§7.

5 Strategy for Integration

T. M. Mudziiri Shumba

August 2020
In this section we present a collection of miscellaneous
integrals in random order and the main challenge is to
recognize which technique or formula to use.
No hard and fast rules can be given as to which method
applies in a given situation, but we give some advice on
strategy that you may find useful.
A prerequisite for applying a strategy is a knowledge of the
basic integration formulas.
In the table of Integration Formulas we have collected the
integrals with several additional formulas that we have learned
in this chapter.
Most of them should be memorized. It is useful to know them
all, but the ones marked with an asterisk need not be
memorized since they are easily derived.
Formula 19 can be avoided by using partial fractions, and
trigonometric substitutions can be used in place of Formula 20.
Table of Integration Fromulae Constants have been
omitted. n+1
R x R 1
1. x n dx = (n 6= −1) 2. x
= ln |x|
dx
n+1
R x R bx
3. e dx = e x 4. b x dx =
R R ln b
5. R sin xdx = − cos x 6. R cos xdx = sin x
7. R sec2 xdx = tan x 8. Rcsc2 xdx = − cot x
9. Rsec x tan xdx = sec x 10. R csc x cot xdx = − csc x
11. R sec xdx = ln | sec x + tan x| 12. R csc xdx = ln | csc x − cot x|
13. R tan xdx = ln | sec x| 14. R cot xdx = ln | sin x|
15. Z sinh xdx = cosh x 16. Z cosh xdx = sinh x
dx 1 x  dx x 
17. 2 2
= tan−1 18. √ = sin−1 , a>0
Zx +a a a a
2 2
Z a −x √
∗ dx 1 x −a ∗ dx
19. = ln 20. √ = ln x + x 2 ± a2
x 2 − a2 2a x + a 2
x ±a 2
Strategy for Integration
1. Simplify the Integrand if Possible
Sometimes the use of algebraic manipulation or trigonometric
identities will simplify the integrand and make the method of
integration obvious. Here are some examples:
√ √ √
Z Z
x(1 + x)dx = ( x + x)dx,
Z Z
tan θ sin θ
dθ = cos2 θdθ
sec2 θ cos θ
Z Z
1
sin θ cos θdθ = sin 2θdθ
2
Z Z
2
(sin x + cos x) dx = (sin2 x + 2 sin x cos x + cos2 x)dx
Z
= (1 + sin 2x)dx
2. Look for an Obvious Substitution
Try to find some function u = g (x) in the integrand whose
differential du = g 0 (x)dx also occurs, apart from a constant
factor. For instance, in the integral
Z
x
2
dx
x −1

we notice that if u = x 2 –1, then du = 2xdx. Therefore we use

the substitution u = x 2 − 1 instead of the method of partial
fractions.
3. Classify the Integrand According to Its Form
If Steps 1 and 2 have not led to the solution, then we take a
look at the form of the integrand f (x).
(a) Trigonometric functions. If f (x) is a product of powers
of sin x and cos x, of tan x and sec x, or of cot x and
csc x, then we use the substitutions.
(b) Rational functions. If f is a rational function, we use
the procedure involving partial fractions.
(c) Integration by parts. If f (x) is a product of a power of
x or a polynomial) and a transcendental function (such as
a trigonometric, exponential, or logarithmic function),
then we try integration by parts, choosing u and dv .
(d) Radicals. Particular kinds of substitutions are
recommended when certain radicals appear.
√
(i) If ±x 2 ± a2 occurs, we use a trigonometric
substitution.
√
(ii) If n ax
√ + b occurs, we use the rationalizing substitution
up= n ax + b. More generally, this sometimes works for
n
g (x). .
4. Try Again
If the first three steps have not produced the answer,
remember that there are basically only two methods of
integration: substitution and parts.
(a) Try substitution. Even if no substitution is obvious
(Step 2), some inspiration or ingenuity (or even
desperation) may suggest an appropriate substitution.
(b) Try parts. Although integration by parts is used most of
the time on products of the form described in Step 3(c),
it is sometimes effective on single functions.
(c) Manipulate the integrand. Algebraic manipulations
(perhaps rationalizing the denominator or using
trigonometric identities) may be useful in transforming
the integral into an easier form. These manipulations may
be more substantial than in Step 1 and may involve some
ingenuity. Here is an example:
Z Z Z
dx 1 1 + cos x 1 + cos x
= · dx = dx
1 − cos x 1 − cos x 1 + cos x 1 − cos2 x
Z Z 
1 + cos x 2 cos x 
= dx = csc x + dx.
sin2 x sin2 x

(d) Relate the problem to previous problems. When you

have built up some experience in integration, you may be able
to use a method on a given integral that is similar to a method
you have already used on a previous integral. Or you may even
be able to express
R the given integral in terms of a previous one.
2
For instance, tan x sec xdx is a challenging integral, but if
we make use of the identity tan2 x = sec2 x–1, we can write
Z Z Z
2 3
tan x sec xdx = sec xdx– sec xdx
R
and if sec3 xdx has previously been evaluated, then that
calculation can be used in the present problem.
(e) Use several methods. Sometimes two or three methods
are required to evaluate an integral. The evaluation could
involve several successive substitutions of different types, or it
might combine integration by parts with one or more
substitutions.

