JUNIOR CHEMISTRY

ATOMIC STRUCTURE
1. What are the postulates of Bohr’s model of hydrogen atom? Discuss the
importance of this model to explain various series of line spectra in hydrogen
atom?
Ans: Postulates:
1. The electrons are revolves around the nucleus in a fixed circular paths is called
orbits.
2. These orbits are denoted by K, L, M, N… or 1, 2, 3, 4…….
3. As long as electron revolves in a particular orbit it does not lose or gain energy.
These orbits are called Stationary orbits.
4. The angular momentum of electron is always integral multiple of h it is given by
2
nh
mvr  .
2

5. The energy difference between two levels

E  E2  E1  hv
Hydrogen Spectrum:-
The excited electron comes from higher energy level to different energy levels. 5
types of spectral lines are formed
Series n1 n2 Region
Lyman series 1 2,3,4,…. UV region
Balmer series 2 3,4,5,…. Visible region
Paschen series 3 4,5,6,…. Near I.R
Bracket series 4 5,6,7,…. Middle I.R
Pfund series 5 6,7,8,…. Far I.R

2. How are the quantum numbers n,l and m, s arrived at ? Explain the
significance of these quantum numbers?
A. Quantum numbers are 4 types
1. Principle quantum number
2. Azimutal Quantum number
3. Magnetic Quantum number
4. Spin Quantum number
I. PRINCIPAL QUANTUM NUMBER :-(n)
1. It was proposed by Bohr.
2. It was denoted by ‘n’
3. The value of n are 1,2,3,4….(or) K,L,M,N….. respectively.
4. The maximum no. of electrons in an orbit = 2n 2
5. Significance: It indicates the size and energy of the orbit.
II. AZIMUTHAL QUANTUM NUMBER (l ) :-
1. It was proposed by sommer field.
2. It was denoted by ‘l’
 3. The value of l depends on n-1
4. The no. of sub shell in an energy level =n.
5. Significance: It indicates the shape of orbitals.
III MAGNETIC QUANTUM NUMBER (m) :-
1. It was proposed by landae.
2. It was denoted by ‘m’.
3. The value of m depends on ‘l’. The values of ‘m’ are from l to l including 0.
4. The no of orbital’s in sub shell = 2l  1
5. Significance: It indicates the orientation of orbital’s in space.
IV SPIN QUANTUM NUMBER (s) :-
1. It was proposed by Goudsmith and uhlenbeck.
2. It was denoted by ‘s’
3. ‘S’ values are like +1/2, and -1/2.
4. Clock wise +½, and anti clock wise -1/2
5. Significance: It indicates the spin of the electron.
3. Explain the Any four differences between Emission and Absorption
spectrum?
A.
Emission spectrum Absorption spectrum
1. It is formed, when the substance 1. It is formed, when the substance
emits the radiation. absorb the radiation
2. White lines are formed on the block 2. Block lines are formed on the white
back ground. back ground.
3. It is classified in to two types. 3. It is not classified.
a. Continuous spectrum,
b. Discontinuous spectrum
4. In which electron transferred from 4. In which electron transferred from
high energy level to lower energy level. lower level to higher energy level.
4. Define atomic orbital. Explain the shapes of s, p and d orbital’s the help of
diagrams?
A. The maximum probability of finding electron around the nucleus is called atomic
orbital
Shape of s,p,d orbital’s:
S-Orbital : For ‘1s’ orbital

 n  1, l  0, m  0
 Shape is spherical
P-Orbital: For ‘2p’ orbital

 n  2, l  1, m  1, 0, 1
 shape of p-orbital is Dumb-bell
 p orbital designated as px , p y , p z orbitals
 d-Orbital:

 d- orbital is double dumb-bell,

m values are -2,-1,0,1,2
it is designed as dxy, dyz, dzx, dx  y , dz
2 2 2

PERIODIC CLASSIFICATION
1. Define IE1 and IE2 . Why is IE2  IE1 for a given atom ? Discuss the factors that
effect IE of an element ?
A. IONIZATIONAL POTENTIAL: - The minimum amount of energy required to
remove valency electron from an atom is called ionization potential (I.E1)

M  g   IE1  M (g )  e
SECOND IONIZATION POTENTIAL: - The minimum amount of energy required to
remove valency electron from an uni positive ion is called second ionization
potential (I.E2) M   IE  M 2  e
(g) 2 (g)

IE2  IE1 :  IE2 is always greater than IE1 . Because in uni positive ion, number of
protons is more than the number of electrons. So in uni positive ion nuclear
charge is more.Hence IE2 is greater than IE1
Influencing factors of ionization potential:-
1.ATOMIC SIZE: - The atomic size is increased, I.P value is decreases.

1
I .P
atomic size
2. NUCLEAR CHARGE: - nuclear charge increases, I.P value is increases.
I.P  Nuclear charge
3. SHEILDING EFFECT: - sheilding effect increases, I.P values is decreases.

