GREEN

ARCHITECTURE
McGRAW-HILL’S GREENSOURCE SERIES

Attmann
Green Architecture: Advanced Technologies and Materials
Gevorkian
Solar Power in Building Design: The Engineer’s Complete Design Resource
Alternative Energy Systems in Building Design
GreenSource: The Magazine of Sustainable Design
Emerald Architecture: Case Studies in Green Building
Haselbach
The Engineering Guide to LEED—New Construction: Sustainable Construction for Engineers
Luckett
Green Roof Construction and Maintenance
Melaver and Mueller (eds.)
The Green Building Bottom Line: The Real Cost of Sustainable Building
Nichols and Laros
Inside the Civano Project: A Case Study of Large-Scale Sustainable Neighborhood Development
Yudelson
Green Building Through Integrated Design
Greening Existing Buildings
About GreenSource
A mainstay in the green building market since 2006, GreenSource magazine and GreenSourceMag.com
are produced by the editors of McGraw-Hill Construction, in partnership with editors at BuildingGreen,
Inc., with support from the United States Green Building Council. GreenSource has received numerous
awards, including American Business Media’s 2008 Neal Award for Best Website and 2007 Neal Award
for Best Start-up Publication, and FOLIO magazine’s 2007 Ozzie Awards for “Best Design, New
Magazine” and “Best Overall Design.” Recognized for responding to the needs and demands of the pro-
fession, GreenSource is a leader in covering noteworthy trends in sustainable design and best practice
case studies. Its award-winning content will continue to benefit key specifiers and buyers in the green
design and construction industry through the books in the GreenSource Series.
About McGraw-Hill Construction
McGraw-Hill Construction, part of The McGraw-Hill Companies (NYSE: MHP), connects people, proj-
ects, and products across the design and construction industry. Backed by the power of Dodge, Sweets,
Engineering News-Record (ENR), Architectural Record, GreenSource, Constructor, and regional publi-
cations, the company provides information, intelligence, tools, applications, and resources to help cus-
tomers grow their businesses. McGraw-Hill Construction serves more than 1,000,000 customers within
the $4.6 trillion global construction community. For more information, visit www.construction.com.
About the International Code Council
The International Code Council (ICC) is a nonprofit membership association dedicated to protecting
the health, safety, and welfare of people by creating better buildings and safer communities. The mis-
sion of ICC is to provide the highest quality codes, standards, products and services for all concerned
with the safety and performance of the built environment. ICC is the publisher of the family of the
International Codes® (I-Codes®), a single set of comprehensive and coordinated national model
codes. This unified approach to building codes enhances safety, efficiency and affordability in the
construction of buildings. The Code Council is also dedicated to innovation, sustainability and energy
efficiency. Code Council subsidiary, ICC Evaluation Service, issues Evaluation Reports for innova-
tive products and Reports of Sustainable Attributes Verification and Evaluation (SAVE).
Headquarters: 500 New Jersey Avenue, NW, 6th Floor, Washington, DC 20001-2070; District
Offices: Birmingham, AL; Chicago. IL; Los Angeles, CA, 1-888-422-7233, www.iccsafe.org.
 GREEN
ARCHITECTURE
ADVANCED TECHNOLOGIES
AND MATERIALS

OSMAN ATTMANN

New York Chicago San Francisco Lisbon London Madrid

Mexico City Milan New Delhi San Juan Seoul
Singapore Sydney Toronto
Cataloging-in-Publication Data is on file with the Library of Congress.

McGraw-Hill books are available at special quantity discounts to use as premiums and
sales promotions, or for use in corporate training programs. To contact a representative
please e-mail us at [email protected].

