activity and sport for the secondary school stu-
for lifelong fitness. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. dent (5th ed.). Reston, VA: NASPE and AAHPERD.

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Monitoring Lifestyle
Physical Activity

From Chapter 15 of Dynamic Physical Education for Secondary Schools, Seventh Edition. Paul W. Darst, Robert P. Pangrazi, Mary Jo Sariscsany,
Timothy A. Brusseau, Jr. Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. Published by Pearson Benjamin Cummings. All rights reserved.
 Promoting and
Monitoring Lifestyle
Physical Activity
ESSENTIAL COMPONENTS OF
A QUALITY PROGRAM
I. Organized around content standards
▲

II. Student-centered and developmentally

appropriate
▲

III. Physical activity and motor skill develop-

ment form the core of the program
IV. Teaches management skills and
self-discipline
▲

V. Promotes inclusion of all students

VI. Focuses on process over product
▲

VII. Promotes lifetime personal health

and wellness
VIII. Teaches cooperation and responsibility
and promotes sensitivity to diversity

NATIONAL STANDARDS FOR

PHYSICAL EDUCATION*
1. Demonstrates competency in motor skills
and movement patterns needed to perform
a variety of physical activities.
2. Demonstrates understanding of movement
concepts, principles, strategies, and tactics as
they apply to the learning and performance
of physical activities.
▲ ▲

3. Participates regularly in physical activity.

4. Achieves and maintains a health-enhancing
level of physical fitness.
5. Exhibits responsible personal and social
behavior that respects self and others in
physical activity settings.
▲

6. Values physical activity for health, enjoyment,

challenge, self-expression, and/or social *National Association for Sport and Physical Education
interaction. (NASPE), 2004.

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 PROMOTING AND MONITORING LIFESTYLE PHYSICAL ACTIVITY

Physical activity or physical fitness? Which of these out-

Chapter Summary comes should physical education focus on in its quest to
better serve students? It depends on each student’s needs
This chapter explains the differences between physi-
and desires. For too long, physical education teachers
cal fitness and physical activity and how different
students will choose one over the other based on determined what was best for all students regardless of
their personal needs. The Physical Activity Pyramid their condition, ages, maturity levels, or abilities. Many
gives students a concrete explanation of how they teachers felt pressured to try and improve their student’s
should plan for and incorporate physical activity level of physical fitness as measured by fitness testing.
into their daily lifestyles. The focus is on adding at To this day, when teachers are asked to be accountable
least 60 minutes of moderate to vigorous activity to
for their programs, the majority select fitness testing.
their daily routine.
Pedometers can be an important tool for teach- However, high levels of fitness for all students is a difficult,
ers and students in promoting adequate amounts if not impossible, outcome. Obesity continues to increase
of physical activity. Pedometers are accurate when across the country, and national fitness levels show little if
students learn how to find the best placement any improvement. Students who are overweight, unskilled,
point on their bodies. Goal setting can be easily or not genetically predisposed to physical fitness improve-
done using pedometers, which measure either ment often try to avoid physical education classes in mid-
steps or activity time. Students can set personal
goals that are within reach to ensure continued
dle school and high school. What could be done differently
motivation. Guidelines for teachers are offered for to better meet the needs of all youth? Is it possible that we
using pedometers in physical education classes. are failing the youth we want to help the most?
Finally, teachers are urged to use pedometers to Based on an examination of the problems described in
measure the effectiveness of their physical edu- the previous paragraph, it is clear that two distinctly differ-
cation programs. Showing an increase in physical ent outcomes for physical education serve students with
activity outside the school environment may be
different needs. That is why this book separates physical fit-
one of the most positive aspects of a quality physi-
cal education program. ness and physical activity into two separate and distinct
Walking is the “real” lifestyle activity. It can be chapters. Physical activity is defined as bodily movement
done anywhere with a minimum of equipment, and that is produced by the contraction of skeletal muscle and
all youth can walk. Walking is also an effective tool that substantially increases energy expenditure (Corbin &
for teaching students to deal with weight manage- Pangrazi, 2004). Physical activity is an umbrella term that
ment issues. A schoolwide walking program can be
looks at the process of moving. Such movement could take
implemented to help create an “active school.”
Many walking activities are included for use in and on different forms such as exercise, sports, and leisure activ-
outside of physical education classes. ity. In contrast, physical fitness is a set of attributes that peo-
ple have or achieve relating to their ability to perform physi-
Student Outcomes cal activity. Whereas physical activity is a process-oriented
After reading this chapter, you will be able to: outcome related to behavior and lifestyle, physical fitness is a
• Describe why activity is more important than fit-
product outcome with an emphasis on achieving a higher
ness for ensuring health. state of being. The vast majority of people are not interested
• Know the different parts of the Physical Activity in achieving and maintaining a high level of physical fit-
Pyramid and why each level is important for opti- ness but may be more receptive to living an active lifestyle.
mal health. Similarly, most students who are nonathletes are not
• Understand how to identify moderate to vigorous interested in the product of physical fitness but might
physical activity. be receptive to learning lifestyle physical activities.
• Know how to use pedometers and to help stu- Therefore, this chapter focuses on the process of being phys-
dents learn where to place the pedometer for ically active for good health.
highest accuracy.
• Help students design personal goals for activity.
• Implement the use of pedometers in a physical
education setting.
PHYSICAL ACTIVITY FOR
• Understand why pedometers can be used to meas- ADOLESCENTS
ure program activity outcomes. A consensus statement of guidelines for physical activity
• Express the role of physical activity in maintaining for adolescents was developed by a board of experts and
proper body weight. serves as a guide for teachers (USDHHS, 2008). The guide-
• Implement a schoolwide walking program. lines are designed to give teachers and parents a clear

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 PROMOTING AND MONITORING LIFESTYLE PHYSICAL ACTIVITY

prescription for the amount and type of activity youth One MET equals calories expended at rest (resting
require. Adolescents should do 60 minutes or more of metabolism). Two METs indicate activity that is twice as
physical activity daily. The guidelines for children and ado- intense. Three METs require three times as much energy
lescents focus on three types of activity: aerobic, muscle- and so on. Activities of three METs or less are considered
strengthening, and bone-strengthening. Each type has light activities. Examples are strolling (slow walking), slow
important health benefits: stationary cycling, stretching, golfing with a motorized
cart, fishing (sitting), bowling, vacuuming, and riding a
■ Aerobic activities should be done for 60 minutes
mower (Ainsworth et al., 2000). Activity that expends four
daily and include either moderate or vigorous inten-
to six times the energy expended at rest (four to six METs)
sity activity. At least three days a week, vigorous
is considered to be moderate to vigorous in nature.
activity should be done continuously for 20 minutes
Examples of activity at this level include brisk walking,
or more. Running, hopping, skipping, jumping rope,
racquet sports, and lawn mowing with a power mower.
swimming, dancing, and bicycling are all examples of
The activity prescription for adolescents does not
aerobic activities. Aerobic activities increase cardiores-
discourage or downplay the value of vigorous activity.
piratory fitness.
Activities done at seven METs or higher are considered
■ Muscle-strengthening activities should be done as vigorous in nature. They include very brisk walking, walk-
part of the 60 minutes or more of physical activity ing uphill, jogging, relatively fast cycling, active involve-
at least three days a week. Muscle-strengthening ment in many sports, lawn mowing with a hand mower,
activities can be unstructured and part of play, such and doing exercise routines such as aerobic dance. For
as climbing trees, and playing tug-of-war. Or these years, students have been told that aerobic activity must
activities can be structured such as lifting weights be continuous to be beneficial. A major implication of the
or working with resistance bands. new recommendation is that activity can be beneficial
■ Bone-strengthening activities produce a force on even if accumulated in several shorter bouts of activity
the bones that promotes bone growth and strength. throughout the day. For example, 30 minutes of walking
These should be included in the 60 minutes or and 30 minutes of aerobic dance done at different times of
more of physical activity. This force is commonly the day, or three 20-minute intervals of continuous cycling
produced by impact with the ground. Running, would meet the daily physical activity prescription.
jumping rope, basketball, tennis, and hopscotch are Expending calories in activity that equals 60 minutes
all examples of bone-strengthening activities. As of MVPA (walking briskly) each day (1,000 to 2,000 kcal
these examples illustrate, bone-strengthening activ- per week) achieves health benefits similar to performance-
ities can also be aerobic and muscle-strengthening. related fitness training. There many ways to prescribe
physical activity for good health. Different forms of activ-
ity have different benefits; it is appropriate to use one
MODERATE TO VIGOROUS PHYSICAL set of guidelines or recommendations to achieve good
ACTIVITY (MVPA) health while using another set of guidelines to enhance the
What is moderate to vigorous intensity activity? Experts fitness levels of those interested in performance (see
generally agree on what constitutes light, moderate, and Figure 1).
vigorous physical activity. Metabolic equivalent of tasks The activity recommendations cover a broad range of
(METs) (resting metabolic rate) are used to quantify activity. moderate to vigorous activities, including those that can

Skill-Related Fitness Health-Related

Prescription Model Fitness Prescription

Frequency Three days per week Physical activity every day or almost every day (walking,
climbing stairs, gardening, doing housework, exercising)

Intensity 65%–85% of predicted Moderate intensity activity (equivalent to brisk walking)

maximum heart rate

Time Minimum of 20 minutes Accumulate 30 minutes or more of activity throughout

per exercise session the day

FIGURE 1 Guidelines for skill-related and health-related fitness

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 PROMOTING AND MONITORING LIFESTYLE PHYSICAL ACTIVITY

✔Teaching Tip: Moderate to Vigorous Activity Pacing

It is a good idea to get students to learn to move at an (swinging arms and increased speed) for one minute
MVPA pace. MVPA is typically the minimum intensity while counting their steps. In most cases, the number
level needed to maximize health benefits. Teach will range from 90 to 140 steps per minute depending
students how many steps per minute they should walk on the size and condition of the student. Once a stu-
to attain MVPA. Since the Pyramid equates an MVPA dent finds how many steps per minute equates to a
walk to a brisk walk, have students walk quickly brisk walk, they can monitor themselves.

be done as part of work or normal daily routines as well as Level 2: Active Aerobic Activities
during free time. These recommendations are useful for Level 2 of the pyramid includes active aerobic activities.
students who do not like highly intense physical activity. Aerobic activities are those performed at a pace for which
Many people remain sedentary or drop out of activity the body can supply adequate oxygen to meet the demands
because they believe that exercise is only beneficial when it of the activity. Because lifestyle activities meet this crite-
is vigorous, high-intensity activity. The new recommenda- rion, they are aerobic in nature. However, in the pyramid,
tions make it easier for sedentary people to see the value in active aerobics refers to those aerobic activities that ele-
performing daily moderate activity. vate the heart rate to a relatively high level. In other words,
this level includes aerobic activities using the skill-related
fitness formula for target heart rate. Examples of popular
THE PHYSICAL ACTIVITY PYRAMID moderate-to-vigorous active aerobics include aerobic
The Physical Activity Pyramid (Figure 2) is a prescription dance, step aerobics, jogging, brisk walking, moderate-
model for good health that helps students understand how to-vigorous swimming, and biking. Middle and high
much and what type of activity they need. The activity school students should perform the more vigorous activi-
pyramid offers a visual approach to activity prescription. It ties at Level 2 three days a week for at least 20 minutes.
is useful because people have become confused in recent
years by scientific reports concerning the amount of physi- Level 2: Active Sports
cal activity necessary to produce health and fitness benefits.
and Recreational Activities
The Physical Activity Pyramid helps students understand
Also on Level 2 of the Physical Activity Pyramid are active
that there are many different types of beneficial activity. It
sports and recreation. Some examples of active sports are
classifies activity into six different types and shows how
basketball, tennis, hiking, racquetball, and volleyball. Like
each type has its own unique FITT (frequency, intensity,
active aerobics, this type of activity is typically more vigor-
time, and type) formula and benefits.
ous than lifestyle physical activity. Sports involve vigorous
bursts of activity with brief rest periods. Though they are
DESCRIBING TYPES OF PHYSICAL
often not truly aerobic in nature, when they are done with-
ACTIVITIES IN THE PYRAMID out long rest periods they have many of the same benefits as
Level 1: Lifestyle Physical Activities aerobic activities.
At the base of the Physical Activity Pyramid is lifestyle Some sports are not vigorously active and should be
physical activity. Lifestyle physical activities are those considered lifestyle physical activities. For example, golf is
people can do as part of their regular everyday work or more like the activity received from walking to work rather
daily routine. Examples of such activities include doing than the more vigorous activity generated in tennis or
yard work and delivering the mail. Of course, there are basketball. It is beneficial but not vigorous in nature.
ways of doing lifestyle physical activity other than Recreational activities such as rock climbing or canoeing are
working at an active job. For example, someone who not considered to be sports by some people. Nevertheless,
sits at a desk for most of the day can get lifestyle activ- they can be used to meet the moderate-to-vigorous activity
ity by walking or riding a bicycle to work rather than recommendation if performed vigorously.
driving a car. Other lifestyle physical activities can be
done in or around the home. For teens, raking the Level 3: Flexibility Activities
leaves, mowing the lawn, walking to the store, and car- Flexibility is the ability to use joints through a full range of
rying the groceries are lifestyle activities. Housework motion as a result of having long muscles and elastic con-
that requires using the large muscles of the body is also nective tissues. There are, no doubt, some activities from
lifestyle physical activity. Level 1 and Level 2 of the pyramid that help build flexibility

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 PROMOTING AND MONITORING LIFESTYLE PHYSICAL ACTIVITY

LEVEL 4
Limit Sedentary Living
Watching TV Avoid inactive periods
Playing computer of two hours or more
games during the day (or
Surfing the Internet during waking hours).

LEVEL 3
Flexibility Muscle Fitness
Activities Activities
Stretching Resistance training
Yoga Calisthenics
Gymnastics Wall climbing
F = 3–7 days/week F = 2–3 days/week
I = Moderate stretch I = Moderate to vigorous
T = 15 to 60 seconds, resistance
1 to 3 sets T = 8 to 12 reps, 1 to 3 sets

LEVEL 2
Active Sports and Active Aerobic
Recreational Activites Activities
In-line skating Canoeing Biking Aerobic dance
Basketball Hiking Jogging Swimming
Tennis Dancing Running Treadmill
Step aerobics Stair stepper
F = 3–6 days/week F = 3–6 days/week
I = Moderate to vigorous I = Moderate to vigorous
(increased heart rate) T = 20 or more minutes
T = 20 or more minutes

LEVEL 1
Lifestyle Physical Activities
Walk rather than ride F = All or most days of the week
Take the stairs I = Moderate (equal to brisk walking)
Do yard work T = 30 or more minutes
Play golf
Go bowling
Play active games

Accumulate moderate activity from the pyramid on all or most days

of the week, and vigorous activity at least three days a week.
Eating well helps you stay active and fit.

FIGURE 2 Physical activity pyramid

Data from C. B. Corbin and R. Lindsay (2007). Fitness for Life, 5th ed., Human Kinetics, Champaign, IL.
Reprinted with permission.

to some extent. Still, to develop this part of fitness, it is nec- such as sports, can contribute to the development of the
essary to do special flexibility exercises that involve stretch- two parts of muscle fitness. But most experts agree that if
ing the muscles and using the joints through their full range you want to improve muscle fitness, you need to do some
of normal motion. For this purpose, stretching exercises exercises especially designed to build it.
are best. The American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM,
Flexibility exercises should be done at least 3 days a 2000) recommends that muscle fitness exercises be done
week and can be done every day. The intensity requires a at least 2 days a week. Exercises for several different muscle
stretch beyond normal to a point of mild discomfort. Each groups (8 to 10) should be done using a percentage of the
exercise is performed several times for 10 to 30 seconds. It maximum weight you can lift. The percentage (intensity)
is important to perform exercises for each of the body’s depends on the type of muscle fitness to be developed.
major muscle groups. Each exercise should be performed eight to 12 times
(a set). The ACSM notes, “While more frequent training
Level 3: Muscle Fitness Activities and additional sets or combination of sets and repetitions
Muscle fitness includes strength and muscular endurance. elicit larger strength gains, the additional improvement is
Some of the activities from Levels 1 and 2 of the pyramid, relatively small” (ACSM, 2000, p. 160).

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✔Teaching Tip: Using Balance and Moderation

Help students understand that balance and moderation students to focus on strength. Lifestyle physical activity
are good goals when it comes to lifestyle physical activity. should have a balance to it and the physical activity
Too often, teachers like to teach fitness and physical pyramid shows how many types of activities can be
activities in which they excel. If a teacher is a distance beneficial, such as aerobics, recreation, and strength
runner, they think everybody should run long distances. training. Moderation will encourage students to be
If weight lifting is the teacher’s thing, they want their active throughout life, and help them avoid burn-out.

Level 4: Inactivity–Sedentary Living active, active aerobics and active sports and recreation
At the top of the pyramid is inactivity. Some inactivity provide health and fitness benefits in addition to those
is not necessarily bad. For example, we need adequate provided by regular lifestyle activity. For those with little
amounts of sleep, and after vigorous exercise, rest is free time, regular activity from Level 2 can substitute for
important. Also, there are benefits associated with activi- lifestyle activity, though participation at both levels is en-
ties that are fairly sedentary. Nevertheless, the Physical couraged. Like lifestyle activities, the activities at this level
Activity Pyramid is designed to provide information provide broad general health benefits. It is for this reason
about the benefits of regular physical activity. Sedentary that these activities are placed at Level 2. It should be
living as a lifestyle is discouraged. Long periods of inactiv- noted that the more vigorous nature of the activities make
ity during the hours of the day when you are awake should them difficult for some people to perform, and for this
be limited. People who excessively sit and watch television reason, they may not be as appealing to as many students
or who spend all of their free time playing video games are as activities at Level 1.
not getting the activity they need for good health. At Level 3, are exercises designed to build flexibility and
muscle fitness. Performing exercises of either type builds
physical fitness that contributes to improved performance
UNDERSTANDING THE LEVELS in various jobs and in active sports. Muscle fitness has also
OF PHYSICAL ACTIVITY been associated with reduced risk of osteoporosis, and both
types of exercises when prescribed and performed appro-
The primary reason for arranging the pyramid into six
priately are thought to contribute to reduced rate of injury
types and four levels is associated with the benefits that
and less risk of back problems.
result from each activity type. Those activities having broad
It is obvious why rest and inactivity are at the top of the
general health and wellness benefits for large numbers of
pyramid (Level 4). In general, they do not provide health
people are placed at the base of the pyramid.
benefits.
Lifestyle activity is placed at the base of the pyramid
A secondary reason guiding the placement of activi-
because scientific evidence indicates that inactive people who
ties is frequency of the activity. As the level in the pyramid
begin regular exercise have the most to gain. Physical Activity
increases, the frequency of participation decreases. Those
and Health: A Report of the Surgeon General (USDHHS, 1996)
activities at Level 1 should be performed daily. Those at
points out that our nation could reap great health and eco-
Levels 2 and 3 can be performed fewer days per week, and
nomic benefits if the 24 percent of our population who are
inactivity (Level 4) is something that should be limited on
totally sedentary would begin modest amounts of regular
all days of the week.
physical activity. Further, those who are only occasionally
active could also benefit by meeting the standards for lifestyle
activity suggested in Level 1 of the pyramid. The benefits at
this level are wide ranging, including reduced risk of various PEDOMETERS AND MODERATE
diseases such as heart disease, diabetes, and cancer. The extra
calories expended in doing these activities are also useful in
TO VIGOROUS PHYSICAL
controlling body fat and reducing the risk of obesity. Wellness ACTIVITY
benefits include increased functional capacity as well as im- Pedometers are a natural fit for a chapter on the promotion of
proved quality of life. physical activity because their primary function is to measure
At Level 2 are the more vigorous activities. Scientific the daily amount of physical activity a person accumu-
reports suggest that for those people who are already lates. Pedometers generally measure the quantity of physical

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 PROMOTING AND MONITORING LIFESTYLE PHYSICAL ACTIVITY

activity, although newer models can measure the intensity Follow these steps to determine your MVPA threshold:
and duration of activity. Early pedometers were mechanical
1. Take a short walk (2–3 minutes) to warm up and
and used a moving lever arm to count steps. Electronic
get ready for MVPA.
pedometers now detect movement through a spring-loaded,
counterbalanced mechanism that records vertical acceleration 2. After the warm up, increase your speed to a brisk
at the hip. Pedometers are small, unobtrusive, and easily walk (the current ACSM definition of MVPA).
fastened to a belt or waistband. In their most basic form, Usually, this means moving at a pace you have to
pedometers measure the number of steps a person takes. think about versus merely strolling along. When
Counting steps is an effective way to measure how active a you have identified what you think is a brisk walk-
person is throughout the day, even though pedometers can’t ing speed for you, go to step 3.
measure all types of activity. Because pedometers are not 3. Put your pedometer in the step mode, clear it, and
waterproof, they can’t measure swimming activity. Also, walk briskly for 1 minute. At the end of the minute,
pedometers don’t accurately measure activities on wheels stop and open your pedometer to see the number of
such as bicycling, skateboarding, and in-line skating. steps you accumulated while walking. That number
However, because most of the physical activity people accu- is your steps per minute count.
mulate is over land, pedometers are still one of the best ways
4. Enter your MVPA step count threshold into the
to measure physical activity for young and old alike. Using
pedometer. The FITstep pedometer can be set at
pedometers to measure the physical activity levels of youth is
8 levels starting with a low value of 80 SPM to a
now an accepted instructional and research methodology
high value of 150 SPM. All activity you accumulate
(Beighle, Pangrazi, & Vincent, 2001; Crouter, Schneider,
over your MVPA threshold level will accumulate in
Karabulut, & Bassett Jr., 2003; Vincent-Graser, Pangrazi,
the “MVPA time” counter on the pedometer.
& Vincent, 2007).
A number of pedometers on the market have features
other than just the counting of steps. Some of the more THE ACCURACY OF PEDOMETERS
common measures include distance covered and caloric Activity recommendations in terms of daily minutes of
expenditure. To measure distance covered, the length physical activity for youth (Corbin & Pangrazi, 2004;
of the step must be entered into the pedometer. The USDHHS, 2008) and adults (USDHHS, 2008) have created
pedometer then calculates distance covered by multiply- an interest in accurately measuring personal movement.
ing the step length times the number of steps. To measure When people are asked to recall and report the amount
energy expenditure, a number of factors must be entered of activity they performed throughout the previous day,
into the pedometer such as weight and stride length. most find it difficult to quantify how active they were.
Based on the number of steps taken, the pedometers Additionally, it may be that the recall was done on a day
calculate the number of kilocalories expended. Newer that is not typical, resulting in an underestimation or
pedometers have a function that measures exercise time. overestimation of physical activity. With young people,
Every time a person moves, the pedometer starts accumu- some type of objective measuring tool is helpful for docu-
lating time. When the person stops moving, the timing menting activity levels because it avoids dependency on
function stops. This function shows the total hours and recollection and reading of questionnaires. The pedome-
minutes of exercise time accumulated throughout the day. ter is an objective activity-measuring instrument that has
The measurement of activity time is a more accurate indi- been studied by a number of researchers. A recent study
cator of a person’s activity level. (Crouter, Schneider, Karabulut, & Bassett Jr., 2003) evalu-
One of the criticisms of pedometers has been that ated the validity of 10 different electronic pedometers and
they are not able to monitor the intensity of physical found them to be “most accurate.” A similar study
activity. However, new pedometers such as the Gopher (Schneider, Crouter, Lukajic, & Bassett Jr., 2003) examined
FITstep© pedometer allows you to measure moderate to the reliability and accuracy of 10 pedometers over a 400-m
vigorous physical activity (MVPA). Most experts agree walk with similar results.
that MVPA activity offers the most health benefits. This A limitation of pedometers is that they are less accu-
pedometer is user adjustable so the MVPA threshold can rate when people move slowly (less than 4 km/h) or walk
be set based on the average number of steps taken per with an uneven gait (Crouter, Schneider, Karabulut, &
minute. In other words, when a user moves at a speed over Bassett Jr., 2003). Pedometers depend on a fairly consis-
their selected MVPA threshold, they accumulate both tent up and down motion with each step, and an uneven
MVPA time and total activity time. When they move at a or slow gait may not create enough movement for the
speed slower than their selected MVPA threshold, they pedometer to measure. Pedometers overestimated dis-
only accumulate total activity time. tance covered at slower speeds and underestimated actual

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distance at higher speeds. Caloric expenditure was most same container, record their steps or activity time on the
often overestimated (Crouter, Schneider, Karabulut, & sheet next to their container, and prepare to exit class. This
Bassett Jr., 2003). These errors in distance and energy procedure of learning to secure, fasten, and put away
expenditure are not surprising considering they are all the pedometer is critical for successful integration of pe-
based on consistency of step length and walking speed. dometers into the program. Allied to this procedure are
Throughout a day of activities, it is most likely that both two basic rules:
step length and walking speed will vary. Another factor
that contributes to the error is that some pedometers 1. “You shake it, we take it.” The pedometer can be
require the stride length to be entered in 3-inch intervals, damaged by hard shaking and requires a very small
thus resulting in overestimating or underestimating dis- up and down motion to record steps. The purpose
tance covered. of using pedometers is to accurately record steps,
Undercounting errors may also occur with highly and falsely recording steps is strongly discouraged.
overweight students because of the placement of the In most cases, the pedometer is taken from the stu-
pedometer. On these students, the orientation of the dent, but he or she can use at the next class meeting.
pedometer is often tilted away from the vertical plane and 2. “Once off, forever off.” This rule stipulates that once
moved toward the horizontal plane by excess body fat the pedometer is placed on the waistband (at the
around the waist. If the pedometer is not parallel with the start of class), it is not to be removed for the remain-
upright plane of the body, its accuracy is affected. The der of the period. The pedometer can be read from
next section explains how to find an accurate placement the waistband. If students are allowed to take their
point for difficult cases. In spite of these limitations, pedometers on and off, they will drop and break
pedometers are still one of the most accurate and reason- them or destroy the accuracy of their recordings. As
ably priced tools for measuring physical activity. in rule 1, the pedometer is available again at the next
class period.

USING PEDOMETERS IN A CLASS SETTING Another important thing to consider when introduc-
There are a number of things to work through after making ing pedometers is the novelty phase. It is natural for a stu-
the decision to use pedometers. The first step is to get a set dent to want to learn how a pedometer works. Give them
of pedometers to use in physical education classes. A set of time to open and close it, move it gently up and down to
36 pedometers will cost $300 to $500, depending on the watch it count, and learn what causes the pedometer to
number of functions and accompanying materials. Many stop counting steps and time. A related problem in the
schools have been successful in asking parent–teacher introduction phase is that there may be an excessively
groups to fund pedometers. Making a presentation to the high rate of pedometer loss. Therefore, the pedometers
group and asking for support can create interest. Another should be introduced in a controlled setting, i.e., physical
option is a “shareware” program where companies sell education class, where students can be closely observed
pedometers at a reduced price to school employees, who in returning the pedometers. Use the following schedule to
turn sell the pedometers to parents and others to raise overcome the high-interest or novelty period. For the first
money. Certainly, selling pedometers is a much healthier 6 to 8 weeks of school, use the pedometers in physical
fund-raising activity than selling candy or cookie dough. education classes only. From that point up to the winter
Using pedometers in physical education requires break, use the pedometers to evaluate how much activity
teaching proper protocol to students. Teachers can become students get during the school day. Students put on the
frustrated if students continually fuss with the pedometers pedometers in the morning and return them at the end
and will avoid them using them if they become too much of the school day. After winter break, those students
trouble. Here is an often-used procedure that minimizes who have been responsible up to this point can use the
pedometer preparation time. Prior to distribution, perma- pedometers to carry out 24-hour activity surveillance.
nently number each pedometer and store no more than six They put on the pedometers each morning and clear
pedometers in a small plastic container. Make sure you them. The next morning, students record their activity
have the same number of pedometers in each container so and reset the pedometers. Recording is conducted
it is easy to see when a pedometer (and corresponding Monday through Friday mornings to avoid the weekends.
student) is missing. Students arrive and, on signal, go to In most cases, pedometers are lost if they leave school
their assigned box, secure a pedometer, and put it on while over the weekends. Once the pedometers become a regu-
moving around the area. On signal, they freeze, reset their lar part of each student’s lifestyle, fewer pedometers will
pedometers, and class begins, as usual. At the end of class, be lost or misplaced. Many schools put in place a replace-
students remove their pedometers, put them back in the ment policy before giving students the freedom to take

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the pedometers out of the school environment. A letter is measurement. Research (Vincent-Graser, Pangrazi, &
sent home explaining the activity program and the use of Vincent, 2007) showed that placing the pedometer
pedometers. If a pedometer is lost, the student must pay a on an adjustable Velcro belt resulted in more accu-
fee to replace it. rate readings because more precise adjustments
could be made. Repeat the 30-step process outlined
in step 1 until an accurate placement point has been
PEDOMETER PLACEMENT AND ACCURACY
identified.
Pedometers are usually worn at the waistline, directly over
the midpoint of the front of the thigh and kneecap. This
positioning has long been recommended as a standard PEDOMETERS AND
placement. However, an article by Vincent-Graser, Pangrazi, PERSONAL GOAL SETTING
and Vincent (2007) showed that the right (or left) side A common approach in physical education is the “one-
(mid-axillary line) is a slightly better place for the initial standard-fits-all” approach. For example, we often have all
position. Regardless, the first thing that should be taught students run a mile, do 25 push-ups, and walk 10,000
to students is to find the placement point that offers the steps without considering that they are all unique and dif-
most accurate counting of steps. The following protocol is ferently talented individuals. Application of this approach
designed to teach students how to find the waistband point is based on a single standard and assumes that it will work
where the pedometer measures accurately. for all types of people regardless of age, gender, or health.
1. Place the pedometer on the waistband on the right This practice of “mass prescription” often turns off stu-
side of the body, midway between the front and back dents who need activity the most. An often-referenced
of the body (over the hip). The pedometer must be standard is 10,000 steps per day. This standard was
parallel to the body and upright. If it is angled in any designed for cardiovascular disease prevention but has
direction, it will not measure accurately. To accu- grown to be the most-often-quoted standard for daily
rately measure the number of steps, the pedometer activity. A standard for youth that is often mentioned is
must be started at zero steps each time. To do this, 11,000 steps/day for girls and 13,000 steps/day for boys.
teach students to open the pedometer without This standard is used for the Presidential Active Lifestyle
removing it from the waistband, reset it to zero Award (President’s Council on Physical Fitness and Sports
steps, and then gently close the pedometer without [PCPFS], 2010) which is awarded to students who meet
moving. Begin walking at a normal cadence while these daily standards over a 6-week period.
counting the number of steps they are taking. Ask The problem with a single standard goal is that it
students to stop immediately when they have doesn’t take into account the substantial differences
counted 30 steps. Gently open the pedometer with- between people of all ages and gender. A predisposition to
out removing it and check the step count. If the step be active may make it much easier for some students
count is within 1–2 steps of 30, this placement is an to reach the step criteria, while others may find it next to
accurate location for the pedometer. If the step impossible because they are naturally less active. Some
count is less accurate, try the next step. individuals may have shorter legs and therefore shorter
stride lengths, so they reach 10,000 steps sooner than a
2. Move the pedometer so it is positioned over the taller youngster. How many steps should be set as a stan-
midpoint of the right (or left) thigh. Open the dard? Should it be set high so only those already active
pedometer, clear it, and take 30 steps as described in individuals can reach it? Should it be set low so the major-
step 1. Again, if the step count is within 1–2 steps of ity of people are able to reach the goal? Should it be set
30, this new placement is your most accurate meas- high enough to provide a proven health-related benefit? If
urement spot. If not, try another placement (see the you accumulate more than 11,000 steps, is there any point
next step) and repeat the step test. in moving beyond the 11,000-step threshold? If you accu-
3. Pedometers must remain in an upright plane (with mulate 4,000 steps each day, does 11,000 steps seem an
the pedometer display perpendicular to the floor impossible goal? When all is said and done, setting one
and parallel to the body) in order to accurately reg- goal that applies with equivalent efficacy to a large popu-
ister step counts. Loose-fitting clothing will impact lation is a difficult proposition at best.
accuracy because the clothing absorbs the slight The approach recommended here is the baseline and
vertical force that occurs with each step. Excess goal-setting technique (Pangrazi, Beighle, & Sidman,
body fat can tilt the pedometer and negate accu- 2007). This method requires that each individual identify
racy. In these cases, placement at waist level behind his or her average daily activity (baseline) level. For ado-
the hip and on the back often results in an accurate lescents and adults, 8 days of step counts (or activity time)

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 PROMOTING AND MONITORING LIFESTYLE PHYSICAL ACTIVITY

are required for establishing an average activity level 6,000 steps above their baseline level is a reasonable expec-
(Trost, Pate, Freedson, Sallis, & Taylor, 2000). Older stu- tation. Using the example of 6,000 baseline steps, a goal of
dents have substantial day-to-day variation in their activ- 10,000 to 12,000 steps would be this student’s maintenance
ity patterns, and it takes at least 8 days of activity monitor- goal. This baseline and goal-setting approach takes into
ing to ensure a reliable and valid baseline. Baseline data consideration the fact that all individuals are unique. It
can be entered in a chart similar to the one shown in gradually increases personal goals so they seem achievable
Figure 3. to even inactive individuals. Most individuals are
After the baseline level of activity has been established interested in determining their baseline level of activity,
by averaging the 8 days of activity, this becomes the refer- and this is a way to motivate students to gradually increase
ence point for setting personal goals. A personal goal is cal- their current activity levels.
culated by taking the baseline activity level and adding A third way to establish step levels for youth is to
10 percent more steps (or time in whole minutes). For ex- define a healthy activity zone (HAZ). In this method, there
ample, assume a student has a baseline level of 6,000 steps per is not one standard that each youngster has to reach. This
day. That student’s personal goal would be 6,000 steps plus approach is used by the FitnessGram (Cooper Institute,
600 steps for a total of 6,600 steps. Personal goals are 2007) for specifying a range of scores (the healthy fitness
reviewed every 2 weeks. If a personal goal is reached for a zone [HFZ]) in which students should score on fitness test
majority of days (8 or more) during this 2-week period, items. Some of the FitnessGram test items (e.g., PACER
another 10 percent (600 steps) is added and the process is run and skinfolds) are based on health-related criteria,
repeated. For most people, a maintenance goal of 4,000 to while others are based on improvement resulting from

Step 1: Calculate Your Average Daily Activity Level

Your average daily activity is your current activity level or baseline activity level. This score will be used to calculate your
personal activity goal. You may establish a step-count goal or time goal (number of minutes). Each day, record the number
of steps and/or time you have accumulated on your pedometer. At the end of 8 days, find your average daily activity score
by dividing all the step counts and time by 8.

Day Step Counts Time

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Average Daily Activity

Step 2: Calculate Your Personal Daily Activity Goal

A reasonable personal goal is to increase activity 10 percent. This means you will take your average daily activity and add
10 percent to your current level. You will strive to reach your goal each day for 2 weeks. If you reach your goal on any
8 days or more, you should increase your goal by another 10 percent. If you don’t reach your goal for at least 8 days, you
should stay at your current level of activity. At the end of the 2-week period, check your progress and start a new
2-week period of activity. The following is an example of goal setting based on a student who has a baseline activity level
of 7,000 steps and 70 minutes. If you use minutes as a goal, round off the seconds to the nearest minute.

Baseline Activity Level Personal Goal – 10% over your baseline Weeks Goal Met
7000 steps 7700 steps 1–2 Yes
7700 steps 8400 steps 3–4 Yes
8400 steps 9100 steps 5–6 No
8400 steps 9100 steps 7–8 No

FIGURE 3 Setting your personalized activity goal

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 PROMOTING AND MONITORING LIFESTYLE PHYSICAL ACTIVITY

training. Applied to physical activity, a range of steps (or it makes much more sense to use activity time goals with
activity time) can be established for each gender that students so that they have an equal chance of reaching
would serve as the HFZ. This method requires further their goals. By the way, because my friend weighed 25 lbs.
research, but may be an acceptable way to establish a range more than me, he burned more calories, even though he
of scores that can apply to the vast majority of children took fewer steps.
and adults. It is also possible that a combination of meth-
ods, such as baseline/goal-setting and HFZ standards,
DETERMINING THE DISTANCE YOU MOVED
could ultimately be the best solution.
Many pedometer users want to know how far they have
walked. It is possible to set personal goals in terms of
UNDERSTANDING ACTIVITY TIME miles; however, mileage measurements are not as accurate
AND STEP GOAL DIFFERENCES as activity time and steps. To determine distance, it is nec-
Many pedometers can now measure steps and physical essary to measure your stride length. Probably, the easiest
activity time. In other words, they count all steps taken method is to use the following steps:
and the number of minutes of moving. Moving time is
1. Establish two lines 30 feet apart and mark them
typically termed activity time. Goals for steps have been
clearly with cones. If you have a volleyball court
established. For example, as mentioned earlier, students
marked off in your teaching area, its width is 29
must accumulate 13,000 steps (boys) or 11,000 steps
feet, 6 inches. Add 6 inches to this distance, and you
(girls) in a 24-hour period for 6 weeks to earn the
have a 30-foot distance that is easy to use.
President’s Challenge Active Lifestyle Award. Many adults
are well aware of the 10,000-step goal, even though they 2. Have students walk from the starting line to the
have little idea of why or how it was established. A more opposite line and count the number of steps it takes
common way of expressing goals is in terms of minutes them to cross the finish line. They should walk with
per day. For example, the activity guidelines for adoles- the stride and speed they normally use with most of
cents specify a minimum of at least 30 minutes a day. their everyday activities. To make it even more
Pedometers that monitor the number of minutes of activ- accurate, have students walk 10 to 15 steps around
ity make it easy to interpret these goals. However, 30 min- the area and to the start line without stopping. As
utes of activity is not much activity for teenagers because they step on the starting line, they begin counting
the intent of these goals was to ensure they were involved and stop as they cross the finish line.
in 30 minutes of moderate to vigorous activity over and 3. Remember the number of steps taken and convert
above their baseline activity level. With pedometers the steps taken to stride length (see Figure 4). To
that measure activity time, it soon becomes apparent that convert steps to distance, multiply stride length
30 minutes is much below the amount of activity most times the number of steps.
students should accumulate on a daily basis.
Activity goals are much more meaningful because
they are adjusted for size differences among individuals.
To use an example, I go for a walk with a friend who is Number of Steps Stride Length
6 inches taller than me. We put on our pedometers and over a 30-ft distance (feet, inches)
walk together for 30 minutes. At the end of the walk, my
8 3⬘ 9⬙
friend has accumulated 3,000 steps while I accumulated
9 3⬘ 4⬙
3,600 steps—even though we were walking alongside each
10 3⬘ 0⬙
other. However, when we compare our activity time, it is 11 2⬘ 9⬙
the same; both of us have accumulated 30 minutes of 12 2⬘ 6⬙
physical activity. 13 2⬘ 4⬙
Why the difference in steps? My friend has a longer 14 2⬘ 2⬙
stride length because of his longer legs. Even though we 15 2⬘ 0⬙
walked the same distance, he had fewer steps, which 16 1⬘ 11⬙
could be quite discouraging if he didn’t understand the 17 1⬘ 9⬙
reason for the difference. Also, it makes it much easier for 18 1⬘ 8⬙
me to reach a step goal because I will accumulate more 19 1⬘ 7⬙
steps in the same amount of time. However, if we estab- 20 1⬘ 6⬙
lish activity time goals, we will have to walk the same
amount of time to reach our desired outcome. Therefore, FIGURE 4 Calculating stride length

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 PROMOTING AND MONITORING LIFESTYLE PHYSICAL ACTIVITY

PEDOMETER ACTIVITIES them at the starting line, and walk at a normal pace
Middle school and high school teachers find pedometers to the end of the distance. Depending on whether
to be a valuable tool for hypothesis testing. Students can they walked a 1/8- or 1/4-mile distance, they multi-
be challenged to answer questions such as, “Are students ply the number of steps they accumulated by eight
more active than parents?” or “Do you take more steps or four. That is the number of steps it takes them to
during a football class or an Ultimate Frisbee class?” A fur- walk 1 mile.
ther idea may involve students modifying or inventing a
game based on pedometer-determined steps. Another use USING PEDOMETERS FOR
for the pedometer is to help students to determine their
leisure time physical activity with an aim to establish per-
PROGRAM ACCOUNTABILITY
sonal goals (as described previously) or develop ways to A common issue for physical education teachers is to find
promote daily physical activity in and out of school. criteria for which they can be held accountable. Teachers
The following activities illustrate a number of ways to have chosen fitness or skill development as outcomes they
use pedometers in a school setting. They are explained in are willing to use as measures of their success. There are a
greater detail in the resource book Pedometer Power number of issues that teachers might want to consider
(Pangrazi, Beighle, & Sidman, 2007). before choosing fitness or skill development as their success
criteria. Fitness is most commonly used because tests have
■ “Moving Across the State (or United States).” long been used in the school setting. However, such tests
Students accumulate steps and measure their stride may not be a good choice because the increase in obesity
lengths so they can do the math to see how far they among today’s youth decreases fitness test performance.
have traveled on a state or U.S. map. As they reach Common sense indicates that the increase in body fat in
different checkpoints, students can participate in class youth directly impacts aerobic endurance and various
discussions about foods, art, and various cultural strength measures. In addition, the ability to respond to
sites. training is strongly affected by genetics (Timmons et al.,
2010), with some individuals showing little or no
■ “Active or Inactive.” Students participate in a vari- improvement with training. Another problem in using fit-
ety of physical education lessons and try to predict ness as an outcome is that the amount of time currently
which lessons are high activity and which are low available for physical activity during the school day limits
activity. An enjoyable alternative is to try and guess chances of improving fitness to an extent measurable by
how many total steps they will take in the activity. fitness testing. Although many students will improve their
Over time, they’ll begin to understand the activity fitness test scores purely as a result of maturation, this is
value of different sports and games. not an accurate representation of the teacher’s contribu-
■ “A Safe Walk to School.” Walking to school can add tion to student fitness. Using fitness as the focal indicator
1,000 to 2,000 steps each to a student’s activity level. of actual teaching success may be inviting failure.
This is a good activity for teaching students about Skill development is an important assessment out-
safe walks, walks that increase the distance (and come for physical education. However, a large part of skill
steps), and walks that avoid traffic. performance is genetic endowment, much in the same
way that some students are born better artists or musi-
■ “School Steps Contest.” This is a schoolwide con-
cians. Additionally, physical skills can be difficult to evalu-
test with all classes participating. The step counts
ate because of time constraints and the overall numbers of
of all students in each class, including the teacher,
students seen by the physical education teacher. Perfection
are added and then divided by the number of stu-
is never reached in the performance of physical skills. For
dents. Finding the average number of steps for the
example, even the best basketball and soccer players in the
entire class makes this a group competition and
world miss as many shots as they make. Baseball players
avoids putting down students who are less active.
make an “out” seven times out of 10 at bat. Rugby players fum-
A gentle reminder here is that students should not
ble the ball and miss kicks. This does not imply that
have to reveal their step counts unless they choose
skills should not be emphasized or assessed, but consider-
to do so. A sensitive approach is to have the stu-
ing the nature of physical skill performance is one of im-
dents place their step counts anonymously on a
perfection, it is asking a lot of teachers to base the success
tally sheet.
of their programs on the skill performance of students.
■ “Estimate: How Many Steps Does it Take?” Also, when evaluating skill development, it is apparent
Measure a distance exactly 1/8- or 1/4-mile in there are few instruments available that are valid, reliable,
length. Students put on their pedometers, clear and easy to administer in a limited time environment.

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 PROMOTING AND MONITORING LIFESTYLE PHYSICAL ACTIVITY

Teachers are aware of this “catch-22.” If they take a lot of approach to weight management. Proper weight
time to access skill performance, they will have little time management results in decreasing the risks of many
left to teach those same skills for which they are being hypokinetic diseases, such as type 2 diabetes, heart
evaluated. disease, stroke, cancer, and osteoarthritis.
Why not base program accountability on an average ■ Managing blood pressure. Physical activity strength-
school increase in daily physical activity? What could be ens the heart and makes it more efficient so it pumps
more important for health and wellness than increasing more blood with less effort. This results in less pres-
the amount of activity students accumulate on a daily sure on the arteries and vital organs. Walking appears
basis? All students can move and be physically active in to be as effective as some medications in reducing
settings both in and out of school. Unless they have a high blood pressure.
physical disability, all students can monitor their physical
activity levels using pedometers. Most parents would be ■ Boosting high-density lipoproteins (HDLs). This
delighted if their youngsters were taught to live an active helps reduce low-density lipoproteins (LDLs) or
lifestyle. That might be one of the best legacies a physical “destructive cholesterol.” LDLs increase plaque buildup
education program could leave students. in the arteries, which is a major cause of heart attacks.
Pedometers can be used to evaluate the baseline activ- ■ Reducing the risk of type 2 diabetes. This disease is
ity levels of students at or near the start of the school year. increasing at an alarming rate among young people.
This can be followed up with regular monitoring a num- People at high risk of diabetes cut their risk in half
ber of times throughout the school year. All students can by combining walking with lower fat intake and a
set goals for increasing daily physical activity regardless of 5- to 7-percent decrease in weight.
their genetic predisposition. Physical education teachers ■ Decreasing the risk of heart attack. Three hours of
can establish goals for a number of subgroups including walking a week was associated with a 30- to 40-percent
classes, grade levels, and gender. School administrators lower risk of heart disease in women.
might accept a 2-percent increase in physical activity
accumulated as a schoolwide goal over an 18-week period. Walking has the advantage of not requiring any spe-
Activity levels both in and out of schools could be used as cial equipment and of having a low injury rate. Walking,
separate outcomes. Out-of-school activity can be regarded probably more than any other activity, will be done by stu-
as physical education homework. A program designed to dents when they reach adulthood. One of the things that
increase the amount of physical activity students accumu- makes walking such a valuable skill for health mainte-
late on a daily basis makes a valuable contribution to all nance is its simplicity. To receive the best health results,
students in the school environment. walking should be done at least five times per week for
30 minutes or more. The 30 minutes of walking can be
accumulated in three bouts of at least 10 minutes, but a
WALKING: THE “REAL” 30-minute walk is recommended for youth in middle and
high school classes. Only a few things need to be remem-
LIFETIME ACTIVITY bered to achieve maximum benefit:
Walking is an activity that almost all people can do. In
fact, it forms the basis for all lifestyle physical activity. If 1. Walk at a brisk pace with a comfortable stride and a
one can’t walk, the quality of life is dramatically impacted. good arm swing.
Walking can be done by all, male or female, skilled or 2. The brisk walking pace should allow students to carry
unskilled, fit or unfit. Therefore, a strong focus of physical on a conversation without difficulty. If students find
education should be to teach the joy of moving and walk- they can’t walk and talk at the same time, encourage
ing and trying to accumulate physical activity. Students them to slow the pace slightly. For most youth in
can be taught to maximize the number of steps they take school, this will not be a problem, and the opportu-
rather than trying to accomplish movement tasks in the nity to socialize will be more important than the walk
fewest possible steps. Allied to this goal should be teaching itself. The most important outcome is that they enjoy
the many benefits of being a walker. Walking has so many the experience and realize the benefits of walking.
health-related benefits that if it could be put in the form a
pill to be swallowed, it would immediately become a best 3. A walking program is an excellent place to coordi-
seller on the drug market. Walking has few side effects and nate pedometer use. Students can begin to see how
the benefits are many: many steps they typically make in a specified
amount of time. All things being equal, the more
■ Maintaining weight. When combined with a healthy steps gathered in a specified time, the higher the
approach to eating, walking is key to a lifetime intensity of the walk.

