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Measurements in Biology
BIOLOGY Exercise 2
The Metric System and Data Analysis

the same results, regardless of their accuracy. Measurements

Learning Objectives that are both accurate and precise are valid measurements.
By the end of this exercise you should be able to: Scientists strive to make valid measurements.
1. Understand the difference between accuracy and Question 1
precision in measurements. a. Can measurements be accurate but not precise? Explain.
2. Identify the metric units used to measure length,
volume, mass, and temperature.
3. Measure length, volume, mass, and temperature in
metric units. b. Can measurements be precise but not accurate?
4. Convert one metric unit to another (e.g., grams to Explain.
kilograms).
5. Use measures of volume and mass to calculate
density.
6. Practice the use of simple statistical calculations such
as mean, median, range, and standard ­deviation. To help you check your answers, consider an analogy involv-
7. Analyze sample data using statistical tools. ing shooting arrows at a bull’s-eye target (fig. 2.1). In this

High accuracy, High precision,

Please visit connect.mheducation.com to review online low precision low accuracy
resources tailored to this lab.

E very day we’re bombarded with numbers and measure-

ments. They come at us from all directions, including
while we’re at the supermarket, gas station, golf course, and
pharmacy, as well as while we’re in our classrooms and kitch-
ens. Virtually every package that we touch is described by a
measurement.
Scientists use a standard method to collect data as well
as use mathematics to analyze measurements. We must mea- (a) (b)
sure things before we can objectively describe what we are Low precision, High accuracy,
low accuracy high precision
observing, before we can experiment with biological pro-
cesses, and before we can predict how organisms respond,
adjust to, and modify their world. Once we have made our
measurements, we can analyze our data and look for variation
and the sources of that variation. Then we can infer the causes
and effects of the biological processes that interest us.

ACCURACY AND PRECISION

Scientists strive to make accurate, precise measurements. The
accuracy of a group of measurements refers to how closely (c) (d)
the measured values agree with the true or correct value. In
Figure 2.1 Precision and accuracy. Measurements can be
contrast, the precision of a group of measurements refers to (a) accurate but not precise, (b) precise but not accurate, (c) neither
how closely the measurements agree with each other. That is, precise nor accurate, or (d) both precise and accurate. Measurements
precision is the degree to which the measurements produce that are precise and accurate are termed valid.