I .P 1
screeing effect

2. What is periodic property? How do the following properties changes in a

period and group?
1. Atomic size 2. Metallic Nature 3.Ionization potential (I.E)
4. Electron affinity (E.A)/Electron gain enthalpy. 5. Electro negativity (E.N)
6. Nature of oxides
Ans: Periodic propretry: The property of an element is repeated at regular intervals is
called periodic property
Property In Groups In Periods
1. Atomic radius Increases Decreases
2. Metallic nature Increases Decreases
3. Ionization potential (I.E) Decreases Increases
4. Electron affinity (E.A) Decreases Increases
5. Electron negativity (E.N) Decreases Increases
6. Nature of oxides Decreases in acidic nature Increases in acidic nature
1. Atomic radius: In groups: In groups top to bottom atomic radius is increased.
Because the newly entered electron is enter in to the new energy level.
 In periods: In periods left to right atomic radius is decreases. Because the newly
entered electron is enter in to the same energy level.
2. Metallic nature: In groups: In groups top to bottom metallic nature is
increases.
In periods: In periods left to right metallic nature is decreases.
3. Ionization potential: In groups: In groups top to bottom I.E value is
decreases. Because the atomic size is increased.
In periods: In periods from left to right I.E value is increases. Because the atomic
size is decreased.
4. Electron affinity: In groups: In groups from top to bottom E.A value is
decreased. Because the atomic size is increased.
In periods: In periods from left to right E.A value is increased. Because the atomic
size is decreased.
5. Electron negativity: In groups: from top to bottom E.N value is decreased.
Because the atomic size is increased.
In periods: In periods from left to right E.N value is increased. Because the atomic
size decreased.
6. Nature of oxides: In groups: In groups from top to bottom acidic nature is
decreased.
In periods: In periods from left to right acidic nature is increased.
3. Write an essay on s,p,d and f block elements
Ans. s,p,d,f BLOCK ELEMENTS :-
Blocks are four types,
(1) s- Block Elements, (2) p- Block Elements,
(3) d-Block Elements, (4) f-Block Elements.
(1) S- Block Elements:-
1. The differentiating electron enters in s-orbital are called s- block elements.
2. S-block elements are at left side of the periodic table
3. General electronic configuration of s- block elements are ns12
4. These are positive in nature.
5. These are reducing agents.

2. P- BLOCK ELEMENTS:-
1. The differentiating electron enters in p-orbital are called p - block elements.
2. p-block elements are at right side of the periodic table
3. General electronic configuration of P- block elements are ns 2 np1 6
4. These are negative in nature.
5. These are oxidizing agents.
3. D- BLOCK ELEMENTS:-
1. The differentiating electron enters in (n-1)d-sub shell are called d - block
elements.
2. General electronic configuration of d- block elements are (n  1)d 110 ns12
3. These are hard metals.
4. These are having high BP & MP.
5. These are Para magnetic.
6. These are forms the colour compounds.
7. These are forms the alloys.
4. f- BLOCK ELEMENTS:-
1. The differentiating electron enters in (n-2)f-sub shell are known as f - block
elements.
 2. f-block elements are placed at bottom of the periodic table
3. General electronic configuration of f- block elements are (n  2) f 114 (n  1)d 01ns 2
4. These are two types like lanthoids and actinoids
5. These are radioactive elements.
4. Write the configuration of element and their properties in the classification
of elements?
Ans: Based on the properties and electronic configuration the elements are divided in
four types.
1. Noble Gases, 2. Representative elements,
3. Transitions Elements, 4. Inner Transitions Elements.
1. Noble gases:-
i. These are also called zero group elements
ii. The general electronic configuration is ns 2 np 6  Except ' He '  ns 2 
iii. These are chemically inactive.
iv. These elements EN value is zero
2. Representative elements:-
i. Except zero group, remaining S and P-block elements are called Representative
elements
ii. They are chemically active.
iii. The general electronic configuration is ns12 , np1  5 .
iv. These are metals and non-metals
3. Transition elements:
1. These are also called d-Block Elements.
2. The general electronic configuration is  n  1 d 19 ns12
3. These are hard metals.
4. These are having high BP & MP.
5. These are Para magnetic.
6. These are forms the colour compounds.
7. These are forms the alloys.
4. Inner transition elements:
1. f-blocks elements are called inner transition elements
2. The general electronic configuration is  n  2 f 114  n 1 d 01ns 2
3. These are two types like lanthoids and actinoids
4. These are radioactive elements.
CHEMICAL BONDING
1. What do you understand of Hybridization ? Explain different types of
hybridization involving s,p and d orbital’s.
Ans: The process of intermixing of atomic orbitals having same energy and reproduced
the same number of new hybrid orbitals are called hybridization.
Hybridisation is 3-types
1. SP-hybridization, 2. SP2-hybridization, 3. SP3-hybridization.
1.SP hybridisation:
The process of intermixing of one S-orbital and One P-orbital to produce the two
new identical hybrid orbital’s are called Sp-hybridization.
EX: BeCl2
1. Central atom – Be,
2. Hybridisation-SP
3. Shape – Linear
4. Bond angle - 1800
 2. SP hybridization
2

The process of intermixing of one S-orbital and Two P-orbital to produce the Three
new identical hybrid orbital’s are called Sp 2 -hybridization
Ex. BCl3
1. Central atom-Boran
2. Hybridisation-SP2
3. Shape – Trigonal planer
4. Bond angle - 1200

3. Sp3 hybridation
The process of intermixing of one S-orbital and Three P-orbital to produce the
Four new identical hybrid orbital’s are called Sp 3 -hybridization
Ex: CH 4
1. Central atom-carbon,
2. Hybridisation-SP3
3. Shape : Tetrahedral
4. Bond angle 1090 281

2. Explain the hybridization involved in PCl5 molecule.?

A. In PCl5, Sp3d-hybridization is involved.
Sp3d -Hybridization
The process of intermixing of one S-orbital, Three P-orbital and 1d-orbital to
produce the Five new identical hybrid orbital’s is called Sp 3 d -hybridization
Ex: PCl5
1. Central atom-phosphorous;
2. Hybridization-Sp3d,
3. Bond angle 900 & 1200
4. Shape : Trigonal bi Pyramidal.

3. Explain the hybridization involved in SF6 molecule.?

A. In SF6 molecule, Sp3d2 – hybridization is involved.
Sp3d 2 Hybridization
The process of intermixing of one S-orbital, Three P-orbital and 2d-orbital to
produce Six new identical hybrid orbital’s are called Sp 3 d 2 -hybridization
Ex: SF6
1. Central atom-Sulpher,
2. Hybridization-SP3d2
 3. Bond angle 1800
4. Shape: Octahedral

4. Give an account of VSEPR theory, and its applications?

Ans. Valence shell electron pair Repulsion theory was explained by Nyholm and
Gillespie
POSTULATES:
1. The shape of the molecule is depends on number of electron pairs in vanlency
shell of central atom.
2. The shape of the molecule also depends up on repulsion between L.P & B.P
3. A lone pair of electrons occupies more space around the central atom than bond
pair of electrons
4. The repulsion between electron pairs are in the order of
l. p  l. p  l. p  b. p  b. p  b. p
5. The repulsion between different bonds are in the order of     
No of bond pairs No of lone pairs Shape Example
2 0 Linear Becl2
3 0 Trigonal planar Bcl3
4 0 Tetrahedral CH 4
5 0 Trigonal Pcl5
bipyramidal
6 0 Octahectral SF6
EX: structure of NH3 molecule
i) Central atom-nitrogen
ii. Hybridization – SP3
iii. Shape – pyramidal
iv. Bond angle – 1070.