380
 PROMOTING AND MONITORING LIFESTYLE PHYSICAL ACTIVITY

WALKING FOR WEIGHT MANAGEMENT

Calories Burned
Currently, it is estimated that nearly 16 percent of adoles-
Body Weight (lb) in 30 Minutes
cents are overweight. Another 15 percent are “at risk” for
becoming overweight (Beals, 2003). It is estimated that 70 70 75
percent of overweight adolescents will grow to be obese 80 86
adults. Unfortunately, energy expenditure through physi- 90 96
cal activity has decreased over the last 10 years, while 100 107
energy intake continues to increase. The supersize fast-food 110 118
meals and high-fat content foods have certainly con- 120 129
tributed to this increase in caloric consumption. Weight 130 139
management always deals with two variables, food intake 140 150
150 161
and energy expenditure. People who are successful in
160 172
maintaining proper body weight have usually learned to
170 182
manage intake and increase physical activity. A number of
180 193
studies show if only diet is managed for weight control, 190 204
pounds lost in the treatment program will usually be 200 214
regained as soon as the intervention stops. There is little
doubt that restricting the diet in a highly controlled set-
FIGURE 5 Calories burned in 30 minutes of walking
ting will result in weight loss. However, if this weight loss
based on body weight
is not coupled with learning a new and more active
lifestyle, success in weight management will be short lived.
Walking is probably the activity of choice for over- continues to walk 30 minutes a day and add a candy bar to
weight students. It is easy on the joints, doesn’t overly his normal food intake, a pound of weight will be gained.
stress the cardiovascular system, and is not painful to per- This shows why it is necessary to keep an eye on both
form. The old adage, “no pain–no gain” makes absolutely physical activity and diet. It also illustrates how easy it is to
no sense for overweight students. Many of these students gain weight even when a person is adding physical activity
have already been turned off to physical activity because to his or her day. The one good thing to remember about
of many negative past experiences. Students who have increasing physical activity and decreasing sedentary
been pushed in the past will push back when they become behavior is that most people don’t eat when they are
old enough to make personal decisions, and that usually active. Just being active can make it easier to decrease
means a sedentary lifestyle. Rekindling the joy of activity caloric intake.
for these students will take an encouraging and kind Recently, walking poles (similar to ski poles) have come
approach. Walking is usually their choice of activity, and in vogue, and they may be a boon to overweight students.
when coupled with pedometers, a new interest in being They have been used for years in Scandinavian countries,
active can be ignited. and research has shown that 25 to 30 percent more calories
A question often asked is, “Does walking really make a are burned as compared to walking without poles. The
difference in weight management?” The answer is, “Yes, it poles increase the heart rate by 10–15 beats and put more
makes a difference, but you can always ingest more calo- than 90 percent of the body’s muscle mass to work.
ries than you burn.” Consider the following. The number Additionally, they help absorb some of the impact on the
of calories burned during exercise depends on a number knees and ankles that results in an increase in upper-body
of factors, among them the speed of the walk and body strength and a decrease in hip, knee, and foot injuries.
size being two of the more important factors. Figure 5 Adding walking poles to the physical education program is
shows the number of calories burned during a 30-minute another way to motivate students and realize greater results
walk based on body weight. from their walking. An excellent website on using and pur-
Assume a 140-lb. student takes a 30-minute walk at a chasing walking poles is www.walkingpoles.com.
moderate pace and burns about 150 calories. Wanting to
reward himself, this student decides to buy a typical-size
candy bar in a food mart. Without looking at the calories,
IMPLEMENTING A SCHOOL
the student easily eats the candy bar and ingests 300 to 350 WALKING PROGRAM
calories—a net gain in calories of 150 to 200 calories. In Safety is always a key issue. When initiating a program, the
general terms, about 3,500 calories equals a pound of walking should be done where all students are in view of
weight gained or lost depending on the energy intake and the teacher. However, most people will want more variety
expenditure balance. Within 2 to 3 weeks, if this student than just walking around a track or field. If approved by

381
 PROMOTING AND MONITORING LIFESTYLE PHYSICAL ACTIVITY

the administration, walking courses around the school conditions can quickly cause sun damage. Teachers
neighborhood can be established so students become should emphasize that sunscreen should always be
familiar with many different walking paths and the time applied when students will be outside for more than a
required to complete the circuit. All walking paths should few minutes.
be designed and mapped by the teacher prior to allowing
students to follow them. Driving each pathway will allow
you to write directions and map the mileage for each trail.
Set up safety guidelines that are integrated into each path.
✔Teaching Tip: Supporting
Activities at School
Some safety guidelines to consider include the following:
Make your school look like it values physical activity.
■ Always use the sidewalk. If a sidewalk is not available, The halls of schools often make it seem like academics
walk on the left side of the roadway facing traffic. are the only area of importance. It is becoming increas-
ingly clear that a healthy body maximizes a student’s
■ Walk with another person or in small groups. If ability to focus and learn. Place bulletin boards and
someone is injured or needs help, one of the group point of decision prompt signs throughout the school
members can return to the school for help. to remind students about the importance of an active
■ Do not run from aggressive dogs; this only makes lifestyle. Reinforce support for all types of physical
activity and teach students that all activity counts.
the problem worse. Teach students to stop, face the
dog, and give it a stern, “No!”
■ Students should “sign out,” listing which path they
SUGGESTING WALKING ACTIVITIES
are walking. If someone is missing, it will be much
easier to track such students. 1. “I Spy.” Students take a scorecard with them on their
walk. The card has a challenge on it. An example
■ Students with serious health problems should cleared would be: “Identify as many different makes of cars as
by the school nurse. Also, they should be required to possible” or “List as many different birds and animals
wear a “medical tag” in case of an accident requiring as you can.” Different cards can be designed to create
emergency care. varying challenges. When the students complete their
■ Students should be encouraged to use walking or walks, the items they have identified can be discussed.
running shoes with reflective tape built into them. 2. “Mixed Up Walks.” Add some variations for limited
This can make it much easier for automobile driv- amounts of time. For example, start with a backwards
ers to see them. walk for 1 minute, then walk regularly for 1 minute,
■ Have students warm up before the walk and teach then do carioca steps for 1 minute, then walking
them to cool down when they have finished walk- regularly, and so on. Tasks assigned can be different
ing. Walk a short distance, and stop and stretch the types of movements or varying challenges such as,
arms, legs, and back. When you have finished your “Complete your walk by making 10 left turns on your
walk, stretch one more time. route.” The location of where students made a turn
■ Drink plenty of water, whether it is cold or hot. should be documented.
Drink 8 ounces of water 15 minutes before the 3. “Interval Walk.” Set up a walking circuit with
walk. If it is hot and dry, drink 6 ounces every 15 to stretching and strength activities at each corner of
20 minutes during the walk. At the end of the walk, the football field. For example, walk a lap, then do a
drink another 8 to 16 ounces of water. Waiting for standing stretch for 30 seconds, then walk half of
the “thirst” signal as a reminder to drink may be too a lap to a sitting stretch, then walk another lap, then
late. The sensation of “thirstiness” usually comes af- do some abdominal activities, and then walk to a
ter the body is in need of water. push-up station.
■ Layer clothing to help modulate body temperature 4. “Cross-Country Walking.” Set up a cross-country
with fluxuating activity levels. In this way, layers can be walking race with teams in the class. Have a map set
removed or added as needed. In cold weather, several up for the walking course so there is a nice variety
layers of lighter clothing is more useful than one heavy of walking areas. Students try to walk as fast as pos-
layer; wear a hat, gloves, and/or scarf, as needed. In sible and receive their place number at the finish
hot weather, wear loose-fitting, light-colored clothing, line. The team with the lowest number of points is
a hat, and sunglasses. Remember to use sunscreen the winner. This is a competitive activity, but it can
regardless of heat or cold, as ultraviolet sun rays in any be approached in a positive and fun manner for
students’ efforts to walk fast.

382
 PROMOTING AND MONITORING LIFESTYLE PHYSICAL ACTIVITY

5. “Walking Golf Tournament.” Set up a walking

“golf ” tournament with hula hoops for holes and a STUDY STIMULATORS
tennis ball to be thrown by each student. Set up the
AND REVIEW QUESTIONS
course around your teaching space, with cones for
1. What is the impact of adding at least 60 minutes
the tees and hoops for the holes. Students throw the
of daily physical activity to your lifestyle?
ball and then walk with their group to the hoop. 2. What are the levels of the Physical Activity
Students use a scorecard to keep track of the num- Pyramid? How much time should be spent on
ber of throws for each hole. each of the components on a weekly basis?
3. What level in the activity pyramid forms the
6. “Treasure Hunt.” Set up a walking course with a set
foundation for good health? How can students
of clues to follow to 10 sites. At the sites, you can be taught to change their activity habits to meet
tape a set of words that can be found and later the minimum activity requirements?
arranged in a particular order to come up with a 4. What can pedometers measure? Which of the
popular saying or jingle. Examples of the clues to measurements is most accurate and useful for
follow could include cards with these hints: “A place the majority of students? Why?
for extra points on the south side”; “A place for 5. How do pedometers measure the intensity of
activity? What is your MVPA threshold?
H2O”; “Fans sit here on the west side”; “Long 6. What are the steps to follow when teaching stu-
jumpers take off here”; “Stand under this for the dents to develop personal goals? When should
score of the game”; and “A place for trash.” the goals be reset?
7. “Poker Walk.” Set out several decks of cards at vari- 7. What are the three most common areas physical
educators use to establish the accountability of
ous locations around the teaching area. Students their programs? Which of the three might be most
walk to the areas and pick up one card without meaningful to choose as a program outcome?
looking at the card. They walk to as many areas as 8. Why is walking often called the “real” lifetime
possible within a time limit and then add up the activity?
points. Have a prize for high- and low-point totals 9. How can walking play an important role in
and then change the rules each time. Set it up so weight management?
10. What are the basic steps to follow when imple-
anyone can win by just walking to the card areas,
menting a walking program in physical education?
picking up the card, and then adding up the points 11. How can student physical activity outside of the
at the end of the time limit. school environment be increased?
8. “Know Your Community.” Have the class take dif- 12. Create three walking activities that could
be assigned to students for after-school physical
ferent walks and identify different types of busi-
activity.
nesses and professional offices along their routes.
Different challenges can be listed, asking students to
find different businesses or locations. WEBSITES
9. “Weekly Walking Calendar.” Each week, students can Walking Programs
www.walking.about.com
be given a 5-day calendar that stipulates different types
www.walking.about.com/cs/measure/tp/pedometerprog
of things to do on their walks (e.g., Monday—walk www.accustep10000.org
with a friend; Tuesday—walk with walking poles; www.americaonthemove.org
Wednesday—walk with hand weights; Thursday— www.steptracker.com
walk 15 minutes in one direction and return to the
Videos and Instructional Materials
starting spot by retracing your path; and Friday—walk www.walking.about.com/cs/poles/a/polesrutlin_3
and use a pedometer to count your steps). www.exrx.net
10. “Learn About Your Friend.” Give students a series Pedometers
of questions on a card that will help them get to www.gophersport.com/products
know a friend better. The goal is to walk and dis- www.walking.about.com/cs/measure/tp/pedometer
cover new things about a friend while moving. www.pecentral.org/pedometry

11. “Off-Campus Walks.” Students can gain extra

credit by taking walks outside of the school day. REFERENCES AND
This can be an excellent opportunity to use SUGGESTED READINGS
pedometers to track their walks. They can record
Ainsworth, B. E., Haskell, W. L., Whitt. M. C., Irwin, M. L.,
their steps and activity time and report back to class Swartz, A. M., Strath, S. J., O’brien, W. L., Bassett, Jr.,
on both measures. D. R., Schmitz, K. H., Emplalncourt. P. O., Jacobs, Jr.,

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 PROMOTING AND MONITORING LIFESTYLE PHYSICAL ACTIVITY

D. R., & Leon, A. S. (2000). Compendium of physical community (2nd ed.). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics
activities: An update of activity codes and MET inten- Publishers.
sities. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise. President’s Council on Physical Fitness and Sports. (2010).
32(9), Supplement, pp. S498-S516. The President’s Challenge Physical Activity and Fitness
American College of Sports Medicine. (2009). ACSM’s Awards Program. Bloomington, IN: Author.
guidelines for exercise testing and prescription (8th Schneider, P. L., Crouter, S. E., Lukajic, O., & Bassett, Jr.,
ed.). Philadelphia: Lippincott, Williams and Wilkins. D. R. (2003). Accuracy and reliability of 10 pedometers
Beals, K. A. (2003). Addressing an epidemic: Treatment for measuring steps over a 400-m walk. Medicine and
strategies for youth obesity. ACSM Fit Society Page, Science in Sports and Exercise, 35(10), 1779–1784.
Spring, 9–11. Timmons, J. A., Knudsen, S., Rankinen, T., Koch, L. G.,
Beighle, A., Pangrazi, R. P., & Vincent, S. D. (2001). Pedome- Sarzynski, M., Jensen, T., Keller, P., Scheele, C., Vollaard,
ters, physical activity, and accountability. Journal of N. B. J., Nielsen, S., Åkerström, T., MacDougald, O. A.,
Physical Education, Recreation, and Dance, 72(9), 16–19. Jansson, E., Greenhaff, P. L., Tarnopolsky, M. A., van Loon,
Cooper Institute, Meredith, M., & Welk, G. (Eds.). (2007). L. J. C., Pedersen, B. K., Sundberg, C. J., Wahlestedt, C.,
Fitnessgram/activitygram test administration manual Britton, S. L., & Bouchard, C. (2010). Using molecular clas-
(4th ed.). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics Publishers. sification to predict gains in maximal aerobic capacity
Corbin, C. B., & Lindsey, R. (2007). Fitness for life (5th ed.). following endurance exercise training in humans.
Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. Journal of Applied Physiology, 108, 1487-1496.
Corbin, C. B., & Pangrazi, R. P. (1992). Are American chil- Trost, S. G., Pate, R., Freedson, P. S., Sallis, J. F., & Taylor,
dren and youth fit? Research Quarterly for Exercise W. C. (2000). Using objective physical activity measures
and Sport, 63(2), 96–106. with youth: How many days of monitoring are
Corbin, C. B., & Pangrazi, R. P. (2004). Physical activity for needed? Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise,
children: A statement of guidelines for children ages 32(2), 426–431.
5–12. Reston, VA: National Association for Sport and U.S. Public Health Service. (2000). Healthy people 2010.
Physical Education. National health promotion and disease objectives.
Crouter, S. C., Schneider, P. L., Karabulut, M., & Bassett Jr., Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.
D. R. (2003). Validity of 10 electronic pedometers for U.S. Department of Health & Human Services, Office of
measuring steps, distance, and energy cost. Medicine Disease Prevention & Health Promotion. (2008). 2008
and Science in Sports and Exercise, 35(8), 1455–1460. Physical Activity Guidelines for Americans. Washington,
Decker, J., & Mize, M. (2002). Walking games and activi- DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.
ties. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics Publishers. Vincent, S. D., & Pangrazi, R. P. (2002). Does reactivity
Morgan, Jr., C. F., Pangrazi, R. P., & Beighle, A. (2003). Using exist in children when measuring activity levels with
pedometers to promote physical activity in physical pedometers? Pediatric Exercise Science, 14(1), 56–63.
education. Journal of Physical Education, Recreation, Vincent-Graser, S. D., Pangrazi, R. P., & Vincent, W. (2007).
and Dance, 74(7), 33–38. Effects of placement, attachment, and weight classifi-
Pangrazi, R. P., Beighle, A., & Sidman, C. L. (2007). cation on pedometer accuracy. Journal of Physical
Pedometer power: Using pedometers in school and Activity and Health, 4, 359–369.

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Healthy Lifestyles:
Activities for
Instruction
ESSENTIAL COMPONENTS OF
A QUALITY PROGRAM
I. Organized around content standards
II. Student-centered and developmentally
appropriate
III. Physical activity and motor skill develop-
ment form the core of the program
IV. Teaches management skills and
self-discipline
V. Promotes inclusion of all students
▲

VI. Focuses on process over product

VII. Promotes lifetime personal health
▲

and wellness
VIII. Teaches cooperation and responsibility
and promotes sensitivity to diversity

NATIONAL STANDARDS FOR

PHYSICAL EDUCATION*
1. Demonstrates competency in motor skills
and movement patterns needed to perform
a variety of physical activities.
2. Demonstrates understanding of movement
concepts, principles, strategies, and tactics as
they apply to the learning and performance
of physical activities.
▲ ▲

3. Participates regularly in physical activity.

4. Achieves and maintains a health-enhancing
level of physical fitness.
5. Exhibits responsible personal and social
behavior that respects self and others in
physical activity settings.
▲

6. Values physical activity for health, enjoyment,

challenge, self-expression, and/or social *National Association for Sport and Physical Education
interaction. (NASPE), 2004.

From Chapter 17 of Dynamic Physical Education for Secondary Schools, Seventh Edition. Paul W. Darst, Robert P. Pangrazi, Mary Jo Sariscsany,
Timothy A. Brusseau, Jr. Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. Published by Pearson Benjamin Cummings. All rights reserved.
 HEALTHY LIFESTYLES: ACTIVITIES FOR INSTRUCTION

The need for teaching students how to maintain personal

Chapter Summary health for a lifetime becomes apparent when one examines
the skyrocketing costs of minimal health care. Health insur-
This chapter focuses on teaching basic concepts of
health and the related components that can be
ance policies cost 5 to 10 percent of an individual’s gross
enhanced within the physical education setting. The income. A short stay in the hospital may incur a bill for thou-
chapter offers the methodology for holding discus- sands of dollars, yet in spite of costs, Americans continue to
sions to develop an understanding and insight into put little or no effort into maintaining a healthy lifestyle.
behavior necessary to maintain an optimum level of Being healthy allows an individual to participate fully in
health. A state of general health and personal func- life. Having the energy and enthusiasm to undertake
tioning helps determine the quality of life. Discussion
activities after a full day’s work is characteristic of people
sessions must include the opportunity for students to
have the psychological freedom to explore alternative who are well. An individual who is healthy is not only free of
lifestyles. A difficult skill for students to learn is inde- sickness or other malady, but is happy, vibrant, and able to
pendent decision making based on careful considera- solve personal problems.
tion of alternatives and consequences rather than Teaching students how to achieve a lasting state of
peer pressure. Teachers can help students understand healthiness lends credibility to the physical education pro-
the requisites of quality health by offering a discus-
fession. For many years, physical educators were seen solely
sion session that is structured so students can feel
comfortable. Focus setting, clarifying, acknowledging, as teachers of physical skills who had little concern for the
and silence are behaviors teachers need to learn to knowledge and comprehension involved in physical per-
use when conducting discussion sessions. formance. Teachers often pushed students without consider-
To ensure total body development, exercises must ing their abilities and personal issues. (i.e., “Learn the skill or
follow principles of exercise. Stress affects perform- else!”). The age-old argument of product versus process can
ance and is not unique to any age group. Being
be moderated by teaching the development of a healthy
overweight is associated with various degenerative
diseases and can be curtailed through a reduction of
lifestyle through the process of daily living. There are no tro-
caloric consumption and increased activity. Substance phies or other extrinsic rewards for achieving it. Health is a
abuse among students is common and serves to personal matter. When it is achieved, the individual is
stimulate the onset of emotional problems and directly rewarded with a full lifestyle. Teachers can no longer
degenerative diseases. ignore the importance of teaching students the what, why,
and how of maintaining a healthy profile. Maintaining
Student Outcomes personal health must be considered a primary objective of
After reading this chapter, you will be able to: secondary school physical education.
• Conduct a discussion session with students that Why teach health concepts in the physical education
successfully allows clarification and understanding setting? Teachers are often skeptical about teaching material
of healthy lifestyle concepts.
other than physical skill activities, yet the knowledge related
• Describe how concepts for healthy living can be to health maintenance remains with an individual for a life-
achieved through a properly structured instruc-
time. This is one of the few long-lasting gifts teachers can
tional program of physical education.
offer to students. Achieving an optimal level of health is
• Understand the basic function of the skeletal,
muscular, and cardiorespiratory systems.
unique and personal. What is useful to one person may be
superfluous to another. Teachers must therefore teach stu-
• Explain how health instruction can be integrated
into the physical education setting at the middle dents how to search for a healthy lifestyle and then maintain
and high school level. it once found.
• Delineate the type of teacher behavior that en- At present, the credibility of the physical education
hances the development of self-concept among profession is strained. Instructors often teach students
students. skills and activities they will never use again. For example,
• Identify risk factors associated with degenerative students may spend 6 weeks each year from junior high
diseases. through the sophomore year of high school involved in
• Discuss factors that are roadblocks to healthy flag football. This is equivalent to 24 weeks of flag football.
lifestyles. The possibility is strong that few students will play foot-
• Explain how stress reduction can be accomplished. ball after graduation from high school. Few people play
• Describe how students can learn to evaluate their flag football after age 25, yet nearly a year of physical edu-
levels of physical fitness. cation was spent playing and learning a sport seldom used
• List a plan for improving self-control by altering for maintaining a healthy lifestyle in adulthood. The point
behavior. here is not to belittle football or to ask for its elimination;
rather, it is to suggest that physical education is often

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dominated by activities that students will not use after Each of the areas includes concepts students need to
they leave school. understand. This provides direction for both the teacher
Teaching students how to maintain a state of personal and students. The concepts should give students a general
health makes activity purposeful. Students begin to under- idea of what is important and which areas must be under-
stand why certain activities and games are selected in place stood to achieve proper functioning. The concepts, when
of others. Selection of activities for a lifetime of physical taken as a whole, offer a framework to help initiate discus-
involvement occurs when students are exposed to a wide sions that examine the pros and cons of personal decisions
range of instructional units. A systematic approach to a related to health maintenance. This approach contrasts
broad curriculum ensures that students know there are with giving students a set of objectives that must be learned,
many pathways to personal fitness and health. leaving little room for student input and inquiry.
The suggested learning activities offer laboratory experi-
ences that add substance to basic instructional concepts. The
INTEGRATING HEALTH CONCEPTS laboratory experiences are simple, yet clearly illustrate how
the body functions in different settings. Many of these expe-
Few schools offer a comprehensive health education pro-
riences can be done in 5 or 10 minutes by a whole class. They
gram for students. This chapter is designed for physical
are excellent rainy day activities or homework assignments.
education teachers who are asked to integrate health edu-
Ask students to develop a notebook of activities and lab
cation into the physical education program. Most often,
experiences that they can use as a reference. An excellent
this is required of teachers at the middle school level so
resource for laboratory activities and instructional lesson
most of the following concepts and learning activities are
plans is Fitness for Life: Teacher Resources and Materials
geared to that level. The topics covered in this chapter are
CD-ROM (McConnell, Corbin, & Dale, 2004).
divided into three areas.

■ How Does the Body Work?—This includes basics of

the skeletal, muscular, and cardiovascular systems. HOW DOES THE BODY WORK?
Emphasis is on basic concepts that all students A basic understanding of how the body functions helps stu-
should know, followed by learning activities that can dents maintain a healthy body. The three major systems dis-
be assigned or discussed in class to further under- cussed here are the skeletal, muscular, and cardiorespiratory
standing. Much of the information is related to the system. A brief discussion of each is provided and learning
body in an exercise and activity setting and how it activities are offered to enhance student understanding.
responds to exercise and physical activity. Basic
principles of training and fitness also are covered in
this section.
SKELETAL SYSTEM
The skeletal system is the framework of the body. The bones
■ Barriers to Healthy Living—This section deals with act as a system of levers and are linked together at various
behaviors that are harmful to the body if not man- points called joints. The joints are held together by liga-
aged or avoided by students. The emphasis is on ments, which are tough and unable to stretch. In a joint
developing a basic understanding of stress, nutrition injury, when the bones are moved beyond the normal lim-
and weight management, substance abuse, personal its, it is the ligaments that are most often injured.
safety, and first aid. The instructional effort is not to Joints that are freely movable are called synovial joints.
preach and mandate what students should do, but Synovial fluid is secreted to lubricate the joint and reduce
rather to help students understand how to make friction. A thin layer of cartilage also reduces friction at the
thoughtful decisions that positively impact their ends of the bones. A disk, or meniscus, forms a pad between
health status. many of the weight-bearing joints and absorbs shock.
■ Health Maintenance Behaviors—It is important to When the cartilage is damaged, the joint becomes less able
understand how the body works and how it can be to move easily, and arthritis often occurs.
damaged by poor health habits, but knowledge is not Muscular activity increases the stress placed on bones.
enough. Students need to learn and practice behav- The bones respond to this added stress by increasing in
iors related to health-related fitness, stress manage- diameter, becoming more dense and resistant to breakage.
ment, and self-control. This section teaches students The bones act as a mineral reserve for the body and can
how to evaluate their health status and modify their become deformed as a result of dietary deficiency. The
behavior when necessary. Steps for modifying per- bones also can change shape because of regular stress. This
sonal behavior help students monitor, prioritize, and may give athletes, whose skeletal systems are conditioned, a
set personal goals. mechanical advantage in performing certain skills. The

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FIGURE 1 Types of levers in human joints

skeletal system is not a static system but changes and 4. Efficient posture occurs when the bones are in good
adapts in response to the demands placed on it. alignment. Alignment depends on the muscular
The bones are connected to make three different types of system to hold the bones in correct position. Poor
levers, with the joint acting as the fulcrum (Figure 1). The posture occurs when the muscles are weak and in-
muscles apply force to the joints, while the body weight or an creased stress is placed on the joints.
external object provides the resistance. The levers are classi- 5. The bones meet at joints to establish levers. Movement
fied as first-, second-, or third-class levers. Examples of third- occurs when muscles apply force (by contraction
class lever actions are the movement of the biceps muscle to only) to the bones.
flex the forearm at the elbow joint, the sideways movement of
the upper arm at the shoulder joint by the deltoid muscle, 6. The attachment of the muscle to the bone determines
and the flexion of the lower leg at the knee joint by the ham- the mechanical advantage that can be gained at the
string muscles. A second-class lever occurs where the gastroc- joint. Generally, muscles that attach farther from the
nemius muscle raises the weight of the body onto the toes. joint generate more force. There is, however, a trade-
The forearm is an example of a first-class lever when it is off. When the attachment is farther from the joint, the
extended at the elbow joint (fulcrum) by the triceps muscle. amount of speed generated is less, and vice versa.
7. The human body has three types of lever arrange-
Basic Concepts ments. These are classified by the placement of the
1. The skeletal system consists of 206 bones and deter- fulcrum, force, and resistance. The majority of
mines the external appearance of the body. This levers in the body are third-class levers in which
network of bones is somewhat malleable and can be the point of force (produced by the muscles) lies
reshaped, made denser, and strengthened. between the fulcrum (joint) and the point of re-
2. Joints are located where two or more bones are fas- sistance (the weight of the object to be moved)
tened together by ligaments to allow movement that is (see Figure 1).
restricted by the range of motion. The range of motion
at various joints can be increased by regularly perform- Suggested Learning Activities
ing flexibility exercises. The most flexible people have 1. Identify and locate the bones of major significance in
the greatest range of motion at a combination of joints. movement. (Approximately 167 bones are capable of
moving.) Some that can be assigned are as follows:
3. Ligaments and muscles hold the bones together. The
stronger the muscles become, the stronger the liga- a. Arm–shoulder girdle—radius, ulna, humerus,
ments and tendons become in response. This makes a scapula, clavicle
stronger joint, which is more resistant to injury. b. Back–pelvis—spinal column, pelvis, coccyx

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c. Thigh–leg—femur, tibia, fibula, patella every other day so that the muscles have an opportunity to
d. Chest—sternum, ribs heal and regenerate. Maintaining muscular strength
throughout life is important. If exercises are not done to
2. Identify the type of movement possible at selected
maintain strength, muscle atrophy occurs. The average
joints. Use various terms to identify the movements
American gains one pound of additional weight per year
(e.g., extension, flexion, adduction, abduction, prona-
after age 25. This results in 30 pounds of excess weight by age
tion, supination, and plantar flexion).
55. During the same time frame, bone and muscle mass de-
3. Diagram and list the types of levers found in the creases by approximately 0.5 pound per year, which results in
body. Illustrate the force, fulcrum, and resistance a total gain of 45 pounds of body fat (Wilmore, et al., 2008).
points. Identify muscle attachments and the impact
of such in terms of generating force or speed in Basic Concepts
movement. 1. Muscles contract and apply force by pulling only.
4. Obtain animal bones and analyze the various parts They never push. When movement in the opposite
of the bone. Identify the bone marrow, growth direction is desired, the antagonistic muscles must
plates, epiphyses, ligaments, tendons, muscle ori- contract.
gins and attachments, and cartilage. 2. A reduction in joint angle is called flexion; an in-
5. Study outdated X-ray films of children to see the crease in the joint angle is extension. Generally, the
different rates of ossification. Note differences in flexor muscles are on the anterior side of the body,
bone shape and structure between individuals. and the extensors are on the posterior side.
3. Exercises should focus on developing the flexors
MUSCULAR SYSTEM and extensors equally if proper posture and joint
The muscular system (Figure 2) is complex. Muscles apply integrity are to be maintained.
force to the bones to create movement and always create 4. Muscles can be attached directly to the bone. A ten-
movement through contraction. When one set of muscles don, such as the Achilles, can also be the source of
contracts, the other set relaxes. Muscles are always paired. attachment. The origin of the muscle is the fixed
The muscle (or group of muscles) that relaxes while an- portion of the muscle; the insertion is the moving
other set contracts is called the antagonistic muscle. The part of the muscle.
muscles located on the anterior side of the body are flex- 5. Progression involving gradual overloading of mus-
ors and reduce the angle of a joint while the body is stand- cles is necessary to increase muscular strength and
ing. Muscles on the posterior side of the body produce ex- endurance. Regular strength-development exercises
tension and a return from flexion. result in an increase in the width (girth) of a mus-
Two types of muscle fiber are found in humans. These cle. Females rarely attain similar results from stren-
are commonly referred to as slow-twitch and fast-twitch uous exercise. This is because the male hormone
fibers. Slow-twitch fibers respond efficiently to aerobic activ- testosterone is responsible for the increase in mus-
ity, while fast-twitch fibers are suited to anaerobic activity. cle size and is present in greater quantities in males.
This explains, in part, why people perform physical activities
6. Different types of training are necessary for devel-
at varying levels. People are born with a set ratio of fast- and
oping muscular strength and muscular endurance.
slow-twitch fibers. Those with a higher ratio of slow-twitch
Heavier amounts of weight and fewer repetitions
fibers are better able to perform in endurance activities;
will cause a greater increase in strength; while
those with a greater percentage of fast-twitch fibers might
lighter weight and more repetitions enhance mus-
excel in activities of high intensity and short duration.
cular endurance.
Strength gains occur when muscles are overloaded. This
means that more weight must be lifted on a regular basis if 7. Different types of muscular contractions include:
gains are to occur. Exercises should overload as many muscle isometric (without movement), isotonic (with
groups as possible in order to ensure total body development. movement), and eccentric (movement that length-
Both the flexors and extensors should receive equal amounts ens the muscle from a contracted state). The con-
of overload exercise so a proper balance between the two traction most commonly used for developing
muscle groups is maintained. Muscular strength appears to strength and endurance is isotonic.
be an important factor in performing motor skills. 8. Stretching can increase flexibility. Flexibility (the
Muscular exercises should be performed throughout the range of motion at a joint) increases because of a
full range of motion in order to maintain maximum flexibil- lengthening of connective tissue that surrounds the
ity. Strenuous exercise such as weight lifting should be done muscle fibers.

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FIGURE 2 The muscular system

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 HEALTHY LIFESTYLES: ACTIVITIES FOR INSTRUCTION

9. Muscle soreness occurs when the workload is applied using a dynamometer, and set goals for well-
too intensely. The soreness probably results from mus- rounded strength development.
cle tissue damage. Static stretching may alleviate the 5. Perform an action research project. As an example,
pain and help prepare the body for continued activity. pretest students for strength and divide them into
10. The principle of specificity is important in develop- equal groups. Have one group train for 12 weeks
ing muscular strength. Only those muscles that are using muscular endurance techniques while the
exercised will develop. There is no carryover from other trains for 12 weeks using muscular strength
other muscle groups (i.e., strengthening the arms techniques. Retest them and compare the results of
will not cause an increase in leg strength). the two groups after training.

Suggested Learning Activities 6. Identify various sports and games, and determine
what type of training will achieve maximum results.
1. Identify major muscle groups and their functions at
the joints. Discuss the origins and insertions of the 7. Discuss certain exercises that should be avoided,
muscles. such as straight-leg sit-ups and deep knee bends.
2. Study muscles from animals under a microscope. 8. Have students identify why backache occurs in
Show stained biopsies of human muscle fiber that more than 70 percent of Americans. Prescribe a
reveal fast- and slow-twitch muscle fibers. program of exercise that could remedy the majority
of these back problems.
3. Perform some skill-related activities that might reveal
which individuals appear to be endowed with more
fast-twitch than slow-twitch fibers. Examples might CARDIORESPIRATORY SYSTEM
be the standing long jump, vertical jump, and an en- The cardiorespiratory system consists of the heart (Figure
durance activity such as the mile run. 3), lungs, arteries, capillaries, and veins. The heart is a mus-
4. Develop a personal strength profile for students. cle that pumps blood throughout the circulatory system—
Measure the strength of various muscle groups arteries, capillaries, and veins. The coronary arteries bring

Head and
arms

Aorta

Pulmonary artery
Right Left
lung Pulmonary vein Pulmonary vein lung
Atrium
Atrium
Pulmonary
valve Mitral
Ventricle valve
Aortic
Ventricle valve

Right heart: Tricuspid Left heart:

Receives blood from valve Myocardium (heart muscle) Receives oxygen-full
the body and pumps it blood from the lungs
through the pulmonary and pumps it
artery to the lungs, where Trunk and through the aorta to
it picks up fresh oxygen legs the body

FIGURE 3 Structure of the heart (data from the American Heart Association)

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 HEALTHY LIFESTYLES: ACTIVITIES FOR INSTRUCTION

the heart a rich supply of blood. Heart disease occurs when Breathing consists of inhaling and exhaling air. Air con-
fatty deposits block or seriously impede the flow of blood tains 21 percent oxygen, which is necessary for life.
to the heart. Inspiration is assisted by muscular contraction, and expira-
The heart has two chambers and is, in effect, divided in tion is accomplished by a relaxing of the muscles.
half with each side providing different functions. The left Inspiration occurs when the intercostal muscles and the
side of the heart pumps blood carrying nutrients and oxygen diaphragm contract. This increases the size of the chest
to the body through the arteries to the capillaries, where the cavity, and expansion of the lungs causes air to flow in as a
nutrients and oxygen are exchanged for waste products and result of reduced air pressure. When the muscles are
carbon dioxide. The waste-carrying blood is returned relaxed, the size of the chest cavity is reduced, the pressure is
through the veins to the right side of the heart, from which increased, and air flows from the lungs.
the blood is routed through the lungs to discharge the car- The primary function of the lungs is to provide oxygen
bon dioxide and pick up oxygen. This oxygen-renewed blood to the cells on demand. The amount of oxygen needed
returns to the left side of the heart to complete the circuit. varies depending on activity level. When an individual exer-
Each time the heart beats, it pumps blood through cises strenuously, the rate of respiration increases to bring
both chambers. The beat is called the pulse; its impact more oxygen to tissues. If the amount of oxygen carried to
travels through the body. Pulse is measured in number of the cells is adequate to maintain the level of activity, the
beats per minute. A pulse rate of 75 means that the heart is activity is termed aerobic, or endurance exercise. Examples
beating 75 times each minute. The cardiac output is deter- are walking, jogging, and bicycling for distance. If, because
mined by the pulse rate and the stroke volume, which is of high-intensity activity, the body is not capable of bring-
the amount of blood discharged by each beat. ing enough oxygen to the cells, the body will continue to
The pulse is measured by placing the two middle fin- operate for a short time without oxygen. This results in an
gers of the right hand on the thumb side of the subject’s oxygen debt, which must be repaid later. In this case, the
wrist while the subject is seated. Taking the pulse at the activity is termed anaerobic exercise.
wrist is usually preferable to using the carotid artery be- The respiratory rate will return to normal after exercise.
cause pressure on the carotid can decrease blood flow to The recovery rate will be faster if the oxygen debt incurred
the brain and cause lightheadedness or fainting. during exercise was small. An individual has recovered from
The respiratory system includes the entryways (nose the exertion of exercise when blood pressure, heart rate, and
and mouth), the trachea (or windpipe), the primary ventilation rate have returned to pre-exercise levels.
bronchi, and the lungs. Figure 4 shows the components of
the respiratory system. Basic Concepts
1. The heart is a muscular organ that must be exercised
like other muscles to maintain maximum efficiency.
Effective heart exercise is activity that is usually of
low to moderate intensity and long duration, which
is aerobic in nature.
2. Pulse rate varies among individuals. In most individ-
uals it will slow down at rest as a result of training.
Resting pulse rate is sometimes used as an indicator
of the state of training. Not all individuals respond to
training (show many of the effects mentioned in this
section) because much of it is genetically controlled.
In addition, the amount of improvement from the
same amount of physical activity will vary a great
deal among individuals.
3. Cardiorespiratory training appears to decrease the
susceptibility of individuals to heart disease. The ear-
lier in life that one begins an active lifestyle, the better
the chance of retarding the onset of cardiovascular
disease.
4. Moderate to vigorous physical activity (MVPA) (jog-
ging, brisk walking, bicycling) changed the chem-
FIGURE 4 The respiratory system istry of the blood and lowers cholesterol levels.

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There are two types of lipoproteins—high-density 5. Demonstrate the effects on the cardiovascular system
lipoproteins (HDLs) and low-density lipoproteins of carrying excess weight. Identify two students who
(LDLs)—and exercise appears to increase the ratio weigh the same, are of the same sex, are in similar
of HDLs to LDLs. This is important because HDL training states, and who do not carry excess weight.
seems to prevent harmful plaque from building up Monitor their resting heart rate before starting. Ask
in the arteries. one person to perform the upcoming task while
5. Hypokinetic (inactivity) diseases are somewhat influ- carrying two 10-pound weights. Set two markers
enced by gender, heredity, race, and age. Many of these 20 yards apart, and have both students run back
diseases can be prevented, however, by controlling and forth between the cones 10 times. Immediately
factors such as smoking, being overweight, inactivity, after they finish, monitor their heart rates and
improper diet, and high blood pressure. recovery rates as described previously. Discuss the
fact that excessive body fat is merely dead weight
6. The heart grows stronger and larger when the body that must be moved, and note how the excess
is involved in MVPA (30 minutes or more). A larger weight decreases physical performance.
and stronger heart results in a greater stroke vol-
ume per beat. 6. Compare heart rates after 2- or 3-minute bouts
of different types of exercise. Experiment with
7. If weight control is a concern, maintaining muscle
walking, jogging, sprinting, rope jumping, bicy-
mass is important. Severe dieting often results not
cling, and performing calisthenics. Discuss the
only in a loss of fat cells, but in a loss of muscle tis-
differences.
sue as well. Considering muscle tissue burns twice
as many calories as fat tissue, it is important for 7. Calculate the heart rate training zone to ensure that
weight control as well as for cosmetic and perform- the individual is not under or overexercising. There
ance reasons. are a number of ways to calculate the training zone
heart rate. Here is an example of one:
8. The vital capacity of the lungs can be increased
Determine your estimated maximum heart
through regular MVPA. This makes the oxygen
rate by taking 220 beats per minute (bpm) minus
exchange system more efficient.
your age; then multiply the difference by 70 per-
Suggested Learning Activities cent and 85 percent. An example for a student who
is 15 follows:
1. Discuss the acronym DANGER, which is defined as
follows, in regard to cardiovascular disease: 220  15 = 205 bpm
205  70 = 144 bpm
■ Don’t smoke.
205  85 = 174 bpm
■ Avoid foods high in fat and cholesterol.
8. Identify resting respiratory rates. Have students try
■ Now control high blood pressure and diabetes.
different types of exercise and compare the effects
■ Get medical examinations at least every other year. each has on the respiratory rate.
■ Exercise moderately each day.
■ Reduce weight if carrying excess fat.
2. Compare resting pulse rates among students. Look
BARRIERS TO HEALTHY LIVING
for differences between sexes, ages, and states of Healthy living involves knowing what activities to avoid as
training. Try taking the resting pulse rate in differ- well as what to do. Teaching about these activities should
ent positions. not be done by preaching and telling students what they
should or should not do. Emphasis is placed instead on
3. Examine the impact that exercise has on heart rate. showing students the pros and cons of various practices
Record the resting heart rate. Have each person run and the consequences of making certain decisions. The
in place for 1 minute. Take the pulse rate immedi- ultimate decision and responsibility rest with the student,
ately and record it. Continue taking the pulse rate at not the teacher.
2-minute intervals three to five times to demon- This section covers stress, nutrition and weight con-
strate recovery rate. Discuss individual differences trol, substance abuse, and personal safety. All are areas
in maximum heart rate and recovery heart rate. where behavior can be modified to enhance the quality
4. Teach students how to take blood pressure. Exercise of life. Students can make decisions in these areas
for 1 minute as described previously and monitor that affect how they live and, sometimes, whether they
the effect that exercise has on blood pressure. will live.

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STRESS ■ Trying to do two or more things simultaneously

Stress is the body’s reaction to certain situations in life. (referred to as polyphasic thought or action).
Everyone experiences some stress. Stress, by itself, is probably ■ Always feeling busy, and feeling uneasy when time
not harmful, but handling stress is critical in determining the is taken to do nothing or to do something relaxing.
impact it will have on one’s life. Many students are affected by ■ Needing to do everything faster and more effi-
stress. Often, students are seen as carefree and without wor- ciently than everyone else.
ries. Quite the opposite is usually the case. Students live under
the stress of others’ expectations, peer pressure, sexual mores, ■ Exhibiting many strong gestures, such as clenching
and the necessity of becoming an independent being. If teach- the fists, banging a hand on the table, or dramati-
ers appreciate that students are subject to stress, they can cally waving the arms.
begin to deal with them in ways that alleviate possible stres-
sors and allow for stress release. In this way, teachers can have
an impact on the students’ self-concept and their worldviews.
Psychologically, stress may take the form of excite- ✔Teaching Tip: Identifying Signs
ment, fear, or anger. Physical changes also accompany psy- of Stress
chological stress; for example, heart rate increases, blood
pressure rises, ventilation rate increases, perspiration Most people learn who they are by reflecting and
talking with friends who care about them. It is difficult
increases, body temperature may rise, and the pupils may
for most people to sense that they are stressed. If you
dilate. This response to stress once aided human beings in ask them what is stressing them, most will answer with
survival and is labeled the “fight-or-flight syndrome.” “nothing.” A class activity that can help them under-
When a situation arises that may cause harm, the body’s stand stress is to create a “Signs of Stress” instrument.
endocrine system prepares it to fight or to flee the situa- Create a group discussion around identifying signs of
tion. People often speak of the “adrenaline flowing” when stress, and then post the results as a list that students
can refer to and share with others.
they are scared or worried about upcoming situations.
Unfortunately, our society and schools offer few oppor-
tunities to relieve tension through activity and few individu-
als find the motivation to do so. The resulting tension and Learning to cope with stressful situations is important.
stress that build up cause individuals to expend a great deal The first step involves developing an awareness of what
of energy in unproductive ways. People often feel fatigued types of situations cause stress. Sharing situations with
when they are unable to release stress. Many nervous habits, others often releases the tension and allows students to feel
such as constant movement while sitting, playing with an they are “normal” and are maturing properly. In the physi-
item in the hands, and various facial twitches, are the body’s cal education setting, emphasis should be placed on the
attempts to relieve tension. role that activity can play in stress reduction. Involvement
The ultimate question when dealing with stress might in enjoyable and success-oriented physical activities can
be: “What does it matter if I’m under stress? All people are.” It decrease tension. This involvement has a side effect
matters because excessive stress has many detrimental effects because the required concentration will provide a diver-
on the body. It increases the risk of heart disease and can lead sion from worries and stressors. Note, however, that if the
to insomnia and hypertension. Indigestion is common in activity is not enjoyable and if the student consistently fails
stressed individuals, as is constipation. Many backaches and to find success, the level of stress may actually increase.
general body aches originate through stress. Doctors are Some experts believe exercise applies stress to the
diagnosing more and more “psychosomatic” diseases, those body in a systematic fashion and thus prepares the indi-
with no physical prognoses that appear to be caused by stress. vidual to deal with other stressful situations. Physical
Another serious problem associated with unrelieved stress is education can provide a variety of physical activities to
the tendency of individuals to try to cope by using substances help students relieve tension. Another beneficial strategy
such as alcohol, tobacco, and drugs. is to teach various relaxation techniques that help relieve
People who feel stressed demonstrate behavior char- general body stress. These are discussed in a later section
acterized by some of the following patterns: in this chapter.

■ Moving everywhere rapidly, even when it is unnec- Basic Concepts

essary. 1. Stress affects all individuals to varying degrees.
■ Feeling bored and impatient (for example, with Some stress is necessary to stimulate performance
classes) and with how things are being done by others. and increase motivation.

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 HEALTHY LIFESTYLES: ACTIVITIES FOR INSTRUCTION

2. The amount of stress with which one is able to cope positive self-concepts developed? Why are some
depends on how it is perceived. Positive self-concepts people able to cope with failure and losing better
help people accept threatening situations in a less than others?
stressful manner. 5. Discuss situations in physical activity settings that
3. When people have difficulty dealing with stress give rise to increased stress, such as failing in front
through productive methods, such as exercise, re- of others, not being selected for a team, being
laxation activities, and talks with friends, they often ridiculed for a poor performance, or losing a game
attempt to relieve stress through unhealthy and po- that was personally important. How could these sit-
tentially dangerous means such as alcohol, tobacco, uations be handled differently?
and drug usage. 6. Identify physical activities that seem to relieve
4. Stress causes changes in perceptible bodily functions. tension and stress. Discuss the relationship be-
An awareness of these changes is necessary if stu- tween involvement in activity and the reduction
dents are to recognize when they are under stress and of stress.
need to cope with its effects. 7. Identify and discuss unproductive attempts to relieve
5. Stress appears to increase susceptibility to many stress such as drinking, smoking, and drug abuse.
diseases and causes psychosomatic illnesses. Why are these methods chosen rather than exercise,
6. Exercise is an excellent way to relieve stress and ten- discussions, or relaxation activities?
sion when the activity is perceived as enjoyable and 8. Discuss the many effects of stress on health. Give
success oriented. students a stress inventory to see how much stress
7. Stress is a risk factor that influences the onset of they are under, and discuss ways of reducing this
heart disease. pressure.
8. There are different ways of relieving stress, including 9. Teach relaxation techniques such as deep breathing,
exercise, expressing feelings to friends, developing progressive muscle relaxation, and personal medi-
problem-solving skills, and performing accepted re- tation. Emphasize the importance of taking time
laxation techniques. for these activities daily. Just as brushing the teeth is
necessary for healthy dentition, relaxation is neces-
sary for a healthy body and mind.
Suggested Learning Activities
1. Hold an isometric contraction at the elbow joint.
With the other hand, feel the contraction in the NUTRITION AND WEIGHT MANAGEMENT
biceps and triceps. Repeat the activity with other Proper nutrition is necessary if students want to physically
muscle groups. Discuss how stress causes general- perform at a high level. An important area of concern
ized body tension that can result in tensed muscles deals with the balance between caloric intake and expen-
and an increase in general body fatigue. Learning to diture in order to maintain proper weight. Students
recognize muscle tension is a desired outcome of should understand the reasons and methods for main-
this discussion. taining an optimum level of body weight. Discuss the
2. Discuss the concept of “choking” under pressure. impact of empty calories through excessive ingestion of
How does this relate to athletic performance? junk foods. Explain the importance of a balanced diet to
What happens when stress is greater than the in- help the body grow and develop. Point out that the role of
dividual’s ability to cope with it? Discuss how exercise in weight control and muscle development is as
some stress increases performance, while too important as a balanced diet.
much decreases it. It’s important for students to understand the ele-
ments of a balanced diet. A balanced diet draws from
3. Discuss the importance of perception in stressful each of the basic food groups; emphasis should be
situations. How is stress perceived? Should students given to proportionality, moderation, and variety. The
admit when they are worried or scared? Is it better revised MyPyramid from the U.S. Department of
to be “tough” and not tell anyone how you feel? Is it Agriculture (2010) illustrates that the most food should
better to keep emotions inside or to share feelings be eaten from the grain, vegetable, and milk groups, but
with others? also shows that eating foods from the fruit, oil, and
4. Discuss the importance of finding activities in meat and bean groups is essential to a healthy diet.
which students believe they are successful. How are (Figure 5)

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 HEALTHY LIFESTYLES: ACTIVITIES FOR INSTRUCTION

Physical activity. Physical activity

is important on a daily basis.

Proportionality. While all food groups are important, some

groups, depicted by their wider bands in the pyramid, should
be consumed in larger proportions than others.

Moderation. The wide base of the pyramid is

a visual reminder that a diet should contain
predominantly nutrient-rich foods with little
added sugars and unhealthy fats. The
narrowing of the bands on the top of the
pyramid reinforces that sugary food and solid
fats should be consumed in moderation.

Variety. The pyramid contains numerous

colorful bands to encourage a diet that
Meat &
Oils

Grains Ve getables Fruits Milk contains a variety of food groups.

Beans

Personalization. There are several MyPyramids

available online that provide a personalized eating
plan based on your individual needs.

Gradual improvement. The pyramid slogan reinforces

that small, gradual changes in both diet and lifestyle
can be beneficial.

FIGURE 5 Anatomy of MyPyramid. Individual elements of MyPyramid reinforce important concepts for students
planning a healthy diet.
Data from: U.S. Department of Agriculture, The New Look and Messages of USDA’s MyPyramid, Background. 2005. Available at www.mypyramid.gov.

Encourage students to moderate the consumption of number of calories expended through various types of
foods high in cholesterol and fat. Some cholesterol and fat physical activity (Figure 6). When caloric intake exceeds
are necessary for proper body function. When too much caloric expenditure, becoming overweight is the result.
fat is ingested, however, cholesterol and triglyceride levels A well-documented and common cause of becoming
in the blood plasma increase. Many studies have shown a overweight is inactivity. Some experts believe over-
relationship between high cholesterol and triglyceride lev- weight students do not eat more than normal weight
els and coronary heart disease. (A blood test is needed to students; rather, they exercise less.
determine blood lipid levels.) Being overweight is a roadblock to optimal health.
Students should be aware of which foods are high in Life insurance companies view overweight people as
fat and cholesterol. The following are examples of foods poor risks because of their shorter life expectancy.
high in cholesterol: eggs, cheese, cream, most beef and Excessive body fat makes the heart work harder, in-
pork cuts, chocolate milk, shrimp, chocolate candy, cake creases the chance of having high blood pressure, and
and cookies, and ice cream. lowers the possibility of recovery from a heart attack.
Depending on the criteria used, anywhere from Even more detrimental to students is the psychological
30 to 50 percent of students are overweight, meaning impact that being overweight has on self-concept devel-
that their body weight is over the accepted limits for opment. Students of normal weight find it much easier
their ages, sexes, and body builds. It is important to perform physical tasks because strength in relation-
for students to begin to develop an awareness of the ship to body weight is a critical performance factor.
caloric content of foods as well as the nutritional value. Overweight students are often punished more severely
They can count calories and practice consistency in than normal weight students for the same type of
the amount of calories they ingest. Coupled with deviance and may receive lower grades for a similar
this awareness should be some comprehension of the quality of work.

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 HEALTHY LIFESTYLES: ACTIVITIES FOR INSTRUCTION

Activity

Moderate activity
Calories per Hour

200–350
✔Teaching Tip: Uncovering
Hidden Calories
Bicycling (5 1⁄ 2 mph) 210
Most people overestimate how active they are and
Walking (2 1⁄ 2 mph) 210 underestimate how much they eat. Initiate a class
discussion about the number of calories snacks and
Gardening 220 treats can add to students’ daily food intake. Then
show how many miles they would have to walk or jog
Canoeing (2 1⁄ 2 mph) 230 to burn off those excess calories.

Golf 250

Lawn mowing (power mower) 250 Basic Concepts

1. Diet should be balanced and contain foods from
Lawn mowing (hand mower) 270
each of the four basic groups. This ensures that the
Bowling 270 body will receive essential nutrients.
2. Caloric expenditure (body functions plus exercise)
Fencing 300 and intake (eating) must be balanced to maintain a
Rowing (2 1⁄ 2 mph) 300
healthy weight. A weight-reducing program should
include a reduction in caloric intake and an in-
Swimming ( 1⁄4 mph) 300 crease in daily exercise.
3. Activities vary in the energy they require. Individual
Walking (3 3⁄4 mph) 300
needs must be considered in the selection of activi-
Badminton 350 ties to promote weight control and physical fitness
maintenance.
Horseback riding (trotting) 350
4. Junk foods add little if any nutritional value to the
Square-dancing 350 diet and are usually high in calories. Foods and bev-
erages such as sugar, margarine and butter, oils, and
Volleyball 350 alcohol are high in calories but make little or no
contribution in terms of nutrition.
Roller skating 350
5. Excessive weight makes performing physical tasks
Vigorous activity Over 350 difficult. This results in less success and in less mo-
tivation to be active, thus increasing the tendency
Table tennis 360
toward being overweight.
Ice-skating (10 mph) 400 6. Being overweight increases the risk of heart disease
and other related diseases such as diabetes.
Tennis 420
7. Many overweight students do not consume more
Water-skiing 480 calories than normal weight students; they are sim-
ply less active.
Hill climbing (100 ft/hr) 490
8. Vitamins are not nutrients but are catalysts that
Skiing (10 mph) 600 facilitate metabolic processes. Certain vitamin defi-
ciencies can produce various diseases.
Squash and handball 600
9. Various foods are excellent sources of specific nutri-
Cycling (13 mph) 660 ents. Students should be able to identify which
foods to ingest to provide a balance of the needed
Scull rowing (race) 840 nutrients, vitamins, and minerals.
Running (10 mph) 900
Suggested Learning Concepts
FIGURE 6 Caloric expenditure 1. Post a list of activities and their energy demands on the
Data adapted from the President’s Council on Physical Fitness bulletin board. Discuss the need for selecting activities
and Sports, Washington, D.C. that will burn enough calories to balance caloric intake.