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analogy, each arrow would represent a measurement. Accu- Metric units commonly used in biology include:
racy would be the closeness of the arrows to the center of the meter (m)—the basic unit of length
target; arrows closest to the bull’s-eye would be most accurate.
Precision would be the size of the cluster of arrows, regardless liter (L)—the basic unit of volume
of how close they are to the center of the target. kilogram (kg)—the basic unit of mass
degrees Celsius (°C)—the basic unit of temperature
THE METRIC SYSTEM Unlike the English system with which you are already familiar,
Scientists throughout the world use the metric system to the metric system is based on units of ten. This simplifies con-
make measurements. The metric system is also used in versions from one metric unit to another (e.g., from kilometers
everyday life virtually everywhere except the United States. to meters). This base-ten system is similar to our monetary sys-
With few exceptions (e.g., liter bottles of soda), most mea- tem, in which 10 cents equals a dime, 10 dimes equals a dollar,
surements in the United States use the antiquated ­English and so forth. Units of ten in the metric system are indicated by
system of pounds, inches, feet, and so on. Check with your Latin and Greek prefixes placed before the base units:
instructor about bringing to class common grocery store Prefix
items with volumes and weights in metric units, or examin- (Latin) Division of Metric Unit
ing those items on display. deci (d) 0.1 10−1
Metric measurement is used worldwide in science to
centi (c) 0.01 10−2
improve communication in the scientific community. Sci-
entists make all of their measurements in the metric system; milli (m) 0.001 10−3
they do not routinely convert from one system to another. micro (µ) 0.000001 10−6
When scientists have mixed metric units with English units, nano (n) 0.000000001 10−9
the results have often been confusing, and have sometimes
pico (p) 0.000000000001 10−12
been disastrous. For example, in 1999, the $125-million
Mars Climate Orbiter was approaching Mars to study the
Prefix
planet’s climate. Lockheed Martin Astronautics, which built
(Greek) Multiple of Metric Unit
the spacecraft, gave NASA critical flight information in
English units, but software aboard the orbiter expected the deka (da) 10 101
data in metric units. As a result, the orbiter was sent into, hecto (h) 100 102
rather than safely above, the Mars atmosphere, where it kilo (k) 1000 103
disintegrated.
mega (M) 1000000 106
The following conversions will help give you a sense
of how some common English units are related to their met- giga (G) 1000000000 109
ric equivalents:
Thus, multiply by
1 inch = 2.5 centimeters
0.01 to convert centimeters to meters
1 foot = 30 centimeters
0.001 to convert millimeters to meters
1 yard = 0.9 meter
1000 to convert kilometers to meters
1 mile = 1.6 kilometers
0.1 to convert millimeters to centimeters
1 ounce = 28 grams
For example, there are 10 millimeters per centimeter. There-
1 pound = 0.45 kilogram
fore, to convert 62 centimeters to millimeters,
1 fluid ounce = 30 milliliters 10 mm
62 cm × = 620 mm
1 pint = 0.47 liter cm
1 quart = 0.95 liter In these conversion equations, the units being converted
1 gallon = 3.8 liters from (in this case, centimeters) cancel out, leaving you with
1 cup = 0.24 liter the desired units (in this case, millimeters). Also note that
when units are converted to smaller units, the number asso-
If you want to know more about these conversions, see ciated with the new units will increase, and vice versa. For
Appendix II. example, 620 meters = 0.620 kilometers = 620,000 milli-
This exercise will introduce you to making metric meters = 62,000 centimeters.
measurements of length, mass, volume, and temperature.
During this lab, you should spend your time making mea- Question 2
surements, not reading background information. Therefore, Make the following metric conversions:
before lab, read this exercise carefully to familiarize your- 1 meter = centimeters = millimeters
self with the basic units of the metric system. 92.4 millimeters = meters = centimeters

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10 kilometers = meters = decimeters Question 3

82 centimeters = meters = millimeters What are some potential sources of error in your
3.1 kilograms = grams = milligrams measurements?
281 milliliters = liters = deciliters
35 millimeters = centimeters = meters

Length and Area Volume

The meter (m) is the basic unit of length. Units of area are Volume is the space occupied by an object. Units of volume
squared units (i.e., two-dimensional) of length. are cubed (i.e., three-dimensional) units of length. The liter
1 m = 100 cm = 1000 mm = 0.001 km =1 × 10−3 km (L) is the basic unit of volume.
1 km = 1000 m = 103 m 1 L = 1000 cm3 = 1000 mL
1 cm = 0.01 m = 10−2 m = 10 mm 1 L = 0.1 m × 0.1 m × 0.1 m
470 m = 0.470 km 1 cm3 = 0.000001 m3
1 cm2 = 100 mm2 (i.e., 10 mm × 10 mm = 100 mm2)
To help you appreciate the magnitudes of these units, here
To help you appreciate the magnitudes of these units, here are the volumes of some familiar objects:
are the lengths and areas of some familiar objects:
Chicken egg 60 mL
Length Coke can 355 mL
Housefly 0.5 cm One breath of air 500 cm3
Diameter of penny 1.9 cm Scientists often measure volumes with pipets and graduated
Diameter of baseball 7.4 cm cylinders. Pipets are used to measure small volumes, typi-
Soda can 12.2 cm cally 25 mL or less. Liquid is drawn into a pipet using a bulb
Toyota Camry 4.7 m or pipet pump (fig. 2.2). Never pipet by mouth.
Mt. Everest 8848 m
Area
Credit card 46 cm2
Total skin area of adult human male 1.8 m2
Ping-pong table 4.18 m2
Surface area of human lungs 80 m2
Football field (goal line to goal line) 4459 m2
Central Park (New York City) 3.4 km2

