viii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER NO. TITLE PAGE NO.

ABSTRACT v
LIST OF TABLES xiv
LIST OF FIGURES xvii
LIST OF SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS xxi

1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 OVERVIEW OF MACHINING
PROCESSES 1
1.1.1 Mechanism of Orthogonal Cutting
In Turning Process 3
1.2 TYPES OF STAINLESS STEEL 6
1.2.1 Martensitic SS 6
1.2.2 Ferritic Stainless Steel 7
1.2.3 Austentic SS 7
1.2.4 Precipitation SS 8
1.2.5 Common U.S Grades of Stainless Steel 9
1.3 SUPER DUPLEX STAINLESS STEELS 10
1.3.1 Mechanical and Physical Properties 12
1.3.2 Machinability Characteristics 16
1.3.3 Advantages and Special Applications 17
1.4 TAGUCHI TECHNIQUE 20
1.5 RESPONSE SURFACE METHODOLOGY 22
1.6 NON-DOMINATED SORTING GENETIC
ALGORITHM (NSGA II) 25
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CHAPTER NO. TITLE PAGE NO.

1.7 LITERATURE REIVEW 26

1.7.1 Turning of Super Duplex Stainless Steel 26
1.7.2 Chip Morphology 33
1.7.3 Dry, Wet and Gas cooled Machining 38
1.7.4 Taguchi Technique 43
1.7.5 Response Surface Methodology 55
1.7.6 Non Dominated Sorting Genetic
Algorithm (NSGA II) 61
1.8 OBJECTIVE OF THE RESEARCH 64
1.9 ORGANIZATION OF THE THESIS 65

2 EXPERIMENTAL SETUP AND

METHODOLOGY 67
2.1 WORK MATERIAL 67
2.2 TOOL MATERIAL 68
2.3 EQUIPMENT USED 69
2.3.1 All- Geared Lathe 70
2.3.2 Surface Roughness Tester 71
2.3.3 Tool Dynamometer 73
2.3.4 77
2.3.5 Scanning Electron Microscope 79
2.3.6 Thermocouple 82
2.4 EXPERIMENTAL METHODOLOGY 84
2.4.1 Dry Machining 84
2.4.2 Wet Machining 85
2.4.3 Gas Cooled Machining 87
2.5 EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS OF THE
OUTPUT RESPONSES 89
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CHAPTER NO. TITLE PAGE NO.

2.5.1 Dry Machining 90

2.5.2 Wet Machining 91
2.5.3 Gas Cooled Machining 92
2.6 SUMMARY 93

3 CHIP MORPHOLOGY INVESTIGATIONS

AMONG DRY, WET AND GAS COOLED
MACHINING 95
3.1 INTRODUCTION 95
3.1.1 Type I Chip 96
3.1.2 Type II Chip 96
3.1.3 Type III Chip 97
3.1.4 Type 0 Chip 97
3.2 GEOMETRY AND CHARACTERISITCS
OF CHIP FORMS 98
3.2.1 Chip Reduction Coefficient
and Cutting Ratio 99
3.2.2 Built up Edge Formation 105
3.2.2.1 Characteristics of BUE 107
3.2.2.2 Effects of BUE formation 108
3.3 CHIP FORMATION CONDITIONS
WHILE MACHINING 109
3.4 CHIP BREAKERS 111
3.5 CLASSIFICATION OF PROCESS
PARAMETERS BASED ON CHIP
MORPHOLOGY 112
3.6 STUDIES ON MICRO HARDNESS OF THE
CHIPS FORMED USING SEM IMAGES 119
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CHAPTER NO. TITLE PAGE NO.