In the examples that follow, we give a method of attack but

do not fully work out the integral.
tan3 x
Z
Example 1 dx.
cos3 x
SOLUTION In Step 1 we rewrite the integral:

tan3 x
Z Z
dx = tan3 x sec3 xdx.
cos3 x
R
The integral is now of the form tanm x secn xdx with m odd.
Alternatively, if in Step 1 we had written
 tan3 x sin3 x sin3 x
Z Z Z
1
dx = · dx = dx
cos3 x cos3 x cos3 x cos6 x
then we could proceed as follows with u = cos x :

sin3 x 1 − cos2 x
Z Z
dx = sin xdx
cos6 x cos6 x
1 − u2
Z
= (−du)
u6
Z 2
u −1
= du
u6
Z
= (u −4 − u −6 )du.
 Z √
x
Example 2 e dx.

SOLUTION
√ According to (ii) in Step 3(d), we substitute
u = x. Then x = u 2 and dx = 2udu and the integral
becomes Z √ Z
e dx = 2 ue u du.
x

The integrand is now a product of u and the transcendental

function e u so it can be integrated by parts.
x5 + 1
Z
Example 3 dx.
x 3 − 3x 2 − 10x
SOLUTION No algebraic simplification or substitution is
obvious, so Steps 1 and 2 do not apply here. The integrand is
a rational function, so we apply the method of Partial
Fractions, remembering to divide first, since the rational
function is improper (degree of numerator is greater than the
degree of the denominator).
 Z
dx
Example 4 √ .
x ln x
SOLUTION All that is needed here is Step 2. We substitute
u = ln x because its differential is du = dx/x, which occurs in
the integral.
Z r
1−x
Example 5 dx.
1+x
SOLUTION Though the rationalizing substitution
r
1−x
u=
1+x
works here [(ii) in Step 3(d)], it leads to a very complicated
rational function. An easier method is to do some algebraic
manipulation[either as Step 1 or√as Step 4(c) ]. Multiplying
numerator and denominator by 1 − x, we have
Z r Z √ √
1−x 1−x · 1−x
dx = √ √ dx.
1+x 1+x · 1−x
Simplifying, we have
Z r √ √
1−x 1−x · 1−x
Z
dx = √ √ dx
1+x 1+x · 1−x
1−x
Z
= √ dx
Z 1 − x2 Z
1 x
= √ dx − √ dx ( (1 − x 2 ) = u)
1−x 2 1 − x2
√
= sin−1 x + 1 − x 2 + C .

Can We Integrate All Continuous Functions?

The functions that we have been studied here are called
elementary functions.
These are the polynomials, rational functions, power functions
(x a ), exponential functions (ax ), logarithmic functions,
trigonometric and inverse trigonometric functions, hyperbolic
and inverse hyperbolic functions,
and all functions that can be obtained from these by the five
operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication, division,
and composition.
For instance, the function
r
x2 − 1
f (x) = + ln(cosh x) − xe sin2x
x 3 + 2x − 1
is an elementary function.
If f is an elementary
R function, then f 0 is an elementary
function but f (x)dx need not be an elementary function.
2
Consider f(x) = e x . Since f is continuous, its integral exists,
and if we define the function F by
Z t
2
F (x) = e t dt,
0

then we know from Part 1 of the Fundamental Theorem of

Calculus that
2
F 0 (x) = e x .
 2
Thus, f (x) = e x has an antiderivative F , but it has been
proven that F is not an elementary function.
This means that no matter
R x 2 how hard we try, we will never
succeed in evaluating e dx in terms of the functions we
know.
The same can be said of the following integrals:
Z x Z Z
e 2
dx sin(x )dx cos(e x )dx,
x
Z √ Z Z
1 sin x
x 3 + 1dx dx dx.
ln x x
In fact, the majority of elementary functions don’t have
elementary antiderivatives.
You may be assured, though, that the integrals in the
following exercises are all elementary functions. :)