Procedure 2.1 Make metric measurements of

length and area
Most biologists measure lengths with metric rulers or
metersticks.
1. Examine intervals marked on the metric rulers and
metersticks available in the lab.
2. Make the following measurements. Be sure to include
units for each measurement.
Length of this page
Width of this page
Area of this page
(Area = Length × Width)
Your height
Thickness of this manual
Height of a 200-mL beaker © BiologyImaging.com

Height of ceiling Figure 2.2 A pipet is used to extract and dispense volumes of
Height of your chair liquid. A suction device (shown in green on the left) draws fluid into the
pipet, and graduated markings on the pipet allow precise measurement
Length of your cell phone of a fluid’s volume. Never use your mouth to suck fluid into a pipet.

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2. Fill the graduated cylinder with 70 mL of water.

3. Gently submerge the rock in the graduated cylinder.
Notice that the volume of the contents rises.
4. Carefully observe the meniscus of the fluid and record
its volume.
5. Calculate and record the volume of the rock by subtract-
ing the original volume (70 mL) from the new volume.
Rock volume
6. Repeat steps 2–5 to measure and record the volume of
the marble.
Marble volume
Biologists use pipets to measure and transfer small volumes
of liquid from one container to another. The following pro-
cedure will help you appreciate the usefulness of pipets.

Procedure 2.4 Learn to use a pipet

1. Add approximately 100 mL of water to a 100-mL
beaker.
2. Use a 5-mL pipet with a bulb or another filling ­device
provided by your instructor to remove some water
© BiologyImaging.com
from the beaker.
Figure 2.3 When measuring the volume of liquid in a graduated 3. Fill the pipet to the zero mark.
cylinder, always measure at the bottom of the meniscus. The bottom of
the meniscus in this photograph is indicated by the arrow. The correct 4. To read the liquid level correctly, your eye must be
volume is 25 mL. directly in line with the bottom of the meniscus.
5. Release the liquid into another container.

Question 4
Graduated cylinders are used to measure larger vol-
What volume of liquid did you measure?
umes. To appreciate how to make a measurement accu-
rately, pour 40–50 mL of water into a 100-mL graduated
cylinder, and observe the interface between the water and
air. This interface, called the meniscus, is curved because of
surface tension and the adhesion of water to the sides of the
cylinder. When measuring the liquid in a cylinder such as a Mass
graduated cylinder, always position your eyes level with the
meniscus and read the volume at the lowest level (fig. 2.3). The kilogram (kg) is the basic unit of mass.1 A kilogram
equals the mass of 1000 cubic centimeters (cm3) of water at
Procedure 2.2 Make metric measurements 4°C. Similarly,
of volume 1 kg = 1000 g = 103 g 1 mg = 0.001 g = 10−3 g
1. Biologists often use graduated cylinders to measure
Here are the masses of some familiar objects:
volumes. Locate the graduated cylinders available in
the lab to make the following measurements. Deter- Housefly 12 mg 9V battery 40 g
mine what measurements the markings on the gradu- Hummingbird 1.6 g Human heart 300 g
ated cylinder represent. Be sure to include units for Ping-pong ball 2.45 g Basketball 0.62 kg
each measurement. Quarter 6.25 g
2. Measure the milliliters needed to fill a cup (provided in Biologists usually measure mass with a top-loading bal-
the lab). ance or a triple-beam balance (fig. 2.4). Locate the triple-
3. Measure the liters in a gallon. beam balances or top-loading electronic balances in the lab.
Triple-beam balances get their names from their three
Procedure 2.3 Measure the volume of a solid
object by water displacement 1 Remember that mass is not necessarily synonymous with weight. Mass mea-
sures an object’s potential to interact with gravity, whereas weight is the force
1. Obtain a 100-mL graduated cylinder, a thumb-sized exerted by gravity on an object. Thus, a weightless object in outer space has
rock, and a glass marble. the same mass as it has on earth.