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2. Maintain a food diary. Record all food eaten daily Alcohol has both short-term and long-term effects.
and the amount of calories in each. Compare the Short-term effects vary as a result of the depressant effect
amount of calories ingested with the amount of that alcohol has on the central nervous system. Some peo-
calories expended. ple become relaxed, others become aggressive or angry,
3. Maintain a nutritious-food diary. Keep a log of and some become active to differing degrees. Ultimately, a
foods eaten daily and categorize each into major lack of coordination and confusion occur if a great deal of
food groups. Determine the percentage of carbohy- alcohol is ingested. The long-term effects of alcohol abuse
drates, proteins, and fats in relation to all the food may be liver damage, heart disease, and malnutrition. The
ingested during each day. greatest concern surrounding long-term drinking is the
possibility of alcoholism. Most agree that alcoholism has
4. Develop a desirable and practical balanced diet that
the following components: loss of control of alcohol in-
can be followed for 1 week. Arrange with parents to
take, presence of functional or structural damage (physi-
facilitate the diet within their budget restrictions.
cal and psychological), and dependence on alcohol to
5. Calculate the recommended daily allowance (RDA) maintain an acceptable level of functioning.
for various nutrients. Compare a daily intake with Students usually drink for any of the following rea-
the recommendations for various minerals and sons: curiosity, the desire to celebrate with parents, peer
vitamins. pressure, the desire to be like adults and appear more ma-
6. Bring various foods to class that have labels offering ture, rebelliousness, the desire to emulate role models, or
nutrition information. Determine which foods are addiction (i.e., they are alcoholics). Some students are am-
good buys for desired nutrients. bivalent about alcohol; they know its detrimental effects
7. Develop an activity diary. For one week, record all and yet they see many of their friends and peers using it.
activity over and above maintenance activities. The problem is a difficult one and an understanding of
Calculate the number of calories burned per day. both moderate use and abstinence is needed. An under-
standing of how to cope with peer pressure to drink alco-
8. Discuss and analyze how society rewards physically hol is also needed and is discussed in the next section on
fit individuals. Contrast the ways in which over- basic concepts.
weight people are discriminated against in various Tobacco use is common among junior and senior high
situations. students. Smoking significantly increases the possibility of
heart attacks, strokes, and cancer. Chronic bronchitis and
SUBSTANCE ABUSE emphysema are prevalent diseases among smokers. A recent
Substance abuse is defined as the harmful use of alcohol, study revealed that the average lifespan of long-term smok-
tobacco, or drugs. If students are expected to make wise ers is 7 years shorter than that of nonsmokers. Students need
and meaningful decisions, they must understand how var- to understand smoking’s impact on a healthy body. Along
ious substances impact their physical and psychological with this knowledge, they should examine why people
being. Facts, both pro and con, should be presented in a choose to smoke. Overall, the percentage of people smoking
nonjudgmental environment, without moralizing and has gone down. For those who choose to smoke, the fastest
preaching. It is difficult for students to make personal de- growing group is young girls and women. Students will
cisions if most of the information they receive is from always make the final decision for their individual behaviors,
peers or moralizing adults. but before they do so, they need to thoroughly understand
Alcohol, tobacco, and drugs are usually detrimental to the ramifications of smoking.
total health. The use and misuse of these substances
should be discussed objectively with students because
much of the information they receive is from biased
sources, such as parents, peers, and various media for- ✔Teaching Tip: Addressing
mats. The physical education teacher can promote discus- Unhealthy Behaviors
sions and fact-seeking sessions that relate to a healthy
lifestyle. Many times, the physical educator is the only Most young people are unable to imagine their mortal-
ity and feel that they’ll live forever regardless of their
person who focuses on health promotion. However, if the behavior, or will be able to avoid the long-term conse-
instructor feels strongly that an issue has only one accept- quences of abusing alcohol, tobacco, and drugs. This is
able point of view, it might be best to avoid a discussion. why scare tactics usually don’t work. It is better to use
Telling students only the reasons for behaving the way you “straight talk” to teach them the facts and conse-
want them to behave often results in a strong reaction in quences of unhealthy behavior.
the opposite direction.

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The use of marijuana, prescription drugs, steroids, Suggested Learning Activities

“pep pills,” and pain relievers in athletics should be 1. Identify and discuss the reasons why people choose or
discussed. If you are uncomfortable dealing with these choose not to become involved in substance abuse.
topics, agencies outside of the school are available to dis-
2. Discuss the importance of making personal decisions
cuss substance abuse in an objective manner with stu-
based on what is best for you. Why do we follow oth-
dents. It is important to vet and clear the agency with your
ers and allow them to influence our decisions, even
campus administrator to ensure they are valid, reputable,
when those decisions are not in our best interest?
and reliable. The intent is to enhance students’ awareness
so they learn about alternatives to and consequences of 3. Develop a bulletin board that illustrates the many
doping and illicit or performance-enhancing drug use. ways used by the tobacco, alcohol, and drug indus-
Substance abuse is contrary to the whole concept of per- tries to try to get young people to buy their prod-
sonal health. Physical educators need to accept the chal- ucts. Reserve a spot for advertisements (if any can
lenge of increasing student understanding and knowledge be found) that admonish and encourage students to
regarding drug use. abstain or moderate the use of various substances.
4. Students often see professional and college athletes
Basic Concepts smoking and drinking on television while hearing
1. The earlier one begins to smoke, the greater the risk that these habits impair performance. Discuss why
to functional health. these athletes can perform at a high level even
2. People smoke for psychological reasons. though they may drink or smoke.
3. Young people may choose substance abuse because 5. Students often choose to be part of a peer group at
of curiosity, status, or peer pressure. any cost. Discuss how our society often respects and
honors individuals who have the courage to go their
4. Choosing a lifestyle independently of peers requires own way. Examples might be Columbus, Helen
great courage. Keller, Martin Luther King, Jr., and so forth.
5. Wise and purposeful decisions about substance 6. Identify and discuss the ways in which people choose
abuse can be made only when all of the alternatives to relieve and dissipate stress. Discuss productive
and consequences are understood. releases of tension such as recreation, hobbies, and
6. Substance abuse is often an attempt to cope with sports.
stress. Exercise and relaxation are much more pro- 7. Bring in speakers who are knowledgeable about the
ductive, healthy methods of coping. effects and uses of alcohol, tobacco, and drugs. If nec-
7. The use of alcohol, tobacco, and drugs always carries essary, bring in a pair of speakers who might debate
the risk of addiction. When people are addicted, they both sides of an issue.
are no longer in charge of their lifestyles. All people, 8. Develop visual aids that identify the various effects
to some degree, are subject to addiction; no one is that alcohol, tobacco, and drugs have on the body.
immune.
8. Spending time and effort on developing personal
SAFETY AND FIRST AID
competencies is more productive than abusing sub-
stances. Personal competency in many areas reduces Safety and first aid are often part of the physical education
the need to “be like everyone else” and contributes program because more accidents occur in physical educa-
to a positive self-concept. tion than in any other area of the school curriculum.
Safety is an attitude and concern for one’s welfare and
9. The use of harmful substances frequently reduces the health. An accident is an unplanned event or act that may
pleasure one can receive from experiencing the world. result in injury or death. Often, accidents occur when they
Physical performance is often reduced because of could have been prevented. The following are the most
substance abuse. common causes of accidents: lack of knowledge and
10. A person can drink and smoke and still excel at ath- understanding of risks; lack of skill and competence to
letics, but their maximum performance level may perform tasks safely, such as riding a bike or driving a car;
be reduced and the ultimate effect on the athlete false sense of security that leads people to think that acci-
will be harmful. Students see many professional dents happen only to others; fatigue or illness that affects
athletes who smoke and drink. They know that this physical and mental performance; drugs and alcohol; and
happens, but should understand that the choice is strong emotional states (e.g., anger, fear, or worry) that
undesirable from a health standpoint. cause people to do things they might not otherwise do.

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 HEALTHY LIFESTYLES: ACTIVITIES FOR INSTRUCTION

Traffic accidents are an area where many deaths could 7. Basic first-aid procedures to prevent further injury
be prevented. Wearing seat belts reduces the risk of dying to victims are competencies that all students should
by 50 percent. Drinking alcohol while driving increases possess.
the risk of an accident 20-fold compared to not drinking.
Driver education and an awareness of the possibility of Suggested Learning Activities
serious injury should be a part of the health program. 1. Discuss the causes of different types of accidents
Bicycles are another source of numerous accidents. and how many accidents could be avoided.
Automobile drivers have difficulty seeing bicycles, and the
2. Identify the types of accidents that happen to differ-
resulting accidents are often serious. The physical educa-
ent age groups and why this appears to be the case.
tion setting is often the only place where bicycle safety
training occurs. Classes in bicycling for safety and fitness 3. Identify the role of alcohol and drugs in causing
are usually well received by middle school and high school accidents. Why are these substances used in recre-
students. ational settings?
Swimming-related accidents are the second leading 4. Develop a bulletin board that illustrates how to
cause of accidental death among young adults. More than care for shock victims. Practice the steps in a mock
50 percent of all drownings occur when people unexpect- procedure.
edly find themselves in water. Another major cause of 5. Have an “accident day” when various types of acci-
death from drowning is alcohol ingestion. Swimming and dents are staged that demand such treatments as
drinking do not mix well. Physical education programs stopping bleeding, and performing CPR.
should teach all students to swim and learn water-safety
rules during their school careers. 6. Outline the steps to follow in case of a home fire.
Physical education and sports are sources of injury in Discuss how many fires could be prevented.
the school setting. Proper safety procedures and first aid 7. Conduct a bicycle safety fair. Have students design
techniques should be taught. Students should know how bulletin boards and displays that explain and empha-
to stop bleeding, treat shock, and administer cardiopul- size bicycle safety.
monary resuscitation (CPR). Many physical education
programs now include a required unit of instruction deal-
ing with these topics. It is estimated that bystanders could TEACHING HEALTH
save 100,000 to 200,000 lives if they knew CPR. MAINTENANCE
It is apparent that the health of students can be seriously
Basic Concepts impaired when safety issues are dealt with incorrectly.
1. Accidents are unplanned events or acts that may However, consuming proper nutrition, avoiding substance
result in injury or death. The majority of accidents abuse, and practicing proper safety when bicycling or
could be avoided if people were adequately prepared driving a car can protect the health of participants. The
and understood the necessary competencies and purpose of this section is to help students learn mainte-
risks involved. nance behaviors. Health maintenance focuses on a three-
2. Wearing seat belts and not drinking alcohol while pronged approach: (1) health-related fitness, (2) stress
driving will dramatically decrease the risk of death reduction, and (3) self-evaluation. None of these areas are
by automobile accident. covered entirely because many in-depth sources are avail-
able. For a recommended source in helping students
3. Bicycles are often not seen by car drivers. Bicycling
develop lifetime fitness, see the Corbin and Lindsey
safety classes can help lower the number of bicycle
(2007) text listed as References at the end of this chapter.
accidents.
4. Swimming-related accidents are the second leading
HEALTH-RELATED FITNESS
cause of accidental death among young people.
Instructional swimming programs and avoiding Health-related fitness is directly related to the wellness of
alcohol will dramatically decrease the risk of death individuals and generally consists of cardiovascular fit-
by drowning. ness, strength, muscular endurance, flexibility, and body
fatness. Cardiovascular fitness is the most important
5. Thousands of lives could be saved if all people knew phase of fitness for wellness. Cardiovascular fitness is a
how to perform CPR. complex concept but, simply put, involves efficient func-
6. All students should know how to stop bleeding and tioning of the heart, blood, and blood vessels in order to
administer CPR. supply oxygen to the body during aerobic activity.

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Strength refers to the ability of a muscle or muscle group In an earlier section, exercise was discussed as an
to exert force. Without strength, a low standard of per- excellent method of controlling stress. It appears to allow
formance can be expected because muscles will fatigue negative feelings to dissipate and positive feelings to
before an individual can perform well. Muscular endurance replace them. The relaxed feeling that occurs after an
refers to the ability of a muscle or muscle group to exert exercise bout is championed by many as the best part of
effort over a period of time. Endurance uses strength and activity.
postpones fatigue so the effort can be expended for long Many deep-breathing exercises are available. The relax-
periods. Cardiovascular fitness also plays a key role in how ation response advocated by Benson & Klipper (2000) is sup-
long people can perform an activity. Flexibility is a person’s posed to replicate the effects of Transcendental Meditation.
range of movement at the joints. It allows freedom of Individuals sit comfortably and quietly and breathe deeply
movement and ready adjustment of the body for various through the nose. The word “one” is said each time the per-
movements. Body fatness refers to the percentage of body son exhales. Twenty-minute bouts, once or twice a day, are
weight that is fat. People who are physically fit generally recommended.
have a lower percentage of body fat than those who are Another popular method is progressive muscle relax-
unfit. For males in high school, 11–15 percent body fat is a ation. With this technique, a muscle or muscle group is
reasonable range, while 20–25 percent is acceptable for first tensed and then relaxed slowly and smoothly. All the
females (Corbin & Lindsey, 2007). major parts of the body are in turn relaxed as one works
It is important to help students develop a health-related down from the head to the toes.
fitness plan they can use to monitor themselves throughout Regardless of the activity choice selected for relax-
life. The basic steps for such a plan are as follows: ation, students should be taught the importance of taking
time to relax. It can be an important learning situation to
1. Identify present areas of fitness and weakness through take 4 or 5 minutes at the end of a class to sit down and
pretesting with the Fitnessgram test (Cooper Institute, relax. This communicates to students that relaxation is
2010). This test will show students the criterion level indeed important considering the instructor allows time
they need to achieve for good health. for the activity.
2. Identify the present activities the students are per-
forming by having them fill out a survey that lists a SELF-EVALUATION AND BEHAVIOR
wide variety of activities. Post a chart that shows the SELF-CONTROL
components of health-related fitness enhanced by
Self-Evaluating
each activity. A good source for surveys and lists of
activity benefits is Fitness for Life by Corbin and An important step in maintaining good health is being
Lindsey (2007). able to evaluate oneself on a regular basis. Individuals
ultimately answer to themselves, and thus students need
3. Select some activities that build health-related fit- not share the results of their evaluations. Many invento-
ness components each student needs, as identified ries, such as drinking and smoking scales, are available
in step 1. Each student will begin to have a person- from various governmental agencies. Students can begin
alized plan that is meaningful to him or her. to see the extent of a problem and whether they are
4. Plan a weeklong activity program that contains improving.
activities that are enjoyable and help alleviate Students should be taught to evaluate their own lev-
weaknesses in various component areas. Evaluate els of health-related physical fitness. Each of the health-
the weeklong program and develop a month-long related fitness items can be evaluated easily using the
program in order to provide longer-range goals. In Fitnessgram (Cooper Institute, 2010). If students are
the program, delineate the frequency of exercise, not given time in the physical education program to
the intensity, and the amount of time to be spent evaluate their own fitness levels, they will probably not
exercising. take the time for evaluation once they leave school. An
effective technique is to give each student a self-testing
card that has room for recording four to five different
STRESS REDUCTION testing episodes. Students regularly test themselves and
Many methods are recommended for learning to cope record their performances. If desired, instructors can
with stress. Only a few of the most popular in the school file the cards and return them when it is time for an-
setting are covered here. The following textbooks are other testing period. This system allows students to
resources to help with this area (Blonna, 2005; Greenberg, monitor their personal health-related fitness in a num-
2004; Corbin & Lindsey, 2007). ber of areas.

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 HEALTHY LIFESTYLES: ACTIVITIES FOR INSTRUCTION

Modifying Personal Behavior gency. One might say to oneself, “I feel better and
Students can be taught how to monitor their personal look stronger after every bout of exercise.” In any
health behavior. Behavior modification is a systematic ap- case, if students can identify something positive
proach to solving problems. It involves keeping records of that occurs because of or after the exercise bout,
behavior in order to understand the positive and negative they will have a tendency to continue on the path of
variables that influence behavior. The following steps help wellness.
students learn to manipulate their behavior.

1. Maintain behavior records. Students monitor their

activity patterns and record the performances on
STUDY STIMULATORS
personal charts. Currently, there are many websites
that allow activity monitoring online. An example AND REVIEW QUESTIONS
is the President’s Challenge award system (see the 1. Define health education and discuss how it can
Websites section at this chapter’s end). These sites be integrated into secondary physical education.
2. Describe several ideas for teaching health con-
allow students to observe their patterns of exercise,
cepts in physical education.
the duration of the exercise, and the intensity of 3. What can teachers do to develop awareness and
effort. Such observation becomes self-reinforcing decision-making skills for students? Specifically,
when, for example, students see clearly that they discuss the importance of coping and decision-
are exercising only 2 days per week and showing making skills.
little gain, or when they observe rapid improve- 4. Identify several teaching behaviors critical to
leading effective class discussions.
ment after exercising 5 days per week for several
5. What are the areas of understanding necessary
weeks. Another advantage of recording behavior is for students to develop a value for personal
that the routine act of recording reminds the per- health? Include several knowledge concepts and
former that the behavior must be done. This rou- learning experiences for each area.
tine reinforcement causes the behavior perform- 6. Discuss the importance of proper nutrition for
ance to improve. youth.
7. Describe various types of substance abuse as they
2. Develop a priority schedule. If students want to exer- apply to secondary school students.
cise regularly, they must schedule the activity and 8. What concepts of safety and first aid are impor-
make it a high-priority item. In other words, exercise tant for healthy living?
must be done before other less-important tasks are
performed. Scheduling the activity for a certain num-
WEBSITES
ber of days at a specified time is most effective.
Healthy Lifestyles
3. Analyze restrictive factors. Even after behavior has www.actionforhealthykids.org
been analyzed and priorities are set, students may www.aap.org
find that desired behavior patterns are not being www.cdc.gov/nccdphp/dnpa/physical/recommendations
www.medlineplus.gov
followed. The reasons for lack of adherence must be
www.quackwatch.org
analyzed and other changes implemented to increase
the probability of carrying out the behavior. For Nutrition
example, the time of day for exercise may have to be www.chowbaby.com
changed. Exercising for two shorter periods per day, www.outside.utsouthwestern.edu/chn
instead of one longer period, might be a solution. www.mypyramid.gov
www.utsouthwestern.edu/utsw/cda
Exercising with a friend or changing the mode of
exercise would be another possible solution. Weight Management
4. Establish rewards. To continue the activity over a www.surgeongeneral.gov/topics/obesity

long period of time, it can be helpful to establish Stress Management

personal contingencies that are available after www.ericdigests.org/pre-926/stress
performing the desired behavior. For example, stu- www.mindtools.com/smpage
dents might relax and watch television immediately
Substance Abuse
after exercise or take a long, hot shower. Regardless
www.alcoholism.about.com
of the reward, it must be meaningful and worth- www.kidsource.com/kidsource/pages/health.substance
while to the individual. Verbalizing internally after www.samhsa.gov
each exercise routine is also effective as a contin- www.thecommunityguide.org

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 HEALTHY LIFESTYLES: ACTIVITIES FOR INSTRUCTION

REFERENCES AND Fahey, T. D., Insel, P. M., & Roth, W. T. (2005). Fit and well:
Core concepts and labs in physical fitness and wellness
SUGGESTED READINGS (6th ed.). Boston: McGraw-Hill.
Benson, H., with Klipper, M. Z. (2000). The relaxation Greenberg, J. S. (2004). Comprehensive stress management
response. Updated and expanded edition. New York: (8th ed.). Boston: McGraw-Hill.
HarperCollins. Hoeger, W. W. K., & Hoeger, S. A. (2011). Fitness and wellness
Blonna, R. (2005). Coping with stress in a changing world (9th ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
(3rd ed.). Boston: McGraw-Hill. Jackson, A. W., Morrow, J. R., Jr., Hill, D. W., & Dishman, R. K.
Cooper Institute. (2010). Fitnessgram/activitygram test 8.4 (2004). Physical activity for health and fitness (updated
test kit. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics Publishers. edition). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics Publishers.
Corbin, C., & Lindsey, R. (2007). Fitness for life (5th ed., President’s Challenge award system (http://www.
updated). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics presidentschallenge.org/)
Publishers. U.S. Department of Agriculture. (2010). The Food Guide
Corbin, C. B., Welk, G., Corbin, W. G., & Welk, K. M. Pyramid. Pueblo, CO: Superintendent of Documents.
(2007). Concepts of physical fitness and wellness: A Wilmore, J. H., Costill, D. L., & Kenney, W. L. (2008).
comprehensive lifestyle approach (7th ed.). Boston: Physiology of sport and exercise (4th ed.). Champaign,
McGraw-Hill. IL: Human Kinetics Publishers.

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 Promoting Motivation,
Cooperation, and
Inclusion: Nontraditional
Ideas for Instruction

From Chapter 18 of Dynamic Physical Education for Secondary Schools, Seventh Edition. Paul W. Darst, Robert P. Pangrazi, Mary Jo Sariscsany,
Timothy A. Brusseau, Jr. Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. Published by Pearson Benjamin Cummings. All rights reserved.
 Promoting Motivation,
Cooperation, and
Inclusion: Nontraditional
Ideas for Instruction

ESSENTIAL COMPONENTS OF
A QUALITY PROGRAM
I. Organized around content standards
▲

II. Student-centered and developmentally

appropriate
▲

III. Physical activity and motor skill develop-

ment form the core of the program
IV. Teaches management skills and
self-discipline
▲ ▲ ▲

V. Promotes inclusion of all students

VI. Focuses on process over product
VII. Promotes lifetime personal health
and wellness
▲

VIII. Teaches cooperation and responsibility

and promotes sensitivity to diversity

NATIONAL STANDARDS FOR

PHYSICAL EDUCATION*
▲

1. Demonstrates competency in motor skills

and movement patterns needed to perform
a variety of physical activities.
▲

2. Demonstrates understanding of movement

concepts, principles, strategies, and tactics as
they apply to the learning and performance
of physical activities.
3. Participates regularly in physical activity.
4. Achieves and maintains a health-enhancing
level of physical fitness.
▲

5. Exhibits responsible personal and social

behavior that respects self and others in
physical activity settings.
▲

6. Values physical activity for health, enjoyment,

challenge, self-expression, and/or social *National Association for Sport and Physical Education
interaction. (NASPE), 2004.

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on individual skill development and allow students to

Chapter Summary progress at an optimum rate of development. Students
This chapter offers a variety of activities that are not can develop new and different challenges that the rest of
often included in physical education classes. Activities the class can try.
such as juggling, handling beanbags, stunts, and
cooperative challenges are included as an alternative
to instructional units. Many of the activities are novel BEANBAGS
to standard physical education classes. Presentation The best size beanbag is usually 6 inches by 6 inches
of these activities is best done in a low-key manner because it can be balanced on various body parts and used
with emphasis on enjoyment and working with peers
for many challenges. The advantage of the beanbags is that
toward common goals.
they can be used for juggling activities as well as for many
Student Outcomes of the challenge activities listed here. Students should
try to master the stunts with both the right and left hands.
After reading this chapter, you will be able to:
The following are challenges that can be taken in any
• Identify a number of activities that are non-
order.
traditional in most physical education programs.
• Teach basic techniques of juggling. 1. Toss the beanbag overhead and catch it on the back
• Understand how activities in this chapter can be of the hand. Try catching on different body parts,
used to motivate less-skilled students. such as the shoulder, knee, and foot.
• Teach a wide variety of novel games and activities 2. Toss the beanbag, make a half-turn, and catch it. Try
in a relaxed, recreational setting.
making a different number of turns (full, double,
• Challenge students to create cooperative activities and so forth).
that augment those found in this chapter.
3. Toss the beanbag, clap the hands, and catch it. Try
clapping the hands a specified number of times.
The activities in this chapter offer students and teachers a Clap the hands around different parts of the body.
change of pace. The activities are personally challenging and 4. Toss the beanbag and touch various body parts or
allow students to develop new skills and to work closely with objects. For example, toss it and touch the toes,
classmates. Many are useful for rainy days, shortened-period shoulders, and hips before catching it. Specify
days, for introductory activities, or as a 1- or 2-week unit. objects to touch, such as the wall, floor, or a line.
The activities incorporate equipment not often used in typi- 5. Toss the beanbag, move to various body positions,
cal secondary physical education programs. They include and catch it. Suggested positions are sitting, kneeling,
novel tasks and equipment presented as different challenges adopting a supine or prone position, and moving to
from traditional activities in the physical education setting. one’s side.
Since these activities are novel, they offer all students a new
6. Reverse task 5 by tossing the beanbag from some of
challenge. Some students who do not enjoy group activities
the suggested positions and then resuming the
will be motivated by the opportunity to learn new individual
standing position.
skills. For example, the proper progression of juggling activi-
ties can be taught. After the rudimentary skills are learned, 7. Toss the beanbag and perform various stunts before
some students may choose to progress to more challenging catching it, such as heel clicks, heel slaps, a jump
tasks, whereas others remain at a lower level. with a full turn, and a push-up.
An excellent way to implement nontraditional activi- 8. Toss the beanbag from behind the back and catch it.
ties is to use them as a change of pace to break up a longer Toss it overhead and catch it behind the back.
unit of instruction. Students can be encouraged to help
9. Toss the beanbag, move, and catch it. Cover as much
each other master the tasks, with emphasis placed on co-
ground as possible between the toss and catch. Move
operation. This creates a different environment that may
forward, backward, and sideways, using different
be more meaningful for some students.
steps such as the carioca, shuffle, and slide.
10. Toss the beanbag with various body parts (feet, knees,
INDIVIDUAL, PARTNER, AND SMALL- shoulders) and catch it with the hands or other body
GROUP UNITS OF INSTRUCTION parts. Try to develop as much height on the toss as
Activities in this area include the use of beanbags, hoops, possible.
and jump bands; juggling, sport stacking, stunts, and 11. Perform some of the stunts with a beanbag in each
combatives; and the use of wands. They focus primarily hand. Catch the bags simultaneously.

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12. Play a balance tag game. Specify a body part on 10. Employ the “hoop relay.” Break into equal-size
which the bag must be balanced while moving. groups. Join hands and place a hoop on a pair of
Designate who is “it.” If the beanbag falls off or is joined hands. The object is to pass the hoop around
touched with the hands, the player must freeze and the circle without releasing the hand grip. The first
is subject to being tagged. group to get the hoop around the circle is declared
13. Try partner activities. Play catch with a partner using the winner.
two or three beanbags. Toss and catch the beanbags
using various body parts. JUMP BANDS
Using jump bands is an activity physical educators can use
HOOPS to create a number of challenging movement tasks. Jump
Hoops are useful for offering various challenges to students. bands can be used with varying-sized groups of students
A 42-inch-diameter hoop is usually the best size. This is a with three students being the ideal minimum number. Two
large enough hoop for students to move their bodies through students attach the jump bands around the lower legs or
and over. Encourage students to master the activities with ankle area with Velcro and jump rhythmically to music
both sides of their bodies. Place emphasis on creating new while a third or fourth student jumps in and out of the
routines with the hoops. The following are suggested ideas: bands with specific foot patterns (Figure 1). Students with
the bands on their legs can adjust them up or down, de-
1. Spin the hoop like a top and see how long the hoop pending on the skill and fitness levels of the students jump-
will continue to spin. While the hoop is spinning, ing in and out of the bands. Beginners should start with the
see how many times it can be jumped. bands as low as possible on their legs. The bands can be
2. Twirl a hula hoop using various body parts (waist, raised to increase the intensity of the workout because the
knees, ankles, neck, wrist). Twirl a hula hoop from jumpers have to elevate higher to get over the bands.
the neck to the knees and back up to the neck. Twirl Students need to change positions often because of the
it on a wrist and then change it to the other wrist. jumping demands and to develop their skills. The jump
Pass the hoop to a partner while twirling it. bands demand teamwork for all involved. Many creative
opportunities are also possible with different steps and
3. Try many of the hula-hooping challenges while using
partner activities.
two or more hoops. Twirl a hula hoop with a hoop
Jump bands can be used with rhythmic activities such
on two or more body parts.
as tinikling or lummi sticks. There are a wide variety of
4. Play catch with a partner while twirling a hula rhythmic foot pattern skills that can be developed with a
hoop. Catch more than one object and twirl more group of three students working together as well as a
than one hoop. number of challenging, larger group activities. Another
5. Jump or hop through a hoop held by a partner. Vary variation with jump bands is to use them as part of a fitness
the challenge by altering the angle and height of the circuit. In a fitness circuit, students rotate from a jump-
hoop. Try jumping through two or more parallel band station for cardiovascular work to a flexibility station,
hoops without touching them. to a strength station, and then back to another cardiovascu-
6. Roll the hoop like a spare tire. Change direction on lar station with the jump bands, and so on. Stations can
signal. Roll two or more hoops at the same time. incorporate medicine balls and stability balls to add variety
to the circuit.
7. Use the hoop in place of a jump rope. Jump the
hoop forward, backward, and sideways. Perform Beginning Jump-Band Steps
various foot stunts like toe touching, a rocker step, Music should incorporate a 4/4 rhythm with popular,
and heel-and-toe movement while jumping. upbeat songs. The following steps are suggested:
8. Roll the hoop forward with a reverse spin. The spin
should cause it to return to the thrower. As the hoop 1. The students with the jump bands on should follow
returns, try some of the following challenges: jump an OUT, OUT, IN, IN pattern. They should prac-
the hoop, move through it, kick it up with the toe tice together without the music and then with the
and catch it, and pick it up with the arm and begin music.
twirling it on your arm. 2. The jumper should start with the right side facing
9. Play catch with the hoop with a partner. Use two or the bands. When the bands go apart, the right foot
more hoops and throw them alternately as well as should go in and then hop on the right foot. The
simultaneously.

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FIGURE 1 Jump-bands position

left foot should then cross over to the out position bands. Then they all change directions and go counter-
and then hop on the left foot in the out position. clockwise. Another variation is for the jump-band group
The right foot should then cross over to the in posi- to start rotating slowly in a circle as described previously.
tion and then hop on the right foot. The sequence
should be IN, IN, OUT, OUT. After becoming com- Snake the Line
fortable with one side facing the bands, the oppo- A large group activity can set up with two long vertical
site side should face the bands. lines of jump bands covering the length of the gym. The
3. The next sequence should be in on the right, change people in the middle of the lines will have two sets of
to the left, out on the right, pause, and start over jump bands on their legs (one in front and one in the
from the opposite side. Then switch to the left foot, back). These people should practice as a large group to
starting the sequence IN, CHANGE, OUT, PAUSE. coordinate their OUT, OUT, IN, IN sequence. The
jumpers can begin weaving through the jump bands in a
4. The next sequence is with two feet together, starting snakelike fashion. If you have enough jump bands for two
with the right or left side. The sequence is IN, lines, the students can go down one line and come back
PAUSE, OUT, PAUSE. Switch sides after becoming crossing the other line for continuous activity.
comfortable.
5. The next variation is to add a spin (90°, 180°, etc.)
to each step as you move in and out of the bands. JUGGLING
Start with a small spin and then increase the spin as Juggling offers a challenge to secondary school students. If
you become comfortable. the majority of students have not mastered basic juggling
skills, juggling scarves should be purchased. They are
Advanced Jump-Band Ideas lightweight, sheer scarves that move slowly and allow stu-
Rotating in a Circle dents to master the proper arm and hand movements.
Students with the bands slowly rotate in a circle while the Once the movement pattern is learned, beanbags, juggle
jumper is working on his or her steps. After a while, the bags (small, round beanbags), and fleece balls can be used
students switch the rotation to the opposite direction. before proceeding to rings and clubs.
Juggling with scarves does teach students the correct
Tic-Tac-Toe patterns of object movement; however, it does not transfer
Two groups join together and form a tic-tac-toe forma- automatically to juggling with faster-moving objects such
tion with the jump bands. The jumpers start in one corner as fleece balls, tennis balls, rings, and hoops. Therefore,
and follow single file in a clockwise direction through the two distinct sections for juggling are offered: a section on
four jumping areas, continuing forward to the next set of learning to juggle with scarves and a section explaining

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juggling with balls. Juggling with scarves will bring success in step 1. When it reaches its peak, look at it, and toss
to a majority of the class, while youngsters who have mas- the second scarf across the body in the opposite di-
tered the scarves can move to balls and other objects. rection. The first scarf thrown is caught (clawed) by
the hand throwing the second scarf and vice versa.
Juggling with Scarves Verbal cues such as “toss,” “claw,” “toss,” “claw” are
Scarves are held by the fingertips near the center. To throw helpful.
the scarf, it should be lifted and pulled into the air above 3. Three-Scarf Cascading. Hold a scarf in each hand
eye level. Scarves are caught by clawing, a downward mo- by the fingertips. Hold the third scarf with the ring
tion of the hand, and grabbing the scarf from above as it is and little finger against the palm of the hand. The
falling. Scarf juggling is used to teach proper habits (e.g., first scarf to be thrown will be from the hand hold-
tossing the scarves straight up in line with the body rather ing two scarves. Toss this scarf from the fingertips
than forward or backward). Many instructors remind stu- across the chest as learned earlier. When scarf
dents to imagine they are in a phone booth to emphasize 1 reaches its peak, throw scarf 2 from the other
tossing and catching without moving. hand across the body. As this hand starts to come
Cascading down, it catches scarf 1. When scarf 2 reaches its
peak, throw scarf 3 in the same path as scarf 1. To
Cascading is the easiest pattern for juggling three objects.
complete the cycle, as the hand comes down from
The following sequence can be used to learn this basic
throwing scarf 3, it catches scarf 2. The cycle is
technique.
started over by throwing scarf 1 with the opposite
1. One Scarf. Hold the scarf in the center. Quickly move hand. Tosses are always alternated between left and
the arm across the chest and toss the scarf with the right hands with a smooth, even rhythm.
palm out. Reach out with the other hand and catch
the scarf in a straight, downward motion (clawing). Reverse Cascading
Toss the scarf with this hand using the motion and Reverse cascading involves tossing the scarves from waist
claw it with the opposite hand. Repeat the tossing and level to the outside of the body and allowing the scarves to
clawing sequence. The scarf should move in a figure- drop down the midline of the body (Figure 3).
eight pattern as shown in Figure 2. 1. One Scarf. Begin by holding the scarf as described
2. Two Scarves. Hold a scarf with the fingertips in each in the previous cascading section. The throw goes
hand. Toss the first one across the body as described away from the midline of the body over the top, so

FIGURE 2 Making a figure-eight motion with scarves FIGURE 3 Reverse cascading

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the scarf is released and falls down the center of the with either hand and toss it upward again. Catch the
body. Catch it with the opposite hand and toss it in other two scarves and toss them upward, continuing
a similar fashion on the opposite side of the body. the pattern.
2. Two Scarves. Begin with a scarf in each hand. Toss
Showering
the first as described in step 1. When it begins its
descent, toss the second scarf. Catch the first scarf, Showering is more difficult than cascading because of the
then the second, and repeat the pattern in a toss, rapid movement of the hands. There is less time allowed
toss, catch, catch manner. for catching and tossing. The scarves move in a circle fol-
lowing each other. It should be practiced in both direc-
3. Three Scarves. Think of a large funnel fixed at eye tions for maximum challenge.
level directly in front of the juggler. The goal is to Start with two scarves in the right hand and one in the
drop all scarves through this funnel so that they drop other. Begin by throwing the first two scarves from the
straight down the center of the body. Begin with three right hand. Toss the scarves in a large circle away from the
scarves as described earlier for three-scarf cascading. midline of the body and overhead as high as possible. As
Toss the first scarf from the hand holding two scarves. soon as the second scarf is released, toss the scarf across to
the left hand and throw it in the same path with the right
Column Juggling
hand. All scarves are caught with the left hand and passed
Column juggling is so named because the scarves move to the right hand.
straight up and down as though they were inside a large
pipe or column and do not cross the body. To perform Juggling Challenges
three-scarf column juggling, begin with two scarves in ■ While cascading, toss a scarf under one leg.
one hand and one in the other hand. Start with a scarf
from the hand that has two scarves, and toss it straight ■ While cascading, toss a scarf from behind the back.
up the midline of the body overhead. When this scarf ■ Instead of catching one of the scarves, blow it up-
reaches its peak, toss the other two scarves upward along ward with a strong breath of air.
the sides of the body (Figure 4). Catch the first scarf ■ Begin cascading by tossing the first scarf into the air
with a foot. Lay the scarf across the foot and kick it
into the air.
■ Try juggling three scarves with one hand. Do not
worry about establishing a pattern, just catch the
lowest scarf each time. Try both regular and reverse
cascading as well as column juggling.
■ While doing column juggling, toss up one scarf,
hold the other two, and make a full turn. Resume
juggling.
■ Try juggling more than three scarves (up to six)
while facing a partner.
■ Juggle three scarves while standing side by side with
inside arms around each other. This is easy to do,
considering it is regular three-scarf cascading.

Juggling with Balls

Juggling with balls requires accurate, consistent tossing, and
this should be the first emphasis. The tosses should be
thrown to the same height on both sides of the body, about
2 to 21/2 feet upward and across the body because the ball is
tossed from one hand to the other. Practice tossing the ball
parallel to the body; the most common problem in juggling
is that the balls are tossed forward, and the juggler has to
move forward to catch them.
The fingers, not the palms, should be used in tossing
FIGURE 4 Column juggling and catching. Stress relaxed wrist action. Encourage students

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to look upward to watch the balls at the peak of their flight,

rather than watching the hands. Focus on where the ball
peaks, not the hands. Two balls must be carried in the start-
ing hand, and the art of releasing only one must be mas-
tered. Progression should be working successively with one
ball, then two balls, and finally three balls.

Recommended Progression for Cascading

1. Using one ball and one hand only, toss the ball
upward (2 to 21/2 feet), and catch it with the same
hand. Begin with the dominant hand, and later
practice with the other. Toss quickly, with wrist FIGURE 6 Showering with three balls and two hands
action. Then handle the ball alternately with right
and left hands, tossing from one hand to the other. from the left hand directly across the body to the
2. Now, with one ball in each hand, alternate tossing a right hand (Figure 6).
ball upward and catching it in the same hand so that 3. A few students may be able to change from cascad-
one ball is always in the air. Begin again with a ball in ing to showering and vice versa. This is a skill of
each hand. Toss across the body to the other hand. To considerable challenge.
keep the balls from colliding, toss under the incom-
ing ball. After some expertise has been acquired,
alternate the two kinds of tosses by doing a set num-
SPORT STACKING WITH SPEED STACKS
ber (four to six) of each before shifting to the other. Students have been stacking drinking cups in some form
or fashion since the invention of paper and plastic cups. In
3. Hold two balls in the starting hand and one in the recent years, however, cup stacking has evolved into much
other. Toss one of the balls in the starting hand, toss more than a pastime on the kitchen floor. Now called
the ball from the other hand, and then toss the third sport stacking, it’s a challenging motor skill activity, while
ball. Keep the balls moving in a figure-eight pattern also emerging as a stand-alone sport itself.
(Figure 5). With the advent of plastic cups specifically designed
Recommended Progression for Showering for stacking (called Speed Stacks; www.speedstacks.com),
students are manipulating cups with extraordinary preci-
1. The showering motion is usually counterclockwise.
sion and speed. Much like juggling, sport stacking focuses
Hold one ball in each hand. Begin by tossing with
on hand–eye coordination and dexterity, but with a much
the right hand on an inward path, and then imme-
higher success rate. It is easy to learn and appeals to all
diately toss the other ball from the left directly
ability levels of students.
across the body to the right hand. Continue this un-
Sport stacking is an individual, small-group, or team
til the action is smooth.
activity where participants stack and unstack 12 specially
2. Now, hold two balls in the right hand and one in made plastic cups in predetermined pyramids. Stackers
the left. Toss the first ball from the right hand on an race against the clock and in relays. Sport stacking helps
inward path and immediately toss the second on students use both sides of their bodies and brains, pro-
the same path. At about the same time, toss the ball moting hand quickness and concentration. Sport stacking
can challenge students to focus on hand–eye coordination
and reaction time—important skills for almost any sport
or physical activity.
Every student, no matter what his or her athletic abil-
ity, can find success with sport stacking. This developmen-
tal activity is based on the inclusion of all students. Sport
stacking is taught in a specific progression from the basic
3 Stack to the challenging Cycle Stack, which involves sev-
eral advanced stacking sequences. It’s easy to master, and
with practice, students can progress quickly to the more
complicated patterns. Once the basic stacks are taught,
there are many activities designed to enhance an entire
FIGURE 5 Cascading with three balls and two hands sport stacking unit.

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With sport stacking, there is an opportunity for indi- 3. Now go back to the first stack on your left and
vidual, partner, and team activities—cooperative and down stack that set. Then down stack the other set.
competitive. The culmination of a sport stacking unit can (Remember to always go back to the beginning to
include time trials for recording personal records, head- down stack.)
to-head relay matches, or a competitive tournament for-
mat. There is also room for creative expression with Step 3: The 3-3-3 Stack (Beginner Competition
“freestyle stacking.” Sport stacking can include many posi- Stack)
tive elements such as teamwork, sportsmanship, competi- 1. Start with three sets of three cups each nested
tion, determination, achievement of personal bests, and together in front of you.
world record setting. 2. Working from left to right, up stack each stack.
3. Then go back to the beginning to down stack again,
Basics of Sport Stacking working from left to right.
Students find the most success when introduced to sport
stacking with formal instruction, supplemented with op- Step 4: The 6 Stack (using the 3-2-1 Method)
portunities to compete in relays, race against the clock to The 3-2-1 method is by far the fastest way to build a 6 Stack.
set personal records, or have fun stacking with each other. Take your time to learn this method and practice it over and
The ideal scenario is to have enough sets of “stacking over; it’s your ticket to really stacking fast.
cups” made specifically for sport stacking (12 cups in each
Up Stacking
set) to allow every student a hands-on opportunity to
stack. The following are five steps to learn the basic stack- 1. Start with six cups nested together in one stack in
ing patterns (note that for teaching purposes, these in- front of you.
structions are written for a stacker whose right hand is 2. Take three cups with your right hand and two cups
dominant.) with your left. Hold the cups loose with your
pinkies under the bottom cups. Spread the cups
Step 1: The 3 Stack apart with your fingers.
The 3 Stack is the most basic pyramid in sport stacking.
3. Release the bottom cup in your right hand down
It’s the place to start, and once it’s learned, you can
just to the right of the center cup. Release the bot-
progress quickly into the next steps.
tom cup from your left hand to the left of the center
Up Stacking cup so you now have three cups forming the base of
your pyramid.
1. Start with three cups nested together in front of you.
4. Release the next cup in your right hand on top of
2. Take the top cup off with your right hand and set it
the center and right cups that form the base of the
next to the bottom cup.
pyramid. Set the cup in your left hand next to it. Set
3. Take the second cup off with your left hand and the last cup in your right hand on top.
place it on top to build your first pyramid.
Down Stacking
Down Stacking
1. To down stack, place your right hand on the top
1. To down stack, place your right hand on the top cup and your left hand on the second cup on the
cup and your left hand on the bottom left cup. left.
2. Slide the cup in your right hand down over the bot- 2. Slide to the right with your right hand and at the
tom right cup. Bring the cup in your left hand over same time to the left with your left hand.
the second cup.
3. Take the three cups in your right hand and the two
3. You are now back to your original stack of three cups in your left and put them back in one stack of
cups and ready to go again. six cups.

Step 2: The 3-3 Stack 4. Now that you know the 6 Stack, practice it again
and again and again.
1. After you have mastered the 3 Stack, place another
set of three cups in front of you so you have two sets Step 5: The 3-6-3 Stack (Competition Stack)
of three cups nested and ready to be up stacked. The 3-6-3 Stack combines the skills learned in the 3 Stack
2. Working from left to right, up stack each set of and the 6 Stack. You now get to use your complete set of
three cups. 12 cups. Working from left to right, stack three, then six,

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then three cups. Go back to the beginning and down time or rotations. The stacking should include a variety of
stack. Practice slowly as you develop skill and then speed stacks (e.g., 3-6-3, 6-6, or two 10 Stacks).
up your pace. Take your time, use the 3-2-1 method when
stacking your 6 Stack, and have fun practicing. It is impor- Around the Table
tant to use a light, soft touch. Slide, never slam, your cups. A set of Speed Stacks is placed on each quadrant of a table
Race a friend, time yourself on a StackMat competition arranged for a selected stack (e.g., 3-3-3, 3-6-3, 6-6, or
timer, chart your personal best, and try to beat your time. Cycle Stack). Assign four stackers per table (one stacker
Keep practicing. per quadrant). Have each stacker get in a ready position in
front of their down-stacked set of Speed Stacks. On the
1. Start with one stack of three cups, one stack of six “go” signal, students up stack and down stack the selected
and one stack of three, with each stack nested to- sequence at their quadrants. Once his or her pattern is
gether in front of you. complete, each stacker moves around the table counter-
2. Working from left to right, up stack the three, up clockwise to the next quadrant to stack the next set.
stack the six (don’t forget the 3-2-1 method), and Continue to stack around the table for a designated period
up stack the remaining three. of time. Consider the following variations:
3. Then go back to the beginning to down stack in the
■ Switcho/Stacko. The students begin stacking in a
same order.
counterclockwise direction. On a signal, stackers re-
Step 6: The Cycle Stack (Premiere verse their directions and stack around the table
Competition Stack) clockwise.
The Cycle Stack is the most complex of the competitive ■ Large Group Stacking. Line up a number of 6-foot
stacks. It consists of a 3-6-3, followed by a 6-6, and then a tables and expand the “Around the Table Stacking”
1-10-1, with a few fancy maneuvers in between, all ending to accommodate a large group that will stack con-
with a down-stacked 3-6-3. tinuously and move from one stack to the next in a
clockwise or counterclockwise direction.
Cup-Stacking Activities ■ Hound and Rabbit Table Challenge. Place a set of
Stackers and Blasters down-stacked Speed Stacks at each quadrant
Cups are set up around the gym on the floor; half of the arranged in a 3-6-3. Two stackers stand at diagonal
sets are up stacked, and half are down stacked. Students quadrants across the table from each other in a
are designated as “stackers” or “blasters.” When the music ready position. Designate one stacker as the
starts, stackers go around up stacking (whichever stack “hound” and the other as the “rabbit.” On the “go”
type has been designated: 3-3-3-3, 3-6-3, or Cycle Stack) signal, each stacker begins up and down stacking
stacks that are down stacked, and blasters go around down the set in front of them. When the stack is com-
stacking the up-stacked stacks. For an option, pedometers pleted, each stacker moves clockwise to the next
can be used, or various locomotor movements (slide, stack and repeats the stacking sequence. The objec-
power skip, etc.) can be designated for either stackers or tive is for the “hound” to try and catch the “rabbit”
blasters. After 30 seconds to 1 minute of music, the music as they stack quickly around the table.
stops, and the groups may return to a sideline. Stackers
and blasters may count their up or down stacks. Repeat, Floor Relays
designating a new movement form. Basketball dribbling At one end of the teaching area, set up enough 3-3-3
with the left or right hand or soccer ball dribbling could stacks to match the number of teams participating. The
be incorporated. stacks should be evenly spread apart and marked by
cones or an established line. Form teams made up of
Follow-the-Leader Rotations three to four students. Establish a starting line across the
The equipment should include folding tables or practice area from the stacks and have teams line up in file
mats and four sets of Speed Stacks per table. Place a set of formation behind the starting line, each lined up with a
Speed Stacks on each quadrant of the table and arrange to 3-3-3 stack. On the “go” signal, the first person on each
begin a 3-3-3-3 stack. Leave the first and third stacks in team runs to their set of Speed Stacks and properly up
the down-stacked position and the others in the up-stack stacks and down stacks the 3-3-3. When the stack is
position. Students should be with a partner side by side. properly completed, the student runs back to the relay
The lead stacker should begin up and down stacking the team, tags the next person, and the process is repeated
cups from left to right. The partner then follows the until all relay members have had one turn. The floor
leader. This rotation continues for a certain amount of relay is complete once the last stacker returns to their

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team and crosses the starting line. Consider the follow- STUNTS, PYRAMIDS, AND COMBATIVES
ing variations: This unit emphasizes personal challenge and brief com-
1. Set up and stack a 3-3-3-3, 3-6-3, or Cycle Stack. petitive episodes. Students enjoy the chance to pit their
strength and coordination skills against others. Combatives
2. Use various locomotor skills and equipment to
should be conducted between opponents of approximately
move from the start line to the stacks, such as slide,
the same skill level and size. Change partners often so there
skip, juggle, dribble a basketball, dribble a soccer
is little chance for animosity to develop. The contests start
ball, pull on scooters, jump ropes, and so on.
and stop by mutual agreement, with either party able to
3. Pair up with a set of Speed Stacks across the area terminate the contest immediately. Avoid running tourna-
for each pair. This activity is a continuous two- ments to see who is the class champion in combative activi-
person relay where students move across the gym, ties. Instead, emphasize enjoying the activity, learning one’s
stack the selected stack, and go back to tag their strengths and weaknesses, and being able to challenge a
partners’ hands. This is repeated until time is number of opponents.
called. Use timed music of 2, 3, or 4 minutes in Stunts, on the other hand, require that students work
duration. A variety of movements and sports skills cooperatively to accomplish them successfully and are an
can be used. Students can use pedometers to check excellent way to help students learn more about their peers.
steps or time.
4. Instead of the Speed Stacks being lined up left to Suggested Individual Stunts
right at the end of the area, rearrange each stack in a Leg Dip
line that runs straight ahead of each relay team. If Extend both hands and one leg forward while balancing
you’re doing a 3-3-3-3 for example, set up three on the other leg. Lower the body until the seat touches the
cups about 5 to 8 feet straight ahead from the start- heel and then return to the standing position. This must
ing line, move 5 to 8 feet forward, and set up an- be done without the aid of the arms and without losing
other three cups. Continue this with the other two balance.
sets of three. On the “go” signal, the first relay team
Behind-the-Back Touch
member runs to up stack the first three cups, con-
tinues to the second stack and up stacks them, and Start in a standing position with the arms extended behind
continues to the third and fourth stacks to do the the back and hands clasped. Squat slowly and touch the
same. When all four stacks of three are in an up- floor with an extended finger; then return to the standing
stacked position, the student runs back to the be- position.
ginning, but his or her job is not done yet. He or she Knee Jump
must head back down the line to down stack all
Kneel on the floor with the seat on the heels and the toes
four stacks in order. Once all the stacks are back to
pointing backward. In one continuous motion, swing the
their original position, the student runs back and
arms forward and jump to the feet. If accomplished, try to
tags the next relay team member.
perform a half-turn during the jump.
There are many other possibilities for sport stacking Wall Climb
activities that can be competitive or cooperative. Refer to
Take a push-up position with the feet against the wall.
the speedstacks.com website for ideas. The following are
Walk up the wall with the feet to a handstand position and
just a few examples:
then return to the push-up position.
■ Individual races in a group setting
Popover
■ Continuous relays While in push-up position, propel the body upward and
■ Partner stacking do a half-turn to the inverted push-up position. Pop over
■ Team relay races to the regular push-up position.
■ Personal record setting with a StackMat competi- Double Heel Click
tion timer or the use of a stopwatch Jump upward and click the heels twice. If accomplished,
■ Stacking with eyes closed try to perform a triple heel click before landing.
■ Incorporation of stretches, sit-ups, push-ups, and Push-Up Inversion
so on with cup stacking Begin in a push-up position. Push strongly off the floor
■ Freestyle stacking and bring the legs through the arms in one smooth

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motion—assuming the inverted push-up position. Return hands. The second student’s legs are then placed on top of
to the original position with a strong movement backward. the support and locked together at the ankles. Five to six
students can continue this process and then begin walking
Jump Through when everyone is in place.
Hold the left toe with the right hand. Jump the right foot
through without losing the grip on the toe. Try the stunt Knee Stand
with the other foot. The base student is in a crab position. The other student
stands on the knees of the base. A spotter may be necessary
Sitting Liftoff
to help the second student come to a balanced position.
Sit on the floor with the legs extended forward. Place the
hands on the floor somewhere between the hips and Cooperative Scooter
knees, depending on the balance point. Lift the entire Two students face each other and sit with toes under the
body off the floor in a balanced position. The stunt can be seat of the other. The arms are joined by holding the other
learned in stages—first with the heels remaining on the student’s arms at the wrist or above. Students scoot for-
floor and then with the heels held off the floor by a friend. ward or backward by cooperatively lifting the feet when
the other lifts the seat. Progress is made by alternately flex-
Jumping Toe Touch
ing and extending the knees and hips.
Begin in a standing position with the hands held in front
of the body, a shoulder width apart, palms down. When Spider Walk
ready, jump up and bring the feet quickly forward so the The base student is in a sitting position with his or her
toe tips touch the hands in front of the body. The attempt back against a wall. The next student backs up and sits
should be to bring the hands to the feet, lifting the feet as lightly on the knees of the base. More students can be
high as possible. added in similar fashion. The hands should be placed
around the waist of each person in front. Walking is done
Leg Circling
by moving the feet on the same side together.
In a squatting position with both hands on the floor, place
the left knee between the arms and extend the right leg to Triple High Jump
the side. Swing the right leg forward and under the lifted Students form groups of three and join hands. One of the
right arm, under the left leg and arm, and back to starting students is designated as the performer and jumps over
position. Perform several circles in succession. Try circling the joined arms of the other two. The performer is assisted
with the other leg. in the jump by an upward lift from the others. The hands
to be jumped over should be clasped lightly and released if
Suggested Partner and Group Stunts the jumper does not gain enough height.
Leapfrog
One student forms the base by standing stiff legged, bending Octopus
over, and placing the hands on the knees. The other student Eight to 12 students work together to develop this activity.
runs and leaps over the base by performing a light push-off Half of the students form a circle with hands joined, while
on the back of the base. A number of students can form each student in the other half finds a pair of joined hands
bases to create a series of leaps for the moving student. to lean backward on, placing the weight on the heels. Each
of the leaners then joins hands behind the backs of the
Wheelbarrow others, thus creating two separate groups with joined
One partner is in a push-up position with the legs spread. hands. The octopus begins moving slowly around the cir-
The other person walks between the legs and grasps and cle, taking small sidesteps. The stunt is brought to a climax
lifts the partner’s lower legs. The partner in push-up posi- by moving as fast as possible.
tion then walks the arms while the other person moves
forward, backward, or sideways. A double or triple wheel- Double-Bear Walk
barrow can be performed with students extending their The base student is on his or her hands and knees. The top
legs over the shoulders and back of the student in push-up student assumes the same position with the hands on the
position and placing their hands on the floor. shoulders and the knees over the hips of the base. They
move slowly throughout the area without losing balance.
Caterpillar
One student is on his or her hands and knees, acting as the Double-Crab Walk
support. Another student, facing the same direction, The bottom student moves into a crab position. The top
places the hands about 2 feet in front of the support’s performer straddles the base and assumes the crab position

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with the hands on the shoulders and the feet on the knees Mini-Pyramids
of the base. They move slowly throughout the area. Students can work in groups of three to five to develop
various types of pyramids. Some examples are shown
Back Balance
in Figure 8. Encourage the class to develop differ-
Students work with a partner. One partner lies in the ent types of pyramids and allow time to share their
supine position and becomes the base. The base bends creations with the rest of the class. Examples are the
the knees, and the balancer places the small of the back hip–shoulder stand, double-crab stand, double-bear
on the soles of the base’s feet. The balancer then lies back stand, and shoulder stand. Caution students to select a
and balances in a layout position (Figure 7). partner of similar size and to stand on the proper points
Sitting Balance of support.
The base assumes a supine position on the floor. The bal-
ancer straddles the base so they are looking at each other.
Combatives
The balancer sits on the soles of the base’s feet while the There are many types of combatives. This list should give
base holds the ankles of the balancer. The legs of the bal- insight into the many variations but is certainly not
ancer should be extended as much as possible. exhaustive.