Green Architecture: Advanced Technologies and Materials

Copyright © 2010 by Osman Attmann. All rights reserved. Printed in the United States
of America. Except as permitted under the United States Copyright Act of 1976, no
part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means,
or stored in a data base or retrieval system, without the prior written permission of the
publisher.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 DOC/DOC 0 1 4 3 2 1 0 9

ISBN 978- 0-07-162501-2

MHID 0-07-162501-1
Sponsoring Editor Proofreader
Joy Bramble Upendra Prasad, Glyph International
Limited
Acquisitions Coordinator
Michael Mulcahy Production Supervisor
Editorial Supervisor Richard C. Ruzycka
David E. Fogarty Composition
Project Manager Glyph International Limited
Preeti Longia Sinha, Glyph International Art Director, Cover
Limited Jeff Weeks
Copy Editor
Bhavna Gupta, Glyph International Limited

The pages within this book were printed on acid-free paper containing 100%
postconsumer fiber.

Information contained in this work has been obtained by The McGraw-Hill

Companies, Inc. (“McGraw-Hill”) from sources believed to be reliable. However, nei-
ther McGraw-Hill nor its authors guarantee the accuracy or completeness of any
information published herein, and neither McGraw-Hill nor its authors shall be
responsible for any errors, omissions, or damages arising out of use of this informa-
tion. This work is published with the understanding that McGraw-Hill and its authors
are supplying information but are not attempting to render engineering or other pro-
fessional services. If such services are required, the assistance of an appropriate pro-
fessional should be sought.
About the Author
Osman Attmann (Denver, Colorado) is an architect and Associate Professor at the
College of Architecture and Planning, University of Colorado. Professor Attmann,
who has an M. Arch from the State University of New York and a Ph.D. from the
Georgia Institute of Technology, publishes regularly on green architecture, emerging
technologies, and sustainability. As a designer and co-developer of architectural smart-
wall systems, Professor Attmann is professionally involved in a variety of advanced
technology and green material research projects, has received several grants, and holds
multiple patents. He is the Principal of Green-Tecture Studio: Architectural Design
and Emerging Technologies research and advisory firm.
CONTENTS

Preface ix
Acknowledgments xiii

Chapter 1 Green Architecture: Overview 1

Introduction: Ecosystems and Natural Environments 1
Human Impact on the Natural Environment 2
Architectural Impact on the Natural Environment 11
Responsibility of Architecture 23

Chapter 2 Definitions and Operationalizations

of Green Architecture 27
Sustainability 27
Sustainable Architecture 28
Ecology 32
Ecological Architecture 32
Performance 36
Green 39
Measurement of Green 40

Chapter 3 Brief History of Green Architecture 43

Early Beginnings 43
Shelters and Early Technology 44
Population Increase 44
Ecological/Environmental Changes 45
The Rise of Environmental Awareness 46
Conservation Movement 47
The Birth of Modern Environmentalism and Specialized Movements 48

Chapter 4 Green Technologies: Energy Generation 67

Energy Generation 68
Bioenergy 69
Solar Energy 72
Geothermal Energy 78
Wind Energy 79
Hydro Energy 81
Blue Energy 82
Fuel Cell Energy 83
Hybrid Systems 84

vii
viii CONTENTS

Chapter 5 Green Technologies: Energy Retention 85

Insulation Systems 85
Heating/Cooling Systems 89
Ventilation Systems 91
Water and Waste Management Systems 92

Chapter 6 Green Materials 103

Biomaterials/Biotic Materials 103
Composites 115

Chapter 7 Smart Materials 125

Thermo-Responsive Materials 125
Light-Responsive Materials 130
Stimulus (Force)-Responsive Materials 131
Nanomaterials 132

Chapter 8 Case Studies 135

Advanced Green Buildings 135
Active Solar Buildings 207
Passive Solar Buildings 223
Modular and Mobile Systems 243
Solar Decathlon Projects 265
Solar Decathlon 2002 266
Solar Decathlon 2005 283
Solar Decathlon 2007 304
Bibliography 329