5. What is hydrogen bond? Explains different types of hydrogen bonds?

A. Hydrogen bond:- The attractive forces between the partially positively charged
hydrogen atom and highly electro negative atom is called hydrogen bond.
Hydrogen bonds are two types.
1. Inter molecular hydrogen bond: the hydrogen bond is present between two
atoms, but these two atoms are present in different molecules. Ex. H-F….H-F
2. Intra molecular hydrogen bond: The hydrogen bond is present between two
atoms, but these two atoms are present in same molecule. Ex. Salicylaldehyde
6. Define dipole moment. Write its applications?
A. The product of charge present on two poles (q) and the distance between two poles
(d) are called dipole moment. (μ)
  qd
Applications:- 1. Based on this, identified the shape of molecule.
2. Based on this, indentified the bond angle of molecule
7. State Fajan’s rules, and give suitable examples.
A. 1. Given compound covalent character is increased with increasing size of anion.
Ex. KI  KF
2. Given compound covalent character is increased with decreasing the size of
cation. Ex. LiF  KF
3. Given compound covalent character is increased with increasing the charge of
anion or cation. Ex. SnCl4  SnCl2
4. Compound with pseudo inert gas configuration having more covalent charactes
than the inert gas configuration. Ex. CuCl  NaCl
STATE OF MATTER
1. Write the postulates of kinetic molecular theory of gases.
Ans: i. Gases contain large number of tiny particals are called molecules.
ii. Gas molecules move randomly in all directions.
iii. There is no attractions between the gases molecules.
iv. There is no repulltions between the gases molecules.
v. The molecular collisions are perfectly elastic.
vi. There is no gravitational forces on gases molecules
vii. The kinetic energy of gas molecules is directly proportional to its temperature.
KE T
2. Deduce (a) boyle’s law (b) Charles law (c) Graham`s law (d) Dalton’s law from
kinetic gas equation?
Ans: a) Boyle`s law (b) Charles law from KGE:
Boyle’s law Charles law
2 1 2 1
1. Kinetic gas equation, PV   mnc 2 1. Kinetic gas equation, PV   mnc 2
3 2 3 2
1 1
But mnc 2  KE But mnc 2  KE
2 2
2 2
PV   KE PV   KE
3 3
But KE∝T, KE=KT But KE ∝ T, KE = KT
2 2
 PV   KT  PV   KT
3 3
KT KT
PV = KT, V PV=KT, V
P P
at constant temperature (T=1) at constant pressure (p=1)
V = KT
K K
V , V V T
P P

c) Deduce graham’s law from KGE:

According to kinetic gas equation
1
PV  mnu 2
3
1
Pv  Mu 2  M  mn 
3
3 pv 3 pv  M 
u2    D
N M  v 
3p 1
u   u
d d
This is grahams law.
 d) Deduce Dalton’s law from KGE:
Two gases present in a container with volume if mass of each molecules m1, m2
velocities u1,u2
according to kinetic gas Eq.
1 1 mnu 2
PV  mnu  p 2

3 3 v
1 m1n1u22 1 m1n1u22
For I ST gas p1  , For 2nd gas p2 
3 v 3 v
1 1
pv  m1n1u12  m2 n2u22
3 3
1 m1n1u1 1 m2 n2u22
2
p 
3 v 3 v
p  p1  p2 This is Dalton’s law
3. State and explain Graham law diffusion?
Ans: At constant temperature and pressure, the rate of diffusion of a gas is inversely
proportional to the square root of it`s density
1
r
d
At const T & P, if r1 & r2 are rate of diffusion of two gases and it`s densities d1 & d 2
r1 d2
 ...................(1)
r2 d1
Density (d) is directly proportional to molar mass (m)
d m2
 2    2
d1 m1
From Eq. (1) r1  M 2
r2 M1

From Eq. (2) r1  d2  m2  vd2

r2 d1 m1 vd1

4. State and explain Dalton`s law of partial pressure?

Ans: At constant temperature and volume the total pressure exerted by the non reactive
gaseous mixture is equal to the sum of partial pressures of all individual gases.
This is know as Dalton`s law of partial pressure.
ptotal  p1  p2  p3  ......
Where p1 , p2 , p3 ,    are partial pressures of gases
The pressure exerted by one individual gas in the mixture is called partial
pressure .
partial pressure =mole fraction X total pressure
n1
p1  X 1  ptotal Where X 1 
n1  n2  ......
5. Derive ideal gas equation
 1
1
A. According to Boyle’s law V  ( at constant T, n)
P
According to Charle’s law V  T ( at constant P, n)   2 
According to Avagadro’s law V  n ( at constant P,T)   3
from 1,2,3
nT
V
P
 RnT
V
P
PV  nRT
6. Define R.M.S, average most probable speed of gas molecules. Give their
interrelation ship?
Ans. a. R.M.S speed : The square root of mean of the square of gas molecules are
called R.M.S speed.
3RT
U rms 
M
b. Average speed : The average speed of all the molecules presents in the gas is
called average speed
8RT
U ar 
M
C. Most probable speed: The speed possessed by maximum no.of molecules
present In the gas is called most probable speed.
2 RT
U mp 
M
RATIO OF MOLECULAR VELOCITES:
2RT 8RT 3RT
U mp : U ar : U rms  : :
M M M
8
 2: : 3