Abdominal Balance Arm Wrestling

The base assumes a supine position on the floor and then This popular activity can be done lying on the floor or
raises the legs and positions the feet so the soles are parallel to sitting at a table. The right hands are clasped, and the el-
the floor. The balancer faces the base and places the abdomen bows are bent and rest on the floor or table. When ready,
on the soles of the base’s feet. The base grasps the hands of the goal is to force the opponent’s hand down to the
the balancer and extends the legs to move the performer into floor or table surface. The elbows cannot be lifted from
a balanced position. The balancer should attempt to arch the the surface.
back, raise the head, and extend the arms to the sides.
Leg Wrestling
Seat Press Opponents are side by side and supine on a mat with
The base lies on the floor with the knees bent and the feet their heads in opposite directions. They lock the near
flat on the floor. The balancer straddles the base, facing elbows and prepare for action. On signal, they lift the
the feet of the base. The two join hands, and the top part- inside leg vertically two times before hooking the legs on
ner sits on the joined hands supported by the base. The the third count. They then try to roll the opponent over
balancer’s legs are placed on the knees of the base. backwards.

Standing Hand Wrestle

Contestants place the toes of their right feet together and
grasp right hands in a handshake grip. The left foot is
moved to the rear for support. The goal is to force the
opponent to move either foot.

Finger Wrestle
Opponents stand on the right foot and hold the left foot with
the left hand. The index fingers of the right hand are hooked,
and opponents attempt to push each other off balance.

Flag Grab
Contestants have a flag tucked in the belt and attempt to
keep others from pulling it out. At the same time, oppo-
nents try to collect as many flags as possible.

Palm Wrestle
Contestants face each other, standing 12 inches apart. The
palms of the opponents are placed together and must
FIGURE 7 Spotting the back balance remain so for the duration of the contest. The goal is to
push the opponent off balance.

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FIGURE 8(a) Mini-pyramids

FIGURE 8(b) FIGURE 8(c)

Toe Dance Back-to-Back Takedown

Contestants begin by placing their hands on the oppo- Contestants sit back to back and lock elbows. The feet are
nents’ shoulders. The goal is to step on top of the toes of widely spread to form a broad base of support. Both play-
the opponents. A variation can be to see how many toe ers attempt to pull the other to the left and touch the op-
touches can be accumulated in a specified time. ponent’s shoulder (or elbow) to the floor. As a variation,
attempt the contest by pulling in the opposite direction.
Seat Pull-Up
Opponents sit on the floor, facing each other, with the Tug-of-War Activities
knees bent, and the soles of the contestants’ shoes together. Partners pull each other using a tug-of-war rope. Tug-of-
Players bend forward, grasp hands firmly, and attempt to war ropes are easily made from 10 feet of 3/16 or 1/4-inch
pull their opponents’ seats off the floor. The winner must nylon rope and two sections of 5/8-inch garden hose that
be sitting upright in position when the opponent is lifted is 2 feet long. The rope is threaded through the garden
from the floor, or the contest is a draw. hose, which serves as a handle, and tied with a bowline
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knot so there is a loop at each end of the rope. Partners usually made from 5/8-inch or 3/4-inch dowels and
should be changed often so students have a chance to should be 42 inches long. They can be painted, and rubber
compete with many others and are not subjected to con- tips can be placed on the ends to soften the noise they
stantly losing or to seldom being challenged. Limit the make when falling on the floor.
pulling bouts to 5–10 seconds. Pulling immediately stops
Wand Whirl
if one of the partners loses their balance or falls.
Partners can have contests using some of the following Stand a wand in front of the body, and balance it with one
suggested positions and activities. finger. Release the wand, perform a full turn, and catch the
wand. Try the activity in both directions. Try catching it
Different Positions with one finger on top of the wand.
Facing, back-to-back, side-to-side, one-handed, two-handed, Thread the Needle
and crab positions are a few suggested variations, with the Hold the wand in both hands near the ankles. Without let-
rope hooked over the foot, in a push-up position, and on all ting go of the wand, step over the wand and through the
fours. space between the arms. Return to the starting position. Try
Balance Pulls passing the wand under the feet side to side, one foot at a
time, with the wand held in front of and behind the body.
Students begin in a stationary position. The goal is to cause
the opponent to move the feet or lose balance. Thread the Needle (Jumping)
Pick-Up Contest Perform virtually the same stunt as the previous activity,
Indian clubs or bowling pins are placed behind the con- except jump over the stick and pass it under the feet si-
testants. The goal is to pull and move backward in order to multaneously.
pick up the clubs.
Wand Kickover
Multiple Rope Pulls Balance the wand in front of the body with one hand.
Ropes can be twisted together so four to six students can Release the wand, kick a leg over, and catch the wand. Try
become involved in the contest. kicking in both directions using both legs. Try catching
Pick Up and Pull the wand with one finger.
The ropes are laid on the floor between two contestants. Walk Under
On signal, the two opponents run to the rope, pick it up, Grasp the wand with the right hand. Twist under the right
and the tug-of-war ensues. arm without letting go of the wand, without taking it off
Team Tug-of-War the floor, and without touching the knee to the floor. Try
using the left arm.
Small groups and classes can have contests with the
large commercially available tug-of-war ropes. Most are Broomstick Balance
50 feet in length and at least 1 inch in diameter. Many of Balance the wand vertically in one hand. Begin by walking
the ropes have large loops on the end so students can while balancing and then attempt to balance the wand in
stand inside of them. Caution must be used with the a stationary position. Try walking in different directions,
loops, however, because students cannot easily release using both hands, and balancing the wand on different
or step outside the loop when the other team gains body parts.
momentum.
A suggested manner for conducting team tugs-of-war Wand Walk-down
is to tie a marker in the middle of the rope. Two parallel Start in a straddle stance, with legs straight. Hold a wand
lines are drawn 10 to 20 feet apart. The pull starts with the near one end, with the other end of the wand above the
marker in the middle of the two lines. The goal is to pull head and pointed toward the ceiling. Bend backward,
the marker over your team’s line. Variations for different place the wand on the floor behind, and walk the hands
types of pulls are to try pulling with the rope overhead, down the wand. Return to a standing position. If the
having opponents pull with their backs to each other, wands do not have rubber tips, a spotter may have to sta-
pulling with one hand on the ground or in the air, or bilize the wand end on the floor.
pulling from a seated position.
Partner Exchange
WANDS Face a partner, each balancing a wand in front of you. On
Wands provide challenge through balance and flexibility signal, run to the other’s wand and catch it before it hits the
activities, which can be performed individually. Wands are floor. Challenge can be added by increasing the distance,
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using two wands, and performing stunts such as a full turn Crab Cageball
or heel click before catching the wand. Students are divided into four teams. Use cones to delineate
the corners of a square. One team forms one side of the
Reaction Time
square, and a different team makes up each side. All players
Hold the wand horizontally. Your partner places one hand sit with hands behind them for support. Each team is
directly above the wand, palm down. Drop the wand, and numbered from right to left beginning with the number 1.
your partner must try to catch the wand before it hits the The cageball is placed in the middle of the square. The
floor. This can also be tried holding the wand vertically. instructor or another student calls out a number, and one
The other person forms a “V” with the thumb and fingers member from each team (with the number called) per-
and is challenged to catch the wand. Marks can be placed forms a crab walk to the center and attempts to kick the
on the wand and students challenged to catch the wand on cageball over the other teams. A team has a point scored
certain marks. against it when (1) the ball is kicked over or through the
team, (2) a team member touches the ball with the arms or
Wand Wrestle
hands, or (3) a player stands to block or stop the ball. The
Hold a wand in the vertical position with a partner. The goal team with the fewest points is declared the winner.
is to move the wand to the horizontal plane. One person is
designated to move the wand horizontally while the other Long Team Cageball
resists the attempt. Roles are reversed after each bout. Players are divided into two teams. The teams move into
sitting positions in two lines facing each other 10 to 15 feet
Wand Release
apart. The teacher rolls or throws a cageball between the
Sit facing a partner with the legs straight and the soles of two lines. The object is for one team to kick the ball over
the feet together. Together, hold a wand horizontally at the other team. A point is scored against a team when the
chest level. A win occurs when one person causes the ball goes over or through a line. The team with the fewer
other to release the grip on the wand. Neither player is points wins. Again, a point is awarded if a player stands or
allowed to leave or modify the starting position. touches the ball with the hands. More than one cageball
Isometric Exercises can be used simultaneously.
Perform isometric exercises. Examples are attempting to Cageball Football
twist the wand, to stretch the wand, to compress the wand,
The game is played on a large playing field. The class is
or to pull it against different body parts. Many stretching
divided into two teams. The object of the game is to carry the
activities can also be done using the wands.
cageball across the goal line. The only way the ball can be ad-
vanced, however, is when it is in the air. Whenever the ball is
NOVEL TEAM GAMES on the ground, it can only be moved backwards or sideways.
This game is best played with a 4-foot or larger cageball.
AND ACTIVITIES
The following activities are enjoyable because they demand Cageball Target Throw
few specialized skills yet require teamwork. The games help The cageball is used as a target in this game. Divide the class
develop camaraderie among students, and teams can be re- into two teams and place them on opposite sides of the gym.
organized periodically to equalize the competition. Rules A center line divides the area in half, and teams are restricted
listed are only starting points; students and teachers can to movement in their half. Use cones to mark the goal line
modify any and all of the rules as they desire. near the ends of the playing area. Center the cageball be-
tween the teams. Each team is given a number of playground
Cageball Games balls or volleyballs for throwing at the cageball. The object is
Cageballs come in many different sizes. The most com- to move the cageball across the opponent’s goal line by hit-
mon size is 2 feet in diameter, which is an easy size to store ting the cageball with the volleyballs. The cageball cannot be
and inflate. The next size is 4 feet in diameter, which touched by any player. If it is touched, regardless of intent,
makes the games more interesting at the high school level. the point goes to the other team.
Drawbacks to the larger size are storage, expense, and
inflation time. The largest cageballs, often termed earth Scooter Cageball Soccer
balls, are 5 or 6 feet in diameter. These can be kicked, bat- Each player is given a scooter. The ball may be advanced by
ted, and tossed. Students should not be allowed to mount using the feet only. The object is to score a goal in a fashion
the ball and roll it, however, because injuries in those similar to soccer. Penalty shots are awarded for rough play,
circumstances are common. touching the ball with the hands, and leaving the scooter.

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THROTON ACTIVITIES AND GAMES

Throtons are objects that can be used for throwing and
catching activities as well as for games similar to football,
team handball, or Ultimate Frisbee. The throtons provide a
novel and fun change of pace and challenges especially
appropriate for secondary school students (Figure 9). A vari-
ety of throwing and catching skills that can be performed
with the throtons include overhand throws, sidearm throws,
underhand throws, option-type football pitches with either
hand, rugby-type laterals, and centering-type skills. The
throtons are soft and easy for students to catch.

SCOOP ACTIVITIES AND GAMES

Scoops can also be used for throwing and catching activities
as well as games like modified lacrosse or Ultimate Frisbee
(Figure 10). A variety of challenging throwing and catching
skills can be performed with either hand. Examples include
overhand throws, sidearm throws, and underhand throws.
Catching skills involve a different positioning of the scoop
for throws above and below the waist, as well as fore-
hand and backhand position of the scoop. Additional skills
include scooping the ball off the ground and cradling the
ball while running. Balls of different sizes can be used de-
pending on the skills of the students. Students should start FIGURE 9 Throtons
with a softball-sized whiffle ball and then progress to more
difficult balls that are smaller, harder, or bounce more. The
scoops are an excellent lead-up game for lacrosse because
the skills are similar. The rules for Ultimate Frisbee can be FLICKERBALL GAMES
used for a game with the scoops. Flickerball is a similar game to team handball or Ultimate
Frisbee in which a team tries to advance a ball or object
down the field or court and score a goal by throwing
the object through or into a goal. On an outdoor field,

FIGURE 10 Scoops

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the goals can be 4-foot by 8-foot pieces of plywood per- opposing team desires to gamble for more points. For ex-
manently placed on poles so that they are about 8 feet ample, if a player hits the ball out of bounds and an op-
high. A 2- or 3-foot square is cut out of the center of the posing team player feels that he or she can keep a rally
goal. If the ball goes through the hole, more points are alive, an opposing player yells “play it” and continues to
awarded than if the ball hits the plywood. Local rules and play for the point, which is now worth two points instead
variations can be applied. Usually a three-point type of of the normal one point. Each additional “play it” call
basketball crease is set up to keep the players farther away adds two points more to the rally so that a rally may be
from the goal. The size of the crease can vary according to worth many points. Local rules for each school or facility
the situation. A “rules of three” approach can be applied can be developed. For a list of official rules, contact
to force students to pass within 3 seconds, to make at least Eclipse Ball, Inc., P.O. Box 333, Grant, Michigan, 49327.
three passes before shooting, and for defenders, to keep
back at least 3 feet from the player with the ball. The
player with the ball can also take only three steps and RECREATIONAL ACTIVITIES
then must pass or shoot. Turnovers or free passes occur Many other recreational-type activities can be used as
when any of the rules of three are violated. The players mini-units or as a change of pace. Rules and regulations
advance the ball up the field by passing to teammates. If usually accompany the purchase of equipment and are
the game is played indoors, a target such as a mat on the specific to the situation. The authors have had success
wall or a standing goal can be substituted for the goals. with the following activities:
Various types of footballs, Throtons, foam balls, rugby
Shuffleboard
balls, and Frisbees can be used for the games to add vari-
ety to the unit. Deck tennis
Tennis volleyball
Table tennis
POTATO BALL GAMES
Potato ball is usually played with a regular or modified Pillow polo
football. Other types of balls can be used, including play- Sacket
ground balls, Nerf balls, throtons, or alligator–skin-type Horseshoes
balls. The game is similar to Ultimate Frisbee except that Lawn bowling
you can run or throw the ball. The game involves contin-
uous movement until a touchdown is scored by running Global ball
or throwing to a teammate across the goal line. The game Pickleball
is usually played on a football field or across a football
field. Students advance the ball toward the goal line by
running or passing to teammates in any direction: for- RELAYS
ward, sideways, or backward. A turnover occurs when a When not overused, relays are enjoyable activities for
student is tagged while holding the ball, when an incom- students. To keep the atmosphere vibrant and the
plete pass occurs, or when an interception occurs. Play students motivated, the teams should be changed often
starts immediately when the opposing team picks up the to equalize the ability of various groups. If the same
ball. The game works best with short, controlled passes team wins every bout, the outcome is predetermined
while advancing the ball up the field. and the rest of the class will not be motivated. Another
motivator is frequent changing of the relay. The relay
can be run once to show students how it is to be con-
ECLIPSE BALL GAMES ducted and then one to three times for competition. All
Eclipse ball is a racquet game that combines elements relay teams should have the same number of persons
from badminton, racquetball, tennis, and volleyball. It is on each squad. It is wise to change the order of the
played on a standard volleyball court with a special squads so different people get a chance to run starting
eclipse ball. A modified tennis racquet or any other simi- and finishing legs. Define the signals to start the relay,
lar type racquet is used to serve the ball and hit forehands and tell students what position they must assume
and backhands. Four to six players can be on a team, when finished (sitting, kneeling, or some alternative
depending on the size of the court. The game is designed position).
to foster long rallies with second chances because the ball
is allowed to bounce and to be played off of the back walls Potato Relays
with special rules for keeping the rally alive. A “play it” Potato relays have been played for years. A small box to
situation is possible when one team is at fault and the hold the objects (potatoes) is placed in front of each

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squad. Four circles (hoops can be used) are placed 10 to 15 Fetch Relay
feet apart in front of each squad. The goal is for the first Squads line up and place one member at the other end of
runner to pick up an object from the box and carry it to the playing area, 10 to 20 yards away. This person runs
one of the hoops, come back, pick up another object, and back to the squad and fetches the next person. The person
place it in another hoop. This is done until all the hoops who has just been fetched in turn runs back and fetches
are filled. The next person picks up the objects one at a the next person. The pattern continues until all members
time from the hoops and places them back in the box. The have been fetched to the opposite end of the playing area.
pattern is repeated until all members of the squad have
had a turn. Snowball Relay
This relay is similar to the fetch relay, except that after one
Wheelbarrow Relay
person has been fetched, both players run back and pick up
The wheelbarrow position described earlier in the chapter
another player. The pattern continues until the majority of
is used as the means of locomotion. All members of each
squad members are running back and forth, picking up the
squad must participate in both the carrying position and
remaining members. This relay can be exhausting for the
the down formation.
first few people in line and should not be run too often.
Bowling Pin Relay
Sport Skill Relays
Four bowling pins per squad are used. They are evenly
spaced in front of each squad in a fashion similar to the Many sport skills can be used for relays. For example,
potato relay. The first person in line lays down all of the dribble the basketball down the court, make a basket, and
pins, and the next person stands them up. Only one hand return. The problem with relays of this type is that success
can be used. is predicated on the skill level of the participants. If some
students are less skilled in basketball, the relay can be a
Over and Under Ball Relay source of embarrassment, causing these students to bear
Each team is spread out in open squad formation so play- the brunt of losing the relay. An instructor who uses sport
ers are 10 to 15 feet apart. The first person in line passes skill relays is wise to include a wide variety of skills and to
the ball backward overhead to the nearest teammate. That develop many different types of relays.
person throws it backward between the legs to another
teammate, and the pattern repeats. When the ball gets to Spread-Eagle Relay
the end of the squad, that person runs to the front of the Break the class into groups of eight to 10 students. They lie
squad and passes the ball backward. The process is re- down on the floor and form a circle with their heads toward
peated until all players have had a turn at the end and the center. They join hands and spread the legs. Participants
front of the squad. in each squad are numbered, beginning with one through
the number of squad members. When a number is called,
Stepping-Stone Relay
that person stands up, runs around the circle, and then re-
Two small carpet squares are used per squad. The first sumes the prone position on the floor. The runner must
person in line is the mover and helps the next person in place both feet between each pair of legs. The first person to
line move down and back. The only way to advance in return to the starting position earns a point for that squad.
this relay is by standing on a carpet square and moving The squad with the most points wins.
to another. It is illegal to move or stand on the floor. The
mover picks up the rear carpet square and moves it in
front of the advancing player so the next step can be
taken. All players must play both roles before the relay is COOPERATIVE ACTIVITIES
completed. Cooperative activities require students to work together.
They can be used early in the year as mixers in an attempt
Pass-and-Squat Relay to help students get to know one another, with the empha-
Players are spread out so they are 10 to 15 feet apart. sis on enjoyment and accomplishment.
The first person in line turns around, faces the rest of
the squad, and throws a volleyball or soccer ball to the Commonalities
first person in line, who returns the throw and squats. Put enough hula hoops out for half the students in the class.
The leader now throws the ball to the next person until The class walks or moves around the gym until the music
all members have received a throw and have squatted. stops or the teacher blows a whistle. Two students put one
When the ball is thrown to the last player, that person foot in the same hoop. They must talk to their partners and
dribbles the ball to the front of the squad and repeats come up with two common traits that they have that are
the pattern. not visible to anyone. The students then repeat this activity

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and find a new partner or group of three and complete the has assumed the sitting position. Put the left side toward
same task. The groups can get bigger and bigger as the the center and sit on a new partner’s lap.
teacher decides. This is an excellent way for class members
to get to know each other and for the teacher to learn about Word or Team Sounds
the students in the class. Students all close their eyes. Someone is designated to
move throughout the group and assign a word or sound
Picnic Name Game such as “grrr; wow; Colts, Rockets,” or other football, bas-
Have your class stand in a circle. The first person starts by ketball, or baseball teams to the players. The number of
saying his or her first name and what he or she is bringing words assigned will determine the number of groups
to the picnic; the item must start with the same letter as formed. This is a useful way to organize groups. When the
the person’s first name (e.g., Paul is bringing peanut butter command is given, the only noises that can be made are
or Jessica is bringing jelly). The next person repeats the those that resemble the word. Students must keep their
first name and the item of all the previous people and then eyes closed and move throughout the area in search of
adds his or her name and the item that he or she is bring- another person who has been assigned the same word. For
ing to the picnic. This procedure continues until the last example, people assigned to be “Buckeyes” or “Sun Devils”
person has said everyone’s name and item. search for their counterparts by saying “buckeyes” or “sun
devils” and listening for others saying the same words.
Group Name Juggling
Ask the class to stand in a circle. The first person calls out Entanglement
the name of one person in the circle and then passes a soft Divide the class into two or more groups. Each group makes
ball (or any piece of appropriate equipment) underhand a tight circle with arms pointing toward the middle. In each
to that person. This continues until all members of the group, students hold someone’s hand until everybody is
circle have been called and received a pass. After the group holding hands. Each person must hold a hand of two differ-
gets the hang of the game, then more pieces of equipment ent people and not hold the hands of the people on either
can be added, and the speed of the game can be increased. side. On signal, the two groups race to see which can untan-
It is fun with a rubber chicken, pig, or fish or all three at gle first without disjoining hands. The group may end up in
the same time. If your class size is large, start with two or either one large circle or in two smaller, connecting circles.
three circles. Periodically rotate several people to a new People can be facing different directions when finished.
circle to increase the learning of classmates’ names.
Bulldozer
Mass Stand Up Students lie in prone position side by side and as close as
Start with two people sitting back to back. They lock elbows possible on the floor. The end person rolls on top of the
and try to stand up. Increase the number to three people, next person and down the line of people. When that per-
then four, and so forth. See how many people can stand up son gets to the end of the line, the next person starts the
simultaneously. Try the same thing in a sitting position, fac- roll. Two teams can be formed and a relay race conducted.
ing your partner with hands locked, feet flat, and toes
touching. Add people to this position. Zipper
Players make a single-file line. Each student bends over,
Butt Tug reaches between the legs with the left hand, and grasps the
Stand in two lines back to back. One line moves to the left right hand of the person to the rear. This continues on
step. Bend over, cross the arms between the legs, and grasp down the line until all hands are grasped. On signal, the
the hands of two different people from the other team. last person in line lies down, the next person backs over
Now begin tugging. Be careful to maintain your balance, the last person and lies down, and so forth until the last
remain under control, and remind students to not let go person lies down, and then immediately stands and
of their grips. Try forming two teams in the described po- reverses the procedure. The first team to zip and unzip the
sition and have a race while maintaining the hand grips. zipper is declared the winner.

Circle Sit Addition Tag

Have students stand and form a circle holding hands. Two are selected to be “it.” They must hold hands and can tag
Close the circle so shoulders are touching. Move the right only with their outside hands. When they tag someone, that
side of the body toward the center of the circle and move person must hook on. This continues and the tagging line be-
inward, eliminating gaps. Now sit on the knees of the per- comes longer and longer. Regardless of the length of the line,
son behind. Try walking in this position when everyone only the hand on each end of the line is eligible to tag.

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Team Paper, Scissors, and Rock

Two teams huddle up on half of the gym or field space. Team WEBSITES
members decide as a group which of the three choices (paper, Adventure Activities
scissors, or rock) they will reveal as a team when the game be- www.adventurehardware.com
gins. The team members come out to the midcourt line and www.pa.org
face each other with one foot on the line. The teacher counts, Eclipse Ball
“one, two, three, show.” The teams reveal their group decision www.eclipseball.com
on the word “show” with the appropriate hand signal, and Flickerball
winning team members chase losing team members and try www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flickerball
to tag them before they reach a safe zone, which is about Pickleball
10–20 yards from the starting line (paper covers rock, rock www.pickleball.com
breaks scissors, and scissors cut paper). If a person gets
Sport Stacking
tagged, he or she must switch teams. After each round, team www.speedstacks.com
members rehuddle and decide their next choice. www.worldsportstackingassociation.org

Throtons
Chicken Baseball
www.aeroaction.com
Two teams of about nine people are competing. The
game starts with each team in a single-file line. Team 1
has a rubber chicken with the first person in line. Team 2 REFERENCES AND
has the first person in line ready to run around the line. SUGGESTED READINGS
At the start of the game, the rubber chicken is passed Barney, D., & Mauch, L. (2003). Jump bands: Success and
back by alternating over the head of the first person and fun with rhythms. Teaching Elementary Physical
then between the legs of the next person until the last Education, 14(6), 14–16.
Orlick, T. (2006). Cooperative sports and games book,
person gets the chicken and then throws it as far as possi- (2nd ed). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
ble while yelling, “chicken.” The first person on team 2 is Pangrazi, R. P., & Beighle, A., (2010). Dynamic physical edu-
running around his or her team and getting points for cation for elementary school children (16th ed.). San
each time around while team 1 is passing the chicken. Francisco: Benjamin Cummings.
Panicucci, J., Constable, N. S., Hunt, L., Kohut, L., &
When “chicken” is yelled, all members of team 2 run to Rheingold, A. (2003). Adventure curriculum for physical
the chicken and begin passing it back in the previously education: High school. Hamilton, MA: Project
described manner while team 1 is currently accumulat- Adventure.
Rohnke, K. (2002). A small book about large group
ing points by having its last person running laps around
games. Dubuque, IA: Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company.
the group. The teams have to work together to line up Rohnke, K. (2004). Funn ‘n games. Dubuque, IA:
quickly and take turns running the laps around the Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company.
group.

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 Sports

From Chapter 19 of Dynamic Physical Education for Secondary Schools, Seventh Edition. Paul W. Darst, Robert P. Pangrazi, Mary Jo Sariscsany,
Timothy A. Brusseau, Jr. Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. Published by Pearson Benjamin Cummings. All rights reserved.
 Sports
ESSENTIAL COMPONENTS OF
A QUALITY PROGRAM
I. Organized around content standards
▲

II. Student-centered and developmentally

appropriate
▲

III. Physical activity and motor skill develop-

ment form the core of the program
IV. Teaches management skills and
self-discipline
▲ ▲ ▲

V. Promotes inclusion of all students

VI. Focuses on process over product
VII. Promotes lifetime personal health
and wellness
▲

VIII. Teaches cooperation and responsibility

and promotes sensitivity to diversity

NATIONAL STANDARDS FOR

PHYSICAL EDUCATION*
▲

1. Demonstrates competency in motor skills

and movement patterns needed to perform
a variety of physical activities.
▲

2. Demonstrates understanding of movement

concepts, principles, strategies, and tactics as
they apply to the learning and performance
of physical activities.
3. Participates regularly in physical activity.
4. Achieves and maintains a health-enhancing
level of physical fitness.
▲

5. Exhibits responsible personal and social

behavior that respects self and others in
physical activity settings.
▲

6. Values physical activity for health, enjoyment,

challenge, self-expression, and/or social *National Association for Sport and Physical Education
interaction. (NASPE), 2004.

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 SPORTS

toward the ground in front of the body. After placing one

Chapter Summary string loop in position, place one foot on the center of the
bowstringer, and pull the bow straight up with one hand.
Chapter 19 presents a series of beginning level units
for a wide variety of team and individual sports. These
Use the free hand to slide the free string loop into place.
units are designed to serve as a framework for devel- To unstring the bow, reverse the process.
oping units that meet the needs of your individual Another stringing technique is called the step-
students. These units are not all-inclusive, but provide through method. Start by placing the bottom string loop
lead-up activities and skills needed to be proficient in in position, and then put the bottom curve of the bow
the individual game. Each unit includes a sequence across the top of the right ankle, and step between the
for teaching game skills, ideas for effectively teaching
string and the bow with the left foot. Use the left hand to
these skills, options for lesson skill/game organization,
lead-up activities and games, as well as potential stu- bend the bow against the left thigh until the string loop
dent learning objectives. The activities include both can be moved into place with the right hand. Be sure to
traditional and modified team and individual sports. keep the face away from the bow tip.
Additional references are provided to assist in further
development of units. Establishing a Stance
The feet should straddle the shooting line and be shoulder
Student Outcomes width apart (the stance can be square or slightly open).
After reading this chapter, you will be able to:
The toes should be in a direct line with the target. The
• Identify lead-up skills and activities necessary to knees should be relaxed and a comfortable standing pos-
teach a beginning unit in a variety of team and
ture maintained.
individual sports.
• Identify the proper sequence for teaching skills
for a variety of sports. Nocking the Arrow
• Describe various ideas to effectively teach a variety The bow should be held horizontally in the left hand, and
of team and individual sports. the nock (or butt end) of the arrow should be placed on
• List a series of potential student learning objectives the nocking point (a small knot in the string that ensures
for both team and individual sports. that the arrow will be parallel to the sight) of the string.
• Identify resources and references that can be The odd-colored feather should face away from the bow.
utilized to develop units in a variety of sports. Use the index finger of the left hand to steady the arrow on
the arrow rest.

Extending and Draw

ARCHERY The string is on the first joint of three fingers of the right
Archery has long been recognized as an appealing activity hand. The index finger is above the arrow, and the next
for students of both sexes, of all ages, and for those with dis- two fingers are below the arrow. Rotate the bow to a verti-
abilities. The two most popular forms are target archery cal position with the left arm parallel to the ground.
and field archery. Target archery involves shooting a specific Extend the left arm and draw the string toward the body
number of arrows from a given distance at a target with five with the right hand. Keep the right elbow parallel to the
or 10 concentric circles. Scoring is completed by adding up ground. Be sure the fingers of the bow hand are loose and
the points for each arrow striking the target. This is the relaxed.
most popular archery activity taught in secondary school
programs. Field archery involves 28 stationary targets of Anchoring and Holding
assorted sizes and shapes placed at varying distances. Field
The string should touch the nose, lips, and chin, while the
shooting requires a larger area and considerable safety pro-
index finger touches under the center of the chin. The an-
cedures. It is especially appealing to those who hunt and
chor point should be the same for every shot.
bowfish. Many families enjoy participating together, for
archery activities can be enjoyed by all family members.
Aiming
Target archery has two basic methods of aiming—point of
SEQUENCE OF SKILLS aim and bowsights. The beginner should probably use the
Bracing the Bow point-of-aim technique, which involves finding a spot
Several methods are used for stringing or bracing the bow. somewhere on a vertical line drawn above, through, and
One method involves using a bowstringer device made of below the middle of the target. This point of aim will vary
a 5-foot rope with a leather cup on each end. The cups are according to the distance from the target. To locate the
put on both ends of the bow with the string hanging down point, align the eye and the arrow with an object on the
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vertical line through the center of the target. Shoot several An arm guard should be used to prevent the bowstring
rounds and then adjust the point of aim up or down from slapping the bow arm and to keep long clothing
accordingly. A mechanical bowsight can be mounted on sleeves snug to the body. Movable and stationary quivers
the bow and used by aligning the center of the target are used to transport arrows and sometimes to support the
through the aperture (a scope or opening to view down bow while retrieving arrows.
range). The aperture is then adjusted up or down, or left
or right, depending on the pattern of the arrows for that
General Rules
shooting distance. The aperture position is then noted for 1. Archers must straddle a shooting line. Arrows should
each distance and is used in the future. always be pointed downrange.
2. An end of six arrows is usually shot at one time. A
Releasing and Experiencing Afterhold round consists of a number of ends shot at several
As the arrow is released, the back muscles remain tight while distances.
the string fingers relax. The relaxed drawing hand moves 3. Values for rings in a target are as follows:
backward slightly along the neck. The bow arm and head
remain steady until the arrow hits the target (afterhold). Five-Ring Scoring
Gold = 9
Red = 7
Retrieving Arrows
Blue = 5
Arrows in a target should be removed by placing the arrow Black = 3
between the index and middle finger of the left hand. The White = 1
palm of the hand should be away from the target facing
the archer. The right hand should be placed on the arrow 10-Ring Scoring
Gold = 10, 9
close to the target. The arrow is removed by gently twist-
Red = 8, 7
ing and pulling at the same angle at which the arrow
Blue = 6, 5
entered. If the fletching (feathers or plastic material used
Black = 4, 3
to stabilize the flight of the arrow) is inside the target, the White = 2, 1
arrow should be pulled through the target. Arrows should
be carried with the points together and the feathers spread 4. An arrow that bisects two colors scores the higher
out to prevent damage. of the two values.
5. An arrow that bounces off a target or passes
IDEAS FOR EFFECTIVE INSTRUCTION through a target is given seven points if there is a
witness.
Equipment
The composition of bows is primarily wood, fiberglass, or 6. The petticoat, or outside area of the target, counts
a laminated combination of the two. Both straight and as a miss.
recurved bows are available. The recurved bow has curved
ends to provide additional leverage, which increases the
ORGANIZATION, SKILL
velocity of the arrow. Bows also have different weights and WORK, AND SAFETY
lengths. Archers should select a bow based on their Beginning students can experience success quickly if the
strength and skill. Starting with a lighter bow is best and instructor moves the target close to them (10 yards or
then progressing to a heavier one as skill and strength are less). Students can then move away from the target as their
developed. In class situations, teachers should try to have a skill levels increase. A safe environment is important.
variety of bows available for different ability levels. Make sure that students follow strict rules for shooting
Arrow shafts are made of wood, fiberglass, or alu- procedures (i.e., always point bow down range, only shoot
minum. It is important for the beginning archer to get the when commanded, only retrieve arrows when cleared to
proper length arrow. A good method for determining do so, etc.). Partner work is useful for checking form,
proper length is to have someone hold a yardstick against reminding about safety procedures, and giving feedback.
the sternum, perpendicular to the body, while the individ- A form for a rating scale or checklist for shooting can also be
ual extends the arms with the palms on either side of the useful and motivating to some students. Several checklists
yardstick. The point at which the fingertips touch the are available from the sources listed at the end of the unit.
yardstick is the correct arrow length. For beginners, it is Time should be spent with partners and observers to
better to have long arrows. Many different types of points make sure they are actively involved in the learning
and feathers are available. process and concentrating on the specific shooting skills.
Many types of finger tabs and shooting gloves are also Make sure all students are mentally involved, even when
available to protect fingers and to promote smooth release. they are not shooting.
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LEAD-UP GAMES AND 5. At a distance of 15 yards, the student will hit the
LEARNING ACTIVITIES target four of six times and score a minimum of
24 points.
Relays
6. At a distance of 20 yards, the student will hit the
Each team has one target, and each person has one arrow.
target four of six times and score a minimum of
The first person in line shoots and then goes to the end of
24 points.
the line. All team members shoot one arrow, and then the
team score is tallied. The team with the highest score is the 7. The student will participate in a minimum of two
winner. out of three novelty archery events.

Turkey Shoot Optional Activities (Extra Credit)

Each team draws a turkey about the size of a target on a 1. On a written test covering safety rules, archery
piece of paper. The turkey is placed on the target. Each terminology, and scoring, the student will score
team tries to hit the turkey as many times as possible. 100 percent.
2. At a distance of 10 yards, the student will hit the
Tic-Tac-Toe or Bingo target six of six times and score at least 40 points.
Balloons or a target with squares are placed on the regular
3. At a distance of 15 yards, the student will hit the
target—three rows of three for tic-tac-toe, or five rows of
target five of six times and score at least 40 points.
five for bingo. The object is to hit three or five in a row
vertically, horizontally, or diagonally. The game can be for 4. At a distance of 20 yards, the student will hit the
individuals or for teams. target five of six times and score at least 38 points.
5. The student will write a two-page report on the
Target Work-Up history of archery, complete with bibliography.
Start with four or five students on a target. Shoot an end 6. The student will participate in all 3 days of novelty
of four arrows and tally the score. The highest scorer archery events.
moves up one target, and the lowest scorer moves down a
7. The student will design and put up a bulletin board
target. This can be an individual or partner activity.
about archery.
Tape Shooting
Place two pieces of masking tape across the target, one
Reinforcement Menu
vertically and one horizontally. The object is to hit ei- 1. Ensure core objectives 1, 2, and 3 are met before
ther piece of tape. This can also be an individual or team students are allowed to shoot.
event. 2. Post the checklist of objectives on the bulletin board.
3. Post on the bulletin board the high ends and high
SUGGESTED PERFORMANCE rounds for each class.
OBJECTIVES 4. Post on the bulletin board the results of the class
Core Objectives tournament for each distance.
Objectives 1, 2, and 3 should be completed before the student 5. Give ribbons to winners of novelty events.
is allowed to shoot on the range. 6. Award extra-credit points for exceeding skill
1. On a written test covering safety rules, archery ter- requirements.
minology, and scoring, the student will score at least
70 percent (two attempts allowed). Rainy Day Activities
2. The student will demonstrate how to brace and Discussion and practice can focus on these areas:
unbrace the bow. Grading is on a pass–fail basis. Eye dominance Draw
3. The student will demonstrate the nine steps of the Stance Anchor
shooting technique (i.e., stand, nock, extend, draw, Nock Tighten-hold
anchor, hold, aim, release, and afterhold). Grading Extension Aim
is on a pass–fail basis. Bow hand position Tighten-release
String hand and arm position Afterhold
4. At a distance of 10 yards, the student will hit the
target at least five of six times and score a minimum A great resource for archery unit ideas is Bane McCracken’s
of 28 points. book It’s Not Just Gym Anymore (2001).
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 SPORTS

BADMINTON high and be extended over the left shoulder at completion of

service. Most serves will be long and high. A short serve is,
Badminton is popular in schools, from the middle and
however, effective if your opponent is playing too deep.
high school through college levels. Competition at the col-
lege level is popular nationally and internationally. The Doubles Service
activity is considered a lifetime sport and can be enjoyed
The stance is similar to the singles serve. Contact the shut-
by all in a recreational setting. The game is played with a
tlecock closer to waist height and slightly more toward the
shuttlecock and racquet on a court with a net set at a
server’s racquet-hand side. Guide the shuttlecock instead
height of 5 feet. The court is marked for both doubles and
of hitting it. The wrist does not uncock. Just prior to con-
singles competition. A toss of a coin or a spin of the rac-
tacting the shuttlecock, shift the weight from the racquet
quet determines service or court choice. The game begins
foot to the nonracquet foot. Little follow-through or rota-
with a serve from the right-hand service court to an oppo-
tion occurs. The shuttlecock should peak in height just
nent standing in the opposite right-hand service court.
before the net and be descending as it clears the net.

SEQUENCE OF SKILLS Forehand Shots

Grips Clear
Forehand Get in ready position with the feet and shoulders parallel
With the racquet lying across the palm and fingers of the to the net. Hold the racquet slightly to the backhand side,
racquet hand, the index finger should be separated from and bend the knees slightly. Contact the shuttlecock as
the rest of the fingers. Wrap the thumb around the other high as possible and in front of the body. The racquet face
side of the handle. The grip resembles a handshake and is should be tilted upward, and the shuttlecock should clear
called the “pistol grip.” This grip is used for serving and the opponent’s racquet and land close to the back line.
forehand shots.
Drop
Backhand When contact with the shuttlecock is made, the racquet
Move the thumb to a straightened position and to the right face should be flat and pointing ahead or slightly down-
of the handle. Rotate the rest of the hand one-fourth of a ward. The shuttlecock is gently guided over the net.
turn to the right (if right handed). Regardless of the grip Remember to follow through. The shuttlecock should just
used, the player should make contact with the shuttlecock drop over the net into the opponent’s forecourt.
as early and as high as possible. This gives the player a bet-
ter angle for return and for more controlled shots and Smash
forces an opponent to move quickly. Extend the arm when the shuttlecock is hit in front of the
body. Rotation of the wrist and forearm is performed
Serves quickly. The downward angle of the racquet face is more
Ready Position and Preparatory Action important than the racquet speed. The shot should only
Stand with the nonracquet foot forward and the weight be attempted from the front three-fourths of the court.
mainly on the racquet foot. The feet should be approxi-
mately 12 to 15 inches apart. The nonracquet shoulder is Backhand Shots
toward the receiver, with the racquet held waist high and Ready Position
behind the body. Keep the wrist cocked. From the forehand position, turn so that the racquet
The shuttlecock must be contacted below the waist at shoulder faces the net. The weight should be on the non-
the instant of the serve. Either a forehand or backhand racquet foot, the racquet shoulder up, and the forearm
shot may be used, but the forehand is most common. slightly down and across the chest. While shifting the
Until the serve is delivered, the server and receiver must be weight to the racquet foot, the body rotates toward the net.
in their legal service courts. Part of both players’ feet must As the wrist leads, the racquet extends upward. The racquet
remain in contact with the ground. arm and elbow should be fully extended at contact. The
thumb should not point upward.
Singles Service
Review the ready position. Extend the nonracquet arm and Clear
drop the shuttlecock before starting to move the racquet for- Hitting hard and upward, contact the shuttlecock as high
ward. As weight is shifted to the front foot, rotate the shoul- as possible and hit it over the opponent’s racquet. Contact
ders and hips. As contact is made below the waist, the wrist should be made in front of the body with the racquet face
and forearm rotate. The racquet arm should follow through flat to the target.

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Drop IDEAS FOR EFFECTIVE INSTRUCTION

As the shuttlecock is guided over the net, the racquet Racquets and Shuttlecocks
should be flat and pointed ahead or slightly downward. The racquet frame can be made of metal or wood. It is usu-
The shuttlecock should land close to the net. ally 26 inches long and weighs between 3.75 and 5.5 ounces.
Nylon is commonly the choice of material for stringing the
Underhand Shots racquet. The metal frame racquets are desirable because
Ready Position they do not warp or require a press for storage.
Place the racquet foot forward and the racquet face paral- The weight of the shuttlecock is between 73 and 85
lel to the ground. Cock the wrist and make contact as close grains, with 14 to 16 feathers. If authentic feathers are
to net height as possible. used, the shuttlecocks should be stored in a damp place. If
nylon feathers are used, the shuttlecocks will be more
Forehand Net Clear durable and reasonably priced, which is desirable in the
The forehand net clear is a high, deep shot similar to the school setting.
singles deep serve. Turn the shoulder slightly toward
the net, and cock the wrist. An inward rotation of the wrist Net
and a lifting of the forearm occur just before contact. The top of the net is 5 feet from the floor at its midpoint. It
Proceed to follow-through with the elbow slightly bent. is 5 feet, 1 inch at the posts. The net is 30 inches in height
and 20 feet long.
Backhand Net Clear
The racquet foot is forward, and the racquet shoulder turned Court
to the net. Contact the shuttlecock as close to net height as Figure 1 shows the court dimensions for badminton.
possible. As the player moves toward the net, the wrist should
be cocked. An outward rotation is used for the backhand. The Games and Match
shot is high and deep into the opponent’s court.
Eleven points make a game in women’s singles. All doubles
Forehand Net Drop and men’s singles games are 15 points. A match consists of
two games out of three. As soon as a side wins two games, the
Review the forehand net clear. The net drop is guided over
match is over. The winner of the previous game serves the
the net with a lifting motion. The shuttlecock should drop
next game. Players change courts after the first and second
quickly.
games. In the third game, players change after eight points in
Backhand Net Drop a 15-point game and after six points in an 11-point game.
This is the same motion as the forehand net drop except
that the backhand grip is used. The shuttlecock should be Scoring
contacted close to net height. Only the serving side scores and continues to do so until
an error is committed.
Ready Position for Receiving
The feet should be parallel and positioned slightly wider Setting
apart than the shoulders. Bend the knees slightly with the If the score becomes tied, the game may be extended
weight forward. Hold the racquet with the head up and to by the player or side first reaching the tied score. In a
the backhand side of the body. 15-point game, the set may occur at 13–13 (setting to
5 points) or 14–14 (setting to 3 points). In an 11-point
Doubles Strategy game, the score may be set at 10–10 (setting to 2 points) or
Up and Back 9–9 (setting to 3 points). A set game continues, but the
One player plays close shots while the partner plays deep shots. score called is now 0–0, or “love all.” The first player or
side to reach the set score wins. If a side chooses not to set,
Side by Side the regular game is completed.
Each partner plays half of the court and is responsible for
close or deep shots in his or her half of the court. Singles Play
The first serve is taken from the right service court and
Combination received crosscourt (diagonally) in the opponent’s right
Both side-by-side and up-and-back formations are used. service court. All serves on 0 or an even score are served and
Regardless of the strategy, partners should always call for received in the right-hand court. All serves on an odd score
the shot (“Mine!”) to avoid accidental injuries. are served and received in the left service court.

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Faults
A fault committed by the serving side (in-side) results in a
side out, while a fault committed by the receiving side
(out-side) results in a point for the server. A fault occurs
in any of the following situations:
1. During the serve, the shuttlecock is contacted above
the server’s waist, or the racquet head is held above
the hand.
2. During the serve, the shuttlecock does not fall
within the boundaries of the diagonal service court.
3. During the serve, some part of both feet of the
server and receiver do not remain in contact with
the court, inside the boundary lines, until the shut-
tlecock leaves the racquet of the server. Feet on the
boundary lines are considered out-of-bounds.

ORGANIZATION AND SKILL WORK

An effective way to add variety and skill work to classes is
to create a series of stations. The stations can be arranged
to use the space available in the gymnasium and can focus
on badminton skills, conditioning activities, or a combi-
nation of both (Figure 2).
Partner activities are helpful with accompanying
rating scales or checklists like the one following.
Partner Activities: Low doubles serve.
Equipment: One badminton racquet and five shuttle-
cocks per couple.
Procedure: One person is the server, and the other is the
helper with a trained eye. The server follows these steps,
FIGURE 1 Badminton court dimensions and the helper checks off the skills as they are completed.

1. Standing behind the 6-foot, 6-inch line from the

wall, drop the bird and hit it underhand against
Doubles Play the wall. Repeat this at least five times. The trained
In the first inning, the first service is one hand (one player eye must be looking for and giving feedback on
serves) only. In all other innings, the serving team gets to the following criteria:
use two hands (both players have the opportunity to serve
a. Keep both feet on the ground until after the
before the other team gets to serve). At the beginning of
shuttlecock is contacted.
each inning, the player in the right court serves first.
Partners rotate only after winning a point. b. Hold the shuttlecock at chest height.
Even and odd scores are served from the same court c. Contact the shuttlecock below the waist level.
as in singles play. If a player serves out of turn or from the d. Keep the racquet head below the wrist at the
incorrect service court and wins the rally, a let will be point of contact.
called. The let must be claimed by the receiving team
e. Keep the wrist firm and cocked throughout the
before the next serve.
stroke.
If a player standing in the incorrect court takes the serve
and wins the rally, it will be a let, provided the let is claimed f. Guide the shuttlecock instead of hitting it.
before the next serve. If either of these cases occurs and the 2. From the same position behind the line, direct three
side at fault loses the rally, the mistake stands, and the play- of five serves above the 5-foot, 1-inch line on the
ers’ positions are not corrected for the rest of the game. wall and below the 18-inch line above it. Switch

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FIGURE 2 Station skill work—badminton

positions, and if you were serving, become the LEAD-UP GAMES AND
helper. Help your partner, and remember that you
LEARNING ACTIVITIES
are the trained eye who sees what your partner is
doing. Partners repeat the first two steps. Doubles Drop
After the short serve and underhand drop are taught, a
3. Move to the court and take about five practice
“doubles drop game” can be played between the net and
serves. Keep the serve under the 18-inch line.
the short service line.
Now do five serves and have your partner record
your score. This score is to help you determine Overhead Clear
your accuracy. Switch positions again and repeat
After the long serve and the overhead clear are taught, an
step 3.
overhead clear “rally” could be attempted. Try to keep the
4. Now try step 3 using your backhand. shuttlecock in play at least five times in a row; then try
Tournament play works well for badminton. 10 times in a row, 15 times, and so forth.
Ladder, pyramid, or round-robin tournaments can
add a competitive flavor to the class. The use of Designated Shots
marking tape on the floor and walls, jump ropes on After the underhand clear is taught, work on a “designated
the court, fleece balls, and task cards can give the shots rally.” Start with a short serve, return with an under-
teacher more stations for a circuit. This enables the hand drop, return with an underhand clear, and return
student to progress at a personalized skill level. with an overhead clear. Keep performing clear with over-
Mini-games or lead-up games played on the courts head and underhand clears.
allow for skill work, competition, and enjoyment.
Regulation games and tournament play can gradu- Server Versus Receiver
ally replace the lead-up games. Students should also After the “flick” serve and “push” return are taught, play
be trained as scorekeepers and line or service judges. a server versus receiver game. The receiver must try to

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return as many as possible of the server’s 20 serves in a

row—10 from the right and 10 from the left. The server
gets a point each time the receiver misses the return. The
receiver gets a point if the server misses the serve. Reverse
the server and receiver roles.