Index 341
PREFACE

Global warming is emerging as an issue of international significance. The rapid

growth and increasing concentration of greenhouse gases worldwide is expected to
contribute to climate change at a faster rate than previously recorded in the earth’s
history. Governments, industries, communities, and academic fields across the globe
are racing to better understand the impact(s) of these climatic changes and their impli-
cations for ecological balance. Today, it is the responsibility of every academic field
to help create sustainable environments by developing solutions for reducing energy
and water consumption, and our dependence on nonrenewable resources.
This is especially imperative in the architecture and construction fields, where
buildings account for nearly half of all greenhouse gas emissions, energy consump-
tion, and raw material use around the globe. According to 2006 Energy Information
Administration data, commercial and residential buildings account for 48 percent of
the energy consumed, 76 percent of electricity used, and 15 percent of the total water
consumed. Buildings also use 50 percent of the world’s raw materials—many of
which are nonrenewable resources—and they are responsible for 36 percent of all
waste generated worldwide. These numbers are alarming and clearly identify two
distinct problems in the building sector that must be taken seriously and addressed
immediately.
The first problem is the nature and use of our existing technology, which is largely
inefficient, outdated, and even in some cases obsolete. In the United States alone,
the building sector uses nonrenewable and environmentally hazardous energy, emits
39 percent of all energy-related carbon dioxide, lacks the ability to retain its generated
energy long enough to sustain indoor air quality levels, and fails in recycling and man-
aging water and waste.
The second problem is the materials, mostly because of their compositional attrib-
utes, manufacturing, and fabrication methods. According to recent reports published
by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA, 2001), Department of Energy
(Annual Energy Review, 2003, 2006) and Department of Commerce (General
Housing Characteristics, 2000; Economic Census, 2002), existing building materials
show significant deficiencies in most of the performance issues, such as durability,
energy efficiency, amount of waste generated, toxicity, and potential for reuse.
Given the fact that inefficient buildings are partially responsible for these environ-
mental changes, the following questions need to be asked: What is the role of archi-
tects and what can we do to address these problems? These questions are the main
focus of the book, with an emphasis on utilizing advanced technologies and materials
as a means to help remedy these serious issues. According to the U.S. Energy
Information Administration forecast report (U.S. Annual Energy Outlook, 2006),
ix
x PREFACE

by the year 2035, 75 percent of the existing building stock will be either replaced or
renovated. This transformation over the next two decades represents a historic oppor-
tunity for architects, engineers, and the building community to develop and use new
advanced materials and technologies in order to make these future buildings efficient,
environmentally friendly, and sustainable.
This book intends to contribute to this historic transformation by introducing new
technologies and materials that will promote and support this change.
The book is organized into eight chapters around the following themes:
Chapter 1 introduces the subject, providing an overview of the issues within our
ecosystem. It concludes with a discussion of our responsibilities as architects, and
addresses the relationship between architecture and technology.
Chapter 2 compares the concepts sustainability, ecology, and the green movement.
Sustainability is of one the most widely used but poorly defined terms in architecture
today. While the terms “sustainable,” “ecological,” and “green” are often used inter-
changeably to describe environmentally responsive architecture, in depth each term
has its own sociopolitical connotations and agenda. This chapter defines these terms
separately, investigates their similarities and differences, and explores their develop-
ment over the years. It concludes by focusing on green architecture as a concept that
best describes technologically advanced, economical, environmentally friendly, sus-
tainable architecture.
Chapter 3 provides a brief history of the preservation, ecological, environmental,
and green movements, as well as green architecture, including a summary of current
Green Building Rating Systems.
Chapters 4 and 5 present existing, emerging, and future green technologies, as they
apply to residential, commercial, and institutional buildings. It provides a complete
introduction to the advanced technologies used to construct high-performance build-
ings. This chapter focuses on three major technological issues: (1) energy generation
(i.e., biological, solar, geothermal, and hybrid systems); (2) energy retention (i.e.,
insulation, environmental controls, skins, building envelopes, passive methods, and
zero-energy technologies); and (3) water and waste management (i.e., reuse, recycle,
energy recovery, and disposal). Furthermore, this chapter emphasizes and encourages
the reader to realize the ecological, economical, and design benefits of using green
technologies.
Chapters 6 and 7 focus on green materials that make “zero-energy” green buildings.
Building materials and construction activities consume three billion tons of raw mate-
rials each year. Using green building materials and products promotes conservation of
dwindling nonrenewable resources internationally, and can also help reduce environ-
mental impacts (e.g., extraction, transportation, processing, installation, and disposal)
associated with traditional building industry materials. Accordingly, these chapters
focus on several categories of green materials (such as biomaterials, composites, smart
and nanomaterials) with the following benefits: (1) energy exchange and conservation;
(2) environmental adaptation and reversibility; (3) environmental safety, recyclability,
and renewability; (4) reduced maintenance/replacement costs over the life span of a
building; and (5) greater design attributes and flexibility.
 PREFACE xi