 1:1.128:1.224
CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM
1. What is lechatelier's principle? Discuss briefly the factors which can
influence the equilibrium?
A: The chemical reaction is present at equilibrium state, then the effecting factors
like concentration, temperature and pressure is changed, then the reactions are
moves where the changes are reduced.
1. Concentration: IF the concentration is increased, is favorable to forward
reaction
2. Temperature: Temperature is increased, favorable to endothermic reactions.
Temperature is decreased, favorable to exothermic reactions.
3. Pressure: Pressure is increased, favorable to volume decreasing side. Pressure
is decreased, favorable to volume increasing side.
2.
Discuss the application of Lechatlier’s Discuss the application of Lechatlier’s
principle for the industrial synthesis of principle for the industrial synthesis of
Ammonia? sulphur trioxide?
Ammonia is prepared by using the SO2 is prepared by using the contact
Habers process process.
N 2  g   3H 2  g  2 NH 3  g  ; H  92kJ 2SO2 g   O2 g  2SO3 g  , H  189kj
1. The above reaction is a reversible 1. The above reaction is a reversible
reaction reaction
2. The above reaction is a exothermic 2. The above reaction is a exothermic
reaction reaction
3. The above reaction is a volume 3. The above reaction is a volume
decreasing reaction decreasing reaction
Temperature: “Low temperature” is Temperature: “Low temperature” is
favorable for the preparation of large favorable for the preparation of large
amount of ammonia. amount of “SO3”
 Pressure: “High pressure” is favorable for Pressure: “High pressure” is favorable
the preparation of large amount of for the preparation of large amount of
ammonia. “SO2”
Optimum conditions: Optimum conditions:
1. Temperature = 725-775k 1. Temperature = 673k
2. Pressure = 200 atm 2. Pressure = 1.5-1.7 atm
3. Catalyst = Iron 3. Catalyst = V2O5
4. Promoter = Mo.
3. Explain the concept of Bronsted acids and Bronsted bases, Illustrate the
answer with suitable examples.
A. Bronsted-Lowry theory: Proton (H⊕)donar.
Bronsted-Lowry base: Proton (H⊕) acceptor
Neutralisation: Transfer of proton from acid to base is called Neutralisation.
Conjugate acid-base pair: the acid base pair which are differ by a proton is called
Conjugate acid-base pair
acid conjugate
base
HCl Cl 
HNO3 NO3
H 2 SO4 HSO4
4. What is a conjugate acid –base pair? Illustrate with examples
A. Conjugate acid-base-pair: The acid-base pair which are differ by a proton is called
Conjugate acid-base pair
acid conjugate
base
HCl Cl 
HNO3 NO3
H 2 SO4 HSO4
5. Explain Lewis acid base theory with suitable examples?
A.
Lewis acid: Electron pair acceptor. Lewis base: Electron pair donar.
Eg: Ag+ Cu+2 Ex. Cl-, OH-
1. All cations Ex. Ag Cu
+ +2 1. All anions (Cl-, OH-)
2. Molecules having incomplete octet 2. In molecules multiple bonds are
configuration. Ex. BCl3 present between same atoms.
3. Molecules with vacant d-orbitals Ex. CH = CH
Ex. (FaCl3, AlCl3) 3. Molecules with lone pairs (H2O, NH3)
(a) OH → Lewis base
- (b) F → Lewis base
-

(c) H⊕ → Lewis acid (d) BCl3 → Lewis acid.

6. Derive the reaction between K C and K p for equilibrium reaction?
A: N2 g   3H 2 g  


 2NH3 g 
P 2 NH
KP  3

PN  P3 H
2 2

But PV=nRT
n
P    RT  CRT
v
Where c= conc of the gas
PNH3 =  NH3 g   RT
 
 PN 2 =  H 2 g   RT
 

KP   3   3  3
2 2
NH RT
 N 2  RT  H 2   RT 
K P   3  3 .  4
2 2
NH RT
 N 2  H 2   RT 
K p  K C  RT 
24

K p  K C  RT 
2

 K P  KC
7. Write notes on
1. Common ion effect
2. The relation between K sp and solubility (S) of a sparingly soluble salt BaSO4
A. Common ion Effect: The suppression of the solubility of first electrolyte in water
by the addition of another electrolyte, which has a common ion with the first
electrolyte, is called common ion effect
Example: The dissociation of NH4OH is suppressed by the addition of NH4Cl due
to the common ion,
NH 4ion
NH 4OH NH 4  OH 
NH 4Cl NH 4  Cl 
ii. The relation between Ksp and solubility (S) of a sparingly soluble salt BaSO4
BaSO4 Ba 2 SO42
K sp   Ba 2   SO42 
Ksp  S  S  S 2  S  K sp
8. What is homogenous and heterogeneous equilibrium? With suitable
examples.
A. If the physical state of reactants and products are same in an equilibrium reaction
then the equilibrium is called homogenous equilibrium.
e.g: H 2 g   I 2 g  2 HI  g 

N2 g   3H 2 g  2NH3 g 
If the physical state of reactants a and product are different in an equilibrium
reaction then the equilibrium is called heterogeneous equilibrium

e.g .CaCO3 s  CaO s   CO2 g 
Ni s   4CO g   Ni  CO 4 
g
9. What is ionic product of water? What is its value at room temperature?
A. Ksp is defined as the product of “the concentrations of H+ and OH- ions in water or
aqueous solutions at a given temperature”
The concentration of H+ ion was found experimentally as 10 107 M at 250 C
At room temperature  250 C or 298K  value of Kwfor water = 10 1014 mol 2lit 2
THERMODYNAMICS
1. Explain Hess law of constant heat summation
A. One chemical reaction is takes place either single step (or) several steps, finally energy changes
remains constant.
Ex:- CO2 formation
Single step:- C  O2  CO2 H  393KJ
 Serval steps:- 1. C 12 O2  CO H1  293KJ
2. CO 12 O2  CO2 H 2  110KJ
H  H1  H 2
2. State the first law of the thermodynamics
A. 1. First law of the thermodynamics is also called law of conservation of energy.
2. “The energy neither be created nor destroyed. But it change to one form to another form”.
3. “First law says that, it is impossible to construct a perpetual motion of machine of time kind.”
4.”Q” amount of energy is given to the system is equal to sum of the change in internal energy (∆E)
and work done (w) on externally.
Q  E  W
ButW  P. V
 Q  E  P. V
3. Explain IInd law of thermodynamics and explain it?
A. 1.Heat cannot flow from colder body to hotter body on its own.
2. Water cannot flows from low level area to high level area on its own.
3. Air cannot flows from low pressure area to high pressure area on its own.
4. All spontaneous process are thermodynamically irreversible.
4. What is Entropy ? Explain with examples?
A. Entropy: The measurement of disorderness of a system is called Entropy.
1. It is a state function & extensive property.
2. It is denoted by “S”.
3. It is calculated by.   q
S T
q=Quantity of heat.
∆T=Absolute temperature
4. Solids having less or zero entropy value, gases having highest entropy value.
Solids  liquids  gases
5. State the third law of thermodynamics. What do you understand by it?
A. Solids having entropy value is zero at their absolute zero temperatures  2730 C 