Clear–Smash
After the smash is taught, play a long serve and overhead
clear game. Start with a long serve, return with an over-
head clear, and keep hitting clears until someone makes a
short clear shot; then smash the short clear. The server is
awarded one point if the smash is not returned or loses
one point if the smash is returned. Repeat the rally and try
to make points by well-placed smashes.

Drive Rally
After the drive shot is taught, organize a drive rally with
four players. Drive crosscourt and down the alley. If the
drive shot is too high, smash it. FIGURE 3 Name the shot—badminton
Advanced Combination Drill
Start the rally with a long serve and return with an over- 4. Standing behind the short service line, next to the
head drop, return with an underhand drop, return with an center line in the right court, serve the shuttlecock
underhand clear to the opponent’s backhand side, return crosscourt over the net, between the net and a rope
with a backhand overhead clear, and return with an over- 1 foot above it. Repeat this five times in a row from
head clear unless the return shot is short. If the shot is the right and then five times from the left.
short, use a smash.
5. Standing behind the short service line, next to the
Volleyball Badminton center line in the right-hand court, serve 10 short
Four players are on each team. Assigned positions rotate serves in a row to the receiver’s backhand side on
as in volleyball. the court.
6. Repeat step 5, standing in the left-hand court.
Three per Team
Alternate servers, and the “up” player plays the net shots. Long Serves
7. Standing to the right of and next to the center line,
Name the Shot 12 feet from the net, serve 10 long serves in a row to
After 5 days of the badminton unit, challenge students to the opposite court.
name the shots (Figure 3). 8. Repeat step 8 from the left service court.
9. Repeat step 8, but the serves must land in the back-
SUGGESTED PERFORMANCE OBJECTIVES hand area marked on the court. Serve five long
Core Objectives serves in a row to this area.
All directions given are for right-handed players. Underhand Clears: Forehand and Backhand
Short or Low Serves 10. Standing between the net and the short service line,
1. Standing 6 feet, 6 inches from the wall, serve the drop the shuttlecock and hit 10 underhand clears in
shuttlecock 10 times in a row between the 5-foot a row on the forehand side, to the back 4 feet of the
and 6-foot marks on the wall. court marked for doubles.

2. Standing behind the short service line on the right 11. Repeat step 10 on the backhand side.
side of the court, serve the shuttlecock crosscourt 12. Standing 6 feet behind the short service line, hit five
over the net 10 times and get seven out of 10 in the underhand clears in a row on the forehand side to
court. the back 4 feet of the doubles court.
3. Repeat step 2 from the left side of the service court. 13. Repeat step 12 on the backhand side.

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Drops 7. Repeat step 5, smashing five in a row down the right

14. Standing just behind the short service line on the side of the court.
right court, hit a tossed shuttlecock from your part- 8. Standing within 10 feet of the short service line,
ner in an underhand drop on the forehand side. return 10 of your opponent’s smashes back over the
Return 10 drops in a row from the forehand side. net as smashes.
15. Repeat step 14 on the backhand side. 9. Standing within the last 5 feet of the back court, hit
16. Repeat steps 14 and 15 from the left court. an overhead drop off your opponent’s clears to you.
Hit five shuttlecock drops to the right court side
17. Standing anywhere just behind the short service
between the net and the short service line.
line, hit a shuttlecock barely tossed over the net by
your partner, alternating between your forehand 10. Repeat step 9 on the left court between the net and
and backhand on the toss. Hit 10 underhand drops the short service line.
in a row back between the net and a rope stretched 11. Stand on the center line, 6 feet from the short serv-
1 foot above the net. ice line. Your partner sets up low, flat serves down
the forehand alley. Hit five forehand drives in a row
Overhead Clears: Forehand down that alley.
18. Standing within 12 feet of the net, your partner hits
12. Repeat step 11, hitting five backhand drives down
underhand clears. Return 10 shuttlecocks in a row
the backhand-side alley.
with an overhead forehand clear into the doubles
court, at least 10 feet from the net. 13. Standing within 12 feet of the net, from a high clear
setup by a partner, backhand five overhead clears in
19. Repeat step 18, returning 10 in a row to the back
a row to the back 6 feet of the doubles court.
4 feet of the doubles court.
14. Standing 15 feet or farther from the net, backhand
20. Repeat step 18, returning 10 in a row, alternating from
five overhead clears in a row to the back 4 feet of the
right court to left court at least 10 feet from the net.
doubles court.
Attendance and Participation Skill Tests
21. Arrive on time for class, dressed and ready to partic- Badminton courts can be marked in many different ways
ipate (one-third of a point per day, up to six points to provide students with a challenge in perfecting their
maximum). skills (Figure 4). Using white shoe polish or floor tape,
22. Participate in 15 games: 13 doubles and two singles. number portions of the target area in an ascending man-
ner, from the easiest to the most difficult shots. Courts can
Optional Objectives be marked for deep serves, low serves, clears, drops, and
1. Standing next to the center line on the right court drives. The teacher determines the number of attempts
and just behind the short service line, serve the that each student is allowed.
shuttle five times in a row to the back 3 feet of
the doubles service court. Repeat on the left.
BASKETBALL
2. Standing in the right receiving court for doubles, Basketball is a popular game played on school yards by many
return five short serves in a row either to the participants. It was invented in 1891 at Springfield College
server’s backhand side or down the side alley next by Dr. Naismith, who used peach baskets and a soccer ball.
to server. Repeat on the left. The game offers reinforcement to participants when a basket
3. Standing 6 feet from the short service line next to is made and is one of the few team sports requiring skills
the center line on the right court, return five long that can be practiced individually. The game demands great
serves in a row to the backhand side of the server cardiorespiratory endurance and fine motor development.
with an overhead clear. Basketball instruction should focus on developing
4. Repeat step 3, standing in the left court. skills and competence so students leave school with the
ability to participate in recreational games later in life. At
5. A server sets up short, high shots 6 to 8 inches from the middle school level, emphasis should be on lead-up
the net. Standing 6 feet from the short service line, games that allow all students to find success and enjoy-
smash five in a row within 15 feet of the net. ment. As students develop the skills necessary to play the
6. Repeat step 5, smashing five in a row down the left game well, instruction during the high school years can
side of the court. concentrate on strategy and teamwork. Highly skilled and

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FIGURE 4 Badminton skills test

interested students should be offered additional opportu- As the ball makes contact with the hands, the elbows
nities to play through intramural programs, recreational should bend and the hands move toward the body in
leagues, or interscholastic competition. order to “give” with the ball and absorb the force. The
passer should step forward in the direction of the re-
SEQUENCE OF SKILLS ceiver. The ball is released with a quick straightening of
the elbows and a snap of the wrists. The arms and fin-
One of the attractive components of basketball is that lit-
gers are fully extended with the palms turned outward
tle equipment is necessary for participation. Students
for the follow-through after the ball has been released. A
should be required to wear a gym shoe made for the activ-
passer should anticipate where his or her teammate is
ity. Running shoes are a poor substitute for basketball
going to be when the ball reaches the receiver. Many of
shoes because they often leave black marks on the floor,
the passing drills should therefore focus on passing
do not offer adequate support, and wear out quickly.
while moving.
The following skills are basic to the game of basket-
ball. Students never learn these skills to perfection, so offer
time for regular practice. For example, players can always Chest Pass
make a better pass, develop more efficient dribbling skills, The chest pass is used frequently in basketball for passes
or shoot a higher percentage of baskets. up to 20 feet. The ball is held at chest level with the fingers
spread on both sides of the ball. One foot is ahead of the
Passing other in a stride position. The elbows remain close to the
Regardless of the pass used, certain points should be em- body, and the ball is propelled by extending the arms,
phasized. The ball should be handled with the fingertips. snapping the wrists, and stepping toward the target.

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Bounce Pass the left foot. As the body is elevated off the floor by the left
The bounce pass is used to transfer the ball to a closely foot, the ball is released 12 to 18 inches above the basket
guarded teammate. It is directed to a spot on the floor on the backboard. For a left-handed shot, the sequence is
closer to the receiver than the passer. The ball should the opposite. The shooter should always reach toward the
rebound to waist level of the receiver. Passing form is sim- spot on the backboard with the shooting hand, and stu-
ilar to the chest pass. dents should practice shooting with either hand.

Flip Pass One-Hand Push Shots (Free-Throw Shot)

This pass is used for a close-range exchange. The ball is The push shot is used primarily for shooting free throws.
flipped somewhat upward to a teammate. It is used often Few people shoot a one-hand shot from a set position.
as a pass to a player cutting to the basket for a layup shot. The ball is held at shoulder level in the nonshooting hand.
The shooting hand is behind the ball, the fingertips touch-
Two-Handed Overhead Pass ing the ball, and the wrist is cocked. The legs are shoulder
This pass is used against a shorter opponent, usually in width apart, and the knees are slightly bent. To shoot,
back court. The passer is in a short stride position with the straighten the legs and push forward with the forearm and
ball held overhead. The momentum of the pass comes wrist. The wrist should be bent over on follow-through
from a forceful wrist and finger snap. The upper arms and the arm straight.
remain relatively in place.
Jump Shots
Catching The jump shot is the most popular shot in basketball because
For effective catching, it is important to keep the eyes on it is difficult to block. The hands are in the same position as
the ball, follow the ball into the hands, and concentrate on described for the one-hand push shot. After the shooter
the catch before beginning the next task. The receiver jumps, the ball is placed just above and in front of the head.
should move toward the ball and reach for it with the fin- The elbow must be kept under the ball so the shooting hand
gers spread. When the pass is at waist level or above, the moves in a straight line toward the basket. The wrist snaps on
thumbs should be pointed in and the fingers up. When the release. The shot should be performed using a jump in an
ball is to be caught below waist level, the thumbs are out upward plane. Leaning forward, sideways, or backward will
and the fingers down. The hands should “give” and move make the shot much less consistent. The jump shot is some-
toward the body to absorb the force of the throw and thus times difficult for middle school students. They often learn
make the ball more catchable. the wrong motor pattern of throwing the ball instead of
shooting it. If this is the case, use a smaller ball, a lower bas-
Dribbling ket, or both to develop the correct pattern.
Dribbling requires bent knees and crouching. The fore-
arm of the dribbling hand is parallel to the floor, and the Rebounding
ball should be pushed toward the roll, rather than slapped. Rebounding is the ability to gain possession of the ball
The ball is controlled with the fingertips. Most of the force after a shot is missed. In order to successfully rebound,
supplied to the ball should be from the wrist, so arm “boxing out” or “blocking out” is required. This is done by
movement is minimized. Emphasis should be placed on positioning yourself between the basket and opponent. It
controlling the ball. is important to spread your feet wide, spread your body
wide by holding your elbows away from the body, and
Shooting bend your legs to create a solid base position. A good
Certain points are common to all shooting. The body rebounder will maintain contact with the opponent and
should be squared up with the basket whenever possible. slide or move to stay between them and the basket and is
The ball is held with the fingers spread, and the elbow of aggressive. Once the box out position is established, the
the shooting hand should always be directly behind the player needs to anticipate where the ball will bounce off
ball. The eyes are fixed on the rim, and the ball is shot with the rim or backboard and jump high and grab the ball
a slight backspin on it. The arm is extended on follow- with two hands.
through with the wrist flexed.

Layup Shots IDEAS FOR EFFECTIVE INSTRUCTION

For a right-handed layup, the player approaches the basket Drills used in basketball should simulate game conditions
from the right side at an angle of about 45 degrees. The as closely as possible. There are few situations in basketball
ball is released with the right hand, and the weight is on where players are standing still. Passing drills, therefore,

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should include player movement, shooting drills should this game is to maintain a continuous dribble while avoid-
require movement and pressure, and drills for dribbling ing being tagged by another player. If tagged or if control
under control should include looking away from the ball. of the ball is lost, the player must move to the other half of
Baskets can be lowered to 8.5 to 9 feet to increase the the playing area and practice dribbling without the pres-
amount of success. This will also help develop better sure of competition.
shooting patterns in the weaker, smaller players. Note that
almost all students will select the lower basket when they Dribble Keep-Away
have a choice of a basket at regulation height and another, The area is divided into two equal parts. All players start
lowered basket. Most people are motivated by being able in one-half of the area and begin dribbling. The goal is
to dunk the shot and thus shoot a higher percentage. to maintain control of the dribble while trying to dis-
The program should concentrate on skill development rupt the dribble of an opponent. If control of the ball is
and include many drills. Basketball offers endless drill pos- lost, the player moves to the other side of the area and
sibilities, and using many drills gives variety and breadth to practices.
the instructional program. The drills should offer each stu-
dent as much practice as possible in a stipulated amount of Around the World
time. Lining up a squad of eight players to take turns Shooting spots are marked on the floor with tape. Players
makes little sense. Use as many balls as possible. In some are in groups of three. A player begins at the first spot and
cases, students may be willing to bring one from home for continues until a shot misses. The player can then wait for
class use. More baskets and balls mean that more students another turn or take a second “risk” shot. If the risk shot is
will have an opportunity to practice and learn skills. made, the player continues “around the world.” If the shot
There are many basketball drills to enhance passing, is missed, the player must start over on the next turn. The
dribbling, and shooting, but the lead-up games in the fol- winner is the player who goes around the world first. A
lowing section encourage skill practice while introducing variation is to count the number of shots that players take
competition and game play. When possible, therefore, iso- to move around the world. The person who makes the cir-
late skills and practice them in lead-up games to maintain cuit with the fewest shots is the winner.
a high level of student motivation.
Twenty-One
LEAD-UP GAMES AND Players are in groups of three or four. Each player receives
a long shot (distance must be designated) and a follow-up
LEARNING ACTIVITIES
shot. The long shot, if made, counts two points, and the
Keep-Away follow-up shot counts one point. The follow-up shot must
The essence of the game is to make as many consecutive be taken from the spot where the ball was recovered. The
passes as possible without losing control to the opposite first player to score 21 points is the winner. A variation is
team. Teams may consist of five to 10 players. Use colored to play team 21, in which the first team of players to score
vests so players can identify their teammates. The game 21 is declared the winner.
is started with a jump ball, and the goal is to maintain con-
trol. Each defensive player must stay with a designated Horse
opponent, rather than the defensive team swarming in a Players work in groups of two to four and shoot in a pre-
zone defense. As soon as possession is lost, counting of determined order. The first player shoots from any place
passes is started by that team. The team that makes the most on the court. If the shot is made, the next player must
consecutive passes within a designated time is the winner. make the same type of shot from the same position. If the
shot is missed by the next player, that player receives an
Five Passes “H,” and the following player can shoot any shot desired.
This game is similar to keep-away, but the object is to No penalty is assigned for a missed shot unless the previ-
make five consecutive passes. As soon as these have been ous player has made a shot. A player is disqualified if the
made, the ball is turned over to the other team. Students letters spelling HORSE are accumulated. The winner is the
are not allowed to travel with the ball. Two or three drib- last remaining player.
bles may be allowed between passes. Players may hold the
ball for only 3 seconds. Sideline Basketball
The class is divided into two teams, each lined up along
Dribble Tag one side of the court, facing the other. The game is played
The playing area is divided into two equal parts. All play- by three or four active players from each team. The re-
ers begin dribbling in one-half of the area. The object of mainder of the players standing on the sideline can catch

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and pass the ball to the active players, but they may not used with the winner-stay-on approach as it sometimes
shoot or enter the playing floor. They must keep one foot means that the better players get much more practice than
completely out-of-bounds at all times. the less-skilled performers. Make the teams as equal as
Active players play regular basketball with one varia- possible so all have a chance to win.
tion; they may pass and receive the ball from sideline play-
ers. The game starts with the active players occupying their SUGGESTED PERFORMANCE OBJECTIVES
own half of the court. The ball is taken out-of-bounds The following are examples of performance objectives
under its own basket by the team that was scored on. Play that might be used in a beginning basketball class. The
continues until one team scores or until a period of time standards may have to be adjusted depending on the skill
(2 or 3 minutes) elapses. The active players then move to level and age of the students.
the left side of their line, and three new active players come
out from the right. All other players move down three Core Objectives
places in the line. Dribbling Tasks
No official out-of-bounds on the sides is called. The 1. In a stationary position, execute a right-hand drib-
players on that side of the floor simply recover the ball and ble 10 consecutive times.
put it into play without delay with a pass to an active
player. Out-of-bounds on the ends is the same as in regu- 2. Perform task 1 except use the left hand.
lar basketball. If one of the sideline players enters the 3. Using a reduced speed, dribble the ball with the
court and touches the ball, it is a violation, and the ball is right hand from the baseline to the midcourt line
awarded out-of-bounds on the other side to a sideline without losing control.
player. Free throws are awarded when a player is fouled. 4. Using a reduced speed, dribble the ball with the left
Sideline players may pass to each other and should be well hand from the midcourt line to the baseline with-
spaced along the side. out losing the dribble.
Half-Court Basketball Passing Tasks
Teams of two to four work best for this variation. The 5. Standing 10 feet away from the target on the wall,
game is similar to regulation basketball with the following throw 10 consecutive two-hand chest passes.
exceptions. When a defensive player recovers the ball,
6. Standing 10 feet away from a partner, execute eight
either from a rebound or an interception, the ball must be
of 10 consecutive two-hand passes.
taken back to midcourt before offensive play can begin.
After a basket is made, the ball must again be taken to 7. Standing 10 feet away from the target, throw 10
midcourt. For out-of-bounds and ball-handling viola- consecutive two-hand bounce passes.
tions, the ball is awarded to the opponents’ out-of-bounds 8. Standing 10 feet away from a partner, execute eight
at a spot near the place where the violation occurred. The of 10 consecutive bounce passes.
ball, in this case, does not have to be taken to midcourt. 9. Standing 10 feet away from the target, throw 10
If a foul occurs, the ball is given to the offended team, or consecutive two-hand overhead passes.
regulation foul shooting can be done.
10. Standing 10 feet away from a partner, execute eight
Three on Three of 10 consecutive two-hand overhead passes.
There are many lead-up games in which the number of Shooting Tasks
players on a team varies. The advantage of playing half-
11. Starting from the right side about 20 feet from the
court basketball with only two or three players on a team
basket, dribble the ball toward the basket and make
is that each player gets to handle the ball more. Regulation
four of six lay-ups using the backboard.
rules are followed.
The game 3 on 3 can be played with four or five 12. Perform task 11, but start from the left side.
teams. An offensive team of three stands forward of the 13. Standing 6 feet from the basket (right side), make
midcourt line while another team is on defense. The other four of six bank shots.
teams wait behind midcourt for their turns. A scrimmage 14. Perform task 13, but use the left side.
is over when one team scores. The defensive team then
goes on offense, and a new team comes in to play defense. 15. Standing at the free-throw line, make five of 10 con-
The old offensive team goes to the rear of the line of wait- secutive set shots.
ing players. The game can be varied so that the winning 16. Standing 10 feet from the basket, make five of 10
team stays on after a basket is scored. Caution must be jump shots.

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Rebounding Tasks Goal line 60 yd

17. Standing with the feet shoulder width apart and
16 yd
with both hands at shoulder level, jump up and
touch the target on the wall three consecutive times 5 yd 16-yd
using both hands. 16 yd 7-yd penalty
mark
stroke line
18. Standing 2 to 3 feet away from the basket, toss the
ball off the right side of the backboard and rebound Striking circle

Sideline 100 yd
it with both hands five consecutive times. 25-yard line
25 yd
19. Perform task 18, but use the left side.
20. Standing 2 to 3 feet from the basket, toss the ball off
the right side of the backboard, rebound it using
both hands, and pivot right using the overhead pass
or chest pass to a partner. Repeat five consecutive Center line
50 yd
times. 5 yd
21. Perform task 20, but use the left side and pivot left.

Optional Objectives 5 yd
1. Officiate at least one regulation game during class 25-yard line
time, using correct calls and signals. 25 yd

2. Write a 1-page report on the game of basketball.

3. Make a list of 15 basketball terms and define them.
4. Write a 1-page report on a basketball article or 16-yd
5 yd mark 4 yd
book.
5. Perform a figure-eight ball-handling technique by
weaving the ball around one leg and then around 5 yd
the other leg—forming a figure eight—successfully 10 yd
for 10 seconds.
6. Make eight of 10 bank shots from anywhere outside FIGURE 5 Field markings and dimensions for field hockey
the foul lane.
7. Make nine of 10 free throws. Hockey equipment includes the ball, sticks, shin
guards, mouth guards, and the goalkeeper’s helmet with
mask, chest protector, gloves, full-length leg pads, and kick-
FIELD HOCKEY ers for the shoes. The ball is composed of cork and twine
Field hockey is a popular team sport that has been played and is covered in leather. Sticks vary in length from 30 to 37
predominately by females in the United States. Many clubs inches. Middle school students use sticks 30 to 34 inches
across the country are affiliated with the United States long, and high school students use sticks 35 to 37 inches. All
Field Hockey Association and offer playing experiences regulation sticks have a flat surface on one side and a
for participants ages 6 to 60. In other countries, the game rounded surface on the other. Only the flat side can be used
is also played by males and is a popular Olympic sport. for legal hits.
Many high schools and colleges offer field hockey compe- The game can be modified in several ways for second-
tition for girls and women. ary physical education units. The number of players and
The regulation game is played with 11 players on each the field size can be reduced. Goals can be improvised by
team. The object of the game is to move a ball with a stick using boundary cones, high-jump standards, or even soc-
into the opponent’s goal, which is 12 feet wide and 7 feet cer goals. A whiffle ball or a rubber or plastic ball can be
high. The game is started with a pass back to teammates in used, and plastic sticks that are flat on both sides are avail-
the center of the field. Besides the goalkeeper, a team usu- able. A flat plastic puck is recommended for play on the
ally has three forwards, three links, three backs, and one gymnasium floor. Goalies should wear a face mask, chest
sweeper. The field is 60 yards by 100 yards with a 16-yard protector, and shin guards from softball or lacrosse equip-
striking circle (Figure 5). ment. If the goalie equipment is not available, then the

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game should be played without a goalie. Both boys and the center of the ball to ensure that it rises off the ground).
girls can enjoy the game in a coeducational unit. Field The flick is a popular shot on goal.
hockey can be played indoors, outdoors, or on a cement A slap hit is a modified drive shot or pass that uses
surface. Physical educators will often utilize floor hockey a short backswing and does not require a change in the
while inside the gymnasium. Floor hockey has many of position of the hands. The pass can be used with the hands
the same tactics and skills as field hockey and most of the apart in the normal hand position for ball handling.
skills in this section can be adapted for floor hockey.
Fielding
Fielding refers to stopping and controlling a moving ball
SEQUENCE OF SKILLS and must be practiced with balls coming from the right,
Gripping left, and center. The face of the stick and the body position
Grip in is the basic grip. The left hand is placed on the top need to be adjusted according to the direction in which
of the stick as though “shaking hands.” The right hand is the ball is traveling. The front fielding position is similar
placed 6 to 8 inches below the left hand. The palms of to the straight dribbling position and is used for balls
the hands will face each other in most situations. The rolling straight toward a person. Balls coming from the
right hand can slide up the stick for a drive shot and for a left require a regular forehand position with the blade fac-
reverse stick. The lower position is used for dribbling and ing to the left. For balls coming from the right, the stick
for most passes. must intercept the ball before it reaches the body. The
blade must be turned so that it is facing to the right.
Dribbling Fielding requires the ability to absorb the ball’s momen-
Dribbling is propelling the ball downfield in a controlled tum by “giving” with the stick, depending on the speed of
manner. It can be done straight down the field or zigzagging the ball.
to the left and right. In straight dribbling, the arms are kept
in front of the body. The flat side of the stick faces forward. Tackling and Dodging
Short, controlled taps on the ball are used. The ball should Tackling is attempting to take the ball away from an oppo-
remain in front of the body. The zigzag dribble moves the nent. Tackles can be made straight on or from the left or the
ball left and right by using a forehand tap to the left and a right side of an opponent. Timing is important because the
reverse stick tap to the right. In the reverse stick, the stick is ball must be picked off while it is away from the opponent’s
turned over, with the toe of the stick pointing down. This stick. The stick is carried low, and the tackler must concen-
type of dribble requires a lot of practice and stick control. trate on the ball and on the opponent’s stick. The speed of
The taps to the left and right should be short and con- the opponent and the ball must be considered. The tackle
trolled. Dribbling can also include dragging the ball with should not be a reckless striking of the stick.
the flat side of the stick. The stick stays in contact with the Dodging is a skill for evading a tackler and maintaining
ball as it is being dragged downfield. control of the ball. A dodge can be executed to the left or
right side of the tackler, and a scoop shot can also be used to
Passing and Shooting go over an opponent’s stick. If a dodge is made to the left,
The drive shot is the most forceful pass for longer distances the dodger should move the ball 90 degrees to the left just
and goal shots. The hands are together, and the stick comes before the tackle. A dodger moving around to the left is
back and forward in a manner similar to a shortened golf on the stick side, which is the right, of the opponent. This
swing. The stick cannot be lifted higher than the shoulder maneuver is a stick-side dodge. A dodge to the right involves
in either the backswing or follow-through. Drive shots can moving the ball to the right of the opponent, but the
be straight, to the left, or to the right. dodger’s body must move around the other side of the tack-
The push pass is used for shorter, more accurate ler, that is, the ball goes to the right but the person goes to
passes. The pass is usually executed quickly off the dribble. the left (nonstick-side dodge). A reverse stick technique can
There is no backswing. The right hand is lower on the also be used for a nonstick-side dodge. The player uses the
stick, and the ball is pushed or swept along the ground. reverse stick to pull the ball across the body to the nonstick
The scoop is a pass or shot lofted into the air using a side of the defender and then steps forward with the left
shoveling motion for a shot or to get over an opponent’s foot and pushes the ball past the defender.
stick. The top of the stick must be tilted backward so the
blade is behind and under the ball to give it loft as the Doing a Bully or Face-Off
force is applied. The flick pass or shot is the most popular The bully is used only when simultaneous fouls occur.
aerial shot, which gets off the ground about knee high and Two players face each other in the middle of the field with
is an extension of the push pass (pushing slightly below their respective sticks facing the direction of the goal

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 SPORTS

where they can score. The bully starts with the two players pass. The person receiving the pass then dribbles to the
striking the ground on his or her own side of the ball and center to become the middle person. This procedure con-
then touching sticks above the ball. This is repeated three tinues downfield.
times, and then players attempt to control the ball or to
pass it to a teammate. Partner Passing
Partners stand apart and try to hit and complete as many
Goalkeeping passes as possible in 30 seconds. Each hit is counted. For
The goalkeeper can kick the ball or block the ball with the variations, try the same activity with three people in a
body, hands, or stick. Most balls are blocked with the legs triangle, four in a square, or five in a circle.
or feet, hence the padding on these areas. Most clears away
from the goal are with a kick. The goalie cannot hold the Circle Keep-away
ball or throw the ball away from the goal. Students form a circle with one person in the middle. The
people in the circle try to keep the ball away from the cen-
IDEAS FOR EFFECTIVE INSTRUCTION ter person. This can also be played with only three people.
The person in the middle is rotated after 1 minute.
Drills can be set up for partner work at several stations.
Dribbling, passing, fielding, shooting, tackling, dodging,
and goalkeeping can be specific stations with varying
Circle Dribble
tasks to be practiced. Use the performance objectives de- A student dribbles the ball around the circle as fast as
tailed here for the tasks at each station. Set up boundary possible, concluding the dribble at the next person in the
cones, stopwatches, targets, baskets, and other instruc- circle. All members of the circle go around quickly.
tional devices for challenging skill work. Arrange classes Circles compete against each other or against the clock. A
so that students spend several minutes working at each of variation of this is to dribble in and out of the players
four stations. The station work can then be followed by standing in the circle.
several small group drills, such as 3 on 3, keep-away, or
three-person weave. A modified or regulation game could Star Drill
follow the group work. This variety of learning activities Five classmates make a star formation. Number 1 passes to
helps to keep students active and motivated. 2, and 2 to 3, and so forth. After passing the ball, the passer
Remind students continually about the importance of runs and takes that person’s spot. The passer always fol-
safe stick handling. High sticking (when stick comes above lows the pass, and more than one person can be in line.
the waist) is extremely dangerous, and rules must be en- The game can also be played against another team or
forced tightly. Body checking, tripping, and hooking (us- against the clock.
ing the blade of the stick to impede the movement of an
opponent) with the stick should also be forbidden. A free Defensive Squares Drill
hit or penalty corner can be used as a penalty for these vi- Several squares are set up with boundary cones. The size of
olations, depending on where the penalty occurs. The the squares can vary depending on the ability of the stu-
teacher must be clear about the rules, regulations, and dents. Smaller squares will make the drill more demanding
penalties that are enforced in the game. for the offensive player. A defensive player is in the square,
and an offensive player tries to dribble through the square.
The defensive player tries to keep the offensive player from
LEAD-UP GAMES AND
dribbling through the square.
LEARNING ACTIVITIES
Sit-Up Sticks Dribble and Hit for Distance
This activity is a fun warm-up and fitness idea where part- Half of the class or group lines up 5 yards behind a drive
ners face each other in a typical sit-up position. On the start line. A partner is downfield about 50 yards. On signal, the
signal, partners perform a sit-up and pass one hockey stick hitters dribble the 5 yards and hit a drive shot as far as
back and forth at the top of each sit-up. A challenge would possible. The partner stands over the ball, and a winner is
be to see how many passes could be made in 30 seconds. determined. Partners change places after several hits.

Three-Person Weave No-Goalie Field Hockey

The ball is started by the center person and passed to The game is played without a goalie. Person-to-person
either the person on the left or right. The person making defense can be used. The goal size can also be modified if
the pass always runs behind the person who receives the necessary.

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End Zone Hockey circle, last touching off a defender. The long corner
The entire end line of the field is the goal area. Each team involves all players and is taken from the sideline
designates a certain number of goalies and field players. approximately 5 yards from the corner.
The goalies must spread out over the entire goal line in 5. A defensive hit is awarded to the defensive team
order to cover it properly. Goalies and field players change when the ball goes over the end line off an offensive
places after a specified number of minutes. player.
6. The striking circle is the 16-yard half circle around
Sideline Hockey
the goal. A free shot is awarded for a foul occurring
Part of each team lines up on one sideline, while the rest of anywhere outside the striking circle. All players
each team is on the field. The sideline players keep the ball must be 5 yards away when the shot is hit.
from going out-of-bounds, and they can also pass to the field
players. A regulation goal and goalie are used in the game. 7. A penalty corner is awarded for a defensive foul
The sideline and field players switch after 3 minutes of play. inside the striking circle.
This game can be varied by putting members of each team 8. Offside occurs when an offensive player gains an
on both sidelines, thus adding another challenge to the game. advantage within the 25-yard line. A defensive hit is
awarded at the top of the circle.
Square Hockey 9. High sticking occurs when the stick is raised above
The game is played on a large square. Each team defends the shoulder. The penalty is a free hit or a penalty
two sides of the square. Some team members are on the corner if it occurs in the striking circle.
square sides as goalies, and others are on the field trying to
10. Advancing is when a player uses any part of the
hit the ball past either of the two end lines. At the start of
body to advance the ball. The penalty is a free hit or
the game, the teacher can have all students stand on the
a penalty corner.
square and count off. Several numbers can then be called,
and those students become the field players. 11. Hooking, tripping, or dangerous stick use involves
using the stick to slow down or trip an opponent.
Half-Circle Hockey The penalty is a free hit or penalty corner.
This is similar to square hockey, but each team forms one- 12. Body checking is vigorous use of the body for
half of a circle. The half circles connect, and the object is blocking and other maneuvers. The penalty is a free
to push the ball through the opponent’s half circle. If the hit or penalty corner.
ball comes to rest inside the circle, it belongs to the team
nearer the ball. That team can take a shot from the point SUGGESTED PERFORMANCE OBJECTIVES
where the ball stopped. These performance objectives can be used to structure the
learning activities for station work. They can also be tied
Modified Coed Field Hockey to a motivational scheme for earning grades or winning
This modified game is recommended for coeducational an entry into a playing situation. Teachers might develop
physical education classes. The rules and penalties are as a contract from these objectives, which can be modified
follows: according to the ability levels of the students in a specific
situation. If the objectives are too hard or too easy, they
1. A pass back is used to start the game and after each
should be rewritten to provide a fair challenge and a suc-
goal.
cessful experience for students.
2. A legal hit is used when the ball goes out of bounds.
1. Dribble the ball for 30 yards, three consecutive
3. A short corner (or penalty corner) shot is awarded times, using proper technique at all times (straight
to the offense when the ball goes past the end line dribble).
within the striking circle, last touching off a de-
fender. The short corner is taken 10 meters from the 2. Dribble the ball through an obstacle course and
goal on the end line, with the defensive team only back in 30 seconds or less (straight dribble).
allowed to have 5 players, including the goalie, to 3. Dribble the ball toward a target and execute a non-
defend. The offensive team is allowed to include all stick dodge in three of five attempts without losing
players if they choose; the remaining defensive play- control.
ers are required to be beyond half field. 4. Dribble the ball toward a target and execute a stick-
4. A long corner shot is awarded to the offense when side dodge around the target in three of five attempts
the ball goes past the end line outside the striking without losing control.

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5. With a partner, push pass the ball back and forth the padding and equipment necessary for tackle football.
(jogging speed) for 30 yards, two consecutive times. Flag football is usually the more enjoyable sport because it
6. Use a push pass to direct the ball to a target three of eliminates the arguments about whether someone was
five times from a distance of 10 yards. touched. Flag football is often taught utilizing modified
footballs (i.e. junior balls or Nerf balls) due to the diffi-
7. Shoot three of five drive shots into the goal from 10 culty of many students to grip a “regulation” ball.
yards (no goalie).
8. Scoop the ball over an obstacle into a basket three
SEQUENCE OF SKILLS
consecutive times from within a stick-length distance.
Passing
9. Dribble the ball from the center of the field toward
Passing is used to advance the ball downfield to a team-
the goal, and hit three drive shots three consecutive
mate. The passer looks at the receiver and points the
times without a goalie.
shoulder opposite the throwing arm toward the receiver.
10. Execute proper fielding of the ball from the front, The ball is brought up to the throwing shoulder with both
right, and left sides, passed by a partner from 10 to hands. The fingers of the throwing hand are placed across
15 yards away (five times from each side). the laces of the ball. The weight is transferred to the rear
11. Dribble the ball for 30 yards, three consecutive leg in preparation for the throw. On throwing, the weight
times, using proper technique at all times (zigzag is transferred forward, and a step is taken with the front
dribble). foot in the direction of the receiver. The throwing arm is
12. Dribble the ball through an obstacle course and extended and the wrist flicked upon release of the ball.
back in 30 seconds or less (zigzag dribble). The longer the throw, the higher the angle of release.

13. Dribble the ball toward a goal and score two of five Lateral Pass
drive shots past a goalie from 10 yards. Lateral passing is pitching the ball underhand to a team-
14. Execute a three-person weave passing drill from a mate. The ball must be tossed sideways or backward to be
distance of 15 to 30 yards, two consecutive times. a legal lateral that can then be passed again. There is no
15. Hit two of five penalty shots past a goalie. attempt to make the ball spiral as it does in a pass.
16. Execute a proper tackle from the left, right, and center. Catching
17. Scoop and run with the ball for 25 yards. Because the football is a large and heavy object and can be
18. Dribble 5 yards, and then execute a scoop shot. thrown with great velocity, the catcher must “give” and
Repeat five consecutive times. bring the ball in toward the body. In a stationary position,
the catcher faces the thrower and plants the feet about
19. Flick three of five balls into the left and right corners
shoulder width apart. To catch a ball on the run, the
of the goal.
catcher observes the ball by looking over the shoulder. The
fingers should be spread and the arms extended to meet
RAINY DAY ACTIVITIES the ball. This allows “giving” with the ball and bringing the
Many of the drills and modified games can be played ball in toward the body in an attempt to absorb the force
indoors with a flat plastic puck and an indoor stick. Teachers of the throw. Students should develop the habit of tucking
can set up station activities for working on performance the ball in close to the body after each catch.
tasks. Modified games—such as sideline hockey, end zone
hockey, and square hockey—can be played indoors with Carrying the Ball
large numbers of students. Strategies, terminology, and The ball is carried with the arm on the outside, and the end
penalties can be discussed at indoor sessions. of the ball is tucked into the notch formed by the elbow
and arm. The fingers cradle the forward part of the ball.

FLAG FOOTBALL Centering

Football is America’s favorite spectator sport. Professional The center moves into position with the feet well spread
football players are held in high esteem by students. The and the toes pointed straight ahead. The knees are bent in
shape of the football makes throwing and catching more preparation for forward movement. The dominant hand
difficult and challenging than similar maneuvers in other reaches forward slightly and is placed across the laces of
sports. Flag and touch football are variations of the game the ball, which is resting on the ground before him or her.
of football, modified so the game can be played without The other hand is on the side near the back and guides the

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 SPORTS

ball. The head is between the legs; the center’s eyes are on carrier is about 6 feet away. It is then shifted to the
the quarterback. The arms are extended, and the ball is hand nearer the receiver, with the elbow bent partially
propelled by pulling both arms backward and upward. away from the body. The receiver comes toward the
The ball should spiral on its way to the quarterback. quarterback with the near arm bent and carried in
When centering in T formation, only one hand is front of the chest, the palm down. The other arm is
used. The quarterback places the throwing hand in the carried about waist high, with the palm up. As the ball
crotch of the center and the other hand below with is exchanged, the receiver clamps down on the ball to
the hands touching at the base of the palms. The ball is secure it.
given a one-quarter turn as it is centered and placed
sideways in the quarterback’s hands. Punting
The punter starts in standing position with both arms
Developing a Stance fully extended to receive the ball. The kicking foot is
The 2-point stance is used by ends and backs so they can placed slightly forward. After receiving the ball, the kicker
see downfield. The feet are spread shoulder width apart, takes two steps forward, beginning with the dominant
and the knees are bent slightly. The hands can be placed foot. The ball is slightly turned in and held at waist height.
just above the knees. The kicking leg is swung forward, and at impact, the knee
The 3-point stance is used as a down position in order is straightened to provide maximum force. The toes are
to move quickly forward or sideways. The feet are spread pointed and the long axis of the ball makes contact on the
shoulder width apart with the toes pointing straight ahead. top of the instep. The ball should be dropped rather than
The player leans forward and places the desired hand on tossed into the air. A good drop is required before effective
the ground while keeping the back parallel to the playing punting can occur.
surface. The weight is on the balls of the feet; the head is
up. Little weight is placed on the down hand. IDEAS FOR EFFECTIVE INSTRUCTION
The 4-point stance is used to move forward quickly. Because many drills are available for flag football, the
Lateral movement is sacrificed with this stance. It is similar authors have devoted this section to delineating the rules
to the 3-point stance, but both hands are on the ground and equipment necessary for them. Most of the prerequi-
and more weight is placed on the hands. sites for developing a sound flag football program are
listed and discussed.
Blocking
The purpose of blocking is to prevent the defensive player Uniforms
from getting the flag of the ball carrier. It is accomplished Rubber-soled shoes should be worn. Metal cleats or spikes
by keeping the body between the defensive player and the are not allowed, nor is any hard surface padding or helmets.
ball carrier. Knocking the defensive player down is not
necessary to accomplish a successful block. Flags
Flags are available in two colors for team play. All flags
Shoulder Blocking should be similar in terms of pulling the flags loose from
The shoulder block starts from a 3- or 4-point stance. The players. The flag belts have two flags attached, one at each
blocker moves forward and makes shoulder contact at the hip. Either flag pulled downs the ball carrier.
chest level of the opponent. The head should be placed
between the opponent and the ball carrier in order to move Downed Ball
the defensive player away from the ball carrier. The elbows To down a ball carrier, either flag must be withdrawn from
are out and the hands are held near the chest. the waist by a tackler. The tackler must stop at the point of
tackle and hold up the hand with the withdrawn flag. It is
Pass Blocking illegal for ball carriers to deliberately touch their own flags
The pass block is used when the quarterback is dropping or to defend them in any manner. These acts would cause
back to throw a pass. The block can begin from any of the a penalty of 15-yard loss from the point of the foul and
described stances. The blocker moves slightly backward with loss of a down.
the rear foot as the opponent charges. The blocker should
attempt to stay between the quarterback and the rusher. Dead Ball
The ball is ruled dead on a fumble when it hits the ground
Exchanging the Ball or on a wild center when it hits the ground. When a fum-
The handoff is made with the inside hand (nearest the ble rolls out of bounds, the ball is returned to the team
receiver). The ball is held with both hands until the ball that had last full possession of it.

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Loss of Flags Downs

If the flag is inadvertently lost, that player is ineligible to A team has four downs to advance the ball from wherever
handle the ball. The ball then becomes dead if the player is the team takes over to score. If the team fails to score in
behind the line of scrimmage or the pass is called incom- four downs, its opponents gain possession of the ball at the
plete. It is illegal for a player to deliberately withdraw an spot where the ball is declared dead on the fourth down. To
opponent’s flag unless that opponent is in possession of obtain a first down, the offensive team must complete
the ball. Such conduct is penalized as unsportsmanlike for three forward passes out of four downs. A forward pass is a
a penalty of 15 yards. pass thrown from behind the line of scrimmage past the
line of scrimmage.
Charging and Tackling
The ball carrier may not run through a defensive player Miscellaneous Penalties
but must attempt to evade the tackler. The tackler must The following penalties should be explained and discussed
not hold, push, or run through the ball carrier, but he or with students.
she must play the flag rather than the person. The officials
Illegal use of flags (i.e., covering them) 5 yards
decide these judgment calls and may award a penalty of
15 yards and loss of a down offensively, and 15 yards Offensive use of hands 15 yards
defensively. Defensive illegal use of hands 15 yards
Offsides 5 yards
Tackling
Pushing ball carrier out-of-bounds 15 yards
Tackling is not permitted. The ball is declared dead when
Ball carrier pushing the interference 15 yards
a defensive player pulls one of the runner’s flags. Action
against the runner, other than pulling the flag, is unnec- Ineligible person downfield 5 yards
essary roughness and carries a penalty of 15 yards from Illegal procedure 5 yards
the point of the foul and loss of a down offensively, and
15 yards from the point of the foul defensively.
LEAD-UP GAMES AND LEARNING
Hacking ACTIVITIES
It is a foul for the ball carrier to hack, push, or straight- The following lead-up games can be enjoyable ways to
arm another player. This results in a penalty of 15 yards broaden the variety of activities in a football unit. They
from the point of the foul and loss of a down. also avoid one student dominating a skilled position while
others simply go through the motions of blocking.
Blocking
Line blocking is the same as in regulation football. In Five Passes
open-field (out-of-the-line) line blocking, no part of the The game can be played on a football field, but the size of
blocker’s body, except the feet, shall be in contact with the field is not critical; any large area is satisfactory. Players
the ground during the block. Blocking is a type of body scatter on the field. The object of the game is for one team
checking, with the blocker in an upright position and (identified by pinnies, which are side-markers worn by
without the use of hands or extended arms. Any rough participants) to make five consecutive passes to five differ-
tactics, such as attempting to run over or batter down an ent players without losing control of the ball. This scores
opponent, must be penalized as unnecessary roughness. one point. The defense may play the ball only and may not
Unnecessary roughness may be declared if the blocker make personal contact. No player is allowed to take more
uses knees or elbows in blocking, carrying a penalty of than three steps when in possession of the ball, or the ball
15 yards and loss of a down offensively, and 15 yards and is given to the other team.
first down defensively. There is no penalty when the ball hits the ground. It
remains in play, but this interrupts the five-pass sequence,
Passing which starts over. Students should call the number of con-
A forward pass may be thrown from any point behind the secutive passes out loud.
line of scrimmage. The passer is declared down if a flag is
withdrawn by a defensive player or if a flag falls out on its Kick Over
own before the passer’s arm is engaged in the throwing The game is played on a football field with a 10-yard end
motion. It is the responsibility of the officials to make this zone. Teams are scattered at opposite ends of the field. The
decision. object is to punt the ball over the other team’s goal line. If

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the ball is caught in the end zone, no score results. A ball The captain is allowed three attempts to catch a pass
kicked into the end zone and not caught scores a goal. If or one successful goal before a new player is rotated into
the ball is kicked beyond the end zone on the fly, a score is the box. A ball hitting the ground inbounds remains in
made regardless of whether the ball is caught. play. Players may not bat or kick a free ball. The penalty is
Play is started by one team with a punt from a point the awarding of the ball to the other team out of bounds.
20 to 30 feet in front of its own goal line. On a punt, if the
ball is not caught, the team must kick from the point of Aerial Ball
recovery. If the ball is caught, the team also kicks from the Aerial ball is similar to flag football with the following dif-
point of recovery. When the ball is caught, three long ferences. The ball may be passed at any time. It can be
strides are allowed to advance the ball for a kick. It is a thrown at any time beyond the line of scrimmage: imme-
good idea to number students and to allow them to kick in diately after an interception, during a kickoff, or during a
rotation so all receive equal practice. received kick. Players have four downs to score a touch-
down. If the ball is thrown from behind the line of scrim-
Fourth Down mage and an incomplete pass results, the ball is returned
Six to eight players are on a team and play in an area to the previous spot on the line of scrimmage. If the pass
roughly half the size of a football field. Every play is a originates otherwise and is incomplete, the ball is placed
fourth down, which means that the play must score or the at the point from which the pass was thrown.
team loses the ball. No kicking is permitted, and players Because the ball can be passed at any time, no down-
may pass at any time from any spot in any direction. There field blocking is permitted. A player may screen the ball
can be a series of passes on any play, either from behind or carrier but cannot make a block. Screening is defined as
beyond the line of scrimmage. running between the ball carrier and the defense.
The teams start in the middle of the field with posses-
sion determined by a coin toss. The ball is put into play by SUGGESTED PERFORMANCE OBJECTIVES
centering. The quarterback receiving the ball runs or
Core Objectives
passes to any teammate. The receiver has the same options.
No blocking is permitted. After each touchdown, the ball is 1. Throw 10 overhand passes to the chest area of a
brought to the center of the field and the nonscoring team partner who is standing 10 yards away. Practice cor-
resumes play. The ball is downed when the player’s flag is rect holding, point of release, and follow-through
pulled. If a player makes an incomplete pass beyond the techniques of passing.
line of scrimmage, the ball is brought to the spot from 2. Throw three or four consecutive passes beyond a
which it was thrown. target positioned 20 yards away.
Positions are rotated so everyone has a chance to be 3. Facing the opposite direction from a partner 5 yards
the quarterback. The rotation occurs after every down. away, execute a proper center stance with feet well
The quarterback rotates to center, which ensures that spread and toes pointed straight ahead, knees bent,
everyone plays all positions. and two hands on the ball. Snap the ball back
through the legs 10 consecutive times.
Captain Football
4. With a partner centering the ball, punt the ball one
The game is played on half of a football field. Five yards
time from a distance of 10 yards using proper tech-
beyond each goal is a 6-foot by 6-foot square, which is the
nique, to another set of partners 15 yards away.
box. The teams must be identified with pinnies. The object
of the game is to complete a pass to the captain in the box. 5. Perform task 4 except at a distance of 10–20 yards.
To begin, the players line up at opposite ends of the 6. Punt the ball three consecutive times within the
field. One team kicks off from its 10-yard line to the other boundary lines of the field and beyond a distance of
team. The game then becomes keep-away, with one team 20 yards.
trying to secure possession of the ball and the other team 7. With a partner, run a “quick” pass pattern (5- to
trying to retain possession until a successful pass can be 7-yard pattern) and catch the ball two of three times.
made to the captain in the box. To score a touchdown, the
8. With a partner, run a 10- to 15-yard “down and in”
captain must catch the ball on the fly and still keep both
pass pattern and catch the ball two of three times.
feet in the box.
A player may run sideways or backward when in 9. With a partner, run a 10- to 15-yard “down and out”
possession of the ball. Players may not run forward but are pass pattern and catch the ball two of three times.
allowed momentum (two steps) if receiving or intercepting 10. With a partner, run a 5- to 7-yard “hook” pattern
a ball. More than two steps is penalized by loss of possession. and catch the ball two of three times.

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Optional Objectives of apparatus and two different floor exercise routines can
1. With a partner centering the ball, punt the football be offered if the equipment is available. Comprehensive
three consecutive times from a distance of 10 yards texts are listed in the suggested readings, with in-depth in-
using proper technique, to another set of partners formation on the sequence of skills for each event.
15 yards away. Gymnastics teachers need to have an extensive back-
ground in the teaching strategies and safety procedures for
2. Perform task 1 but at a distance of 20 yards.
all of the individual events. Teachers should carefully ana-
3. As a center, snap the ball four of six times through a lyze the abilities and characteristics of their students, the
tire positioned 5 yards away. time allotted to the gymnastics unit, and the pieces of
4. Throw three of four consecutive passes beyond a equipment available for instruction. Safety is especially
target positioned 20 yards away. important because of the hazards posed by many of the
gymnastics events.
5. Throw four of six passes through a tire from a dis-
tance of 10 yards.
IDEAS FOR INSTRUCTION
Each piece of apparatus and the floor exercise can be
GYMNASTICS arranged as a specific learning area for students. After
Gymnastics refers to the performance of a routine on a students are introduced to each area and given introduc-
piece of heavy apparatus or on a large mat. The routines tory tasks to perform, they can be distributed evenly
are evaluated on a 10-point scale by a panel of judges. The throughout the area. This ensures that students will have
gymnastics events for men include parallel bars, horizon- maximum opportunity to attempt the various skills.
tal bar, long-horse vaulting, still rings, pommel horse, and Each student can be given a performance card to record
floor exercise. Women’s events include the uneven parallel the completion of tasks. The tasks can be written as per-
bars, balance beam, side-horse vaulting, and floor exercise. formance objectives or as simple cues. These objectives
In many major gymnastics competitions, the participants and the recording forms will help motivate students to
must perform a compulsory or set routine and an op- use class time in a productive manner.
tional or original routine. A gymnastics meet with student judges is an enjoy-
Varying forms of gymnastics were the most common able culminating activity. Teams can be organized, and
activity in early physical education programs. These dif- students can select their favorite events. Students work
ferent forms of gymnastics were brought to the United with a partner or in groups of three for safety purposes.
States primarily from Germany and Sweden. Gymnastics One person performs, and the partner spots. Spotting
became popular through clubs formed in the communi- must be explained carefully to students, and the impor-
ties, YMCAs, and the public schools. Private gymnastics tance of spotting must be continually reinforced.
clubs and sport schools are still popular, and gymnastics is
still taught in some secondary schools and colleges in the
United States. Many adults continue to enjoy gymnastics LACROSSE
as a lifetime recreational activity. In some geographic ar-
Lacrosse is played in the United States, Australia, and
eas, competition is available through the private clubs for
England, and it is the national sport of Canada. In
various age groups.
the United States, lacrosse is most popular in the Middle
Instructional units in gymnastics and tumbling are an
Atlantic states. The game was originated by Native
excellent way to achieve a balanced secondary physical ed-
Americans as early as the 16th century, who played each
ucation curriculum. Unfortunately, many school districts
game with more than 100 players and often with as many
do not have the heavy apparatus. In these situations, an
as 1,000 players.
extensive unit on tumbling should be incorporated in the
Lacrosse is a wide open game that offers aerobic activ-
program. Gymnastics activities offer students an interest-
ity for players. The game can be easily modified to suit
ing variety of challenges and should be available for stu-
all skill and age levels. Examples of modified games are
dents to explore and experience.
soft lacrosse, which is played in a gym or on a field with a
lacrosse stick, ball, and goals; plastic lacrosse, which
SEQUENCE OF SKILLS is played with modified plastic sticks and does not require
Each gymnastics event is a highly specialized area that in- as much skill as regulation lacrosse; box lacrosse, which is
corporates many specific skills and techniques. A sequence played in an arena or lacrosse box and requires the highest
of skills should be taught on each piece of apparatus and skill; and field lacrosse, which is played on a soccer-size
for the floor exercise. In a coeducational class, eight pieces field with a playing area behind each goal.