3.7 ANALYSIS OF CHIPS PRODUCED AT

OPTIMUM MACHINING PARAMETERS 119
3.8 SUMMARY 123

4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS 124

4.1 SURFACE ROUGHNESS OPTIMIZATION
IN TURNING SUPER DUPLEX
STAINLESS STEEL 124
4.1.1 Non- Linear Regression Equation
for Surface Roughness 138
4.2 ANALYSIS OF FLANK WEAR WHEN
MACHINING SUPER DUPLEX
STAINLESS STEEL 140
4.2.1 Regression Equations for Flank Wear 141
4.2.2 Analysis of Flank Wear in Dry
Machining using Taguchi Technique 141
4.2.3 Analysis of Flank Wear in Wet
Machining using Taguchi Technique 142
4.2.4 Analysis of Flank Wear in Gas cooled
Machining using Taguchi Technique 143
4.2.5 Optimization of Machining Parameters
using Response Surface Methodology
for Reducing the Flank Wear 143
4.2.6 Validation Results for Flank Wear 144
4.2.7 Microscopic Analysis of Tool
Flank Wear 146
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CHAPTER NO. TITLE PAGE NO.

4.3 OPTIMIZATION USING TAGUCHI

ANALYSIS AND RESPONSE SURFACE
METHODOLOGY AGAINST SEVERAL
RESPONSES 150
4.3.1 Effect of Cutting Parameters against
responses in Dry Machining 151
4.3.2 Effect of Cutting Parameter Against
responses in Wet Machining 155
4.3.3 Effect of Cutting Parameter Against
responses in Gas Cooled Machining 158
4.4 MODELLING OF TURNING PARAMETERS 161
4.4.1 Response Surface Modelling 162
4.4.2 Steps involved in Developing the Models 168
4.4.3 Models for Machining Super Duplex
Stainless Steel in Dry Condition 169
4.4.4 Models for Machining Super Duplex
Stainless Steel in Wet Condition 173
4.4.5 Models for Machining Super Duplex
Stainless Steel in Gas Cooled Condition 175
4.4.6 Mathematical Modeling 178
4.5 OPTIMIZATION OF MACHINING
PARAMETERS BY RESPONSE
SURFACE METHODOLOGY 181
4.5.1 Confirmation Tests (Validation Process) 185
4.6 VERIFICATION OF OPTIMAL MACHINING
PARAMETERS BY NSGA-II 186
4.6.1 Optimal Values of Machining
Parameters in Dry Machining 188
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CHAPTER NO. TITLE PAGE NO.

4.6.2 Optimal Values of Machining

Parameters in Wet Machining 190
4.6.3 Optimal Values of Machining
Parameters in Gas Cooled Machining 193

5 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 196

5.1 INTRODUCTION 196
5.2 ORIGINALITY OF RESEARCH 196
5.3 SUMMARY OF SIGNIFICANT FINDINGS 198
5.3.1 Dry Machining 198
5.3.2 Wet Machining 200
5.3.3 Gas Cooled Machining 201
5.4 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE WORK 202

APPENDIX 1 204

REFERENCES 205

LIST OF PUBLICATIONS 219

 xiv

LIST OF TABLES

TABLE NO. TITLE PAGE NO.

2.1 Chemical composition of work material in

percentage by weight 67
2.2 Specification of centre lathe 70
2.3 Details of the kistler dynamometer 75
2.4 Specification of scanning electron microscope 80
2.5 Factors and Its levels for design of experiments 84
2.6 Experimental results for dry machining 91
2.7 Experimental results for wet machining 92
2.8 Experimental results for gas cooled machining 93
3.1 Width and thickness of the chips 98
3.2 Calculated values of parameters for dry machining 103
3.3 Calculated values of parameters for wet machining 104
3.4 Calculated values of parameters for gas cooled machining 105
3.5 Classification of process parameters based on
chip morphology 114
4.1 ANOVA for surface roughness in dry machining 125
4.2 Mean values of process parameters for surface
roughness in dry machining 127
4.3 ANOVA for surface roughness in wet machining 130
4.4 Mean values of process parameters for surface
roughness in wet machining 131
4.5 ANOVA for surface roughness in gas cooled machining 134
4.6 Mean values of process parameters for surface roughness
in gas cooled machining 135
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TABLE NO. TITLE PAGE NO.