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a c d

© BiologyImaging.com © BiologyImaging.com
(A) (B)
b

Figure 2.4 Biologists use balances to measure mass. (A) The parts of a triple-beam balance include the (a) zero-adjustment knob, (b) measuring pan,
(c) movable masses on horizontal beams, and (d) balance marks. (B) A top-loading balance has a measuring pan, a power switch, and a zero calibration
(“Tare”) button.

horizontal beams. Suspended from each of the three beams 4. Measure the masses of the following items. Be sure to
are movable masses. Each of the three beams of the bal- include units for each measurement.
ance is marked with graduations: the closest beam has 0.1-g Penny
graduations, the middle beam has 100-g graduations, and
Paper clip
the ­farthest beam has 10-g graduations.
Pencil
Procedure 2.5 Make metric measurements Rock (used in procedure 2.3)
of mass 100-mL beaker (empty)
1. Before making any ­measurements, clean the weigh- 100-mL beaker containing 50 mL of water
ing pan and move all of the suspended weights to the
far left. The balance marks should line up to indicate Question 5
zero grams; if they do not, turn the adjustment knob a. Density is mass per unit volume. Use data that you’ve
until they do. Measure the mass of an object by plac- gathered to determine the density of water at room
ing it in the center of the weighing pan and moving the temperature.
suspended masses until the beams balance. The mass Density of water = (mass/volume) =
of the object is the sum of the masses indicated by the
weights on the three beams.
2. If you’re using an electronic balance, turn on the bal- b. What is the density of the wooden pencil? Does it
ance and let it warm up for 5 minutes. Wait until the float? Why?
display reads 0.0 g; if the display does not read 0.0 g,
press the “Tare” button to reset the display to 0.0 g. If
you are weighing an object such as a coin or pencil,
place the object on the measuring pan. After the dis-
play has stabilized, read and record the object’s mass.
3. If you are weighing a liquid, powder, or similar speci- c. What is the density of the rock? Does it sink? Why?
men, place an empty beaker (in which you will place the
liquid) or a piece of weighing paper (on which you will
place the powder) on the balance’s measuring pan. After
the display has stabilized, press the “Tare” button to
reset the display to 0.0 g. Place the liquid in the beaker
(or the powder on the weighing paper). After the display
has stabilized, read and record the mass.

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Temperature 2. Determine the range of the temperatures that

can be measured with your thermometer by exam-
Temperature is the measure of the kinetic energy of
ining the scale imprinted along the barrel of the
­molecules—that is, the amount of heat in a system. Biolo-
thermometer.
gists measure temperature with a thermometer calibrated in
degrees Celsius (°C). The Celsius scale is based on water 3. Measure the following temperatures:
freezing at 0°C and boiling at 100°C. You can interconvert Room temperature     °C
°C and degrees Fahrenheit (°F) by using the formula 5(°F) = Cold tap water     °C
9(°C) + 160. Here are some typical temperatures: Hot tap water     °C
−20°C temperature in a freezer Inside refrigerator     °C
−18°C mixture of ice and salt
0°C water freezes
UNDERSTANDING NUMERICAL DATA
4°C temperature in a refrigerator
22°C room temperature Statistics offer a way to organize, summarize, and describe
30.6°C butter melts data—the data are usually samples of information from a
37°C human body temperature much larger population of values. Statistics and statistical
40°C a hot summer day tests allow us to analyze the sample and draw inferences
50°C hottest day on record in Phoenix, AZ about the entire population. Consequently, the use of sta-
71°C flash pasteurization of milk tistics enables us to make decisions even though we have
75°C hot coffee incomplete data about a population. Although this may
100°C water boils seem unscientific, we do it all the time; for example, we
260°C broiler temperature diagnose diseases with a drop of blood. Decisions are based
on statistics when it is impossible or unrealistic to analyze
Procedure 2.6 Make metric measurements an entire population.
of temperature Let’s say that you want to know the mass of a typi-
1. Obtain a thermometer in the lab. Handle the ther- cal apple in your orchard. To obtain this information, you
mometer with care. If it breaks, notify your instructor could analyze one apple, but how would you know that
immediately. you’d picked a “typical” sample? After all, the batch from