T 0 S 0
This is known as the third law of thermodynamics
6. Define heat capacity? What are CP and CV? show that CP-CV = R.?
A. Heat capacity(C): The amount of heat required to raising the temperature of the
substance through one degree.
C = q/dT
Q is heat absorbed. dT rise in temperature
Q = dU + PdV:
We can write equation for heat q
At constant pressure as qP  CP T  H ,  (1)
At constant volume as qP  CP T  U ,  (2)
The difference between CPand CV can be derived for an ideal gas:
For a mole of an ideal gas H  U ,   pV 
U    RT   U  RT
H  U  RT   3
ON PUTTING (1) AND (2) IN (3) WE GET
We have C p T  CV T  RT
CP  CV  R
CP  CV  R
CP= The molar heat capacity at constant pressure
 CV = The molar heat capacity at constant volume.
R = gas constant
7. Explain the spontaneity of a process in terms of Gibbs energy?
A. Gibbs energy: The amount of energy is available in a system, which can be used to
do useful work at constant temperature and pressure is called Gibbs energy
G  H  TS
∆H ∆S ∆G Type of reactions
+ + + None-Spontaneous at low temperature
- - - Spontaneous at low temperature
8. Explain extensive and intensive properties ?
A. The various physical properties of the system may be classified into two types
a) Extensive Properties : Properties of the system which depend on the total
amount of the material present in the system
Example: Mass (m), Volume (v),
b) Intensive properties: Properties of a system which are independent of the
amount of the material in the system,
Example : Density (d), surface tension.
HYDROGEN AND ITS COMPOUNDS
1. Discuss with relevant chemical equations, various methods of preparing `
Hydrogen peroxide, which of these methods is useful to prepare D 2O 2 .
(i) From BaO 2 :

BaO on reaction with dilute H SO forms H O .

2 2 4 2 2

BaO .8H O  H SO 2 2 2 4
 H 2O 2  BaSO 4  8H 2O .
(ii) Auto oxidation:
2-alkyl anthraquinol on auto oxidation forms H 2O 2
2  Ethyl anthraquinol  2  alkyl anthraquinone  H 2O2
(iii) Electrolytic method:
50% H 2SO 4 on electrolysis followed by distillation forms H 2O 2 .
 
2H SO  2H  2HSO
2 4 4
 
2HSO  H S O  2e
4 2 2 8

H S O  2H O  H O  2H SO
2 2 8 2 2 2 2 4

Among these electrolytic method is more useful to prepare D 2O 2 .

2. Write the chemical reactions to justify that HO2 2
can functions as oxidizing
as well as reducing agent.
Oxidizing properties:
1. H2O2 is reacts with KNO2 forms the KNO3
H 2O2  KNO2  KNO3  H 2O
2. H2O2 is reacts with Ag forms the Ag2O
H 2O2  2 Ag  Ag 2O  H 2O
Reducing properties:
1. H2O2 is reacts with Cl2 forms the HCl
H 2O2  Cl2  2 HCl  O2
2. H2O2 reacts with O3 forms the H2O
H 2O2  O2  H 2O  2O2
3. Explain the following with suitable examples
(a) electron-deficient hydrides
(b) electron-precise hydrides.
A. (a) Electron-deficient hydrides: The hydrides with less no. of electrons to write
Lewis structure are called electron-deficient hydrides. Ex: B2 H 6
(b) Electron-precise hydrides: The hydrides with more no. of electrons to write
Lewis structure are called electron-precise hydrides. Ex: H 2O, NH 3
4. Explain the soft water, hard water, temporary and permanent hardness of
water.?
A. Soft water: Water which gives good lather with soap.
Hard water: Water which do not give good lather with soap.
Temporary hardness of water: It is caused by the presence of calcium and
magnesium bi carbonates.
Permanent hardness of water: It is caused by the presence of calcium and
magnesium chlorids and sulphates
5. Explain the (a) ion-exchange method (b) calgon method in the removal of
hardness of water?
I. Ion-exchange method:-
1. It is used for the conversion of hard water to soft water.
2. In this method, the chemical compound are used namely permutit.
3. Its formula is Na2 Al2 Si2O8 xH2O = NaZ
4. Now the hard water is passed through the permutit, hard water is converted in
to soft water
2 NaZ  Ca 2  CaZ3  2 Na 
II. Cagon method:
1. It used for the conversion of hard water to soft water
2. Sodium hexa meta phosphate is called calgon.
3. Calgon formula = Na6 P6O18
4. Now the hard water is passed through the calgon, hard water is converted in to
soft water.
Na6 P6O18  2 Na    Na4 P6O18 
2