4.7 Results for confirmation test for surface roughness

(Ra-Dry) 139
4.8 Results for confirmation test for surface roughness
(Ra-Wet) 139
4.9 Results for confirmation test for surface roughness
(Ra-Gas) 140
4.10 Results for confirmation test for flank wear (Dry) 142
4.11 Results for confirmation test for flank wear (Wet) 142
4.12 Results for confirmation test for flank wear
(Gas Cooled) 143
4.13 Validation result for dry machining 145
4.14 Validation result for wet machining 145
4.15 Validation result for gas cooled machining 145
4.16 ANOVA table for response surface function of the
surface roughness in dry machining 170
4.17 ANOVA table for response surface function of the
flank wear in dry machining 171
4.18 ANOVA table for response surface function of the
average cutting zone temperature in dry machining 171
4.19 ANOVA table for response surface function of the
cutting force in dry machining 172
4.20 ANOVA table for response surface function of the
surface roughness in wet machining 173
4.21 ANOVA table for response surface function of the
flank wear in wet machining 174
4.22 ANOVA table for response surface function of the
average cutting zone temperature in wet machining 174
 xvi

TABLE NO. TITLE PAGE NO.

4.23 ANOVA table for response surface function of the

cutting force in wet machining 175
4.24 ANOVA table for response surface function of the
surface roughness in gas cooled machining 176
4.25 ANOVA table for response surface function of the
flank wear in gas cooled machining 176
4.26 ANOVA table for response surface function of the
average cutting zone temperature in gas cooled
machining 177
4.27 ANOVA table for response surface function of the
cutting force in gas cooled machining 178
4.28 Model summary for dry machining 179
4.29 Model summary for wet machining 180
4.30 Model summary for gas cooled machining 180
4.31 Validation result for dry machining 185
4.32 Validation result for wet machining 186
4.33 Validation result for gas cooled machining 186
4.34 NSGA-II outcomes for dry machining 190
4.35 NSGA-II outcomes for wet machining 192
4.36 NSGA-II outcomes for gas cooled machining 195
A 1.1 L18 orthogonal array for machining process parameters 204
 xvii

LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE NO. TITLE PAGE NO.

1.1 Orthogonal Turning Process 4

1.2 Mechanism Of Orthogonal Cutting Process 4
1.3 Microstructure of Super Duplex Stainless steel 12
1.4 Flow chart for Taguchi Technique 22
1.5 Flow Chart for Response Surface Methodology 24
1.6 Flow Chart for Non Dominated Sorting
Genetic Algorithm 26
2.1 Work material 68
2.2 Uncoated Carbide Cutting Tool Inserts
with Tool Holder 69
2.3 All Geared Lathe Machine 71
2.4 Surface Roughness Parameter (Ra) 71
2.5 TR100 Surface Roughness Tester 72
2.6 Schematic Representation of Force Measurement 74
2.7 Kistler type Tool Dynamometer 76
2.8 Cutting force measurements 76
2.9 A sample observation of Cutting force 77
2.10 Flank Wear on a Cutting Tool 78
2.11 Tool Maker’s Microscope 78
2.12 SEM – Flow diagram 81
2.13 Scanning Electron Microscope 82
2.14 Thermocouple setup 83
 xviii

FIGURE NO. TITLE PAGE NO.

2.15 Experimental setup for Dry Machining 85

2.16 Coolant supply arrangement 86
2.17 Experimental setup for Wet Machining 87
2.18 Gas coolant setup with nozzle 88
2.19 Experimental setup for Gas Cooled Machining 89
3.1 Geometric features of continuous chip formation 100
3.2 Built-up edge formation 106
3.3 Piispanen model of chip formation 109
3.4 CNMG 120408 Cutting Inserts -QM grade H13A 112
3.5 SDSS Chips produced under Dry Machining 116
3.6 SDSS Chips produced under Wet Machining 117
3.7 SDSS Chips produced under Gas cooled Machining 118
3.8 SEM images of chip produced when turned at
optimized value of machining parameters
in dry machining 120
3.9 SEM images of chip produced when turned at
optimized value of machining parameters
in wet machining 121
3.10 SEM images of chip produced when turned at
optimized value of machining parameters
in gas cooled machining 122
4.1 Contribution percentages of various machining
parameters and their interactions in dry machining 126
4.2 Residual analysis of surface roughness in
dry machining 128
4.3 Interaction plot for surface roughness in
dry machining 129
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FIGURE NO. TITLE PAGE NO.