Significant Figures

Let’s suppose that you’re measuring the length of a bone, as example, suppose the air temperature in an incubator
shown in figure 2.5. How would you record this length—as drops from 8.663°C to 8.2°C. This is a difference of
8 cm? 8.3 cm? 8.33 cm? 8.33333 cm? To answer this ques- 8.663°C – 8.2°C = 0.5°C, not 0.463°C. If the second
tion, you need to know something about significant figures. temperature reading had been 8.200°C, then the correct
Significant figures are the number of figures required to answer would have been 0.463°C.
record a measurement so that only the last digit in the num- When converting measurements from one set of units
ber is in doubt. For example, if the ruler you’re using is cali- to another, do not introduce precision that is not present
brated only in centimeters and you find that the object you’re in the first number. For example, 8.3 cm = 83 mm, not
measuring is between 8 and 9 cm long (fig. 2.5), then you 83.0 mm.
should estimate your measurement only to a tenth of a cen-
When manipulating two measurements simultane-
timeter. That is, a measurement of 8.3 cm is acceptable, but
ously, the precision of the final measurement should
8.33 is not because it implies a precision that did not exist in
not exceed that of the least number of significant fig-
the equipment you used to make the measurement. If, how-
ures. For example, the calculation for the mass of
ever, your ruler was calibrated in millimeters, then 8.33 cm
17.2 mL of water is 17.2 mL × 0.997821 g mL–1 = 17.2 g,
would be acceptable. Remember this: When recording mea-
not 17.162521 g.
surements, include all of the digits you are sure of plus an
estimate to the nearest one-tenth of the next smaller digit.
Here are some other guidelines for using the correct
number of significant figures in your measurements:
6 7 8 9
When adding or subtracting measurements, the answer cm

should have no more precision than the measurement Figure 2.5 How long is this
having the least number of significant figures. For bone? 8 cm? 8.3 cm? 8.33 cm?

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which you chose the apple may contain many others, each Question 7
a little different. You’d get a better estimate of “typical” if a. What is responsible for this difference between the
you increased your sample size to a few hundred apples, or mean and median?
even to 10,000. Or, better yet, to 1,000,000.
The only way to be certain of your conclusions would
be to accurately measure all the apples in your orchard. This
is impossible, so you must choose apples that represent all
b. How would the median change if the 9-mm-long leaf
of the other apples—that is, you must be working with a
was not in the sample?
representative sample. A statistical analysis of those sam-
ple ­apples reduces the sample values to a few characteristic
­measurements (e.g., mean mass). As you increase the size
of the sample, these characteristic measurements provide an
ever-improving estimation of what is “typical.” c. How would the mean change if the 9-mm-long leaf
There are a variety of software programs that per- was not in the sample?
form statistical analyses of data; all you have to do is enter
your data into a spreadsheet, select the data that you want to
analyze, and perform the analysis. Although these software
packages save time and can increase accuracy, you still need
d. Consider these samples:
to understand a few of the basic variables that you’ll use to
understand your numerical data. We’ll start with the mean Sample 1: 25 35 32 28
and median: Sample 2: 15 75 10 20
The mean is the arithmetic average of a group of measure- What is the mean for Sample 1?
ments. Chance errors in measurements tend to cancel
themselves when means are calculated for relatively What is the mean for Sample 2?
large samples; a value that is too high because of ran- In most of the exercises in this manual, you’ll have time to
dom error is often balanced by a value that is too low make only one or two measurements of a biological struc-
for the same reason. ture or phenomenon. In these instances, a mean may be the
The median is the middle value of a group of measurements. only descriptor of the sample. However, if your class com-
bines its data so that there are many measurements, you’ll
The median is less sensitive to extreme values than is
the mean. To appreciate this, consider a sample consisting
of 14 leaves having the following lengths (all in mm):
Hints for Using the Metric System
80 69 62 74 69 51 45 40 9 64 65 64 61 67