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SEQUENCE OF SKILLS Dodging

Gripping the Stick There are four basic dodges used by an offensive player
Position the dominant hand at least halfway down the who has the ball in an attempt to evade the defender:
handle of the stick, palm up. The other hand grips the
1. Face dodge. The player with the ball fakes throwing
stick at the end with the palm down. The stick should
the ball. When the crosse is about even with the head,
be held close to the body with relaxed hands and wrists.
it is twisted to the nondominant side. The offensive
player then drops the shoulders and head slightly to
Throwing the nondominant side, brings the leg on the domi-
Bring the head of the stick backward while keeping the nant side across the other leg, and runs around the
eyes focused on the target. Step with the opposite foot defender.
in the direction of the throw. Keep the elbows high and
throw overhand to improve accuracy. The hands 2. Change-of-pace dodge. The offensive player runs
should be kept shoulder width apart (don’t push the quickly in one direction, stops suddenly, and re-
ball). Break the wrists on follow through, with the verses directions. This pattern of movement is con-
head of the stick pointing to the target at the end of tinued until the opportunity arises to move past the
the throw. defender.
3. Toss dodge. When the offensive player meets the
Catching defender, the ball is tossed on the ground or in the
Reach to meet the ball and “give” with the arms when the air past the defender. The player then moves past
ball makes contact with the stick. Move the feet and align the defender and recovers the ball.
the body with the path of the oncoming ball. When catch- 4. Force dodge. The offensive player approaches the de-
ing, allow the dominant hand to slide on the handle for fender with the back side of the body. This causes
better stick control. The following techniques are used for the defender to retreat. The offensive player fakes to
catching balls at various levels: the left and right until an opportunity occurs to run
past the defender.
1. Above the shoulders. Extend the crosse in the path
of the ball. When the ball is caught, rotate the
dominant hand sharply inward to protect it from a Goaltending
defender. The main duties of the goalie are to stop the ball, direct
2. Between the shoulders and knees. Extend the face of the defense, and start the offense by passing the ball out
the stick directly toward the ball. When caught, to the side or down the field. The goalie should be posi-
move the head of the crosse upward. tioned as follows: feet shoulder width apart with the
knees bent. Decrease the shooting angle for the offensive
3. Below the knees. Rotate the handle outward and player by moving in an arc about 3 feet from the goal
upward following the reception. mouth with short shuffle steps. When the ball is behind
4. Head high. Put the face of the crosse directly in the the goal, the goalie should operate in the same arc, favor-
path of the ball with the head and shoulders drop- ing the ball side. If regulation equipment is lacking, it
ping to the left. Rotate the crosse inward with the is highly recommended that the goalie wear a softball
dominant hand upon reception. catcher’s mask and chest protector during shooting drills
5. Ball on the weak-hand side of the body. Bring the and games.
dominant hand across the body to put the crosse
in the path of the ball. Cross the leg on the domi-
nant side in front of the other leg while turning the IDEAS FOR EFFECTIVE INSTRUCTION
body. After the catch, move the head of the crosse Equipment
upward. The lacrosse ball is solid rubber and white or orange
in color. It is slightly smaller than a baseball, but just as
Scooping hard. A modified ball such as a tennis ball may be
When fielding ground balls, bend the knees and the back. appropriate when introducing lacrosse to beginners as
Keep the butt end of the stick away from the midline of the regulation ball can be dangerous for inexperienced
the body. Scoop up the ball with a slight shovel motion. As players. When dropped from a height of 6 feet above a
soon as the ball enters the stick, the player needs to break solid wooden floor, it must bounce 43 to 51 inches.
to the right or left to elude the defender. The lacrosse stick may be 40 to 72 inches long with the

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exception of the goalie’s stick, which may be any length. Basic Rules
For physical education, plastic sticks and balls are rec- Face-Off
ommended. The net of the stick is between 61⁄2 and 10 Play begins with a face-off (a draw) at the start of each
inches. The net is made of gut, rawhide, or nylon. Players quarter and after a goal is scored. The ball is placed be-
wear gloves and a helmet with a face mask in regulation tween the back side of the opponents’ sticks. All players
lacrosse. must be in their assigned positions for the face-off. On
signal, players in the wing areas are released, but all other
Game Play players are confined until a player gains possession of the
Lacrosse is often played in a football stadium. In physical ed- ball, the ball goes out of bounds, or the ball crosses either
ucation classes, it can be played on any field, gym, or court of the goal-line areas.
with portable goals. The regulation field is 110 yards long
with the goals 80 yards apart, leaving 15 yards behind each Off-Side Rule
goal. The field is 60 yards wide, but current rules allow for Each team must have three players located on its attack
the width to be reduced to 531⁄3 yards, which is the width of a half and four players on its defensive half of the field. This
football field (Figure 6). A rectangular box, 35 by 40 yards prevents piling up around the goal.
surrounds each goal and is called the goal area. The goal
consists of two vertical posts joined by a top crossbar. The
Out of Bounds
posts are 6 feet apart, and the top crossbar is 6 feet from the
ground. When a player throws or carries the ball out of bounds,
There are 10 players on a team, including a goalie, the opposing team gets possession. However, when a loose
three midfielders, three attackers, and three defenders. ball goes out of bounds as a result of a shot taken at the
The goalie guards the goal and receives support from goal, it is awarded to the team whose player is closest to it
the defenders. The defenders must remain in their half at the exact time it rolls out of bounds.
of the field. The midfielders serve as “rovers” and roam
the entire field, operating as both offensive and defen- Checking
sive players. One of the midfielders handles each face- Body checking is allowed in regulation play in an attempt
off and is called the center. The attackers remain in to dislodge the ball. Football blocks can be legally made on
the offensive half of the field and attempt shots on goal. the player with the ball or on those going for a loose ball
The attackers, defenders, and the goalies often play the 5 yards away. Checking an opponent with the body or
entire game, but the midfielders are often substituted. stick is a common practice.

FIGURE 6 Markings and dimensions of a lacrosse field

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 SPORTS

Illegal Procedure 7. Play should be continuous without any stalling tac-

This occurs when (1) an offensive player steps in the tics. If problems develop in this area, add a time
opponent’s crease when the ball is in the attacking half limit for holding the ball. For example, if the ball is
of the field, or (2) a defending player with the ball runs held more than 5 seconds, it is turned over to the
through the crease. other team at the point of infraction.
8. The ball is a “free ball” when it is on the ground or
Penalty Box in the air. Stick contact is allowed at these times
There are two types of fouls: personal and technical. without body contact.
Personal fouls are more serious than technical fouls and
result in suspension for 1 to 3 minutes based on the sever-
ity and intention of the foul. Personal fouls are assigned ORGANIZATION AND SKILL WORK
for illegal personal contact, tripping, and unsportsmanlike A number of drills and lead-up games can be used to
conduct. Technical fouls usually result in a 30-second teach the fundamentals of lacrosse. See the units on bas-
suspension from the game if the player does not have the ketball, soccer, and field hockey for additional activities
ball. If the offending team has the ball, it loses possession that can be modified for lacrosse.
of the ball. Technical fouls are assigned for the following
infractions: Drills
Throwing and Catching
■ Interfering with an opponent without the ball. 1. Practice throwing the ball against a wall.
■ Holding any part of the opponent’s body. 2. With a partner, begin throwing and catching in
■ Pushing, particularly from the rear. close proximity. Gradually move apart until longer
■ Acting illegally with the stick or playing the game passes are made.
without the stick. 3. Play keep-away in groups of three.
■ Withholding the ball from play by lying on it or 4. Use the jack-in-the-box drill. The “jack” is located
trapping it longer than necessary to gain control. midway between the two other players, each with a
ball. The “jack” receives a pass from one of the end
Modified Rules players, who is about 10 yards away. The “jack” passes
The regulation rules for lacrosse can be modified for use the ball back to that player, rotates 180 degrees, and
in a physical education setting where equipment and facil- receives a pass from the other end player. Change
ities are limited. The following are various modifications: “jack” players frequently.
1. The number of players can be reduced to less than 5. Use buddy passing for learning to pass on the move.
10 so players have more opportunity to handle Buddies jog around the area and pass back and
the ball. Try assigning players to zones so all stu- forth to each other. Increase the challenge by giving
dents have the opportunity to play the ball. This each a ball.
helps prevent the most dominant players from 6. Use the three-person rush and three-person weave,
always “hogging” the ball. similar to the common basketball drills.
2. No stick or body contact is allowed. Encourage stu-
dents to play the ball rather than the opponent. If a Scooping
violation occurs, a penalty shot is awarded at the Organize the class into groups of three. Two students are
spot of the infraction. positioned on one side with the third student across from
3. Players must keep both hands on their sticks at all them, 30 feet away. The ball is placed in the middle. One of
times. A penalty shot is awarded at the spot of an the two students positioned on the same side runs to the
infraction. ball, scoops it up, and carries it a few steps before dropping
it. Continuing forward, the student runs behind the player
4. If a ball goes out of bounds, the team that did not on the opposite side. This player runs forward, scoops up
touch it last may run it in (grab the ball and run the ball, carries it a few steps, drops it, and moves forward
onto the field) or pass it in. behind the remaining student. The pattern continues.
5. To steal the ball from an opponent, only stick-on-
stick tactics may be used (no body contact). Shooting
6. To encourage teamwork and passing skills, two A line of four to five students face the goal. A “feeder”
passes must be made before each shot on goal. behind the goal passes the ball to a shooter who cuts

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 SPORTS

toward the goal or moves to a different position. After the for cardiovascular development because it demands a
shot on goal, the shooter becomes the “feeder.” Rotate great deal of running and body control.
goalies frequently.

Dodging SEQUENCE OF SKILLS

Practice all types of dodges with a partner, using one ball The skills of soccer are difficult to master, so instructors
per two students. should teach the skills through short practice sessions.
Many drills and lead-up games can be used to make the
Defending practice sessions interesting and novel.
Three players form a circle with a 20-yard radius. Two of-
fensive players try to keep the ball away from the defensive Dribbling
player while remaining in the circle. The purpose of dribbling in soccer is similar to basket-
ball—to maintain control of the ball and advance it before
Lead-Up Games passing it off to a teammate or shooting on goal. The ball
Three-Seconds, No Steps is advanced by pushing it with the inside or outside of the
Players cannot take any steps with the ball. In addition, the front of the foot. The player should keep the ball close
ball may not be held longer than 3 seconds or it is turned during the dribble, rather than kicking it and then run-
over to the other team. ning after it. Practice should involve learning to run in dif-
ferent patterns such as weaving, dodging, and twisting or
Half-Court Lacrosse turning with the ball.
The offensive team gets five attempts to score. Each shot on
goal counts as an offensive attempt. Offense and defense Kicking
switch roles after the five attempts. The purpose of the kick is to pass the ball to a teammate
or to take a shot on goal. When passing, the performer
Five Touch plants the nonkicking foot alongside the ball with the foot
At least five members of a team must touch the ball before pointing in the desired direction of the kick. The ball is
a goal can be scored. contacted with the inside portion of the instep of the foot.
The body weight shifts forward after the kick. The pass
can also be made with the outside of the foot, although
SOCCER this kick will not move the ball as great a distance or with
Soccer, the most popular game in the world, is now rap- as much velocity. It is an excellent kick for passing without
idly gaining popularity among youth in the United States. breaking stride or for passing to the side.
Many sport clubs and programs run by organizations such In kicking for a shot on goal, the procedure is similar
as the YMCA, YWCA, Boys Clubs, and municipal recre- to the inside-of-the-foot kick. The nonkicking foot is
ation departments now sponsor soccer teams, and many planted alongside the ball with the toes pointing in the
school districts are now including soccer in their intra- direction of the goal. The ball is contacted on the instep,
mural and athletic programs. Soccer is known throughout followed by a snap of the lower leg and follow-through.
the rest of the world as “football” and is said to have origi-
nated in England around the 10th century, however, the Trapping
Romans played a similar game. Soccer was brought to the The purpose of trapping is to deflect a moving ball and
United States about 1870 and was played by women in an bring it under control so it may be advanced or passed.
organized fashion in 1919. From a physical education Any part of the body may contact the ball except the hands
standpoint, one of the advantages of soccer is that it is one or arms. Effective trapping will result in the ball dropping
of the few sports that depends primarily on foot–eye coor- in front of the body in position to be advanced. The sole-
dination for success. Many kickers in American football of-the-foot trap is most commonly used and is often called
are soccer-style kickers. The long hours of kicking practice wedging. The ball is contacted between the foot and the
have contributed to their success. ground just as the ball hits the ground. The ball is swept
The object of the game is to move the ball down the away under control immediately after the trap. The shin
field by foot, body, or head contact to score goals and to trap is done by moving to meet the ball just as it hits the
prevent the opposing team from scoring. Soccer de- ground in front of the lower legs. The ball is trapped be-
mands teamwork and the coordination of individual tween the inside of the lower leg and the ground. The chest
skills into group goals. Position play becomes important trap is executed by arching the trunk of the body backward
as students become more skilled. It is an excellent game and giving with the ball on contact. The giving occurs with

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the body collapsing so the ball does not rebound and in- the ball more often and feeling an integral part of the
stead drops in front of the player. soccer team.
Many of the drills, such as dribbling, kicking, and
Heading punting, can be learned individually. This means that one
Heading can be an effective way of propelling a ball in the ball per player will ensure the maximum amount of prac-
air to a teammate or on goal. The player should strike the tice time. Many types of balls can be used besides a regula-
ball with the head, rather than waiting for the ball to hit tion soccer ball. Playground balls (81⁄2 inches in diameter)
the head. The player leans backward as the ball approaches. can be used if they are deflated slightly. Many students will
The head is up, with the eyes following the ball. On con- play a more aggressive game of soccer if a foam-rubber
tact, the head moves forward and strikes the ball near the training ball is used. They become less fearful of being hit
hairline on the forehead. The body also swings forward as by the ball and are willing to kick it with maximum velocity.
the follow through is completed. Field sizes can be reduced in order to increase the ac-
tivity level of the game. The regulation game is played on a
Tackling field with dimensions illustrated in Figure 7. Soccer is
Tackling is used defensively to take the ball away from an
offensive player who is dribbling or attempting to pass.
The single-leg tackle is used when approaching an oppo-
nent directly, from behind, or from the side. Effective
tackling depends in large part on anticipating the oppo-
nent’s next move with the foot. One leg reaches for the ball
while the weight is supported on the other. The knees
should be bent so good balance is maintained. Focus
should be on a clean tackle rather than on body contact.
The object is to reach out and bring the ball to the body or
to kick the ball away and then continue to pursue it.

Goalkeeping
Goalkeeping involves stopping shots by catching or other-
wise stopping the ball. Goalkeepers should become adept
at catching low, rolling balls; at diving on rolling balls;
at catching airborne balls waist high and below; and at
catching airborne balls waist high and above. The diving
movements are the reason the goalie may choose to wear
knee, elbow, and hip pads.
Students should get in the habit of catching low, rolling
balls in much the same manner as a baseball outfielder: get
down on one knee, with the body behind the ball to act as a
backstop, and catch it with both hands, fingers pointing to-
ward the ground. If diving for a ball is necessary, the goalie
must throw the body behind it and cradle it with the hands.
The body should always be between the goal and the ball.
The goalie may also punch the ball in order to deflect
it if the ball is not catchable. The ball can be deflected off
other body parts if it cannot be punched.
After a ball is caught by the goalkeeper, it is thrown
to a teammate. The ball can also be kicked, but this is less
desirable because it is less accurate. Effective throws allow
teammates to place the ball in action immediately.

IDEAS FOR EFFECTIVE INSTRUCTION

Soccer is played with two teams of 11 players each. For
young players, however, decreasing the size of the teams
is more effective. This results in each player handling FIGURE 7 Regulation soccer field

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 SPORTS

meant to be played on grass. If a hard surface is used, de- Diagonal Soccer

flate the ball so that it is not as “live” and will not bounce Two corners are marked off with cones 5 feet from the
so readily. corners on both sides, outlining triangular dead areas.
The drills used for developing soccer skills should Each team lines up and protects two adjacent sides of the
help all participants in achieving proper form. For exam- square. The size of the area depends on the size of the class
ple, if students are asked to pass and trap together, drills (more students require more playing area) and must be
should focus on developing both skills; yet students are adjusted accordingly. Dead areas on opposite corners
sometimes asked to kick with velocity, so the students mark the opposing team’s goal line. To begin competition,
trapping are fearful of getting hurt. Those students then three players from each team move into the playing area in
develop an improper trapping style. their own half of the space. These are the active players.
During play, they may roam anywhere in the square. The
LEAD-UP GAMES AND LEARNING other players act as line guards.
To score, the active players must kick the ball through
ACTIVITIES
the opposing team’s line (beneath shoulder height). When
The following lead-up games are excellent for getting stu- a score is made, active players rotate to the sidelines, and
dents involved in soccer activities. They emphasize partic- new players take their places. Players on the sidelines may
ipation and action. The lead-up activities are often more block the ball with their bodies but cannot use their
fun for the majority of students than an actual soccer hands. The team against which the point was scored starts
game because these activities develop specific skills in the ball for the next point. Only active players may score.
which students may lack expertise. A point is scored for the opponents whenever any of the
following occurs:
Circle Kickball
Players are in circle formation. They kick the ball with the ■ A team allows the ball to go through its line below
side of the foot back and forth inside the circle. The shoulder height.
object is to kick the ball out of the circle beneath shoulder ■ A team touches the ball illegally.
level. A point is scored against each of the players where
the ball left the circle. If the lost ball is clearly the fault of ■ A team kicks the ball over the other team’s line
a single player, however, then the point is scored against above shoulder height.
that player only. Players who kick the ball over the shoul-
ders of the circle players have a point scored against them. Sideline Soccer
Players with the fewest points scored against them are The teams line up on the sidelines of a large square with
the winners. The game works well with a foam training the end lines open. Three active players from each team
ball because the ball can be kicked at someone from a are called from the end of the team line. These players
short distance and can be played with smaller teams to remain active until a point is scored, and then they rotate
maximize practice opportunity. to the other end of the line.
The object is to kick the ball over the end line, which
Soccer Croquet has no defenders, between cones that define the scoring
The game is similar to croquet in that the object is for area. The active players on each team compete against
one ball to hit another. One player kicks a ball and tries each other, aided by their teammates on the sidelines.
to hit another ball lying ahead. Kickers alternate until a To start play, a referee drops the ball between two
hit is made, which scores one point for the kicker. The opposing players at the center of the field. To score, the ball
game continues until a player scores a specified number must be kicked last by an active player and must go over the
of points. end line at or below shoulder height. Regular rules prevail,
with the restrictions of no pushing, holding, tripping, or
Soccer Keep-away other rough play. For out of bounds, the team on the side of
Players are spaced evenly around a circle about 10 yards the field where the ball went out of bounds is awarded a free
in diameter with one player in the center. The object kick near that spot. No score can result from a free kick.
of the game is to keep the player in the center from Violation of the touch rule also results in a free kick.
touching the ball. The ball is passed back and forth as in
soccer. If the center player touches the ball with a foot, Line Soccer
the person who kicked the ball goes in the center. If Two goal lines are drawn 180 to 210 feet apart. A restrain-
there is an error, the person responsible changes places ing line is drawn 15 feet in front of and parallel to each
with the person in the center. goal line. Field width can vary from 90 to 105 feet. Each

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team stands on one goal line, which it defends. The referee forwards play in the front half of the field and the guards in
stands in the center of the field, holding a ball. At the the back half, but neither position is restricted to these areas
whistle, three players (or more if the teams are large) run entirely, and all may cross the center line without penalty.
to the center from the right side of each line and become A foul by the defense within its penalty area (semicircle)
active players. The referee drops the ball to the ground, results in a penalty kick, taken from a point 12 yards distant,
and the players try to kick it through the other team directly in front of the goal. Only the goalie is allowed to
defending the goal line. The players in the field may defend. The ball is in play, with others waiting outside the
advance by kicking only. penalty area. Emphasize position play, and encourage the
A score is made when an active player kicks the ball lines of three to spread out and hold their positions.
through the opposing team and over the end line, providing
the kick was made from outside the restraining line. Place SUGGESTED PERFORMANCE OBJECTIVES
cones on the field corners to define the goal line. A player The following objectives are designed for three skill levels:
rotation system should be set up. introductory, intermediate, and advanced. The objectives
Line players act as goalies and are permitted to catch can be used in intermediate or advanced soccer classes or
the ball. After being caught, the ball must be laid down in a heterogeneously grouped class to challenge students
immediately and either rolled or kicked. It cannot be of varying abilities.
punted or drop-kicked. One point is scored when the ball
is kicked through the opponent’s goal line below shoulder Introductory Unit: Core Objectives
level. One point is also scored in cases of a personal foul Kicking
involving pushing, kicking, tripping, or similar acts.
1. Execute a push pass, low drive, and lofted drive.
For illegal touching by the active players, a direct free
Satisfy the instructor that these are understood and
kick is given from a point 12 yards in front of the penal-
can be executed with the preferred foot. (All objec-
ized team’s goal line. All active players on the defending
tives may be performed with the preferred foot.)
team must be standing to one side until the ball is
kicked; only goalies may defend. A time limit of 2 min- Passing
utes should be set for any group of active players. When
2. Make three of five push passes from 10 yards to
no goal is scored during this time, a halt is called at the
your partner.
end of 2 minutes, and players are changed.
An out of bounds ball is awarded to the opponents of 3. Make three of five low-drive passes from 15 yards to
the team last touching the ball. The regular soccer throw- your partner.
in from out of bounds should be used. If the ball goes over 4. Make three of five loft-drive passes from 20 yards to
the shoulders of the defenders at the end line, any end-line your partner.
player may retrieve the ball and put it into play with a
throw or kick. Dribbling
5. Dribble a distance of 20 yards twice with one or
Minisoccer both feet. The ball must not be allowed to stray
The playing area can be adjusted, depending on the size more than 5 yards.
and skill of the players. A reasonable playing area is proba-
bly 150 by 225 feet. A goal, 24 feet wide, is on each end of Shooting
the field, marked by jumping standards. A 12-foot semi- 6. Shoot the ball with the preferred foot from 18 yards
circle on each end outlines the penalty area. The center of into an empty goal eight of 10 times.
the semicircle is at the center of the goal.
The game follows the general rules of soccer, with one Heading
goalie for each side. The corner kick, not played in other
7. Head the ball back to the tossing partner eight of
lead-up games, needs to be introduced. This kick is used
10 times over a distance of 5 yards. The partner
when the ball goes over the end line but not through the goal
must be able to catch the ball.
and was last touched by the defense. The ball is taken to the
nearest corner for a direct free kick, and a goal can be scored
Control of the Ball
from the kick. If the attacking team last touched the ball,
a goalkeeper kick is awarded. The goalie puts the ball down 8. Control three of five passes on the ground using the
and placekicks it forward. The players are designated as feet only.
center forward, outside right halfback, fullback, and goalie. 9. Control three of five passes in the air using the
Players should rotate positions at regular intervals. The head, chest, or thigh.

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Game Situation Shooting

10. Show an understanding of pass, run, and control in 7. Shoot the ball with the preferred foot from 18 yards
a minisoccer game situation. into an empty goal nine of 10 times.
8. Perform task 7, except with the nonpreferred foot,
Rules of the Game
seven of 10 times.
11. Score 80 percent on a rules-of-the-game test. One
retake is permissible. Heading
9. Head the ball to a serving partner nine of 10 times
Introductory Unit: Optional Objectives over a distance of 10 yards. The partner must be able
Goalkeeping to catch the ball without it touching the ground.
1. Save six of 10 shots from 18 yards. The shots must Control of the Ball
be on target.
10. Control four of five passes on the ground. Use the
2. Punt the ball 25 yards four of five times. feet only.
Juggling 11. Control four of five passes in the air. The head,
chest, and thighs must be used.
3. Keep the ball in the air with at least 10 consecutive
touches. Hands or arms may not be used. Corner Kick
12. Propel three of five corner kicks inside the penalty
Field Dimensions area. The ball may not touch the ground between
4. Diagram a full-size soccer field and give dimensions. the corner and the penalty area.
Grading Throw-In
5. Achieve 13 passing grades for a unit pass. The in- 13. Throw the ball with two hands to a partner 10 yards
structor reserves the right to lower the number of away four of five times. The partner must be able to
required passing grades for the unit as necessary. catch the ball.
Juggling
Intermediate Unit: Core Objectives
Kicking 14. Juggle the ball at least 10 consecutive times without
allowing it to touch the ground.
1. Satisfy the instructor that the techniques of the
push pass, low drive, and lofted drive are under- Tackling
stood and can be executed with both feet. 15. Successfully complete three of five front block
tackles on a partner dribbling a ball at a walking
Passing pace.
2. Complete four of five push passes with the preferred
foot from 10 yards. The passes must go between two Goalkeeping
cones placed 5 yards apart. Complete three of five 16. Kick goal kicks at least 20 yards in the air four of
passes with the nonpreferred foot. five times.
3. Complete four of five low-drive passes with the 17. Punt the ball 25 yards, four of five times.
preferred foot from 10 yards. The passes must go 18. Save at least six of 10 on-target shots from the
between two cones placed 8 yards apart. Complete 18-yard line.
three of five passes with the nonpreferred foot.
Rules of the Game
4. Complete four of five lofted-drive passes with the
preferred foot from 10 yards. The passes must go 19. Score 80 percent on a rules-of-the-game test. One
over an obstacle 6 feet high. Complete three of five retest is allowed.
passes with the nonpreferred foot.
Intermediate Unit: Optional Objectives
Dribbling Officiating
5. Dribble through six cones over 25 yards four times 1. Help officiate at least two games.
with no misses. Both feet must be used. 2. Know the roles of the referee and linesmen.
6. Dribble around an advancing goalkeeper, and score 3. Know the correct positioning of officials at corner
a goal three of five times. kicks, goal kicks, and penalties.

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Volleying Heading
4. Volley four of five goals from outside the goal area 9. Head the ball back to a serving partner nine of
with the preferred foot. 10 times over a distance of 10 yards. The partner
must be able to catch the ball.
Swerving or Bending the Ball
10. Head the ball back and forth with a partner a
5. Bend the ball into the goal from the goal line three
minimum of 10 times without touching the
of five times with the preferred foot.
ground.
Penalty Kicks 11. Head nine of 10 serves from a partner into an
6. Score seven of 10 penalty kicks against a recognized empty goal from a distance of 10 yards.
peer goalkeeper.
Control of the Ball
Power and Distance Kicking
12. Control nine of 10 passes on the ground with the
7. Score two of five goals into an empty goal from the preferred foot.
halfway line.
13. Control eight of 10 passes on the ground with the
Grading nonpreferred foot.
8. Make 20 passing grades for a unit completion. 14. Control nine of 10 passes from a partner with the
head.
Advanced Unit: Basic Objectives 15. Control nine of 10 serves from a partner with the
Passing chest.
1. Make four of five push passes with the preferred foot 16. Control nine of 10 serves from a partner with
from a distance of 10 yards between two cones, placed the preferred thigh and eight of 10 with the non-
5 yards apart, while running with the ball. Complete preferred thigh.
three of five passes with the nonpreferred foot.
2. Make four of five low-drive passes with the pre- Corner Kick
ferred foot from a distance of 15 yards between two
17. Kick nine of 10 corner kicks into the penalty area
cones, placed 8 yards apart, while running with the
with the preferred foot from the preferred side. The
ball. Complete three of five passes with the nonpre-
ball may not touch the ground between the corner
ferred foot.
and the penalty area.
Dribbling 18. Kick eight of 10 corner kicks into the penalty area
3. Dribble through nine cones over a distance of 40 yards from the nonpreferred side (same conditions as
and back to the start in 30 seconds or less. Both feet task 17).
must be used, and no cones may be omitted.
4. Dribble around an advancing goalkeeper and score Throw In
four of five times. The goalkeeper must be beaten to 19. Throw the ball with both hands to a partner 15
the left and to the right at least once. yards away, nine of 10 times. The throw must be
placed so the partner is able to catch the ball with
Shooting his or feet.
5. Score 10 of 10 shots into an empty goal from out- 20. Throw the ball to a moving partner at least 10 yards
side the 18-yard line with the preferred foot, and away. The partner must be able to catch the ball
nine of 10 shots with the nonpreferred foot. with his or her feet.
6. Score eight of 10 penalty kicks against a recognized
peer goalkeeper. Juggling
7. Volley four of five goals from a serving partner, 21. Juggle the ball at least 20 times without it touching
from outside the goal area, with the preferred foot, the ground. The head, foot, and thigh must be used.
and three of five with the nonpreferred foot. Start with the ball on the ground and get it into the
8. Serve or bend the ball from the goal line into the air using the feet.
goal three of six times with the preferred foot. The 22. Juggle the ball with a partner. At least 10 passes
ball must be placed within 1 foot of the line any must be made. No restrictions are placed on the
distance from the post. number of touches by each player.

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Tackling Softball requires some specialized equipment. When

23. Use a block tackle on a partner jogging with the ball ordering gloves, about 20 percent should be left handed, and
eight of 10 times successfully. enough balls should be ordered so that each student has one.
This allows many drills to be undertaken without waiting for
24. Use a slide tackle on a partner jogging with the ball
the balls to be returned. Available equipment should include
three of five times successfully.
a set of bases for each diamond; bats of varying sizes (alu-
Goalkeeping minum are the most durable); fielders’ gloves; a catcher’s
25. Kick four of five goal kicks at least 20 yards in the glove, protector, and face mask; and batting tees. For less-
air before hitting the ground. experienced players, the soft softball is most desirable
because it helps alleviate the fear of the ball that some play-
26. Punt the ball at least 30 yards four of five times. ers have. When a regulation softball is used, students often
27. Save seven of 10 shots on target from outside the learn to dodge the ball, rather than catch it. Some teachers
18-yard line. have had success with the large 16-inch ball. It moves slower,
cannot be hit as far, and allows the game to be played in a
Game Rules and Strategy
smaller area. The drawback is that the large ball is difficult to
28. Demonstrate a thorough understanding of the rules throw because of its size.
of the game and principles of strategy.
Catching
Grading
Catching involves moving the body into the path of the
29. Achieve a score of 80 percent or higher on a test cov-
ball. There are two ways to hold the hands for catching fly
ering the rules of the game. One retake is allowed.
balls. For a low ball, the fielder keeps the fingers in and
the thumbs turned outward. For a ball above waist level,
Advanced Unit: Optional Objectives the thumbs are turned inward and the fingers outward.
Officiating The arms and hands extend and reach for the ball. As the
1. Officiate at least three games. ball comes into the glove, the arms, hands, and body give
to create a soft home for the ball.
Grading
When catching grounders, move into the path of the
2. To successfully complete the unit, obtain 26 passing ball, then move toward the ball, and catch it on a “good”
grades. hop. Keep the eyes on the ball and follow it into the glove.
The feet are spread, the seat is kept down, and the hands
SOFTBALL are carried low and in front. The weight is on the balls of
Softball raises controversy among physical education the feet or on the toes, and the knees are bent to lower the
teachers. Some instructors believe it is a game in which body. As the ball is caught, the fielder straightens up, takes
one only catches “varicose veins” from standing around. a step in the direction of the throw, and makes the throw.
On the other hand, because it is a less active game, softball
Throwing
is often played by adults for many years. When the skill
level of the participants is developed, the game can be en- The ball is generally held with a three- or four-fingered
joyable. If skill is lacking, emphasis should be placed on grip. Smaller students usually have to use the four-fingered
development skills and individual practice. grip. The fingers should be spaced evenly, and the ball
Softball can be taught effectively by using stations. should be held with the fingertips.
This gives students ample practice in many different skills Because throwing is a complex motor pattern, it is diffi-
and avoids the situation in which students play only one cult to break the skill into component parts. At best, throw-
position and specialize in skills. Softball can be played ing skills can be slowed down about 10 percent in an effort
coeducationally, and many of the lead-up games make the to teach proper throwing technique. If a mature pattern of
activity enjoyable and suited to students’ ability levels. throwing has not been developed, students should focus on
throwing for velocity rather than accuracy. After proper
form has been learned, accuracy becomes a prime objective.
SEQUENCE OF SKILLS
Equipment and Facilities Overhand Throw
Softball is played on a diamond with the dimensions The player stands with the side opposite the throwing arm
shown in Figure 8. Lines can be applied to the field with facing the target. The hand with the ball is brought back,
chalk or can be burned into the grass with a solvent that over the head, at just above shoulder height. The non-
kills the grass and leaves a brown line. throwing hand is raised in front of the body. The weight is

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FIGURE 8 Softball diamonds

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on the rear foot (away from the target), with the front foot To catch a ground ball in the outfield, the player
advanced toward the target. The arm comes forward with should employ the sure-stop method. This involves
the elbow leading, and the ball is thrown with a downward using the body as a barrier. The fielder drops to one
snap of the wrist. The weight of the body shifts simultane- knee in order to block the ball with the body if the catch
ously with the throw to the front foot. The rear foot is missed. This method should be used when runners
rotates forward, and the throwing hand ends facing the are on base.
ground during the follow through. The eyes should be
kept on the target throughout the throw. Batting
The bat is gripped with the dominant hand above and
Sidearm Throw
adjacent to the nondominant hand. The feet should be
The sidearm throw is similar to the overhand throw, positioned comfortably apart, and the front of the body
except that the entire motion is kept near a horizontal faces the plate. The knees are slightly bent, and the
plane. The sidearm throw, which uses a quick, whip-like weight is distributed equally on both feet. The hands
motion, is for shorter, quicker throws than the overhand. and the bat are held shoulder high and slightly behind
The sidearm throw should be used only for short infield the rear foot. The elbows are away from the body, the
throws because the sideways motion causes a spin on the wrists cocked, and the bat held in an upward position.
ball, which results in a curved path. The ball should be followed with the eyes as long as
possible. The stride begins by stepping toward the
Underhand Throw
ball with the front foot. The hips are rotated, followed
The underhand throw is used for short distances such as by the trunk and forward shoulder. The arms are
throwing to the pitcher covering first base or the person on extended, wrists snapped, and contact is made with
second base throwing to the shortstop covering second base. the ball in front of the forward hip. Different grips on
The player faces the target, and the hand is swung backward the bat can be tried, including the choke and long grip.
with the palm facing forward. The arm is then moved Batters should avoid using poor techniques such as
forward in a pendulum swing with the elbow slightly bent. lifting the front foot high off the ground, stepping back
The weight shifts to the front foot during the toss. with the rear foot, dropping the elbows, or crouching or
bending forward.
Pitching
The pitcher must begin with both feet touching the rubber. Base Running
The ball is held in front of the body with the pitcher facing
After a hit, the batter should run hard with the head up
home plate. The pitching hand is brought backward in a
and eyes looking down the base path. The runner moves
pendulum swing, and the wrist is cocked at the back of
past the bag, tagging it in the process, and turns out into
the swing. The pitcher steps forward on the opposite foot
foul territory, unless it is an extra base hit. If it is an extra
and swings the arm forward. The wrist is snapped, and the
base hit, the runner swings 5 to 6 feet to the right of the
ball is released from the fingertips as the arm finishes
baseline, about two-thirds of the way down the base path,
moving in an upward, lifting fashion. The follow-through
and makes the turn toward second.
should be accompanied by a forward step of the foot on the
Runners on base must stay in contact with the base
throwing side so the player is in a fielding position.
until the pitcher releases the ball. The next base is faced,
with one foot forward and the other foot touching the
Fielding Position
base in a push-off position. The knees are flexed, and the
Infielders should assume the ready position in a semi- upper body leans toward the next base.
crouch, with the legs shoulder width apart, knees bent
slightly, and hands on or in front of the knees. The weight
is distributed evenly on both feet so the player can move IDEAS FOR EFFECTIVE INSTRUCTION
easily to the left or right. To field a grounder, the fielder Safety is important, and throwing the bat is a constant
moves as quickly as possible into the path of the ball, then problem. The members of the batting team should stand
moves forward, and plays the ball on a good hop. The glove behind the backstop or on the side opposite the batter.
should be kept near the ground and raised only as the ball Techniques to make the batter think about the bat are
rises. (A common mistake is to not put the glove down requiring the player to carry the bat to first base, to
soon enough.) The eyes follow the ball into the glove, and change ends of the bat before dropping it, or to place the
the head is kept down. As the ball is caught, the fielder bat in a circle before running. It is usually best not to
straightens up, takes a step in the direction of the throw, allow sliding because sliding can lead to injury if the
and releases the ball. proper equipment is not available. The catcher should

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always wear protective gear. In the early stages of prac- Station 4. Throwing
tice, soft softballs can be used. 1. One person stands at each base plus a catcher is
Many of the lead-up games were developed to increase behind home plate. Practice throwing to each of the
the number of people who get to bat in each inning. One bases from each position. Rotate positions after
strategy for effective batting practice is to have a member each person has had three throws.
of the batting team pitch so the ball is easy to hit. Players
2. Throw the ball from the outfield. Throw the ball
should rotate positions often. Another idea is to have
through a cutoff person. Make five throws and
players rotate to a new position each inning. This has the
rotate to catcher position.
effect of making the players supportive of each other,
considering the quality of the game depends on all of the 3. If you are not throwing, back up the other positions
participating players. and act as a cutoff person.
Station teaching is excellent for developing softball
skills. It ensures that participants have the opportunity to Station 5. Fly Balls
practice a wide variety of activities. Players who are partic- 1. Throw fly balls back and forth.
ularly skilled in an activity can help others. Teachers 2. Vary the height and direction of the throw so team-
should position themselves at a different station each day mates have to move into the flight of the ball.
to ensure that they have instructed all students at all sta-
3. Make teammates move backward and forward to
tions over a 1- to 2-week period. The following stations
catch the ball.
can be used by placing task cards at each station so stu-
dents know exactly what is expected of them. 4. Bat some flies and play the game “Five Hundred”
(see next section for description).
Station 1. Catching Ground Balls
One person rolls and the other person catches the ball. LEAD-UP GAMES AND LEARNING
1. Roll the ball straight to the person. ACTIVITIES
2. Roll the ball to the left side. Increase the distance. Over-the-Line Softball
Over the line is a popular modified lead–up-type game
3. Roll the ball to the right side. Increase the distance.
incorporating softball skills. It is best as a three-versus-
4. Roll the ball in an unpredictable direction. three game, but it can be modified to include more
5. Bat the ball in different directions. Start at 5 yards players. Offensive players try to hit the ball over a line
and increase the distance up to 20 yards from the about 20 yards from home plate and into a zone that is
fielder. 20 yards wide and as long as possible. There is no run-
ning by the batters. The game can be started from a
Station 2. Batting batting tee, a soft toss, or a pitch from a teammate,
1. Work in groups of three with a batting tee. One per- depending on the skill level of your students. The ball
son fields, one bats, and the other shags the ball. Hit must land on the fly in the zone area to be a base hit.
10 balls. Three hits equals a run, and a ball hit over the head of
all the fielders is a home run. Outs are made by hitting
2. Perform item 1, except pitch the ball to the batter. two fouls, one strike, a fly caught by a fielder, or a hit
3. As the batter, try placing the ball. Call the direction ball landing on any of the lines or being a ground ball.
where you are going to hit the ball, and then do so. All of these rules can be modified for a local situation.
A great area to play is on the marked football field
Station 3. Base Running because you can use the yard lines for the boundaries.
1. Run the bases using a circle technique. Have a part- The sideline of the field is the line to hit over, and home
ner time you. plate is backed up 20 yards. A fun variation is to divide
the hitting zone into three areas with cones and award a
2. Run the bases using a clover technique. Decide
single, a double, or a triple for landing the ball in the
which you prefer and which allows you to run the
respective area.
bases faster.
3. Bunt and run to first. Have your partner time you. Two-Pitch Softball
4. Play “In a Pickle” in groups of three. (See game Two-pitch softball is played like regulation softball except
description in “Lead-Up Games and Learning that a member of the team at bat pitches. Every member
Activities.”) of the team must have an opportunity to pitch. The batter

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receives only two pitched balls to hit, and the ball hit must Babe Ruth Ball
be fair or it is an out. The pitcher does not field the ball, The outfield is divided into three sections: left, center, and
and no balls or strikes are called. right field. The batter calls the field to which the ball will
be hit. The pitcher throws pitches that the batter can hit
In a Pickle
easily. The batter remains in position as long as the ball is
A base runner is “in a pickle” when caught between two hit to the designated field. Field choices are rotated. The
bases and in danger of being tagged out. To begin, both batter gets only one swing but may let a pitch go by. There
fielders are on a base with a runner in the middle. The is no base running.
goal is for the player in the middle to get to a base safely. If
done, that person scores a point. In either case, rotation Speedy Baseball
occurs. Speedy baseball is played like regular softball with the
Pepper following exceptions:
This is one of the older skill games in baseball. A line of 1. The pitcher is from the team at bat and must not
four to six players is about 10 yards in front of and facing a interfere with or touch a batted ball on penalty of
batter. A player tosses the ball to the batter, who attempts the batter being called out.
to hit controlled grounders back to him or her. The next
2. The team coming to bat does not wait for the field-
player pitches. The batter stays at bat for a period of time
ing team to get set. Because it has its own pitcher,
and then rotates to the field.
the pitcher gets the ball to the batter just as quickly
Five Hundred as the batter can grab a bat and get ready. The field-
A batter hits balls to a group of fielders. The goal is to ing team members have to hustle to get to their
score 500 points. When the total is reached, that person places.
becomes the new batter. Fielders earn 100 points for 3. Only one pitch is allowed per batter. Batters must
catching a fly ball, 75 points for catching a ball on one hit a fair ball or they are out. The pitch is made
bounce, 50 points for catching a ball after two bounces, from about two-thirds of the normal pitching
and 25 points for any other ball. The points must total distance.
exactly 500 or the total immediately earned is subtracted 4. No stealing is permitted.
from the fielder’s score. Points are also subtracted if an
5. No bunting is permitted. The batter must take a full
error is made.
swing.
Home Run
The critical players are a batter, a catcher, a pitcher, and SUGGESTED PERFORMANCE OBJECTIVES
one fielder. All other players are fielders and take positions The following are performance objectives that might be
throughout the area. The batter hits a pitch and on a fair used in a softball unit.
ball must run to first base and back home before the ball
can be returned to the catcher. The batter is out whenever Contract Objectives
any of the following occur: a fly ball is caught; a strikeout Throwing Tasks
occurs; or on a fair ball, the ball beats the batter back to 1. Standing 45 feet from a partner who is inside a
home plate. The number of home runs per batter can be hoop, complete five consecutive underhand pitches
limited, and a rotation plan should be developed. The dis- to that person without causing him or her to move
tance to first base may have to be varied, depending on the outside of the hoop.
strength and skill of the players.
2. Standing 60 feet from a partner inside a hoop, com-
plete five overhand throws to that person without
Work-Up
forcing him or her to move more than 1 foot out-
This is a game of rotating positions each time an out is side the hoop.
made. The game is played using regulation softball rules.
Three batters are up at bat. After each out, the players 3. Be able to demonstrate the proper stance, windup,
move up one position, and the player making the last out and delivery of the windmill pitch to the instructor.
goes to right field. The pitcher moves up to catcher, the 4. From a designated area of the outfield, situated
person on first base to pitcher, and all others move up one 150 feet (boys) or 100 feet (girls) away, throw the
position. If a fly ball is caught, the batter and the person softball through the air directly to a 10-foot-wide
catching the ball exchange places. circle chalked in front of home plate. To count,

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the throw must bounce only once before landing or 4. Umpire a game for three or more innings.
going through the circle. Student must make three 5. Keep accurate score in an official score book for
of five throws to qualify for points. three or more innings.
5. Display pitching skills by striking out three or more
batters or by allowing no more than five base hits in
an actual game. SPEED-A-WAY
6. From an outfield or relay position, throw out a base The game of speed-a-way was originated in 1950 by
runner at any base in an actual game. Marjorie Larsen, but it spent 10 years in experimental
stages prior to its arrival on the field. It is a dynamic game
Fielding Tasks that combines the challenges of soccer, basketball, speed-
1. Demonstrating correct fielding stance, cleanly field ball, fieldball, and field hockey. It was created in an effort
five consecutive ground or fly balls hit by a partner. to find a game that could serve as a lead-up for field
hockey and bring enjoyment to participants without hav-
2. Play a game of Pepper with a group of no more
ing to learn complicated rules and techniques.
than six players, demonstrating good bat control,
Speed-a-way is intended for students from middle
hand–eye coordination, and fielding skills.
school through college. With the emphasis on student suc-
3. Play a game of Five Hundred with no more than cess, the game employs a great variety of fundamental
five players and demonstrate skills in catching flies movements such as running, throwing, catching, and
and line drives and in fielding ground balls. kicking. This allows participants ample opportunities for
4. In an actual game situation, participate in a success- vigorous activity, competition, and team cooperation.
ful double play. The area in which speed-a-way is played is the same
as for field hockey. The recommended size is 100 by
5. Perform a diving or over-the-head catch in an ac-
60 yards. This rectangle is divided into four parts with
tual game situation.
alleys and striking circles. There is an official speed-a-way
Hitting Tasks ball, but a soccer or playground ball can be substituted.
1. Watch a film or read an article on hitting. The game consists of four quarters of 8 minutes each,
with a 2-minute rest period between quarters and a
2. Using a batting tee, hit five consecutive softballs, on 10-minute rest period between halves. Substitutions can
the fly or on the ground, past the 80-foot semicircle be made when the ball is dead.
line marked off in chalk. Speed-a-way is played with two teams of 11 players.
3. Execute proper bunting form and ability by dump- Each player wears a set of flags. Players line up on their
ing three of five attempts into designated bunting half of the field at the beginning of each quarter and
areas along the first or third baselines. after each score. The ball is put into play by a “push-
4. In an actual game, make two or more base hits. kick” backward from the center of the field. The object
of the game is to advance the ball through the oppo-
5. Hit a triple or home run in an actual game. nent’s territory by means of kicking, dribbling, heading,
6. During an actual game, observe an opponent or a or shouldering a ground ball; by throwing an aerial ball;
teammate’s swing. Write down the strong and weak or by running with an aerial ball. A field goal (3 points)
points of that particular swing and bring them to is scored by kicking the ball between the opponent’s
the instructor’s attention. The instructor will then goalposts from within the striking circle. (If football or
match observations with your critique. speedball goalposts are used, a dropkick over the bar
scores 4 points.) A touchdown (2 points) is scored by
Optional Objectives running across the goal line with the ball or by passing it
1. Make a diagram of an official softball diamond on to a teammate who is already over the goal line but not
posterboard. Illustrate proper field dimensions. between the goalposts. An aerial ball is one that has
2. On a piece of paper, show how the batting average been converted from the ground with the feet.
and earned run average are compiled.
RULES
3. Watch a college or fast-pitch softball game on tele-
vision or at the actual setting. Record the score, 1. The defense can only pull offensive players’ flags
place, teams, and date of the contest. List the when they are carrying the ball.
strengths and weaknesses of each team, and note 2. If flags are pulled before the ball leaves the offensive
how weaknesses could be corrected. player’s hand, the defensive team gains possession.