Chapter 8 takes an in-depth look at a broad range of relevant case studies in green
architecture that are designed, operated, renovated, or reused in an ecological,
resource-efficient manner. Selected projects represent both new construction and
future projects for various building types, based on the earlier defined standards of
green architecture (i.e., employing alternative energies, incorporating advanced tech-
nologies and materials, using efficient water- and waste-management techniques, and
reducing the overall impact to the environment). Case studies are presented and ana-
lyzed in four major categories: (1) advanced green buildings; (2) active and passive
solar buildings; (3) self-sufficient, off-the-grid modular and mobile systems; and
(4) solar-decathlon competition projects since 2002. The last three categories have
never been covered or discussed in other publications.
It is my hope that this book will help the reader to understand that green architec-
ture is not only good for the environment, but offers new opportunities for creativity
and innovation.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This book was written with the support and assistance of many people. I am thankful
to each one of them and I regret that I can only list a few in a one-page acknowledge-
ment section.
First, I would like to thank my wife, Julianne, for her continuous support, con-
structive criticism, editing assistance, and for our endless brainstorming sessions that
helped me to formulate my ideas. In addition, I would like to thank Marian Trautmann
for her efficient and effective editing help, especially during tight deadlines.
I would like to thank my dean, Mark Gelernter, for his continuous support on this
project. I am also grateful to my colleagues, who challenged my ideas and helped me
to organize my thoughts throughout this project.
This book would not have been completed without the help of my CU seminar
students, in both Denver and Boulder, some of whom deserve to be acknowledged
personally: Jason Barnes, Alicia Bock, Timothy Barstad, Evan Brooks, Lori Dunn,
Kendall Goodman, Brittany Hanna, Tanya Jimenez, Scott Knoll, Erik Kramer, Kathleen
Mannis, Luke Martin, Amanda Martin, Luis Navarrete, Rachel Saunders, McClees
Stephens, Steven Swanson, Tom Commerford, Bill Daher, and Lauren Watkins.
My editor, Joy Bramble, deserves a special acknow-ledgment for her continued
belief in this book’s completion.
Finally, my ultimate appreciation goes to my daughter Su, who constantly won-
dered why I had to work in my office instead of playing with her and watching the
Simpsons at home, but patiently understood, nevertheless.