4.4 Contribution percentages of various machining

parameters and their interactions in wet machining 130
4.5 Residual analysis of surface roughness in
wet machining 132
4.6 Interaction plot for surface roughness in
wet machining 133
4.7 Contribution percentages of various machining
parameters and their interactions in gas cooled
machining 134
4.8 Residual analysis of surface roughness in gas
cooled machining 136
4.9 Interaction plot for surface roughness in gas
cooled machining 137
4.10 SEM images of tool wear when turned at optimized
value of machining parameters in dry machining
at various magnification levels 147
4.11 SEM images of tool wear when turned at optimized
value of machining parameters in wet machining
at various magnification levels 148
4.12 SEM images of tool wear when turned at optimized
value of machining parameters in gas cooled
machining at various magnification levels 149
4.13 Effect of machining parameters on surface roughness
in dry machining 152
4.14 Effect of machining parameters on flank wear
in dry machining 152
4.15 Effect of machining parameters on average cutting
zone temperature in dry machining 153
 xx

FIGURE NO. TITLE PAGE NO.

4.16 Effect of machining parameters on cutting force

in dry machining 153
4.17 Effect of machining parameters on surface roughness
in wet machining 155
4.18 Effect of machining parameters on flank wear
in wet machining 156
4.19 Effect of machining parameters on average cutting
zone temperature in wet machining 156
4.20 Effect of machining parameters on cutting force
in wet machining 157
4.21 Effect of machining parameters on surface roughness
in gas cooled machining 159
4.22 Effect of machining parameters on flank wear in
gas cooled machining 159
4.23 Effect of machining parameters on average cutting
zone temperature in gas cooled machining 160
4.24 Effect of machining parameters on cutting force in
gas cooled machining 160
4.25 Optimization plot for Dry machining 182
4.26 Optimization plot for Wet machining 183
4.27 Optimization plot for Gas cooled machining 184
 xxi

LIST OF SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS

- Alpha denotes Ferrite Structure

AISI - American Iron and Steel Institute
ASTM - American Society for Testing and Materials
ASM - American Society of Metals
ANOVA - Analysis of Variance
Ra - Average Surface Roughness
BBD - Box Behnken Design
BUE - Built Up Edges
CO2 - Carbon-di-oxide
CCD - Central Composite Design
- Chip reduction coefficient
Cr - Chromium
CNC - Computer Numerical Control
CPT - Critical Pitting Temperature
- Cutting Strain
DoF - Degree of Freedom
DOE - Design of Experiments
FGD - Flue Gas Desulfurization
µ - Friction coefficient
- Gamma denotes Austenite Structure
GA - Genetic Algorithm
Yi - ith result of the experiment
Mo - Molybdenum
N - Nickel
N - Nitrogen
N - No. of optimum level factors
 xxii

NSGA - Non dominated Sorting Genetic Algorithm

- Optimal cutting temperature
OA - Orthogonal Array
PREN - Pitting Resistance Equivalent Number
n - Repeated number of the ith experiment
RSM - Response Surface Methodology
RO - Reverse Osmosis
SAF - Sandvik Austenite Ferrite
SEM - Scanning Electron Microscope
S/N ratio - Signal-to-Noise Ratio
SB - Smaller the better
SS - Stainless Steel
SCC - Stress Corrosion Cracking
SDSS - Super Duplex Stainless Steel
TOPSIS - Technique for Order of Preference by Similarity to
Ideal Solution
Vb - Tool flank wear