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Everyone moves 5 yards away before play can be immediately. Speed-a-way can be a low-risk and non-
continued. threatening game when taught and conducted with
3. In order for a player to carry the ball in his or her safety as a priority.
hands, the player must first legally lift the ball up
and catch it. This is usually done with the feet. A LEAD-UP GAMES FOR SPEED-A-WAY
teammate can lift the ball to another teammate, or Circle Kickball
a player can lift the ball to himself or herself with Ten to 20 players form a circle and use a speed-a-way,
the feet. soccer, or playground ball. The skills used are kicking
4. If the ball goes out of bounds over the goal line and trapping. Players kick the ball back and forth inside
(not between the goalposts) and is last touched by the circle. The object of the game is for a player to kick
the offense, the goalie gets possession. The goalie the ball out of the circle below the shoulder level of any
may punt, place-kick, throw, or run the ball out of other circle player. Each time a player achieves this, he or
the goal area. Once the goalie leaves the striking she collects a point. Any player who kicks the ball over
circle, the opposition can pull the goalie’s flag. the shoulders of a circle player will give back one of the
However, in the striking circle, the goalie is “safe.” points he or she has earned.
Goalies may go anywhere on the field they desire,
but they can only use their hands inside the strik- Croquet Ball
ing circle. Students play in pairs or groups of three. Each student has
5. If the ball goes out of bounds over the goal line a ball. The object of this game is for one ball to hit another.
(not between the posts) and is last touched by Each hit scores a point. The first player kicks his or her ball
the defense, the offense receives a corner kick on out 10 to 15 yards ahead. The next player kicks his or her
the side where the ball went out. ball and tries to hit the ball lying ahead. Alternate kicking
continues until a hit is made. The game continues until a
6. When a ball goes out of bounds over a sideline, a player scores a designated number of points. If three play,
player from the opposing team uses a two-handed turns are taken in sequence. If a successful hit is made on
overhead toss to put the ball in play. one ball, the kicker gets an immediate try at the other.
7. A player holding the pivot foot in position cannot
have their flag pulled for 3 seconds. Touch Ball
8. No contact is allowed during guarding. A player can Eight to 10 students form a circle with one player in the
be guarded by only one player. center. One ball is used. The students are spaced around a
circle about 10 yards in diameter. The ball is thrown or
SAFETY PRECAUTIONS passed back and forth. If the center player touches the ball,
the circle player who last touched the ball moves into the
Because the game of speed-a-way is fast moving, the
center.
safety of the game depends on the instruction players
receive and the quality of officiating. A player should be Pin Kickball
taught that good position is an essential safety factor in
Two teams of seven to 10 players face each other at 20
speed-a-way. Good body control and skill in the funda-
yards apart. Six or seven pins and two balls are needed.
mentals of running, starting, and stopping quickly
The object is to knock down the pins. Each pin is worth
should be encouraged to eliminate body contact. Players
one point. Kicks should be made from the line behind
should be taught how to control the ball, to evade and
which the team is standing. Players should concentrate on
dodge an opponent, to throw the ball, and to lift the ball
controlled traps and accurate kicks. Feel free to vary the
to another teammate. The technique of guarding or
amount of players per team and the number of pins used.
tackling an opponent who is in possession of the ball is
most important in the prevention of unnecessary body
contact. Team play and its value in preventing injury TEAM HANDBALL
should be emphasized. Players should be safety con- Team handball is an exciting and challenging game that
scious and follow the rules at all times. combines skills from basketball, soccer, water polo, and
During the game, referees should be alert to the hockey. It involves running, dribbling, jumping, passing,
dangerous elements of the game. All harmful body con- catching, throwing, and goaltending. The object of the
tact—such as obstructing, pushing, charging, tripping, game is to move a small soccer ball down the field by pass-
and dangerous kicking (kicking an opponent or kicking ing and dribbling and then to throw the ball into a goal
the ball directly into an opponent)—should be called area that is 3 meters wide and 2 meters high. The game is

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FIGURE 9 Court markings—team handball

relatively simple to learn and can be enjoyed by both inside the 9-meter line in a good shooting position is
sexes. It is inexpensive to add to the curriculum and can fouled. During a penalty throw, all players must be
be played indoors, outdoors, or on a tennis court. behind the 9-meter line.*
Virtually any space can be adapted or modified for team The official team handball looks like a small soccer
handball. The play is rapid and involves continuous run- ball. The men’s ball is 23 inches in circumference, and
ning, making the sport a good cardiovascular activity. the women’s ball is 21 inches. A smaller minihandball is
Because the game is relatively new to the United States, available for younger students. Handballs are carried by
many students will be inexperienced. A unit on team most sporting goods dealers. Playground balls and small
handball can provide students with a fresh challenge and volleyballs can be substituted if necessary. The goals can
increased motivation, and teachers should enjoy introduc- be improvised by using boundary cones, tape on the
ing a new activity. wall, rope through a chain-link fence, soccer goals, field
hockey goals, or homemade regulation goals. The floor
BASIC RULES lines can be established by marking the floor with tape or
by putting boundary cones along the area where the lines
In regulation play, each team has six court players and one
should be. A basketball court can be easily modified for
goalie. The six court players cover the entire court. A
team handball by setting boundary cones along the goal
player is allowed three steps before and after dribbling the
area and by using the free-throw lane for the width of
ball. There is no limit on the number of dribbles.
the goal.
Dribbling is, however, discouraged because passing is
more effective. A double dribble is a violation. A player
can hold the ball for 3 seconds only before passing, drib- SEQUENCE OF SKILLS
bling, or shooting. No player except the goalie can kick the Team handball is a good unit to follow basketball, soccer,
ball in any way. or water polo because it uses many of the same skills. The
The court is marked (Figure 9) with a 6-meter goal techniques and skill work are similar to those activities.
area, a 7-meter penalty line, and a 9-meter free-throw
line. The goal is 2 by 3 meters. The goal area inside the 6- Passing
meter line is only for the goalie. Other players are not al- Team handball is a passing game, and many different
lowed in this area. The 7-meter line is used for a major passes can be used for short and medium ranges. The
penalty shot, and the 9-meter line is used for a minor passing fundamentals are similar to those of basketball.
penalty shot. A regulation court is 20 by 40 meters.
One point is awarded for a goal. Violations and Chest, Bounce, and Overhead Passes
penalties are similar to basketball. A free throw is taken All are two-handed passes, similar to those in basketball.
from the point of the violation, and defense must remain
3 meters away while protecting the goal. A penalty throw
is awarded from the 7-meter line for a major violation. A *Specific rules of team handball are available from the United
major violation occurs when an offensive player who is States Team Handball Federation, www.usateamhandball.org

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One-Handed Shoulder or Baseball Pass the same as a one-handed shoulder pass, except that it is
This is similar to an overhand throw in baseball. If the stu- a shot on goal. The shot can be used with or without a
dent cannot grip the ball, it can rest on a flexed hand with defender.
the fingers spread.
Dive Shot
Sidearm Pass The dive shot is a good shot on either wing because the
This pass is similar to the shoulder pass except that the shooter can dive or fall away from an opponent.
ball is released to the side of the body to avoid a defender.
Lob Shot
Shovel Pass When a goalie comes out too far to defend, the shooter
This one- or two-handed underhand pass is used for re- can lob the ball up and over the goalie’s outstretched
leasing the ball quickly and thus avoiding a defender. arms.

Handoff Pass Penalty Shot

This pass is similar to the one used by a quarterback hand- The penalty shot is the one-on-one free shot with only the
ing off the ball to a running back. The receiver forms a goalie defending. The shooter must keep one foot station-
pocket for the ball. ary and cannot touch the 7-meter penalty line until the
ball is thrown. The ball must be shot in 3 seconds. The
Roller Pass goalie must be 3 meters or more away from the shooter.
The ball is simply rolled along the floor to a teammate The shoulder or sidearm throw is usually most efficient
when all other passing lanes are blocked. for this shot.

Hook Pass Behind-the-Back

This pass is similar to the hook shot in basketball in which The shooter can fake a shot to the right and then bring
the passer hooks the ball over or around a defender. A the ball behind the back and the defender for a shot. The
jump may be added before the pass. behind-the-back shot can be executed to either side.
Goal shooting involves the following general principles:
Jump Pass
Usually made with a shoulder pass, the jump pass occurs 1. Attack the high or low corners on each shot.
when the passer jumps over or around a defender and 2. Shoot primarily between the 6- and 9-meter line.
throws the ball. 3. Find the open offensive player to take the shot.
Behind-the-Back Pass 4. Do not force a shot that is not open.
Similar to the basketball pass, this can be effective because 5. Do not shoot too far down on the wings because
the smaller ball is easier to control than a basketball. the angle is too extreme.
6. Use the floor or ground to bounce shots into the
Dribbling goal.
Dribbling in handball is the same as the basketball skill, but 7. Try jump shots toward the goal, which are usually
the ball is harder to control because it is small and the ball effective. The ball must be released before the
surface is uneven. Players need to get used to the legal three shooter lands in the goal area.
steps before and after dribbling, as well as the 3-second
holding rule. Dribbling should be practiced some but in 8. Develop a wide variety of goal shots.
general should be discouraged in team handball.
Goaltending
Goal Shooting The position of goalie, the most important defender on
All of the aforementioned passes can also be used for shots the team, requires quick hands and feet and fast reaction
on goal. The following shots are the most popular. time. All parts of the body can be used to deflect shots.
The goalie also starts the offense after saving shots. The
Jump Shot goalie needs to learn how to cut down shooting angles by
Because the offensive player can jump outside the goal moving out from the goal, depending on where the ball is
area and land in the goal area after a shot, the jump shot is located on the court. Goalies should practice saving shots
the most popular shot. Shooters run three steps, jump, in all four corners of the goal. They need to understand all
and shoot, using the one-handed shoulder throw. This is of the rules governing the goalkeeper.

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Defensive Strategy with no steps allowed. Getting students used to the three-
The defensive strategy is similar to basketball in that person- step rule is difficult.
to-person and zone defenses are popular. Beginning players
should start with the person-to-person defense and learn Sideline Team Handball
how to stay with an offensive player. Zone defenses can be 6- Sideline handball can be played when space is limited and
0, 5-1, 4-2, and 3-3, with each person playing an area or the class is crowded. Extra team members spread out
zone. The back players in the zone are back against the goal along each sideline. These sideline players can receive
line, while the front players are just inside the 9-meter line. passes from teammates and can help pass the ball down
The zone rotates with the ball as passes are made around the the court. Sideline members can only pass the ball, how-
court. ever, and the 3-second rule applies to them. One sideline
can be devoted to one team, and the other sideline to the
Offensive Strategy other team. A challenging variation is to have different
The offense starts the game with a throw-on (pass to a team members on each sideline. This distribution forces
teammate) from the center line. A throw-on also initiates the active players to sharpen their passing skills.
play after each goal. All six offensive players line up at the
center line, and one teammate throws the ball to another. SUGGESTED PERFORMANCE OBJECTIVES
The defense is in position, using either a zone or person- 1. Dribble the ball with the right hand (standing
to-person defense. Offensive strategy is similar to basket- position) for 10 consecutive times.
ball with picks, screens, rolls, and movement to open up
shots on goal. With a zone defense, short, quick passes are 2. Perform task 1 but with the left hand.
made in an overloaded portion of the zone. 3. Dribble the ball with the right hand (moving for-
ward) from the center line to the goal line without
IDEAS FOR EFFECTIVE INSTRUCTION losing the dribble.
Set up learning stations for passing, shooting, goaltend- 4. Perform task 3 but with the left hand.
ing, dribbling, and defensive work. The performance 5. Pass the ball to a partner standing 10 feet away with
objectives in this section, for example, are useful for a two-handed chest pass to the chest area (between
structuring practice time at each station. Students can chin and waist) eight of 10 times.
play with Nerf or comparable foam-rubber balls, play-
6. Pass the ball to a partner standing 10 feet away with
ground balls, and volleyballs to get more practice at-
a two-handed bounce pass to the waist area eight of
tempts and to help beginning goalies perfect their skills.
10 times.
Group drills from basketball are applicable to team
handball defense, offense, passing, and dribbling. 7. Pass the ball to a partner standing 10 feet away with
Include various instructional devices for targets in pass- a two-handed overhead pass to the chest area eight
ing, timing for dribbling through cones, or narrowing of 10 times.
the goal area for shots to the corners. Penalty shots 8. Pass the ball to a partner standing 10 feet away with
should be practiced daily. Competitive-type drills are a one-handed overhead pass to the chest area eight
enjoyable and motivating for most students. of 10 times.
9. While running from the center line, alternately pass
MODIFIED GAMES a two-handed chest and bounce pass that can be
No Bounce, No Steps, and No Contact caught by a partner running at a parallel distance of
Students are forced to pass the ball rather than dribble. 12 feet, with three of four passes hitting the partner.
The walking or traveling rule from basketball is in effect 10. While standing 7 meters from the goal, hit three of
because students are usually comfortable with this rule. five goals.
The no-contact rule gives the offense an advantage. The
11. Defend three of five attempted shots taken by a
3-second rule should remain in effect to force quick
partner from a distance of 7 meters.
passes and deter holding the ball.
12. Dribble the ball with the right hand (moving for-
Three Bounces, Three Steps, and ward) from the center line to the goal area without
No Contact losing the dribble. Jump up and make a goal three
This game is closer to the regulation game and provides a of five times.
gradual adjustment to the team handball rules. A varia- 13. From 6 meters, hit a target five consecutive times
tion would have the three-bounce and 3-second rules but with the following passes: roller, hook, jump, shovel,

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one-handed shoulder, sidearm, and behind the is difficult to adequately cover all of these activities in a
back. limited space. Several good texts are available with in-
14. From 9 meters away, hit two of five goals. depth information about specific events and the skills
involved. Much of what should be taught will depend on
15. From 9 meters away, defend four of five goal shots. the abilities of the students, the length of time allotted
16. Dribble through a set of six cones in 25 seconds. to the unit, and the equipment available for instruction.
Teachers developing units for track and field should
refer to the suggested readings.
TRACK AND FIELD
Track and field events consist of running, jumping, weight IDEAS FOR INSTRUCTION
throwing, and vaulting. Running events include sprinting Each event in track and field can serve as a learning sta-
short distances, running middle and longer distances, and tion for students. After students are introduced to the
hurdling over barriers. Relay races with four team mem- events, they can rotate from station to station and work
bers are run over various distances. The jumping events on each activity. Keep a clipboard at each station with
include the high jump, long jump, and triple jump. The records of each day’s best performances in an activity.
throwing events are the shot put, discus, javelin, and ham- The day-to-day records can be used for motivation and
mer throws. The vaulting event is the pole vault. as evidence of individual improvement. A class track
In the United States, instruction in track and field activ- meet is an enjoyable culminating activity. Teams can be
ities as part of the physical education program began in the organized and a regulation dual meet conducted.
late 1890s. Both men and women have been interested in
pursuing these events for various reasons. The tremendous
variety of skills necessary for running, jumping, throwing, VOLLEYBALL
and vaulting provides people with an exciting challenge. Because volleyball was adopted as an Olympic sport in
Track and field should continue to be an important 1964, it has gained a great deal of visibility through the
part of the secondary school physical education program. media. It continues to grow in popularity in the United
Students with different body types are able to find success States and throughout the world. Beach volleyball, the
in some track and field activity. All students should have newest edition of the sport, is also in the Olympics and
the opportunity to explore and experience the wide vari- has added to the popularity of the sport. The sport has
ety of challenges of this unit. adopted a new rally-scoring technique where scoring oc-
Secondary schools have changed to metric distances for curs for either team on every serve. In the United States,
the running events. These distances vary some from state to volleyball is a vigorous sport that many pursue in school,
state and from men’s events to women’s events. The men’s club, and recreational leagues. Volleyball is challenging,
running events usually include the following: 100, 200, 400, lends itself to coeducational participation, and can be
800, 1,600, and 3,200 meter; 400-, and 1,600-meter relay; modified in several ways to suit the abilities of many
110-meter-high hurdles, and 400-meter intermediate hur- students.
dles. The field events for men usually include the high Most states offer competitive volleyball for girls in the
jump, long jump, triple jump, pole vault, shot put, and dis- secondary schools. Many states are adding volleyball for
cus, javelin, and hammer (only in certain states) throws. the boys. Secondary physical education programs should
Women’s running events are similar to the men’s, but the offer coeducational volleyball classes to encourage both
women run only one hurdle race, which is 100 meters. The boys and girls. With the increased recreational volleyball
1,600-meter relay race is sometimes replaced with a medley offerings in YMCAs, community centers, and city recre-
relay consisting of 100, 100, 200, and 400 meters. In the field ational programs, students will be able to participate in
events, the women do not pole-vault, triple jump, or throw and enjoy this activity for many years.
the hammer. It is interesting to note that women are finally
being allowed officially to run longer distances (such as
1,600 and 3,200 meters). The 1984 Olympic Games in Los SEQUENCE OF SKILLS
Angeles marked the first Olympic marathon for women. Volleyball is difficult to play without a basic skills founda-
tion. Help students to master these skills before beginning
regulation games. Devising modified games for beginning-
SEQUENCE OF SKILLS level students is important because they will not be able to
Because track and field is a highly specialized area that play a regulation game. (A few students would dominate,
includes many specific skills and techniques for each of and the remaining students would become quickly frus-
the running, jumping, vaulting, and throwing events, it trated.) The type of ball, the height of the net, and the rules

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of the game can all be adjusted to ensure a successful expe- cupped to form a triangle-shaped window. The knees are
rience for beginning students. bent, and the legs are about shoulder width apart and in a
stride position. The ball is contacted simultaneously with
Serving the fingers and thumbs of both hands. The legs, body, and
Underhand Serve arms uncoil into the ball in one smooth movement. Sets
The underhand serve position starts with the left leg for- can be made from a front position facing the target and
ward and both knees bent slightly. The ball is held in the left from a back position with the back to the target.
hand about waist height. The right arm starts with a long
backswing and then comes forward, the right hand striking Spiking
the ball just below the midline. The striking hand can be Spiking is an offensive maneuver, which involves hitting
open or slightly closed, and the heel of the hand should the ball above the net and downward into the opponent’s
contact the ball. The body weight is transferred from the court. A spiker usually takes three or four steps toward the
rear foot to the front foot as the ball is contacted. The arm net. A final step with the right foot followed by a close step
swing follow-through should be in a straight line. with the left foot precedes takeoff. With both feet together,
Overhand Serve the spiker then jumps vertically straight up. The arms
swing forward during the jump. As the arms come for-
The overhand floater serve has no spin on the ball. The legs
ward to about shoulder height, the back begins to arch,
are staggered, with the left leg forward. The ball is held
and the right arm is cocked behind the head. The left arm
about shoulder height with the left hand under the ball and
starts the forward motion downward, and the right arm
the right hand behind it. The ball is tossed 2 or 3 feet up
uncoils and attacks the ball. The elbow leads the striking
above the right shoulder. The right arm is brought back,
arm and shoulder. The striking hand is open and rigid,
behind the ear, and then extended fully to hit the ball. The
and the palm of the hand strikes the ball.
heel of the hand strikes the ball slightly below the midline.
Little follow through is used because the ball should float
or wobble like a knuckle ball.
Blocking
Students who lack the strength or ability to get the ball Blocking is a defensive maneuver used to stop the ball from
over the net can begin serving closer to the net, and the net going over the net. Blocking can be done by any of the three
can be lowered. As students develop skill, they should move players on the front line. Blockers can jump and reach over
back gradually to the regulation distance. Targets can be the net, as long as the ball has not been touched by the of-
placed on the floor for work on accuracy as skill improves. fensive player. Blockers should leave the floor slightly after
the spiker. The takeoff starts with the legs bent at the knees.
Passing and Setting After the jump, the arms extend fully upward, as high as
This skill involves moving the ball from one teammate to possible. The fingers are spread as wide as possible. The
another. Forearm passes are used primarily for receiving a hands are held rigid and no wider apart than the width of
serve or a spike. Overhand set passes are used primarily the ball. As the blocker comes down, the arms are drawn
for setting the ball into position for a spike. All passes back to the body, and the feet and legs absorb the landing.
require quick footwork while keeping a low center of
gravity, which is necessary for getting under the ball. IDEAS FOR EFFECTIVE INSTRUCTION
Forearm Passes Volleyball lends itself to station work on passes, sets,
In the forearm bump pass, the ball is hit off the forearms. serves, and spikes. The performance objectives listed at the
The feet are about shoulder width apart, and one foot is end of this unit can be posted on task cards at the various
ahead of the other. The knees are bent, and the arms are stations. A class period could include work on the per-
extended forward. The forearms are rolled outward to pro- formance objectives, group skill work, and a modified
vide a flat, parallel surface for the ball. The elbows must be game. It is important to adjust the height of the net, the
locked together on contact with the ball. The upward move- rules of the game, and the type of ball used so that inexpe-
ment of the arms and legs depends on the speed of the ball rienced students can keep the ball in play. Foam rubber
and on the required distance of the pass. Passers must watch balls and beach balls are excellent for beginners.
the ball carefully. Forearm passes can be made in different Many passing, setting, and serving activities can be
directions and with one arm if necessary. done with partners. Having one partner toss the ball and
the other partner pass or set is a good introductory drill.
Overhand or Set Passes A smooth wall is useful for passing and setting practice,
In overhand passes, the body is set up under the ball, and small groups in a circle can also be effective for passing
which is directly above the passer’s nose. The hands are and setting. For serving practice, several players can line up

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along both baselines of a court and serve several balls at a serve, pass, or set. A variation of this game is to allow two
time. Servers can practice anywhere along the baseline. or three bounces.
Beginning servers should always move closer to the net.
Setting and spiking drills can be arranged with a setter Volley Tennis
in the center forward position and a line of spikers in either The game can be played on a tennis court or on a volley-
the on-hand or off-hand position. The spiker tosses the ball court. The net is put on the ground, as in tennis, and
ball to the setter and awaits a setup for a spike. Several ball the ball is put in play with a serve. It may bounce once or
chasers on the other side of the net can be useful. Net can be passed directly to a teammate. The ball should be
recovery shots can be practiced on a properly stretched net. hit three times before going over the net. Spiking is com-
One partner tosses the ball into the net, and the other mon because of the low net.
player tries to recover the ball with a forearm pass.
Competitive situations are fun for drill work (e.g., sets Sitting or Kneeling Volleyball
in a row, passes with a partner, serves to a target area, or Sitting or kneeling volleyball is a good indoor game to
spikes to an area). These competitive challenges can be play on a mat or in the gym. The net is lowered according
individual, with partners, or among small groups. The to the general size and ability level of the players. An over-
objectives included here offer many challenges that can head pass starts the game. Court size and number of
be modified for students of different ability levels. players can vary.

LEAD-UP AND MODIFIED GAMES Serve and Catch

Leader Ball Serve and catch is started with a ball on each side of the
Organize students into several teams. The leader of each net. Several balls are served at the same time, and all balls
team stands about 5 yards away from teammates. The must be caught on the other side. Once the balls are
teammates can be in single file or standing side by side caught, they can be served from the opposing serving area.
facing the leader. The leader uses a forearm pass or set and The object is to catch the ball and quickly serve so that
hits the ball to the first person in line. That person hits the your opponent cannot catch the ball. A scorer from each
ball back to the leader and goes quickly to the end of the side is necessary.
line. The object is to hit the ball to all teammates quicker
Rotation Under the Net
than the other teams.
The game, played with two, three, or four people on a
Zigzag Relay team, is started with one team on each side of the net and
Half of the players on one team stand side by side about with two or three other teams waiting in line to enter the
2 to 3 yards apart and face the other half of their team. game. The teacher begins the game by tossing the ball up
The ball is started at one end and passed or set, back and on either side of the net. The ball must be hit three times,
forth, down the line across a distance of 5 yards. The with the third hit going over the net. No spiking is al-
object is to control the ball and move it down the line lowed. The winning team rotates under the net, a new
quickly. The winning team is the fastest in getting the ball team rotates into its place, and the losing team rotates off
up and down the line to all team members. More than one the court and becomes the last team in line. The teacher
ball can be added for variety. throws the ball up in the air quickly as the teams are rotat-
ing. All teams must move quickly to the proper court. The
Keep It Afloat game is fast moving and involves passing, setting, and
A group must keep the ball up in the air or against a wall court coverage. It is a good game for high school students
for a specified amount of time. The group can be in a cir- who have developed passing and setting skills.
cle or arranged single file for the wall drill. Passes, sets, or
both can be used. Three-Hit Volleyball
Three-hit volleyball is similar to regular volleyball, but the
Beach Ball or Nerf Ball Volleyball ball must be hit three times on a side with the third hit go-
Regulation rules are followed except that the server must ing over the net.
move up close to the net. A beach ball or Nerf ball is easier
to control than a regular volleyball. Mini-volleyball
This is a modified game for students ages 9 to 12. The net is
One-Bounce Volleyball 6 feet, 10 inches, and the court is 15 by 40 feet. Three stu-
Regular rules are followed except that the ball can bounce dents are on a team, with two frontline players and one
one time on each side. The bounce can occur after the backline player. The rules are similar to regulation volleyball.

472
 SPORTS

Blind-Man Volleyball Optional Objectives

A cover is put over the net so that it is impossible to see 1. Standing 2 feet from the backline, bump three of
what is happening on the other side. Regulation volleyball five forearm passes into an 8-foot circle surround-
rules are followed. Teams must be ready because they ing the setter’s position. The height must be at least
never know when the ball is coming over the net. A scorer 10 feet. The ball will be thrown by the instructor or
is necessary for both sides of the net. a classmate.
2. Bump three of five forearm passes over the net at a
Regulation Volleyball—Serves Modified height of at least 12 feet that land inbounds and not
Regulation rules are followed, but the server can have two more than 8 feet from the backline.
attempts, or the service distance is shortened. 3. Standing in the setter’s position (center forward),
hit three consecutive overhead sets at least 10 feet
SUGGESTED PERFORMANCE high that land in a 5-foot circle where the spiker
OBJECTIVES would be located. The ball will be thrown by the
Performance objectives have been used successfully with instructor or a classmate.
volleyball units at both the middle and high school levels. 4. Hit three of five overhead passes over the net at least
The following list can help structure a learning environ- 12 feet high that land inbounds and not more than
ment for volleyball activities. These can be modified 8 feet from the backline.
according to the abilities of the students and the facilities 5. Standing in the setter’s position (center forward),
available. hit three of five back sets at least 10 feet high that
land in a 5-foot circle where the spiker would be
Core Objectives located. The ball will be thrown by the instructor or
Forearm Pass a classmate.
1. Bump 12 consecutive forearm passes against the 6. Volley 12 consecutive times over the net with the
wall at a height of at least 10 feet. instructor or a classmate by alternating forearm
2. Bump 12 consecutive forearm passes into the air at passes and overhead passes.
a height of at least 10 feet. 7. Alternate forearm passes and overhead passes in the
3. Bump 10 consecutive forearm passes over the net air at a height of 10 feet or more, 12 consecutive times.
with the instructor or a classmate. 8. Spike three of four sets inbounds from an on-hand
position—three-step approach, jump, extend arm,
Overhead Set Pass
hand contact.
4. Hit 15 consecutive set passes against the wall at
9. Spike three of five sets inbounds from an off-hand
a height of at least 10 feet.
position.
5. Hit 15 consecutive set passes into the air at a height
10. Recover three consecutive balls from the net.
of at least 10 feet.
Recoveries must be playable—that is, 8 feet high in
6. Hit 12 consecutive set passes over the net with the the playing area.
instructor or a classmate.
11. Hit three consecutive overhand serves into the right
Serves half of the court.
7. Hit three consecutive underhand serves into the 12. Hit three of four overhand serves into the left half
right half of the court. of the court.
8. Hit three of four underhand serves into the left half 13. Hit three of five overhand serves under a rope
of the court. 15 feet high that land in the back half of the court.
9. Hit three consecutive overhand serves inbounds. 14. Officiate at least three games, using proper calls and
signals.
Attendance and Participation
15. Coach a team for the class tournament, includ-
10. Be dressed and ready to participate at 8:00 A.M. ing planning strategy, making substitutions, and
11. Participate in 15 games. scheduling.
12. Score 90 percent or better on a rules, strategies, and 16. Devise and carry out a research project that deals
techniques test. with volleyball. Check with the instructor for ideas.

473
 SPORTS

Kentucky Department of Education. (2002). Archery

standards-based unit of study, Grades 6–8. Frankfort,
WEBSITES Kentucky: Author.
Archery McCracken, B. (2001). It’s not just gym anymore: Teaching
www.archery.org secondary students how to be active for life.
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McKinney, W. C., & McKinney, M. W. (1996). Archery (8th
Badminton ed.). Dubuque, IA: Brown & Benchmark.
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Basketball Schmottlach, N., & McManama, J. (2010). The physical ed-
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Higher Education/Benjamin Cummings.
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Field Hockey Badminton
www.planetfieldhockey.com Bloss, M. V. (2001). Badminton. Boston: McGraw-Hill.
www.usfieldhockey.com Fronske, H. (2008). Teaching cues for sport skills (4th ed.).
Flag Football San Francisco: Pearson Higher Education/Benjamin
Cummings.
www.goflagfootball.com
Mood, D. P., Musker, F. F., & Rink, J. E. (2007). Sports and
www.usffa.org
recreational activities (14th ed.). Boston: McGraw-
Lacrosse Hill.
www.lacrosse.org National Association for Girls and Women in Sport.
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AAHPERD.
Softball
Paup, D. C. (2002). Badminton. In N. Dougherty (Ed.),
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www.usasoftball.org student (5th ed.). Reston, VA: NASPE and AAHPERD.
Soccer Schmottlach, N., & McManama, J. (2010). The physical ed-
www.soccer.org ucation handbook (12th ed.). San Francisco: Pearson
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Team Handball Basketball

www.hickoksports.com Bryant, J. (2002). Basketball. In N. Dougherty (Ed.),
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Track and Field student (5th ed.). Reston, VA: NASPE and AAHPERD.
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San Francisco: Pearson Higher Education/Benjamin
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Volleyball Mood, D. P., Musker, F. F., & Rink, J. E. (2007). Sports and
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Schmottlach, N., & McManama, J. (2010). The physical ed-
ucation handbook (12th ed.). San Francisco: Pearson
Higher Education/Benjamin Cummings.
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SUGGESTED READINGS Fundamentals and team play. Dubuque, IA: Brown &
Benchmark.
Lesson Plans Wissel, H. (2004). Basketball: Steps to success (2nd ed.).
Casten, C. (2011). Lesson plans for dynamic physical edu- Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics Publishers.
cation for secondary school students (7th ed.). San
Francisco: Pearson Higher Education/Benjamin Field Hockey
Cummings. Fronske, H. (2008). Teaching cues for sport skills (4th ed.).
San Francisco: Pearson Higher Education/Benjamin
Archery Cummings.
Fronske, H. (2008). Teaching cues for sport skills (4th ed.). Gray, G. R. (2002). Floor hockey. In N. Dougherty (Ed.),
San Francisco: Pearson Higher Education/Benjamin Physical activity and sport for the secondary school
Cummings. student. (5th ed.). Reston, VA: NASPE and AAHPERD.
Haywood, K. M. (2002). Archery. In N. Dougherty (Ed.), Mood, D. P., Musker, F. F., & Rink, J. E. (2007). Sports and
Physical activity and sport for the secondary school recreational activities (14th ed.). Boston: McGraw-
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Association for Health, Physical Education, Schmottlach, N., & McManama, J. (2010). The physical ed-
Recreation, and Dance (AAHPERD). ucation handbook (12th ed.). San Francisco: Pearson
Haywood, K. M., & Lewis, C. S. (2006). Archery: Steps to Higher Education/Benjamin Cummings.
success (3rd ed.). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics Whitney, M. G. (Ed.). Eagle. Colorado Springs, CO: United
Publishers. States Field Hockey Association (USFHA).

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Flag Football Mood, D. P., Musker, F. F., & Rink, J. E. (2007). Sports and
Domitrovitz, M. (2002). Flag football. In N. Dougherty recreational activities (14th ed.). Boston: McGraw-Hill.
(Ed.), Physical activity and sport for the secondary Potter, D. L. (2007). Softball: Steps to success (3rd ed.).
school student (5th ed.). Reston, VA: NASPE and Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics Publishers.
AAHPERD. Ransdall, L. B., & Taylor, A. (2002). Softball. In N.
Fronske, H. (2008). Teaching cues for sport skills (4th ed.). Dougherty (Ed.), Physical activity and sport for the
San Francisco: Pearson Higher Education/Benjamin secondary school student (5th ed.). Reston, VA:
Cummings. NASPE and AAHPERD.
Mood, D. P., Musker, F. F., & Rink, J. E. (2007). Sports and Schmottlach, N., & McManama, J. (2010). The physical
recreational activities (14th ed.). Boston: McGraw- education handbook (12th ed.). San Francisco:
Hill. Pearson Higher Education/Benjamin Cummings.
Schmottlach, N., & McManama, J. (2010). The physical
Team Handball
education handbook (12th ed.). San Francisco:
Pearson Higher Education/Benjamin Cummings. Dwight, M. P., & Cavanaugh, M. (2002). Team handball. In
N. Dougherty (Ed.), Physical activity and sport for the
Gymnastics secondary school student (5th ed.). Reston, VA:
NASPE and AAHPERD.
Feigley, D. A. (2002). Tumbling. In N. Dougherty (Ed.),
Fronske, H. (2008). Teaching cues for sport skills (4th ed.).
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Fronske, H. (2008). Teaching cues for sport skills (4th ed.).
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San Francisco: Pearson Higher Education/Benjamin
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Mood, D. P., Musker, F. F., & Rink, J. E. (2007). Sports and
Schmottlach, N., & McManama, J. (2010). The physical
recreational activities (14th ed.). Boston: McGraw-Hill.
education handbook (12th ed.). San Francisco:
Schmottlach, N., & McManama, J. (2010). The physical
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education handbook (12th ed.). San Francisco:
Pearson Higher Education/Benjamin Cummings. Track and Field
Bowerman, W. (1972). Coaching track and field. Boston,
Lacrosse MA: Houghton Mifflin Co.
Fronske, H. (2008). Teaching cues for sport skills (4th ed.). Doherty, J. (1976). Track and field omnibook (3rd ed.). Los
San Francisco: Pearson Higher Education/Benjamin Altos, CA: Track and Field News Press.
Cummings. Fronske, H. (2008). Teaching cues for sport skills (4th ed.).
Hutcherson, K. (2002). Lacrosse. In N. Dougherty (Ed.), San Francisco: Pearson Higher Education/Benjamin
Physical activity and sport for the secondary school Cummings.
student (5th ed.). Reston, VA: NASPE and AAHPERD. Knop, N, (2002). Track and field. In N. Dougherty (Ed.),
Mood, D. P., Musker, F. F., & Rink, J. E. (2007). Sports and Physical activity and sport for the secondary school
recreational activities (14th ed.). Boston: McGraw-Hill. student (5th ed.). Reston, VA: NASPE and AAHPERD.
Schmottlach, N., & McManama, J. (2010). The physical National Federation of High School Associations. (2007).
education handbook (12th ed.). San Francisco: Officiating track and field and cross country methods.
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Soccer ucation handbook (12th ed.). San Francisco: Pearson
Fronske, H. (2008). Teaching cues for sport skills (4th ed.). Higher Education/Benjamin Cummings.
San Francisco: Pearson Higher Education/Benjamin
Cummings. Volleyball
Luxbacher, J. (2005). Teaching soccer: Steps to success American Sport Education Program. (2007). Coaching
(3rd ed.). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics Publishers. youth volleyball (4th ed.). Champaign, IL: Human
Mood, D. P., Musker, F. F., & Rink, J. E. (2007). Sports and Kinetics Publishers.
recreational activities (14th ed.). Boston: McGraw-Hill. Fronske, H. (2008). Teaching cues for sport skills (4th ed.).
Schmottlach, N., & McManama, J. (2010). The physical San Francisco: Pearson Higher Education/Benjamin
education handbook (12th ed.). San Francisco: Cummings.
Pearson Higher Education/Benjamin Cummings. Mood, D. P., Musker, F. F., & Rink, J. E. (2007). Sports
Weinberg, W. (2002). Soccer. In N. Dougherty (Ed.), and recreational activities (14th ed.). Boston:
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student (5th ed.). Reston, VA: NASPE and AAHPERD. Schmottlach, N., & McManama, J. (2010). The physical
education handbook (12th ed.). San Francisco:
Softball Pearson Higher Education/Benjamin Cummings.
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San Francisco: Pearson Higher Education/Benjamin Physical activity and sport for the secondary school
Cummings. student (5th ed.). Reston, VA: NASPE and AAHPERD.

475
476
NATIONAL STANDARDS FOR
PHYSICAL EDUCATION*

1. Demonstrates competency in motor

skills and movement patterns needed
to perform a variety of physical
activities.
2. Demonstrates understanding of
movement concepts, principles, and
tactics as they apply to the learning
and performance of physical activities.
3. Participates regularly in physical
activity.
4. Achieves and maintains a health-
enhancing level of physical fitness.
5. Exhibits responsible personal and
social behavior that respects self and
others in physical activity settings.
6. Values physical activity for health,
enjoyment, challenge, self-expression,
and/or social interaction.

* National Association for Sport and Physical Education

(NASPE), 2004.
478
ESSENTIAL COMPONENTS OF
QUALITY PROGRAMS

I. Organized around content standards

II. Student-centered and
developmentally appropriate
III. Physical activity and motor
skill development form the core
of the program
IV. Teaches management skills and
self-discipline
V. Promotes inclusion of all students
VI. Focuses on process over product
VII. Promotes lifetime personal health
and wellness
VIII. Teaches cooperation and
responsibility, and promotes
sensitivity to diversity
480
Index
Page references followed by "f" indicate illustrated age, 9, 12, 17, 21, 26-27, 31-40, 42, 44, 55, 57-59, 62, Back pain, 15, 331
figures or photographs; followed by "t" indicates a 64, 70, 77, 82, 114, 124, 141, 186, 188, 191, balance, 23, 36, 38, 43, 49, 60, 65, 68-69, 76, 80,
table. 238, 266-267, 269, 286-288, 292-294, 304, 85-87, 99, 127, 140-141, 158-160, 169, 209,
310-311, 328, 331, 335, 365, 376, 386, 389, 232, 256, 275, 299-301, 304, 321, 332, 334,
393, 400, 441, 450 336-337, 358, 373, 381, 389, 395, 397, 408,
2 flexibility and, 365 415-417, 419, 424, 450, 455
2008 Physical Activity Guidelines, 30, 45, 384 Aggression, 145, 185 balanced diet, 395, 398
agility, 36, 66, 232, 275, 314-315, 331-332, 343, Ballistic stretching, 335
345-347, 351 barbells, 359
A agriculture, 395-396, 403 Bargaining, 301
Abdominal muscles, 336, 362-363 AIDS, 40, 53, 57, 138, 140, 266, 272, 399 beans, 396
Abstinence, 398 Alcohol, 17, 99, 169, 394-395, 397-400 Behavior, 5-6, 8-10, 13-14, 17, 22-23, 26-27, 29, 38,
Acceptance, 165, 178, 226, 256, 275-277 calories in, 398 45, 48, 53, 55, 57, 60, 74, 99, 101, 105,
acne, 107, 112 defined, 398 107-108, 117-118, 126-127, 129, 131-138,
Action, 68, 101, 104, 120, 140-141, 147, 167-168, effects of, 395, 398 140-141, 145, 149-151, 154, 162, 172-173,
198, 200, 234, 268, 271, 286, 290-294, 324, effects on the body, 394 176-179, 182-202, 203-208, 211-214, 216,
337, 339, 341, 347, 351, 353, 391, 394, health and, 99 218, 221-227, 230, 234, 244, 254, 256,
411-412, 417, 432, 448, 455-456 Alcohol abuse, 398 259-260, 264, 273, 277, 282, 285, 292, 298,
active listening, 134 effects of, 398 309, 313-314, 327, 333, 363, 368-369, 381,
activity, 5-28, 29-32, 36-45, 48-49, 51-53, 55-59, Alcoholism, 398, 402 385-387, 393-394, 398, 401-402, 406, 428,
61-66, 68-71, 74-86, 91-92, 96-99, 101-104, defined, 398 477
105, 108, 110-116, 118-128, 130, 131, Alignment, 68, 193, 335, 357, 388 Behavior change, 198
133-134, 137-141, 147, 149, 152, 154, 156, Allergies, 295 Behavior modification, 402
160, 165-166, 169, 173, 176-179, 181-184, America, 15, 147, 328, 446 Behaviors, 7, 9-10, 12-13, 15, 17, 21-22, 26, 50-51,
189-190, 192, 195-197, 202, 203-204, American Academy of Pediatrics, 41-42, 44, 331 60-62, 68, 106, 112, 116, 118, 133, 137, 141,
206-210, 212-213, 216, 218, 221, 223-224, American College of Sports Medicine, 31, 45, 331, 145-147, 150, 159, 166, 172-173, 177-179,
227, 230, 234, 238-239, 246-249, 254, 256, 365, 372, 384 184-188, 191, 194-195, 198-199, 202,
258-259, 261, 264, 267, 272-276, 279, American Heart Association, 27, 30-31, 44-45, 391 204-208, 212-215, 220-222, 224-227, 234,
282-284, 286-289, 291, 293-295, 297-304, hypertension, 31 248, 254, 259, 276, 386-387, 398, 400, 402
306-308, 311-312, 313-315, 318-325, American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 27 lifestyle, 7, 9-10, 13, 15, 17, 51, 386, 398
327-336, 338-339, 341-344, 346, 348, American Medical Association, 28, 261, 365 sexual, 146
350-352, 354-355, 357, 359-362, 365-366, anaerobic, 33, 38, 389, 392 beliefs, 49, 51, 75, 107, 109, 144, 146, 255, 258-259
367-384, 385-387, 389, 391-392, 394-398, Anger, 125, 186-188, 289, 394, 399 Bench press, 354-355, 358
400-403, 406, 408-409, 412, 415-417, 419, anorexia, 42 beverages, 397
423, 428-429, 431-432, 438, 444, 450, 455, Anorexia nervosa, 42 caloric intake and, 397
460, 463, 465, 467, 470, 474-475, 477, 479 anxiety, 121, 188 sports, 397
anorexia, 42 aorta, 391 water, 397
definitions, 32, 207, 221, 224 Appraisal, 17 Bias, 146
environmental factors, 12, 26, 49, 52, 71, 81, 86, Arteries, 380, 391-393 Biceps muscle, 388
329 plaque buildup in, 380 Biking, 31, 76, 82, 330, 333, 371-372
health and, 5, 8-9, 12, 14, 21, 28, 29-31, 45, 48, arthritis, 387 Biological factors, 12
74-75, 98-99, 105, 112, 131, 149, 176, assessment, 10, 52, 68-69, 97-98, 101-102, 129, blindness, 265
203, 230, 238, 264, 282, 289, 298, 313, 152-153, 155-156, 159-161, 165, 169, 218, Blonna, R., 403
327-328, 330, 334, 365-366, 368, 371, 220, 222, 227, 229-234, 238-241, 243-244, blood, 9, 15, 38, 41, 261, 330, 380, 391-394, 396, 400
373, 380, 385-386, 403, 406, 428, 479 246-249, 251, 255-257, 260-261, 265-268, alcohol and, 400
heart disease and, 15, 394, 397 271-272, 278, 331, 365, 379 cholesterol, 261, 380, 392-393, 396
MyPyramid, 395-396, 402 of stress, 98 loss of, 393
older adults, 37, 352 Assets, 31 blood lipid profile, 9
overview, 30, 173, 202 Assistance, 224-226, 272-273, 275-276 Blood pressure, 9, 15, 261, 380, 392-394, 396
overweight and, 27-28, 39, 365 Athletes, 32, 40, 44, 62, 114, 169, 204, 220, 238, 265, defined, 9, 393
weight management and, 9 300, 304, 309-311, 330, 332, 363, 387, 399 heart disease and, 15, 394
Activity level, 238, 329, 374, 377-379, 392, 455 diet and, 169 hypertension, 394
Activity reinforcers, 192 training, 44, 169, 220, 309-311, 330, 387 normal, 392, 394, 396
Adaptability, 206 Athletic performance, 328, 395 physical activity and, 9, 15, 261
added sugars, 396 atrophy, 389 physical fitness and, 15, 261
Addiction, 365, 398-399 Attachment, 384, 388-389 resting, 392-393
alcoholism, 398 Attitudes, 7-8, 10, 12-14, 17, 23, 25-26, 33, 40, 55-56, weight management, 9, 380
causes of, 399 62, 69, 79, 81, 83, 92, 98, 112, 118, 120, Blood vessels, 330, 400
defined, 398 125, 127-128, 139, 172, 177, 204, 206, 231, body, 9, 11-12, 14-15, 17-18, 23, 27, 31-33, 36-41, 43,
adolescence, 9, 27-28, 32-33, 37-39, 42, 106, 255 249, 254-256, 299, 332-333 51, 53, 55, 57, 60, 64, 75-76, 79, 84, 93, 98,
adolescents, 7-9, 27-28, 29-33, 37, 39, 41-45, 59, 71, definition of, 69 112, 122, 124, 128, 138, 140, 142-143, 152,
136-138, 140, 147, 299, 365-366, 369-370, Australia, 45, 450 155, 157-158, 160, 165, 167-168, 193, 232,
376, 378, 381 235-238, 241-242, 251, 261, 275, 279, 301,
adrenaline, 394 310, 314-316, 318-319, 323-324, 328,
adults, 7-9, 12-13, 15, 21, 23-24, 26, 28, 30-32, 36-37, B
Babies, 190 330-332, 334-348, 350-360, 362-364, 369,
39-41, 45, 49, 51, 57, 61, 70, 145, 189, 258, 371-373, 375-376, 379, 381-382, 386-389,
307, 309, 330, 333-334, 352, 365, 374, 376, Back, 15, 40, 43-44, 70, 93, 98, 107, 123, 126, 128,
132, 138, 141, 152, 156-159, 161-165, 167, 391-401, 407-408, 410-412, 415-416,
378, 381, 398, 400, 450, 460 419-420, 424, 429-430, 432-433, 438-439,
young, 7-9, 13, 15, 21, 26, 28, 31-32, 36-37, 39-41, 170, 179, 191, 194, 196-197, 208, 215-216,
221-222, 232, 234-236, 238, 245, 248, 443-448, 451-455, 460, 462, 466, 468,
45, 57, 70, 333-334, 374, 398, 400 470-471
Advertisements, 399 251-253, 267, 285-286, 299, 315-317, 319,
322-324, 328, 331, 335-340, 344-347, 350, body composition, 17-18, 36, 39, 79, 98, 124, 128,
Aerobic activity, 11, 330, 335, 346, 352, 370, 389, 400, 235-236, 238, 261, 328, 330-331
450 352-354, 356-363, 373, 375-376, 381-383,
388, 391, 393, 407-409, 411, 413-419, assessing, 261
Aerobic capacity, 36-37, 234, 236, 384 assessment of, 238
aerobic exercise, 335, 352 422-425, 430, 432-433, 436-437, 439,
441-447, 449, 451-453, 456-457, 459-460, defined, 39, 328
intensity, 352 goals for, 330
older adults, 352 462-464, 466, 468-473
Back muscles, 430 measuring, 39, 235, 330
African Americans, 268
Body fat, 9, 12, 37, 39, 75, 235-236, 328, 331, 373, Cardiorespiratory fitness, 329, 352, 365, 370 132, 134-135, 138, 151, 153, 157, 159-160,
375-376, 379, 389, 393, 396, 401 Cardiorespiratory system, 387, 391 169, 179, 184, 186, 188, 193, 195, 197-198,
abdominal, 235-236, 331 cardiorespiratory training, 392 200, 210, 212, 234, 243, 274, 278-279, 285,
body composition and, 331 Cardiovascular disease, 376, 392-393 293, 312, 314, 318-322, 324, 331-332, 337,
body mass index (BMI), 39, 235, 331 stroke, 392-393 341, 343, 358, 366, 381, 386-387, 393, 395,
measures of, 331, 379 types of, 376, 393 397-398, 401, 424, 440-441, 443-445, 448,
measuring, 39, 235, 375 Cardiovascular system, 37, 42, 314, 341-342, 344, 451, 453-454, 457-459, 465-466, 468, 472
need for, 331, 373 381, 393 Cool-down, 43, 56
percent, 9, 37, 39, 235-236, 328, 331, 373, 393, exercise and, 344, 393 coordination, 11-12, 31, 36, 60-61, 232, 243, 274, 314,
396, 401 parts of, 42 331-332, 398, 412, 415, 454, 465
percentage of, 9, 37, 39, 236, 331, 389, 401 the heart, 342, 381, 393 Coping, 99, 399, 402-403
Body language, 138, 140, 193 carotid artery, 392 core muscles, 357
body mass index (BMI), 39, 235, 331 Cartilage, 387, 389 coronary arteries, 391
defined, 39 Case studies, 50, 71 Coronary heart disease, 24, 31, 396
determining, 331 catalysts, 397 costs, 14, 54, 114, 187, 309, 386
body size, 36, 38, 279, 381 cells, 392-393 Cramps, 109
body temperature, 382, 394 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 8, 27-28, Crime, 197, 201
body weight, 36, 39, 167, 318, 340, 369, 381, 388, 30, 33, 45, 68, 71, 331, 366 Crying, 170
395-396, 401, 454, 471 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Culture, 14-15, 57, 144, 268
body composition, 36, 39 331 Curl up, 236, 337, 339, 362
body mass index (BMI), 39 change, 10, 14, 17-18, 26, 30, 33, 37, 39-40, 60, 66, Curl-up test, 235
healthy, 39, 395-396 70, 76-77, 79, 82-83, 86, 104, 106-107, 112, Cutting, 108, 193, 309, 439
maintaining, 39, 369, 381, 395, 401 115-116, 119-120, 127-128, 130, 134, cystic fibrosis, 42
overweight, 36, 39, 369, 381, 396 136-137, 179, 181-182, 186, 191, 196-198,
weight loss, 381 200-201, 204, 208, 232, 255, 260-261, 266, D
Body work, 387 269, 274, 318-320, 322, 332-333, 341, 348, death, 37, 399-400
bone density, 37, 45 351-352, 360-361, 383, 387, 407-409, 412, Debt, 392
adolescents, 37, 45 415, 421-422, 433, 443-445, 451, 453, 462 Decision making, 52, 60, 62, 91, 97, 119, 145, 248,
bone growth, 61, 370 cheese, 396 386
bones, 31, 33, 37, 60, 370, 387-389 Chewing, 188 Deep breathing, 277, 395
calcium, 37 childhood, 9, 27-28, 36, 45, 59 Dependence, 97, 398
density, 37 adolescents, 9, 27-28, 45, 59 alcohol, 398
growth and development, 33 children, 7, 9, 17, 20-21, 24, 26-28, 30-31, 33, 39-40, Diabetes, 15, 31, 39, 42, 45, 373, 380, 393, 397
osteoporosis, 37 44-45, 53, 56-57, 69-70, 104, 114, 129-130, children, 31, 39, 45
physical activity and, 31 143-145, 147, 164, 174, 202, 249, 257, 261, heart disease and, 15, 397
brain, 17, 40, 265, 392 265-267, 272, 277-278, 365, 370, 378, 384, hypoglycemia, 39
breathing, 277, 285, 362-364, 392, 395, 401 389, 425 managing, 380
relaxation, 363-364, 395, 401 obesity, 9, 27-28, 30, 39, 44, 277, 365, 384 overweight and, 39
Breathing exercises, 401 obesity in, 28 physical activity and, 15, 31, 39, 45, 373
bronchi, 392 physical activities, 7, 24, 26, 33, 40, 44, 57, 143, physical fitness and, 15, 45, 397
bronchitis, 398 384, 389 Type 2, 39, 42, 380
Budgets, 54 physical inactivity, 39 weight management, 39, 380
Burnout, 44 school-aged, 33 diabetes mellitus, 31
Butter, 397, 424 Chocolate, 396 children and, 31
Buttocks, 335-337, 339, 347, 357-359, 362 Cholesterol, 236, 261, 380, 392-393, 396 Diaphragm, 392
cardiovascular disease, 392-393 Diet, 39, 169, 304, 363, 381, 393, 395-398
C cholesterol levels, 392 balanced, 395, 397-398
Calcium, 37, 45 defined, 393 exercise and, 393
adolescents, 37, 45 described, 393 stress and, 395
children and adolescents, 45 fats, 396 diets, 39, 44
exercise and, 45 HDLs, 380, 393 DASH, 44
in bone, 37 high-density lipoproteins (HDLs), 380, 393 disabilities, 17, 21, 53, 56, 69, 71, 137, 156, 263-268,
older adults, 37 LDLs, 380, 393 272-274, 276-279, 284, 310, 347, 429
osteoporosis, 37 low-density lipoproteins (LDLs), 380, 393 developmental, 265, 268, 272-273, 279
physical activity and, 45 physical fitness and, 261 Disability, 15, 37, 265-268, 273, 276-278, 294, 380
California, 125, 261 weight management, 380 discrimination, 107, 144, 268
calisthenics, 7, 14, 43, 332, 334, 354, 372, 393 cholesterol levels, 392 Disease, 8, 15, 24, 27-28, 30-31, 33-35, 45, 68, 71,
defined, 393 Chronic bronchitis, 398 331, 366, 373, 376, 380, 384, 392-398
Caloric intake, 381, 395-397 Chronic disease, 28, 30, 34-35, 45, 366 nutrition and, 393, 395
calorie, 249, 362 chronic diseases, 15 obesity and, 30
Calories, 37, 370, 373, 378, 381, 393, 395-398 circuit training, 6, 66, 80, 83, 342-343, 351 susceptibility to, 395
adolescents, 37, 370, 378, 381 circuit weight training, 98 Disease prevention, 28, 30, 45, 366, 376, 384
defined, 393, 398 circulatory system, 391 exercise and, 28, 45, 384
empty, 395 coffee, 318, 351 physical activity and, 28, 30, 45, 366, 384
empty calories, 395 cognitive development, 118-119, 257 diseases, 15, 17, 36, 39, 45, 236, 330, 373, 380, 386,
exercise and, 393 colon, 31 393-395, 397-398
for children and adolescents, 370 Colon cancer, 31 cardiovascular disease, 393
older adults, 37 regular physical activity, 31 liver, 398
Canada, 87, 97, 450 Commitment, 87, 266, 301, 340 drills, 11, 66, 79-80, 83, 116, 123-128, 166, 212, 335,
Cancer, 15, 31, 373, 380, 398 Communication, 69, 80, 108, 121, 132, 134-138, 147, 343, 347-348, 438-440, 444, 446-447, 451,
alcohol intake, 398 165, 187, 191, 199, 213-215, 243, 248, 268, 453-456, 460, 469, 472
colon, 31 271, 275, 277, 289, 309, 311 drinking, 41, 94, 351, 395, 398-401, 412
defined, 398 gender differences, 132 moderate, 41, 398-399
fat intake, 380 listening, 132, 134, 136-137, 187 Driving, 62, 70, 205, 302, 371, 382, 399-400
fat intake and, 380 nonverbal, 134, 136, 138, 147, 215 Drug abuse, 99, 169, 395
learning, 31 Communication skills, 268 Drug use, 399
liver, 398 Conception, 117 Drugs, 17, 169, 394, 398-400
physical activity, 15, 31, 373, 380 Conflict, 112, 122, 177, 185-186, 195-196, 303, illicit, 399
physical activity and, 15, 31, 373 311-312 performance-enhancing, 399
risk of, 31, 373, 380 Conflicts, 20, 22, 185, 258, 303 prescription, 399
types of, 373 connective tissues, 371 types of, 394, 400
Capillaries, 391-392 consensus, 366, 369 dumbbells, 358-359
carbohydrates, 398 Consequences, 13, 60-61, 119, 132, 177, 185, duration of activity, 374
defined, 398 188-189, 196-199, 201, 271, 288, 331, 365, Duration of exercise, 41
sources, 398 386, 393, 398-399 Dying, 400
Carbon dioxide, 392 constipation, 394
Cardiac output, 41, 392 Consumers, 18-19, 23, 96
Control, 8, 24, 27-28, 30, 33, 44-45, 57, 62, 64, 68, 71, E
Cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR), 284, 400 eating, 9-10, 13, 30, 39, 372, 380, 395-397
cardiorespiratory endurance, 437 75, 93, 97, 99-102, 115, 117, 119, 121, 130,