The mean length is 58.6 mm. However, none of the leaves 1. Use decimals, not fractions (e.g., 2.5 m, not 21/2 m).
are that length, and most of the leaves are longer than 60 mm. 2. Express measurements in units requiring only a few
In biology, the mean is usually preferred to the median when decimal places. For example, 0.3 m is more easily
reporting descriptive statistics. manipulated and understood than 300000000 nm.
3. When measuring pure water, the metric system offers
Question 6 an easy and common conversion from volume mea-
a. Does the mean always describe the “typical” mea- sured in liters to volume measured in cubic meters to
surement? Why or why not? mass measured in grams: 1 mL = 1 cm3 = 1 g.
4. The metric system uses symbols rather than abbrevia-
tions. Therefore, do not place a period after metric
symbols (e.g., 1 g, not 1 g.). Use a period after a
b. What information about a sample does a mean not ­symbol only at the end of a sentence.
provide? 5. Do not mix units or symbols (e.g., 9.2 m, not 9 m
200 mm).
6. Metric symbols are always singular (e.g., 10 km, not
10 kms).
Determine the median by arranging the measurements in 7. Except for degrees Celsius, always leave a space
numerical order: ­between a number and a metric symbol (e.g., 20 mm,
not 20mm; 10°C, not 10° C).
9 40 45 51 61 63 64 64 65 67 69 69 73 80
8. Use a zero before a decimal point when the number is
The median is between the seventh and eighth measurement: less than one (e.g., 0.42 m, not .42 m).
64 mm. In this sample, the mean differs from the median.

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need to know how to do a couple of other calculations so b. Could two samples have the same range but different
that you understand the variation within your sample. means? Explain.

Variability
As you can see, the samples in Question 7d are different, but
their means are the same. Thus, the mean does not reveal all
there is to know about these samples. To understand how
these samples are different, you need other statistics: the
range and standard deviation.
The range is the difference between the extreme The standard deviation indicates how measurements
­mea­surements (i.e., smallest and largest) of the sample. In vary about the mean. The standard deviation is easy to cal-
Sample 1, the range is 35 − 25 = 10; in Sample 2 the range culate. Begin by calculating the mean, measuring the devia-
is 75 − 10 = 65. The range provides a sense of the variation tion of each sample from the mean, squaring each deviation,
of the sample, but the range can be artificially inflated by and then summing the deviations. This summation results
one or two extreme values. Notice the extreme values in the in the sum of squared deviations. For example, consider
sample of leaf measurements previously discussed. More- a group of shrimp that are 22, 19, 18, and 21 cm long. The
over, ranges do not tell us anything about the measurements mean length of these shrimp is 20 cm.
between the extremes.
Sample
Question 8 Value Mean Deviation (Deviation)2
a. Could two samples have the same mean but different 22 20 2 4
ranges? Explain. 19 20 −1 1
21 20 1 1
18 20 −2 4

Sum of Squared Deviations = 10

The summary equation for the sum of squared deviations is:

N
Sum of squared deviations = Σ (x
i=1
i
− x )2

where
N = total number of samples
Rounding Numbers
x = the sample mean

Do not change the value of the last significant digit if that xi = measurement of an individual sample
digit is followed by a number that is less than 5. For exam-
ple, if two significant figures are required, 6.449 rounds to N