Na6 P6O182  Ca2   Na2CaP6O18   2Na

6. Write a few lines on the utility of hydrogen as fuel.
1. Hydrogen gas used as a racket fuel.
2. It produce the large amount of the energy
3. It produce the less amount of pollution.
4. It is also used to produce electricity in fuel cells.
5. It is used for the cutting and welding of metals.
7. Write a note on heavy water?
A. Heavy water: Deuterium oxide is also called as heavy water. Its formula = D2O
N
Preparation: On electrolysis of NaOH in seven stages forms D2O
2
1. Its molecular weight = 20
2. M.P. =276.8K, B.P. =374.4K.
3. Its reacts similarly as water. SO3  D2O  D2 SO4
Uses:
1. It used as a moderator in nuclear reactors
2. It is used to predict reaction mechanism
III GROUP ELEMENTS
1. Write any two Preparation methods of Diborane?
A. 1. BF3 is reacts with NaH forms the diborane.
2 BF3  6 NaH  B2 H 6  NaF
2. BCl3 is reacts with H2 forms the diborane.
2 BCl3  6 H 3  B2 H 6  6 HCl
2. How does diborane react with
a. H 2O b. CO c. N (CH3 )3 d. NH ?
3

A. a. Diborane reacts with water to give Boric acid.

B2 H 6  6 H 2O 
 2H 3 BO3  6H 2
b. Diborane reacts with carbon monoxide to give Boron carbonyl.
1
B2 H 6  CO  10000 C
2 atm
 OC  BH 3
2
c. Diaborane reacts with trimethyl ammine to give Borane adduct.
B2 H 6  N  CH 3 3  H 3 B  N  CH 3 3
d. Diaborane reacts with NH 3 from Borazine. It is also called as inorganic benzene.
B2 H 6  2 NH 3  B3 N 3 H 6
3. Explain the structure of diborane:
A. i. Diborne formula is B2 H 6
ii. It is a electron deficient molecule
iii. Central atom – boron
iv. Hybridization - Sp 3
v. In diborane is called a three centred, two electrons B  H  B bond is called banana (or)
tau bond.
vi. It has a two - BH 2 - groups.

4. Explain the structure of boric acid?

A. i. Boric acid is a white crystalline substance
ii. its formula is H 3 Bo3 .
iii. it has a number of Bo 33 units
iv. These Bo 33 units are arranged in trigonal planar shape
v. in which boron = Sp 2 - hybridization.

5. Explain borax test with a suitable example.

A. Borax bead test:-
1. It is used for the identification of free radicals or ions present in the compound
2. In this method, the borax power is heated at high temperature. Then the
following reactions are takes place forms the borax glass.
heat
Na2 B4O  10 H 2O  Na2 B4O   2 NaBO2  B2O3
Borax glass
3. Now the compound is added to the borax glass, then it gets the colour. Based
on this colour identified the ions present in compound
Ex: CO (BO2)2 - bule
6. What are electron deficient compounds? Is BCl3 an electron deficient
species? Explain.
A. Compounds in which the central atom does not have eight electrons in the valence
shell are called electron deficient molecules.
For example : in BCl3, the central boron atom has only six electrons. Therefore, it
is an electron deficient compound, as such, it accepts a pair of electrons from NH 3
to form an adduct.
H3N: + BCl3 
[H3N  BCl3 ]
STOICHIOMETRY
1. Balance following redox equation by ion-electron method taking place in acidic
medium
a. Cr2O72  NO2  Cr 3  NO3
Oxidization Half reaction Reduction Half Reaction
NO2  NO3 Cr2 O72   Cr 3
i) Balance oxygen atoms i) Balance Chromium atoms
NO2  H 2 O  NO3 Cr2 O72   2Cr 3
ii) Balance Hydrogen atoms ii) Balance oxygen atoms
NO2  H 2 O  NO3  2 H  Cr2 O72   2Cr 3  7 H 2 O
iii) Balance charge iii) Balance Hydrogen atoms
 NO 
2   H 2O  NO  2 H  2e  3

3
 
Cr2O72   14 H   2Cr 3  7 H 2O
Balance charge
 Cr O
2
2
7  14 H   6e   2Cr 3  7 H 2O 1

3NO2  3H 2 O  3NO3  6 H   6e 
Cr2 O72   14 H   6e  2Cr 3  7 H 2O
------------------------------------------------------
3NO2  Cr2 O72   8H   3NO3  2Cr 3  4 H 2 O
-------------------------------------------------------
b. MnO41  SO32  Mn 2   SO42
Oxidization Half reaction Reduction Half Reaction
2
SO  SO
2
3 4 MnO4  Mn 2
i) Balance oxygen atoms i) Balance oxygen atoms
SO32   H 2 O  SO42 MnO4  Mn 2  4 H 2 O
ii) Balance Hydrogen atoms ii) Balance Hydrogen atoms
SO32   H 2O  SO42  2 H  MnO4  8H   Mn 2  4 H 2O
iii) Balance charge Balance charge
 SO 2
3  H 2 O  SO  2 H  2e  5
2
4
 
 MnO 
4  8H   5e   Mn 2  4 H 2O  2

5SO32  5H 2 O  5SO42  10 H   10e

2MnO4  16 H   10e  2Mn 2  8H 2O
------------------------------------------------------
5SO32  2MnO4  6 H   5SO42  2Mn 2  3H 2O
-------------------------------------------------------
c. H 2 SO4  HBr  SO2  Br2
Oxidization Half reaction Reduction Half Reaction
Br  Br2 SO42  SO2
i) Balance Bromine atoms i) Balance oxygen atoms
2Br  Br2 SO42  SO2  2 H 2O
ii) Balance oxygen atoms ii) Balance Hydrogen atoms
2Br  Br2 SO42  4 H   SO2  2 H 2 O
iii) Balance hydrogen atoms iii) Balance charge
2Br  Br2 SO42  4 H   2e  SO2  2 H 2O
iv) Balance 2 Br  Br2  2e
 
 2 Br  Br2  2 e

So42  4 H   2e  So2  2 H 2O
------------------------------------------------------
So42  4H   2Br  So2  Br2  2H 2O
-------------------------------------------------------
d. MnO4  C2O42  Mn2  CO2
Oxidization Half reaction Reduction Half Reaction
2
C2 O 4  CO2 MnO4  Mn 2
i) Balance carbon atoms i) Balance oxygen atoms
C2 O42  2CO2 MnO4  Mn 2  4 H 2 O
ii) Balance charge ii) Balance charge
C O 2
2
4  2CO2  2e  5