482
Eating habits, 9-10, 13, 30, 39 diet and, 39, 396-397 234, 261, 264, 267, 282, 298, 312, 313,
of adolescents, 30 disease prevention and, 28, 45, 366 327, 365-366, 368-369, 373, 384, 385,
eggs, 396 duration of, 38, 41, 341, 343-344, 349, 374, 402 406, 428
Elimination, 118, 202, 273-274, 299, 305-306, 323, environment and, 41, 283 Physical Activity Pyramid, 365, 369, 371-373
386 environmental factors, 12, 52, 329 weight and, 39, 328, 331
Emotions, 137-138, 186-188, 275, 395 equipment for, 6, 52 Fitness evaluation, 236
anger, 186-188 frequency of, 373, 401 Fitness goals, 15, 236
Empathy, 13, 56, 187, 276 gender differences, 22 Fitness products, 27
emphysema, 398 health benefits of, 27, 31, 261 fitness program, 13, 42-43, 331-333
empty calories, 395 heart disease and, 394, 397 progressive, 42
Endocrine system, 394 in the heat, 44 fitness programs, 17-18
endurance exercise, 384, 392 intensity of, 38, 41, 202, 341, 352, 354, 374, 402 flavor, 142, 187, 435
Energy, 8, 13, 20, 38-39, 41, 68, 108, 128-129, 191, mode of, 402 flexibility, 12, 15, 17, 23-24, 38, 57, 60, 76, 79, 82-83,
247, 256, 259-260, 299, 301, 309, 311, 332, older adults, 37, 352 85, 97-98, 103, 107, 124, 128, 151, 153,
341-342, 369-370, 374-375, 381, 384, 386, osteoporosis, 37, 373 159-160, 165, 235-236, 238, 330-331,
394, 397 overview, 202 334-336, 341-342, 350-352, 357, 364-365,
adolescents, 8, 39, 41, 299, 369-370, 381 overweight, 27-28, 31, 37-39, 43-45, 57, 120, 328, 371-373, 388-389, 400-401, 408, 419
alcohol, 394, 397 331, 333, 365, 369, 381, 386, 393, benefits of, 98, 334, 373
balance of, 68, 299, 397 396-397 dynamic, 335
Calories, 370, 381, 397 Physical Activity Pyramid, 365, 369, 371-373 goals, 15, 38, 98, 128, 159, 165, 236, 330, 373,
defined, 20, 39, 41, 369 running, 6, 22, 31, 37, 41, 80, 83, 120, 180, 401
definition of, 41, 374 233-234, 292, 320, 324, 332-335, improving, 15, 98, 334, 364-365, 401
in the body, 39 340-343, 349, 351-352, 354, 370, 372, Pilates, 23-24, 76, 85, 352, 357, 365
physical activity and, 20, 39, 299, 369, 381, 384 397 posture, 60, 98, 331, 357, 364, 388-389
requirements for, 311 selecting activities for, 55 yoga, 23, 85, 107, 357, 364, 372
energy expenditure, 8, 39, 41, 369, 374-375, 381 social influences, 12 Flow, 75, 77, 132-134, 160, 177, 179, 392
measuring, 39, 374-375 strength training, 44-45, 354, 357, 373 food, 10, 45, 98, 381, 395-398, 403
energy intake, 8, 39, 381 stress and, 44, 395 defined, 398
Enrichment, 144, 268 stretching, 43, 80, 83, 85, 331, 335-336, 342, 345, functional, 398
Ensure, 7, 12-13, 16-17, 20-21, 23, 40, 43-44, 49, 52, 351-352, 357, 362, 365, 370, 372, 389, Food diary, 398
55, 60, 62, 65, 68-70, 76-78, 80, 83-84, 90, 391 Food groups, 395-396, 398
106, 112-113, 116-117, 121, 124, 127-129, walking, 6, 24, 31, 41, 57, 75-76, 80, 85, 98, 180, Food Guide Pyramid, 403
132-133, 142, 146, 170, 178, 181-182, 320, 330, 333, 335-336, 339, 341-343, foods, 10, 379, 381, 393, 395-398
188-189, 194, 200, 239, 246, 249, 258, 268, 345, 349, 352, 360, 369-372, 374, 381, variety of, 10, 379, 396
271-272, 275-276, 278, 284, 288-290, 299, 384, 392-393, 397 formula, 304, 330, 371
301, 303-304, 309-310, 314, 317, 320, 330, weight control and, 395, 397 fractures, 37
334, 340-341, 345, 350, 357, 369, 377-378, weight management, 39, 369, 381, 387, 395, 402 free weights, 42, 114
386, 389, 393, 399, 431, 443, 455, 463, 471 Exercise prescription, 330-331 frequency, 13, 192, 197, 207, 330-331, 354, 370-371,
Environment, 6, 8-9, 11-14, 17-18, 21-24, 26, 39, 41, Exercise training, 384 373, 401
43, 51-52, 55, 60, 69, 77, 82, 84, 86-87, 90, experiments, 17, 92, 98 stretching, 331, 370
99, 106-108, 114, 118-119, 121-122, 132, eyes, 146, 152, 154, 158, 240, 324, 347, 415, 424, frequency of activity, 13
135, 137, 141, 143, 145-146, 150-151, 439, 447, 451, 455, 460, 462 Frequency of exercise, 401
153-154, 166-167, 169-170, 172, 177-178, Friends, 24, 134, 180, 184-185, 195, 197, 247, 300,
180, 183, 188, 191-192, 195, 198, 200, 208, F 306, 308, 314, 332, 394-395, 398
212, 220, 233, 239, 244, 246, 260, 265-267, Facial expressions, 134, 191 Friendships, 267, 300
269, 271, 274, 277-278, 283-284, 294, 300, Faith, 177 fruit, 395
307, 309, 329, 369, 376, 379-380, 383, 398, Families, 19, 429 MyPyramid, 395
407, 430, 473 Fast-twitch fibers, 33, 389 fruits, 396
exercise and, 12, 41, 329 fat tissue, 31, 36, 393 sugars, 396
lead in, 146 Fats, 396, 398
obesity and, 271 beneficial, 396 G
wellness and, 99 cholesterol, 396 Game Plans, 127, 311
Environmental factors, 12, 26, 49, 52, 71, 81, 86, 329 defined, 398 Gastrocnemius muscle, 388
epilepsy, 284 MyPyramid, 396 Gender, 12, 16-17, 21-22, 77, 132, 143-146, 165, 170,
Equal, 16, 19, 37, 39, 41, 53, 70, 90, 133, 145-146, types of, 396 202, 292, 301, 376, 378, 380, 393
180-181, 198, 215, 256, 266, 292, 300, females, 16, 33, 36-38, 43, 60, 78, 389, 401, 442 gender differences, 22, 132
303-304, 307, 309, 311, 324, 329, 349, 372, Fiber, 33, 38, 45, 389, 391 communication, 132
378, 380, 389, 391, 408, 440-441, 449 Fibrosis, 42 exercise, 22
equipment, 6, 12, 19-20, 23, 25-26, 43, 52-54, 62-63, Finances, 288, 310 Gender issues, 21
65-67, 69-70, 76, 81, 86-87, 90, 106, fish, 424 Genetic factors, 328, 330
113-117, 119, 125-130, 134, 150, 152, fitness, 5-7, 12-15, 17-18, 21, 23-28, 29-32, 37-40, genetics, 83, 257, 379
154-155, 160, 169-170, 173, 180, 182-184, 42-45, 48-49, 51-53, 55, 60-61, 63, 65-66, obesity, 379
187-188, 193-194, 196, 210, 212, 272, 278, 68-70, 74-76, 78-80, 82-86, 92, 96-99, Gerontology, 27
283-285, 287-294, 299-301, 303-304, 103-104, 105, 116, 125, 127-128, 130, 131, Gestures, 138, 141, 394
307-308, 310, 319-320, 322, 324, 341-342, 149-151, 153, 165, 169, 176-177, 185, 198, Gluteus maximus, 355, 358-359
350, 353-355, 360, 369, 380, 407, 414-415, 202, 203, 210, 212, 217, 223, 227, 230, Goals, 8, 13-16, 20, 26, 30-32, 38-39, 42-44, 49-52,
422, 424, 430, 434, 438, 442, 446-447, 233-234, 236-239, 247, 249, 255, 257, 55-56, 59, 70, 75, 87, 89, 98-99, 113, 118,
450-451, 453, 460, 462, 470 260-261, 264-265, 267, 271, 273, 277, 279, 121, 125, 128-129, 133-134, 137, 145, 150,
essential nutrients, 397 282, 298, 300, 309, 311-312, 313-314, 319, 159, 165, 173, 177-178, 181, 185, 189,
ethnicity, 15, 143-145, 170 325, 327-335, 340-342, 344-345, 347-352, 204-205, 208, 213, 226, 232, 234, 236-237,
Exercise, 6, 12, 17, 22, 24, 27-28, 31, 37-41, 43-45, 355, 359-360, 363, 365-366, 368-373, 245-247, 249, 256, 260, 267, 270-271, 273,
50, 52-53, 55, 57, 75-76, 80, 83, 85, 92, 376-377, 379, 384, 385-387, 397, 400-401, 275-277, 279, 294, 299, 307-310, 330, 369,
97-98, 104, 120, 130, 180, 202, 227, 403, 406, 408, 428, 444, 477 373, 377-380, 383, 387, 391, 401, 407, 422,
233-234, 236, 249, 257, 261, 283, 291-292, basic principles of, 387 442, 450, 452, 454, 459, 467, 469-470
320-321, 324, 328-336, 338-345, 349-355, children, 7, 17, 21, 24, 26-28, 30-31, 39-40, 44-45, for resistance training, 44
357, 359-363, 365-366, 369-374, 381, 384, 53, 69-70, 104, 130, 202, 249, 257, 261, realistic, 173, 256, 275
386-387, 389, 391-397, 399, 401-403, 450 265, 267, 277, 365, 370, 384 gradual improvement, 396
aerobic, 24, 37-38, 43-44, 80, 85, 98, 234, 236, developing a program, 15, 70, 237 grains, 396, 433
249, 328, 330-331, 335, 340, 342, 345, diet, 39, 169, 363, 397 MyPyramid, 396
349, 352, 355, 365-366, 370-372, 384, evaluation of, 198, 239, 255 growth, 6-7, 17, 27-28, 30, 32-33, 36-37, 44-45, 60-61,
389, 392, 450 lifetime, 5, 7, 12, 14-15, 18, 21, 23-25, 29, 37, 40, 70-71, 77, 81, 130, 143-144, 222, 224, 251,
basics of, 357, 387 42, 48-49, 60, 65-66, 68-70, 74, 76, 260, 288, 290, 309, 311, 314, 328, 370, 389
benefits of, 27, 31, 98, 261, 334, 373 78-80, 82, 84, 86, 92, 96-97, 104, 105, growth charts, 45, 328
children, 17, 24, 27-28, 31, 39-40, 44-45, 53, 57, 127-128, 131, 149, 176, 203, 230, 237, growth spurt, 33, 60-61, 77
104, 130, 202, 249, 257, 261, 365, 370, 264, 282, 298, 313-314, 327-328, 330, growth spurts, 60, 314
384, 389 333, 368, 385-387, 400, 406, 428
defined, 39, 41, 55, 227, 292, 328, 369, 393 physical activity and, 5-6, 12, 14-15, 21, 24, 26-28,
definition of, 41, 283, 374 H
29-32, 39, 45, 48-49, 51-52, 69, 74-75, habits, 8-10, 13, 22, 26, 30, 39, 52-53, 63, 65, 68, 112,
diet, 39, 363, 381, 393, 395-397 82, 98-99, 105, 131, 149, 176, 203, 230,

483
 177, 277, 329-330, 333, 383, 387, 394, 399, Heart rate monitors, 331 Legal issues, 278, 295
410 Heat stress, 42, 44 legislation, 53, 265
hair, 112 Heat-related illness, 41 life expectancy, 396
Hamstring curl, 359 Helmets, 447 healthy, 396
Hamstring muscles, 388 Heredity, 12-13, 329, 365, 393 lifestyle, 7-11, 13, 15, 17, 23-24, 27, 30-32, 37-40, 44,
Hand weights, 357, 383 health and, 12, 365 51-52, 79, 84, 86, 92, 98-99, 120, 238, 261,
Happiness, 57 High blood pressure, 15, 380, 393, 396 268, 328-330, 333, 365, 367-369, 371-373,
HDLs, 380, 393 high-density lipoproteins (HDLs), 380, 393 375-376, 378, 380-383, 386, 392, 396,
Headaches, 109 defined, 393 398-399, 403
Health, 5-15, 17-19, 21, 23-24, 26-28, 29-32, 34-35, hip flexor muscles, 335 assessment of, 238
38-40, 44-45, 48, 51-52, 55, 57, 61, 63, 66, Hope, 91, 124, 186-187, 196 cardiovascular disease, 376, 392
74-75, 83-86, 92, 97-99, 105, 108, 111-112, Hospitals, 266 hypertension, 31
131, 149, 169, 176, 182, 202, 203, 220, 230, host, 23 physical activities and, 23-24
232-234, 236-238, 247, 249, 260-261, Hostility, 201 sedentary, 8-9, 27, 38, 330, 371-373, 381
264-265, 271, 282-286, 289-290, 295, Humidity, 41, 329 ligaments, 331, 387-389
298-300, 309, 311, 313, 327-332, 334, 352, Hydration, 43 lipoproteins, 380, 393
355, 357, 363, 365-366, 368-371, 373-374, Hygiene, 106-107, 112 defined, 393
376-377, 380, 382-384, 385-387, 395-396, Hypertension, 31, 236, 394 described, 393
398-403, 406, 428, 474, 477, 479 controlling, 31 high-density lipoproteins (HDLs), 380, 393
body composition and, 331 heart disease and, 394 low-density lipoproteins (LDLs), 380, 393
concept of, 290, 334, 395, 399 physical activity, 31 types of, 393
defined, 9, 30, 39, 55, 265, 271, 328, 369, 398 physical activity and, 31 Listening, 58, 132-134, 136-137, 164, 168, 177, 182,
environmental, 12, 17, 26, 52, 75, 86, 99, 329 regular physical activity, 31 184-188, 190, 195-196, 272, 424
health disparities, 15 Hypertrophy, 36 Listening skills, 134
intellectual, 40, 61 hypoglycemia, 39 liver, 398
physical, 5-15, 17-19, 21, 23-24, 26-28, 29-32, hypokinetic diseases, 380 Longevity, 113
38-40, 44-45, 48, 51-52, 55, 57, 61, 63, hypothesis, 379 Loss of control, 398
66, 74-75, 83-86, 92, 97-99, 105, 108, Love, 22, 26, 433
111-112, 131, 149, 169, 176, 182, 202, I low-density lipoproteins (LDLs), 380, 393
203, 230, 232-234, 236-238, 247, 249, Identity, 100, 309-310 Lower back pain, 331
260-261, 264-265, 271, 282-286, illness, 41, 109, 399 Lunges, 351, 355, 358, 360
289-290, 295, 298-300, 309, 311, 313, inactivity, 8-9, 27-28, 37, 39, 373, 393, 396 lungs, 391-393
327-332, 334, 352, 355, 357, 363, Incidence, 39, 194
365-366, 368-371, 373-374, 376, 380, individuality, 58 M
382-384, 385-387, 395-396, 398-403, infection, 42 Maintenance, 6, 12, 18, 24, 26, 40, 53, 113-114, 272,
406, 428, 474, 477, 479 chronic, 42 290, 377, 380, 386-387, 397-398, 400
physical activity for, 5-8, 14, 24, 27, 29-30, 38, 45, malnutrition, 42 males, 16, 33, 36-38, 78, 389, 401, 442
48, 74, 85, 105, 131, 149, 176, 203, 230, Injuries, 42-44, 56, 86, 113, 118, 259, 283-285, 290, Malnutrition, 42, 398
234, 249, 264, 282, 298-300, 313, 327, 293, 295, 307, 309, 360, 381, 420, 433 alcohol intake, 398
365, 368-370, 374, 384, 385, 403, 406, common, 42, 290, 293, 307, 309, 420 defined, 398
428, 477 preventing, 283-284 Malpractice, 292
social, 5-6, 12-15, 17, 29, 31, 39, 48, 52, 57, 61, resistance training and, 44 Margarine, 397
74-75, 98-99, 105, 131, 149, 169, 176, treating, 44, 295 marijuana, 399
202, 203, 230, 264, 282, 298-300, 313, insomnia, 394 Marriage, 26
327, 368, 385, 406, 428, 477 Insulin, 39 benefits of, 26
stress and, 44, 395 defined, 39 meals, 381
types of, 10-14, 26, 57, 233, 249, 265, 283, overweight and, 39 Meat, 395-396
299-300, 311, 329-330, 352, 365, intensity, 31, 37-38, 41, 136, 193, 202, 274, 304, fats, 396
370-371, 373-374, 376, 382-383, 396, 330-331, 337, 341, 343, 352, 354, 362, MyPyramid, 395-396
400, 402 370-372, 374, 380, 383, 389, 392, 401-402, Media, 24, 140, 166, 398, 470
health benefits, 9, 15, 27, 31, 261, 329, 370-371, 408 Medical care, 286
373-374 defined, 41 Medications, 380
of physical fitness, 15, 261 of activity, 31, 38, 331, 370-371, 374, 380, 383, Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 27, 45,
Health care, 15, 290, 386 392, 401 384
access to, 15 stretching, 331, 337, 352, 362, 370, 372, 389 medicine balls, 42-43, 53, 64, 66, 84-85, 351, 355,
Health care professionals, 290 Internet, 10, 99, 261, 364, 372 360-361, 408
Health disparities, 15 physical activity and, 99, 261 Meditation, 363, 395, 401
Health insurance, 386 Interval training, 85, 335, 342, 344, 352 men, 261, 320, 433, 450, 467, 470
Health promotion, 15, 24, 28, 30, 34-35, 45, 363, 366, Intervention, 32, 44, 185, 227, 341, 381 menstruation, 112
384, 398 Intuition, 205 Mental health, 31, 57
health status, 15, 237-238, 283, 330, 387 metabolic processes, 397
Healthy diet, 395-396 metabolic rate, 41, 370
healthy eating, 9-10, 30, 39 J
joints, 31, 43, 331, 335-336, 340, 352, 371-372, 381, exercise, 41, 370
healthy lifestyle, 7-8, 38, 51, 99, 328, 330, 386, 398 metabolism, 370
Healthy People 2000, 15, 28, 366 387-389, 391, 401
Journal of the American Medical Association, 28, 261, energy and, 370
Healthy People 2010, 15, 24, 28, 32, 45, 366, 384 Milk, 395-396
described, 15 365
fats, 396
Healthy People 2020, 30, 45 MyPyramid, 395-396
healthy weight, 397 K Mind, 26, 51, 55, 66, 82, 139, 186, 189, 191, 233, 236,
Hearing impairments, 275 kilocalories, 374 289, 314, 332, 363-364, 395
Heart, 15, 18, 24, 27, 30-31, 41-42, 44-45, 79, 128, Minerals, 397-398
249, 300, 330-331, 342, 366, 370-373, L defined, 398
380-381, 391-398, 400 Labels, 150, 268, 398 major, 398
stroke volume, 392-393 Language barriers, 154 other, 397
heart attack, 380, 396 Laughter, 195 Mode of exercise, 402
Heart attacks, 380, 398 LDLs, 380, 393 Modeling, 22, 101, 132, 136, 177-178, 193, 224-226
Heart disease, 15, 24, 31, 373, 380, 392, 394-398 Lead, 12, 26, 51, 57, 66, 69, 80-82, 92, 112, 122, mood, 60, 62, 365, 474-475
minerals and, 398 124-125, 128, 140, 146, 152, 168, 171, Mortality, 15, 27, 31, 45, 236, 261, 398
physical activity, 15, 24, 31, 373, 380, 392, 395-396 181-182, 189, 192, 260, 275, 283, 288-289, defined, 398
physical activity and, 15, 24, 31, 373 309, 314, 329, 333, 335, 340-341, 343, Mother, 7, 170
regular physical activity, 15, 31, 373 347-348, 351, 354, 356, 361, 394, 414, 421, Motivation, 12, 21-23, 25, 28, 44, 77, 98-99, 102, 117,
tobacco use, 398 429, 431, 435, 437, 440-441, 444, 448, 120, 122-123, 133, 137, 150, 177, 192-193,
types of, 373, 394, 396 453-454, 456-457, 460, 462-463, 465-466, 202, 204, 256, 272, 277, 299, 304, 314, 320,
heart rate, 18, 41, 79, 128, 249, 331, 342, 366, 472 325, 369, 394, 397, 405-406, 440, 467, 470
370-372, 381, 392-394 lean body mass, 37-39, 331 mouth, 134, 392, 442, 451
aerobic activities, 331, 370-372 older adults, 37 muscle, 12, 30-31, 33, 36-39, 42-43, 45, 79, 82, 98,
determining, 331, 394 leg curl, 359 128, 314, 329, 333, 335, 342, 354, 358, 362,
resting, 41, 370, 392-393 leg extension, 339-340 365, 369-370, 372-373, 381, 388-389, 391,
target, 331, 371 Leg stretch, 336, 363 393, 395, 401

484
 strength of, 391 severe, 27, 277 for fitness, 13, 51, 328, 330, 333
muscle balance, 43 type 2 diabetes, 39 for health, 5-6, 14, 23, 27-28, 29, 48, 74, 105, 131,
Muscle fibers, 12, 33, 38, 329, 389, 391 oils, 396-397 149, 176, 203, 230, 249, 261, 264, 282,
types of, 12, 33, 329, 389 MyPyramid, 396 295, 298-300, 313, 327-328, 368, 380,
Muscle mass, 37, 43, 381, 389, 393 older adults, 37, 352 385, 403, 406, 428, 474, 477
exercise and, 393 organs, 380 for weight control, 381
physical activity and, 381 osteoarthritis, 380 health and, 5, 8-9, 12, 14, 21, 28, 29-31, 45, 48,
Muscle soreness, 333, 335, 365, 391 Osteoporosis, 37, 373 74-75, 98-99, 105, 112, 131, 149, 176,
delayed-onset, 335 calcium, 37 203, 230, 238, 264, 282, 289, 298, 313,
muscles, 31, 79, 128, 235, 331, 335-336, 338, 344, older adults, 37 327-328, 330, 365-366, 368, 371, 373,
355, 357-358, 362-363, 371-372, 388-389, physical activity, 37, 373 380, 385, 403, 406, 428, 479
391-392, 395, 401, 430 physical activity and, 373 health benefits of, 9, 27, 31, 261
body mass index (BMI), 235, 331 regular physical activity, 37, 373 heart disease and, 15
physical activity and, 31 overload, 70, 83, 249, 341, 389 hypertension, 31
Muscular endurance, 98, 331, 372, 389, 391, 400-401 overtraining, 44 levels of, 8-10, 13-15, 25, 36, 38-39, 55, 75, 77-78,
goals for, 391 Overuse injuries, 44 81, 84, 86, 99, 112, 227, 249, 256, 314,
muscular fitness, 98 Overweight, 8-9, 25, 27-28, 30-31, 36-39, 43-45, 57, 328, 330, 332, 355, 369-370, 373-374,
Muscular strength, 12, 17, 38, 79, 85, 128, 328, 331, 120, 328, 331, 333, 347, 365, 369, 375, 381, 380, 383, 412
334, 340, 342, 354, 363-364, 389, 391 386, 393, 396-398 MyPyramid, 395-396
defined, 328 body mass index (BMI), 39, 331 older adults, 37
goals for, 38, 391 cardiovascular disease, 393 osteoporosis, 37, 373
maintenance of, 12 children, 9, 27-28, 30-31, 39, 44-45, 57, 365 overview, 30, 202
muscle size and, 389 defined, 9, 30, 39, 328, 369, 393, 398 overweight and, 27-28, 39, 365
MyPyramid, 395-396, 402 fitness and, 28, 31, 37, 44-45, 328, 365, 369, 397 weight management, 9, 39, 369, 380-381, 383,
anatomy of, 396 healthy weight, 397 387, 395
Myths, 87 heart disease and, 397 wellness, 5, 12-14, 20-21, 29, 45, 48, 52, 70,
in children, 27-28, 30, 44-45 74-75, 82, 86, 98-99, 105, 131, 149, 169,
N incidence of, 39 176, 203, 230, 261, 264, 282, 298, 313,
National Center for Health Statistics, 27-28, 34-35 older adults, 37 327-328, 331, 365, 368, 373, 380, 385,
National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey physical activity and, 9, 27-28, 30-31, 39, 45, 365, 403, 406, 428, 479
(NHANES), 328 369, 381 Physical Activity Guidelines for Americans (2008), 30
Native Americans, 268, 450 oxygen, 37, 41, 330, 371, 391-393, 400 Physical Activity Pyramid, 365, 369, 371-373, 383
Negative consequences, 132, 189, 196, 198, 201 Physical education, 5-23, 25-28, 29-33, 36, 38-40,
Neglect, 283, 309 P 42-45, 47-59, 62-66, 68-71, 73-78, 80-82,
definition of, 283 Pain, 15, 331, 381, 391, 399 84-87, 89-90, 92, 97, 99, 101, 104, 105-110,
nervous system, 398 lower back, 331 112-114, 116, 118, 120-122, 124-125,
central nervous system, 398 Partners, 24, 82, 114, 117, 145-146, 151, 158, 160, 127-128, 130, 131, 133-134, 137, 139,
minerals and, 398 162, 179-180, 185, 320, 322-324, 338, 344, 141-142, 146-147, 149-150, 152, 154, 164,
New England Journal of Medicine, 27-28 350-352, 355, 357, 359-362, 415, 418-419, 167-170, 173-174, 175-177, 179, 182-184,
Nonverbal communication, 138 423, 430, 433-435, 444, 449-450, 471-472 188, 191-193, 198, 201-202, 203-206,
types of, 138 picking, 145, 423 208-209, 212, 221-222, 224-227, 229-234,
Nurses, 39 peanut butter, 424 236-239, 246-249, 251, 254-261, 263-268,
nutrients, 392, 397-398 Pedometers, 6-7, 9, 27, 369, 373-376, 378-381, 271, 273, 275-279, 281-286, 288-290,
calories, 397-398 383-384, 414-415 292-295, 297-298, 300, 303, 308-312,
carbohydrates, 398 Pelvic tilt, 335 313-314, 325, 327-328, 330-331, 333-334,
defined, 398 percent body fat, 235, 331, 401 351-352, 354-355, 357, 362-363, 365-366,
essential, 397 Personality, 177, 197, 202, 255 367-369, 375-376, 379-381, 383-384,
fats, 398 physical activities, 5-7, 10-12, 19, 22-24, 26, 29, 385-387, 394, 398-402, 405-407, 425,
minerals, 397-398 32-33, 37, 40-41, 44, 48-49, 57-60, 62, 64, 427-428, 442, 445, 450, 452-454, 460, 470,
proteins, 398 66, 74-75, 77, 84, 86, 92, 99, 105-107, 109, 474-475, 477
recommendations for, 398 131, 139, 143, 149, 159, 176, 203, 230, 246, physical fitness, 5-7, 12-13, 15, 17, 26, 29-32, 37-38,
sources of, 397 254, 264, 282, 298-299, 308, 313, 327, 354, 40, 44-45, 48-49, 68, 70, 74-75, 78-80,
vitamins, 397-398 368-369, 371-373, 384, 385, 389, 394-395, 82-83, 86, 92, 99, 105, 116, 125, 128, 131,
water, 397 406, 428, 477 149-150, 165, 176, 203, 230, 234, 236-237,
Nutrition, 24, 27, 43, 57, 75, 99, 125, 328-329, 366, moderate, 10, 24, 37, 40-41, 246, 369, 371-373 255, 257, 260-261, 264, 267, 271, 277, 279,
387, 393, 395, 397-398, 400, 402 vigorous, 10, 37, 40-41, 246, 369, 371-373 282, 298, 309, 313, 325, 327-330, 332, 334,
defined, 328, 393, 398 Physical activity, 5-15, 17-18, 20-28, 29-32, 36-41, 365, 368-369, 373, 376, 384, 385-386, 397,
disease and, 397 44-45, 48-49, 51-53, 55, 57, 59, 61-62, 401, 403, 406, 428, 477
disease prevention and, 366 64-65, 68-71, 74-78, 80-86, 92, 96, 98-99, benefits of, 13, 26, 30-31, 255, 261, 334, 373
for exercise, 402 101-104, 105, 111-112, 118, 124, 128, 131, components of, 5-6, 26, 29, 48, 74, 79, 83, 86, 99,
importance of, 24, 328, 395, 402 149, 169, 176-177, 196, 202, 203, 206, 212, 105, 128, 131, 149, 176, 203, 230, 264,
physical fitness and, 328, 397 227, 230, 234, 238, 246-247, 249, 254, 256, 282, 298, 313, 327-328, 330, 334, 368,
study of, 27 258, 261, 264, 267, 279, 282, 288-289, 295, 385, 401, 406, 428
wellness, 75, 99, 328, 400, 402 298-300, 308, 312, 313-314, 327-333, 355, defined, 30, 150, 271, 328, 369
nutrition information, 398 365-366, 367-375, 378-384, 385, 387, 392, health benefits of, 31, 261
nutritionists, 39 395-396, 403, 406, 412, 428, 474-475, 477, physical activity for, 5-7, 29-30, 38, 45, 48, 74, 105,
479 131, 149, 176, 203, 230, 234, 264, 282,
adolescents, 7-9, 27-28, 29-32, 37, 39, 41, 44-45, 298, 313, 327, 365, 368-369, 384, 385,
O 403, 406, 428, 477
obesity, 9, 15, 27-28, 30, 39, 44, 271, 277, 365, 369, 59, 71, 299, 365-366, 369-370, 378, 381
benefits of, 9-10, 13-14, 26-27, 30-31, 98, 111, 261, Physical fitness programs, 17
373, 379, 384, 402 Physical health, 13
adolescents, 9, 27-28, 30, 39, 44, 365, 369 373, 380
children, 7, 9, 17, 20-21, 24, 26-28, 30-31, 39-40, physical inactivity, 39
adolescents and, 30 children, 39
body mass index (BMI), 39 44-45, 53, 57, 69-70, 104, 202, 249, 261,
267, 365, 370, 378, 384 physician, 108-109, 182, 277, 285-286, 307, 310
causes, 402 physicians, 39
central, 15, 44 children and, 28, 30-31, 44-45, 261, 365, 370, 378,
384 Physiology, 33, 45, 50, 57, 75, 312, 384, 403
childhood and, 9, 27-28 Pilates, 23-24, 61, 63-64, 66, 68, 76, 78, 84-85, 352,
children and, 28, 30, 44, 365, 384 components of, 5-6, 11, 20, 26, 29, 48, 71, 74, 83,
86, 99, 105, 128, 131, 149, 176, 203, 357, 362-363, 365
defined, 9, 30, 39, 271, 369 Pilates, Joseph, 362
disease and, 15 230, 264, 282, 298, 312, 313, 327-328,
330, 368, 385, 392, 406, 428, 479 Plants, 446, 454
incidence of, 39 Plaque, 380, 393
lifestyle and, 9, 27 decrease in, 30, 32, 37, 380-381
defined, 9, 20, 30, 39, 41, 55, 59, 177, 212, 227, plasma, 396
mortality, 15, 27 Plyometrics, 66, 319
pediatric, 27-28, 365, 384 246, 328, 369
definition of, 41, 69, 374 pollution, 329
physical activity and, 9, 15, 27-28, 30, 39, 365, 369, Population, 236, 312, 373, 376
373, 384 definitions for, 32
developing a program, 15, 70 Portions, 248, 437
prevalence of, 28, 365 Positive reinforcement, 182, 191, 196
rate of, 373 diet, 39, 169, 381, 395-396
environmental factors, 12, 26, 49, 52, 71, 81, 86, posture, 60, 98, 157, 277, 331, 357, 362, 364,
regular physical activity, 15, 30, 373 388-389, 429
329

485
 evaluating your, 98 Running shoes, 382, 438 fats, 398
proper, 277, 331, 357, 362, 389, 429 vitamins, 397-398
potatoes, 422 S Spain, 27, 328, 365
poverty, 268 safety, 12, 17, 19, 25, 40, 42-43, 55, 61, 63-64, 67, 75, specificity, 191, 391
power, 36-38, 42-43, 53, 66, 76, 79-80, 83, 163, 170, 86-87, 99, 106, 112-113, 115-116, 118, 125, speed, 25, 31, 38, 41, 61, 63-66, 78, 81, 84, 89,
186, 232-233, 251, 314, 318-320, 332, 342, 127, 133, 151, 178, 183, 241, 281-285, 122-123, 136, 140, 154-155, 159, 179, 208,
350-352, 360, 363-364, 370, 379, 384, 397, 288-290, 292, 294-295, 301, 310-311, 322, 232-234, 242, 274, 302, 318, 331-332, 334,
414, 459 330, 354, 357, 381-382, 387, 393, 399-400, 341, 343, 347-349, 353-354, 360, 371,
power lifting, 42 402, 429-431, 450, 462, 466 374-375, 378, 381, 388-389, 412, 414-415,
power yoga, 363-364 food, 381 424, 432, 441, 443, 446, 465-466, 471
Praise, 126, 129, 138, 145, 170, 181, 191-192, 195, weight-training, 43 Spinning, 189, 352, 408
200-201, 205, 208, 213, 224-227, 311 saliva, 164 Spirit, 107, 202, 272, 301
Prejudice, 144 satiation, 141 sports and recreational activities, 365, 371, 474-475
Preparation, 70, 77, 112, 118, 126, 129, 154, 199, 277, school-aged children, 33 spotters, 354
375, 446 schools, 5-8, 10, 14-19, 23-26, 29-32, 38-40, 44, 47, stability balls, 23, 351, 355, 357, 360, 408
Prescription drugs, 399 49, 53-54, 56-57, 59, 62, 67, 70, 73, 76, 78, standing posture, 429
Pressure, 9, 15, 20, 37, 42, 121, 137, 164, 261, 273, 81-83, 85-87, 92, 96-97, 99, 104, 105-106, static stretching, 43, 335, 391
289, 303, 309, 311, 335-337, 344-346, 380, 108, 112-114, 118, 128, 131, 147, 149-150, Statistics, 27-28, 34-35, 38, 87, 90, 165-166, 301
386, 392-396, 398-399, 440 159, 175, 199, 203, 229, 238, 256, 263, 266, obesity, 27-28
Prevalence, 8, 28, 202, 365 271, 281, 285, 295, 297, 299, 301, 303, 308, physical activity, 27-28, 38
Prevention, 8, 15, 27-28, 30, 33, 43, 45, 68, 71, 112, 310-311, 313, 327-328, 355, 357, 367, 375, Step test, 98, 376
311, 331, 366, 376, 384, 466 380, 382, 385, 387, 394, 405, 427, 432, 442, steroids, 399
diabetes, 15, 45 450, 470 Stomach, 323, 339, 357, 363
Problem solving approach, 120 sedentary lifestyle, 27, 330, 381 Strain, 289, 335
progression, 11, 52, 63, 83, 114, 118, 121, 127-128, Self-assessment, 97-98, 159, 227, 246 Strength, muscular, 400
136, 158, 206, 288, 304, 389, 407, 412 self-assessments, 69, 247 strength training, 16, 36, 44-45, 354, 357, 373
stages of, 121 Self-defense, 81, 103, 357 osteoporosis, 373
Progressive muscle relaxation, 395, 401 Self-esteem, 14, 137, 255 Stress, 42, 44, 75, 98-99, 103, 120-121, 137-138, 169,
proportionality, 395-396 Self-talk, 333 258, 273, 277, 335-336, 339, 343, 352,
proteins, 398 Senses, 117, 121 363-364, 381, 386-388, 393-395, 399-403,
defined, 398 sets, 16, 43-44, 122, 161, 244, 311, 314, 344, 411
functional, 398 354-355, 372, 409, 413-415, 437, 471-473 assessing, 99
structural, 398 severe obesity, 27 assessment of, 169
Psychological stress, 394 Sexual orientation, 146 chronic, 42
puberty, 62, 77 Shaping, 194, 196 common causes of, 399
pulmonary artery, 391 Shoulder, 143, 152, 155, 157-158, 164, 236, 238, 242, defined, 393
pulse, 392-393 245, 275, 315, 331, 336-339, 341, 344, diet and, 169
taking, 392-393 346-348, 353, 356-358, 388, 407, 416-418, excessive, 42, 44, 137, 258, 336, 393-395
Push-up test, 235 429, 432-433, 439, 442-443, 445-447, 451, exercise and, 44, 387, 393, 399
modified, 235 456-457, 460, 462, 466, 468, 470-471 health and, 75, 98-99, 386, 403
push-ups, 236, 238, 288, 319, 328, 334, 338, 343, shoulder stretch, 236, 238, 338 negative, 121, 137-138, 381, 401-402
351, 353, 358-359, 376, 415 Side stretch, 338 physical fitness and, 44, 403
Significant others, 12 positive, 44, 98, 120-121, 137-138, 258, 277, 352,
Q Singles, 233, 432-434, 437 395, 399, 401-402
Quality of life, 8, 11, 373, 380, 386, 393 Sit-and-reach test, 235, 335 psychological, 42, 386, 394, 399
importance of, 386 Sitting toe touch, 336 response to, 388, 394
improving, 386 Skeletal muscle, 38, 45, 369 sources of, 400
contraction of, 369 weight management, 381, 387, 395, 402
skills, 5-13, 15, 17-18, 20-21, 24, 26, 28, 29-31, 33, Stress management, 75, 98-99, 103, 363, 387,
R 402-403
race/ethnicity, 143 40, 44, 48-52, 55-57, 60-62, 65-67, 69-71,
74-78, 80-83, 86-87, 90-92, 94, 98-99, exercise and, 387
Range of motion, 225, 335-336, 344, 352, 354-355, nutrition, 75, 99, 387, 402
364, 371, 388-389 103-104, 105, 113, 115, 117-130, 131-132,
134, 136, 139-140, 142, 145-147, 149-151, Stressors, 394
flexibility and, 336, 364 types of, 394
Rating of Perceived Exertion, 45 153-159, 162, 165-166, 168-172, 174,
176-178, 182, 186, 189, 193, 201-202, Stretches, 319, 336-338, 343, 349-351, 415
reaction time, 232-233, 332, 412, 420, 468 stretching, 7, 11, 21, 43, 66, 80, 83, 85, 319, 331,
Readiness, 36, 156-157 203-206, 208, 212, 220-222, 225, 227,
230-233, 239-249, 254, 256-258, 261, 335-337, 342, 345, 351-352, 357, 362, 365,
Recruitment, 299 370, 372, 382, 389, 391, 420
Reinforcement, 26, 40, 101, 122, 126, 133, 138, 162, 264-265, 267-268, 273-275, 277, 282, 288,
290, 298-300, 308, 311, 313-314, 327, Stretching exercises, 21, 319, 335, 352, 365, 372
178, 182, 184-185, 191-192, 194, 196-197, stroke, 126, 169, 233, 380, 392-393, 434, 442
202, 234, 260, 303, 333, 402, 431, 437 331-333, 350-351, 356-357, 365, 368,
379-380, 385-387, 389, 395, 402, 406-409, Stroke volume, 392-393
relapse, 98 strokes, 11, 67, 303, 398
Relationships, 11, 27, 135-136, 165, 190, 304 412-413, 415, 420-421, 423, 428-430, 432,
434, 437-438, 440, 443, 446, 450-451, defined, 398
communication and, 136 tobacco use, 398
Relaxation, 98, 363-364, 394-395, 399, 401, 403 453-454, 456, 460, 463, 465-467, 469-470,
472, 474-475, 477, 479 Substance abuse, 75, 386-387, 393, 398-400, 402
Relaxation techniques, 394-395 sugar, 397
progressive muscle relaxation, 395 skin, 39, 41-42, 64-65, 76, 86, 422
anorexia nervosa, 42 beverages, 397
religious beliefs, 107, 109, 144 sources of, 397
repetitions, 43-44, 111, 123, 179, 241, 319, 332, 334, skinfold, 238, 261, 331
Skinfolds, 39, 98, 235, 237, 331, 377 sugars, 396
340-342, 344-345, 351, 354, 360-362, 372, added, 396
389 sleep, 43, 373
Slow-twitch fibers, 33, 389, 391 sunscreen, 382
research, 15, 22, 27-28, 30-31, 37, 43-45, 71, 86, 90, support, 10, 19-20, 23, 30-31, 36, 40, 43, 52-53,
104, 126-127, 130, 145-146, 150, 161, slow-twitch muscle fibers, 391
Smoking, 393, 395, 398-399, 401 59-60, 63, 69-70, 98, 113, 123, 129, 142,
172-174, 189, 202, 205, 220-221, 224, 227, 144, 151, 166, 171, 179, 184, 202, 231,
236, 260-261, 279, 312, 329, 331, 357, 365, long-term effects, 398
rates, 393 248-249, 251, 256, 258, 260, 266-267,
374, 376, 378, 381, 384, 391, 473 271-272, 275-277, 288, 290, 301, 303, 318,
resistance, 6, 42-45, 66, 80, 98, 344-345, 351-352, short-term effects, 398
stress and, 395 328, 337, 375, 382, 416-418, 420, 430, 438,
355, 365, 370, 372, 388-389 452
Resistance training, 42-45, 372 Social interactions, 153
Social issues, 169 Surgeon, 15, 24, 28, 31, 45, 366, 373
Resistance training program, 43 Surgeon General, 15, 24, 28, 31, 45, 366, 373
respiration, 392 Social needs, 14
Social reinforcers, 177, 191-193 sweat, 42
respiratory system, 330, 392 sweating, 41-42
resting heart rate, 393 Social support, 98
Society, 9, 19, 31, 49, 56-57, 70, 76, 99, 104, 194, synovial fluid, 387
reverse curl, 339
rewards, 19, 26, 192-193, 198, 202, 257, 259, 291, 200-202, 258, 276, 300, 384, 394, 398-399
311, 386, 398, 402 socioeconomic status, 12, 150 T
rigid diets, 39, 44 solvent, 460 tap water, 41
Risk factors, 28, 98, 386 sources, 14, 18, 54, 68, 75, 114, 118, 124, 292, 364, Target heart rate, 331, 371
role models, 12, 144, 267, 398 397-398, 400, 430 Target heart rate zone, 331
carbohydrates, 398 team sports, 15-16, 21, 23, 25-26, 38, 65-66, 68-70,

486
 76, 78, 80, 82, 89, 124, 170, 261, 308, 332, 444
437 wasting, 173
teeth, 395 Water, 6, 24, 41, 63-65, 76, 85, 87-88, 164-165,
Television, 329, 373, 399, 402, 465 247-248, 302, 382, 397, 400, 466-467
physical activity and, 373 balance, 65, 76, 85, 87, 397
temperature, 41, 382, 394 during exercise, 41
body, 41, 382, 394 importance of, 24, 85, 87, 382
Tendons, 331, 388-389 physical activity and, 6, 24, 382
testosterone, 389 safety of, 466
Theories, 354 sources of, 397, 400
thirst, 382 tap, 41
throat, 109 types of, 65, 382, 400
time, 7-10, 12-15, 17-20, 22, 24-26, 30, 32-33, 36, 38, Weather, 41, 53, 128, 179, 289, 382
40, 42, 44, 53-54, 58-63, 65, 68-70, 75-77, Websites, 27, 44, 71, 104, 130, 147, 173, 202, 227,
80, 84-86, 89-93, 98-101, 103, 106, 108-112, 234, 260, 278, 295, 312, 325, 365, 383, 402,
114-120, 122-125, 127-130, 133-140, 142, 425, 474
145, 151-156, 159-160, 162, 165, 168, 170, CDC, 27, 44, 365, 402
172-173, 177-200, 204-205, 207-216, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 27, 71
218-219, 221-227, 232-234, 236-237, health-related, 234, 365
243-244, 246-247, 249, 252-257, 259, MyPyramid, 402
266-267, 269, 271, 273-275, 277, 286-287, nutrition, 27, 402
289, 293-294, 299-300, 302-305, 307-312, on physical fitness, 44, 260, 365
314, 316, 320, 322-324, 328, 330-335, stress, 44, 402
341-343, 345, 347-351, 353-355, 357, 362, weight management, 383, 402
369-371, 373-380, 382-383, 389, 392, Weight, 9, 22-25, 33-37, 39, 42-44, 53-54, 57, 59, 61,
394-395, 399, 401-402, 408, 411-415, 63-64, 68, 75-76, 81-85, 98-99, 114, 125,
417-420, 423-425, 430, 436-438, 440-442, 140-141, 154, 167, 169, 199, 214, 220, 235,
449-450, 452-453, 455, 457, 463-464, 466, 239, 241-242, 251, 258, 274, 278, 289, 302,
468-470, 472 304, 308, 318, 328, 331, 337, 339-340,
Time management, 221, 224 353-354, 356, 365, 369, 372-374, 380-381,
Tobacco, 169, 394-395, 398-399 383-384, 387-389, 393, 395-397, 401-402,
effects of, 395, 398 416, 432-433, 439, 446-447, 454-455, 460,
Tobacco use, 169, 398 462, 470-471
alcohol and, 169 fitness and, 37, 44, 83, 98-99, 328, 365, 369, 373,
long-term effects, 398 384, 387, 397, 401
short-term effects, 398 health and, 9, 75, 98-99, 289, 328, 365, 373, 380
Toe touch, 336, 416 Weight lifting, 42, 61, 85, 214, 302, 373, 389
sitting, 336, 416 weight loss, 42, 381
Tolerance, 13, 276, 333 physical activity and, 381
Tone of voice, 276 weight management, 9, 39, 369, 380-381, 383, 387,
Touching, 138, 197, 236, 251, 315-317, 322, 331, 395, 402
335-336, 339, 360, 408, 419-420, 424, 439, behavior modification, 402
444-445, 447, 456-459, 462 body mass index (BMI), 39
trachea, 392 caloric intake and, 395
translation, 124, 272 defined, 9, 39, 369
transport, 114, 295, 307, 430 diet and, 39
Transportation, 18, 269, 285, 295, 299 eating habits, 9, 39
treatment, 39, 132, 271, 285, 309, 381, 384 exercise, 39, 369, 381, 387, 395, 402
Treatments, 400 exercise and, 387
Triceps muscle, 388 fat intake, 380
Trust, 49, 90, 136, 186 physical activity and, 9, 39, 369, 381
Type 2 diabetes, 39, 42, 380 strategies, 39
defined, 39 weight training, 22-25, 43, 63-64, 68, 75-76, 81-85, 98,
overweight and, 39 125, 199, 220, 239, 241, 365
benefits of, 98
U Weight-Control Information Network, 278
United States, 14, 27-28, 30, 32, 45, 138, 143, 185, Well-being, 30, 40, 45, 102
265, 306, 365, 379, 442, 450, 454, 467, 470, Wellness, 5, 12-14, 20-21, 29, 45, 48, 52, 70, 74-75,
474 82, 86, 98-99, 105, 131, 149, 169, 176, 203,
upper-body exercises, 360 230, 261, 264, 282, 298, 313, 327-328, 331,
upper-body stretches, 343 335, 365, 368, 373, 380, 385, 400, 402-403,
U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 8, 406, 428, 479
28, 30, 45, 366 behaviors, 12-13, 21, 400, 402
U.S. Public Health Service, 15, 24, 28, 30, 38, 45, 366, benefits of, 13-14, 98, 261, 373, 380
384 components of, 5, 20, 29, 48, 74, 86, 99, 105, 131,
USDA, 396 149, 176, 203, 230, 264, 282, 298, 313,
327-328, 368, 385, 406, 428, 479
defined, 20, 328
V lifelong, 52, 331
vegetables, 396 lifetime, 5, 12, 14, 20-21, 29, 48, 70, 74, 82, 86,
MyPyramid, 396 105, 131, 149, 176, 203, 230, 264, 282,
Veins, 391-392, 460 298, 313, 327-328, 368, 380, 385, 400,
Vending machines, 10 406, 428, 479
vertebrae, 335 Women, 15, 169, 261, 312, 380, 398, 433, 442, 450,
vigorous activities, 370-371, 373 454, 467, 470, 474
Violence, 22, 169, 185-186, 299 alcohol and, 169
in the United States, 185 heart disease and, 15
vision, 68, 121, 154, 269, 275, 292 workouts, 18, 32, 44, 352, 354, 357
Visual impairments, 272, 275 indoor, 18
Vitamins, 397-398 outdoor, 18
defined, 398
Y
W yoga, 19, 23, 64, 66, 68, 78, 81, 84-85, 107, 357,
Warming up, 170, 319 363-364, 372
Warm-up, 43, 56, 78-79, 82, 90, 127-128, 165, 217, young adults, 28, 70, 400
314, 320, 322, 334, 336, 342, 354, 444 Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance System (YRBSS), 8
general, 334, 342
phases, 334
specific, 43, 56, 82, 127-128, 165, 314, 322, 354,

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