6.4, 66.449 rounds to 66, 66.641 rounds to 67, and 6.591 This formula is simple. The summation sign ( Σ ) means to
i=1
rounds to 6.6. Here is how an original measurement of add up all the squared deviations from the first one (i = 1)
49.5149 rounds to various numbers of significant figures: to the last one (i = N). The sum of squared deviations (10)
divided by the number of samples minus one (4 − 1 = 3) pro-
Five significant figures: 49.515
duces a value of 10/3 = 3.3 cm2 (note that the units are cen-
Four significant figures: 49.51 timeters squared). This is the variance:
Three significant figures: 49.5
sum of squared deviations
Two significant figures: 50 Variance =
N−1
One significant figure: 50
The square root of the variance, 1.8 cm, equals the standard
Statisticians disagree on what to do when the number follow-
deviation (SD):
ing the last significant figure is exactly 5, as in 89.5 (and, in
this case, the precision is limited to two significant figures). SD = √Variance = √3.3 = 1.8
Some round the measurement to the higher number, while
others claim that doing so introduces bias into the data. You The standard deviation is usually reported with the mean
can decide which approach to take, but be consistent. in statements such as, “The mean length of the shrimp was
20 ± 1.8 cm.”

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The standard deviation helps us understand the Range

spread or variation of a sample. For many distributions of All classmates __________ to __________
measurements, the mean ± 1 SD includes 68% of the mea-
surements, whereas the mean ± 2 SD includes 95% of the Male classmates___________ to __________
measurements. Female classmates___________ to __________
Standard deviation
Procedure 2.7 Gather and analyze data
statistically All classmates ± __________
1. Use a meterstick or tape measure to measure your Male classmates ± __________
height in centimeters. Record your height here: Female classmates ± __________
cm
2. Record your height and gender (male or female) on the If there is sufficient time, obtain a newspaper that adver-
board in the lab. tises cars, groceries, or other common commodities. Choose
3. After all of your classmates have reported their one example (e.g., new cars) and determine its average price
heights, calculate the following: (e.g., determine the average price of a new car).
Size of sample
Question 9
All classmates a. What does your calculation tell you?
Male classmates
Female classmates
Mean height
b. What are the limitations of your sample?
All classmates
Male classmates
Female classmates
Median height Your instructor may ask you to do other statistical tests,
All classmates ____________________ such as Student’s t, chi-square, and analysis of variance
(ANOVA). The type of test you’ll do will depend on the
Male classmates ___________________ amount and type of data you analyze, as well as the hypoth-
Female classmates _________________ eses you are trying to test.

INVESTIGATION
Variation in the Areas and Shapes of Leaves
Observation: Leaves, which are the primary photosynthetic were grown indoors. Choose and record your group’s
organ of most plants, are adapted for absorbing light. This best question for investigation.
involves exposing large surface areas to the environment. c. Translate your question into a testable hypothesis and
record it.
Question: How does the surface area and shape of leaves vary d. Outline on Worksheet 2 your experimental design
on different parts of plants? and supplies needed to test your hypothesis. Ask your
a. Establish a working lab group and obtain Investigation instructor to review your proposed investigation.
Worksheet 2 from your instructor. e. Conduct your procedures, record your data, answer your
b. Discuss with your group well-defined questions rele- question, and make relevant comments.
vant to the preceding observation and question. If leaves f. Discuss with your instructor any revisions to your ques-
are not available from outdoor plants (e.g., during win- tions, hypothesis, or procedures. Repeat your work as
ter), use the plants provided by your instructor that needed.

2–9 Measurements in Biology 19

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Questions for Further Thought and Study

​1. What are the advantages and disadvantages of using the metric system of measurements?

​2. Why is it important for all scientists to use a standard system of measures rather than the system that may be most popu-
lar in their home country or region?

​3. Do you lose or gain information when you use statistics to reduce a population to a few characteristic numbers? Explain
your answer.

​4. Suppose that you made repeated measurements of your height. If you used good technique, would you expect the range
to be large or small? Explain your answer.

​5. Suppose that a biologist states that the average height of undergraduate students at your university is 205 cm plus or
minus a standard deviation of 17 cm. What does this mean?

​6. What does a small standard deviation signify? What does a large standard deviation signify?

​7. It is possible to make a perfectly precise measurement? Explain.

​8. When in our everyday lives do we not want precise measurements?

20 EXERCISE 2 2–10

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