MnO4  8H   Mn 2  4 H 2 O
iii) Balance charge
 MnO 4  8H   5e   Mn 2  4 H 2O  2

5C2O42  10CO2  10e

2MnO4  16 H   10e  2Mn 2  8H 2O
------------------------------------------------------
5C2O42  2MnO4  16 H   10CO2  2Mn 2  8H 2 O
-------------------------------------------------------
2. Problem : 1 : - Chemical analysis of a carbon compound gave the following
percentage composition by weight of the elements present. Carbon = 10.06% ;
Hydrogen = 0.84% . Chlorine = 89.10%. Calculate the Empirical formula of the
compound. Composition
Element % of composition Atomic ratio Simplest ratio
Carbon 10.06 10.06
 0.838
0.838
1
12 0.838
Hydrogen 0.84 0.84
 0.84
0.84
1
1 0.838
Chlorine 89.10 89.1
 2.5
2.5
3
35.5 0.838
Empirical formula of the compound = CHCl3

Problem : 2:- A carbon compound contains 12.8% carbon, 21% Hydrogen, 85.1%
Bromine. The molecular weight of compound is 187.9. Calculate the molecular
formula.
Element % of composition Atomic ratio Simplest ratio
Carbon 12.8 12.8
 1.067
1.067
1
12 1.067
Hydrogen 2.1 2.1
 2.1
2.1
2
1 1.067
Bromine 85.1 85.1
 1.067
1.067
1
80 1.067
The empirical formula is CH 2 Br
Empirical formula weight  12   2 1  80  94
Molecular weight = 187.9
187.9
n  2
94
  CH2 Br 2
 C2 H 4 Br2
 Problem : 3:- Calculate the empirical of the compound having % composition
Potassium  K   26.57% ; Chromium  Cr   35.36%; Oxygen (O)=38.07%
Given the atomic weights of K, Cr, and O as 39,52 and 16 respectively.
Element % of composition Atomic Simplest ratio
ratio
Potassium 26.57 26.57 0.68
 0.68  1 2  2
39 0.68
Chromium 35.36 35.36 0.68
 0.68  1 2  2
52 0.68
Oxygen 38.07 38.07 2.38
 2.38  3.5  2  7
16 0.68
The empirical formula of the compound = K 2Cr2O7
S - BLOCK ELEMENTS
1. What do you know about Costner –Kellner process? Write the principle involved
in it.
A. Sodium hydroxide can be prepared by the electrolysis of sodium chloride in
castner-kellner process.
Cathode: Hg
Anode: carbon rod
 
Ionization: 2 NaCl  2 Na  2Cl
At anode : 2Cl   Cl2  2e
 
At cathode: 2 Na  2e  Na2 Hg (amalgam)
Hg

The amalgam is treated with water to give sodium hydroxide and hydrogen gas
2 Na  Hg  2H 2O  2 NaOH  2Hg  H 2
2. Give an account of the biological importance of Na  and K  ions?
Sodium ( Na ):
1. It helps in the transmission of nerve signals.
2. It helps in regulating the flow of water across cells.
3. It helps to transport of Sugar’s & amino acids into the cell.
Potassium ( K ):
1. It helps in activation of enzymes.
2. It converts glucose to ATP.
3. It helps in the transmission of nerve signals.
3. Explain the biological importance of Magnesium ( Mg 2 ) & Calcium( Ca 2 )
A. Mg 2 :
1. It helps in relaxing nerves and muscles.
2. It helps in circulation of blood.
3. These are helps in photosynthasis.
Ca 2 :
1. It helps in blood coagulation.
2. It is present in bones
3. There are helps in teeth formation
4. Give an account of the properties of washing soda?
Washing soda: 1. It is a white crystalline solid substance.
2. Its formula = Na2CO310H3O
3. Na2CO3 is reacts with HCl forms the NaCl
Na2CO3  2 HCl  2 NaCl  H 2O  CO3
4. Na2CO3 is reacts with SiO2forms the Na2SiO3
Na2CO3  SiO2  Na2 SiO3  CO3
5. What is plaster of paris? Write a short note on it.
A. 1. Hemi-hydrated calcium sulphate is called plaster of pairs
1
2. Its formula is CaSO4. H 2O
2
3. Gypsum is heated forms plaster of pairs.
1 3
CaSO4 2 H 2O  CaSO2 H 2O  H 2O
2 2
(Gypsum) (Plaster of pairs)
Uses: 1. It is used to construction of buildings.
2. it is used in preparation of artificial legs and hands.
3. It is used in preparation of statues.
4. It is used preparation of dolls
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
1. Complete the following reaction and name the product A,B and C.
AlCl3  CH 3Cl
CaC2 
H 2O
 A 
hotmetaltube
B  C
A. A  C2 H 2 - Acetylene.
B  C6 H 6 - Benzene.
C  C6 H 5  CH 3 - Methyl Benzene.
2. Name the products A,B and C formed in the following reactions. Give the
equations for the reactions.
Ethylene  Br2 / CCl4
 A Alc. KOH
 B 
Br2
C
A. A  C2 H 4 Br2 - ethylene dibromide.
B  C2 H 2 - Acetylene .
C  C2 H 2 Br4 - 1,1,2,2-tetra bromo ethane.
3. What is substitution reaction? Explain any two substitution reactions of
benzene.
A. The reactions in which an atom (or) group in a molecule is replaced by another
atom (or) group is called substitution reaction.
Ex: 1. C6 H 6  CH 3 I  AlCl3
 C6 H 5CH 3  HI
Benzene methyl benzene
2. C6 H 6  Cl2  FeCl 3
 C6 H 5Cl  HCl
Benzene Chloro Benzene
4. Which type of compounds react with Ozone? Explain with one example.
A. Unsaturated hydrocarbons reacts with ozone.
Ex: ethylene reacts with ozone to give ethylene ozonide which on hydrolysis in
presence of ‘Zn’ gives formaldehyde.
O
H 2C CH2

CH 2  CH 2  O3 
 O O  H 2O 
Zn
 2 HCHO  H 2O2
Ethylene ozonide
5. Give two examples each for position and functional isomerism. (Mar 02,
05,13)
A. Position isomerism: It arises due to difference in the position of substituent (or)
functional group (or) multiple bond.
Ex: 1. C3 H 7Cl
Cl
l
CH 3  CH 2  CH 2  Cl CH 3  CH  CH 3
1-Chloro propane 2-Chloro propane

Ex: 2. C3 H 7OH
 OH
l
CH 3  CH 2  CH 2  OH CH 3  CH  CH 3
1- propanol 2- propanol
Functional Group isomerism: It arises due to the difference in the functional
group.
EX: 1. C2 H 6O
CH 3  CH 2  OH CH 3  O  CH 3
Ethyl alcohol Dimethyl ether
EX: 2. C3 H 6O
O
CH3  CH 2  CHO CH 3  C  CH 3
Propanal Propanone
6. What do you understand about Geometrical isomerism? Explain the
Geometircal isomers of 2-butene.
A. Isomers which have same structural formula but differ in the spatial arrangement
of atoms or groups around the double bond are called Geometrical isomers and
the phenomenon is called Geometrical isomerism.
Ex: 2-Butene

EXTRA QUESTIONS
1. Explain photo electric effect?
Ans: when light is exposed on metal surface they emit electrons. This is known as photo
electric effect
Incident rays
 h  W  K.E
1
h  h o  mv 2
2
Except Li remaining alkali metals are used in photo electric cells. Due to low I.P.
2. Explain briefly the plank`s quantum theory?
Ans: i. The perfect emitter (or) absorber of the radiant energy is known as black body.
ii. Black body emits radiation in the form of energy packets are called quantum
iii. The emitted radiant energy is propagated in the form of waves.
iv. The associated energy with each quantum is given by E  h .
3. Explain Heisenberg`s uncertainty principle?
Ans: It is impossible to determine the exact position and exact momentum of an
electron simultaneously.
h h
x.p  (or) x.   p  mv 
4 4 m
Where x, v  uncertainty in position and velocity.
M = mass of the electron.
Significance: It is applicable for only micro particles but not macro particles.
4. Explain Debroglies theory?
Ans: Moving particle exhibit particle and wave nature
Derivation:
A/c to Eisenstein equation E  mc2  1
 A/c to quantum theory E  h   2
From (1) and (2) mc 2  h
mc 2 
hc  c
   
 
h or h h
  
mc mv p
5. Explain dative bond: (or) co-ordinate covalent bond?
The bond formed by sharing of e pair is contributed by only one of the two boned
atoms is called co-ordinate covalent bond.
It is indicated by mark (  ) Ex: NH 4 , H3O  , NH 3  BF3
Formation of H 3O  : A dative bond is formed between H 2O and H  where
H 2O acts as donar due to ‘O’ contain electron pair. H  acts as acceptor due to
H  contains vacant orbital.
H
:0: + H   H 3O 

H
VERY SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS
STATES OF MATTER
1. Why the gas constant ‘R’ is called universal gas constant?
A. The gas constant ‘R’ value is same for all gases. So it is called universal gas
constant
2. Which of the gases diffuses faster among N 2 , O2 and CH 4 why?
A. CH 4 , due to low molecular weight
3. How many time methane diffuses faster than sulphur dioxide?
A. Methane gas diffuses 2 times faster than sulphrdixoide (sO2)
4. What is Boltzman’s constant? Give its value
A. Gas constant per molecule is known as Boltzmann constant
R
k   1.38 1016 ergk 1molecule 1
N
5. What is Boyle temperature?
A. At which temperature real gas behaves as ideal gas is known as Boyle’s
temperature.
6. Why pressure cooker is used for cooking food on hills?
A. On hills atmosphere pressure is very low. Then the water boils at low temperature.
So pressure cooker is used for cooking food on hills
7. What is critical temperature? Give its value for CO2
A. the temperature, above it’s the gases cannot be liquefied even though applying
high pressure is called critical temperature. CO2  30.980 C
8. What is compressibility factor?
A. The ratio between PV and nRT is called compressibility fator (Z).
PV
Z
nRT
9. What is coefficient of viscosity? Give its units?
A. The force, when the velocity of gradient is unit and area of contact is unit is called
coefficient of viscosity.
10. Calculate kinetic energy of 5 moles of nitrogen at 27 0 C ?
A. Kinetic energy of 5 moles of nitrogen gas at 27 0 C is
3 3
Ek  nRT  Ek  5  2  300  4500cal
2 2
 STOICHIOMETRY
1. How many number of moles of glucose are present in the 540 grams of
Glucose?
A. Formula of Glucose. C6H12O6
Gram molecular weight of Glucose =180 grams
Weight of glucose = 540 grams
W 540
No. of moles of glucose     3moles
GmW 180
2. What is reduce concept? Give an example?
A. In chemical reactions, both oxidation and reduction reactions are takes place is
called redox reaction.

3. The empirical formula of compound is CH2O. It molecular weight is 90.

Calculate the molecular formula of the compound?
A. Empirical formula is CH2O
Empirical formula weight (CH2O) = 30 grams
Molecular weight CH2O=90 grams
Molecular formula =  Ef 
W 90
  3
GmW 30
 (CH 2O)3  C3 H 6O3
 Molecular formula is  C3 H 6O3
4. What are the disproportionation reactions? Give examples?
A. The reaction in which same element under goes both oxidation and reduction is
called disproportionation reaction

Ex: -
5. What are comportionation reaction? Give an example?
A. Two same species having different oxidation numbers forms the product. This
product having intermediate oxidation number.
Ex. Ag 2 Ag 0  2 Ag 1
6. What volume of CO2 is obtained at STP by heating 4 grams of CaCO3 ?

A. CaCO3   Cao  CO2
100gr ----- 22.4 liters
4 gr ----- ?
22.4  4 89.6
  0.896 liters of CO2
100 100
BEST OF LUCK