xiii
 1
GREEN ARCHITECTURE: OVERVIEW

Introduction: Ecosystems and Natural

Environments
An ecosystem is defined as a natural unit, consisting of all plants, animals, and
microorganisms in an area functioning together, along with the nonliving factors of the
area (Christopherson 1997). The term was first coined by A. G. Tansley in 1935 to
encompass the interactions between biotic and abiotic components of the environment
at a given site (Tansley 1935; Gorham 2006). The word biotic refers to the living com-
ponents of an environment, where the actions of a variety of species affect the lives of
fellow organisms. Abiotic factors are essentially nonliving components, such as tem-
perature, light, moisture, air currents, etc. that equally affect the ecosystem
(Lockwood and McKinney 2001; Buchs 2003; Saxena 2003; Gaston and Spicer 2004).
The term ecosystem was later redefined by Eugene Odum as any unit where this inter-
action between biotic and abiotic factors in a given area produces a flow of energy leading
to a clearly defined trophic structure, biotic diversity, and material cycles (exchange of mate-
rials between living and nonliving parts) within the system (Odum 1971; Gorham 2006).
An ecosystem is not a single unified entity, constant in size. Our entire planet is covered
with a variety of different, sometimes overlapping, and often interdependent ecosystems. A
single lake, a neighborhood, or an entire region can be considered an ecosystem, while the
term biome is used to refer to a major global ecosystem (Millennium Ecosystem Assessment
2005, Ecosystems and Human Well-being: Current State and Trends). Therefore an ecosys-
tem can be as large as the entire globe, or as small as a city or a building (see Fig. 1.1).
While smaller ecosystems are part of the global ecosystem, the flow of energy
for an ecosystem occurs on a more local level. Most ecosystems are autotrophic,
which means that they capture sufficient energy to support their own requirements.
For example, green plants convert solar energy to glucose, which is used for plant
growth and other functions. In turn they provide energy to the rest of the living
system. However, some ecosystems are heterotrophic, that is, unable to produce
sufficient energy to meet the system’s needs. The additional energy requirements
must come from adjacent ecosystems. Thus, they can be regarded as autotrophic
1
2 GREEN ARCHITECTURE: OVERVIEW

GLOBE

REGION

CITY

BUILDING
Figure 1.1 Ecosystems are a hierar-
chy of systems, consisting of subsystems
which make up parts of supersystems.

on a bioregional level, such as a river and its watershed (Wardle 2002; Newman
and Jennings 2008).
The key to an ecosystem is interconnection and relationship. All the parts of an
ecosystem are interrelated through a complex set of self-regulating cycles, feedback
loops, and linkages between different parts of the food chain. If one part of an
ecosystem is removed or disrupted, there are ripple effects throughout the system.
The extent of the disturbance varies depending on the nature, scale, and duration of
the disruption; on the relative significance of the part or parts affected; and on the
resilience of the ecosystem (Chapin, Mooney and Chapin 2004; ANRC 2005;
Ponting 2007; Krapivin and Varotsos 2008; Ostfeld, Keesing and Eviner 2008).
This complex, unique, and fragile relationship is quite vulnerable. It can be altered, even
damaged, by various factors, whether cyclical, natural, or man-made. Examples of cyclical
factors are solar flares and radiations (Hoyt and Schatten 1997; Carslaw, Harrison and
Kirkby 2002; Salby and Callaghan 2004; Benestad 2006), the orbital inclination of the earth
with the astronomical theory of accompanying climate change (Berger 2002; Svensmark
2007), and climate variations from geology, geochemistry, and paleontology (Saltzman
2001; Lovejoy and Hannah 2005). Natural factors refer to such events as earthquakes, vol-
canic activities, floods, and fires (Kondratev and Galindo 1997; Cowie 2007). Most of these
factors are out of our control and run their natural course, regardless of what we do.

Human Impact on the Natural

Environment
Man-made factors are controllable, and our actions have a great impact on the ecosystem.
Throughout history, man’s interaction with nature has created disruptive and damaging
effects, whether through the generation of energy, the creation of artificial landscapes, the
 HUMAN IMPACT ON THE NATURAL ENVIRONMENT 3

construction of buildings, excavations, or soil cultivation. Today, our pressure on natural

environments and the magnitude of the disruption of ecosystems is greater than ever.
According to the 2005 Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MEA) study, the health of the
world’s ecosystems is in significant decline (Millennium Ecosystem Assessment 2005,
Ecosystems and Human Well-being: Synthesis). Whether one considers the supply of
fresh water and food, or the regulation of climate and air quality, the study found that the
global ecosystems showed a 62 percent decline over the course of the last four decades
(see Fig. 1.2).
Just a few of the problems resulting from this decline are: 40 percent of the world’s
coral reefs have been lost or degraded, water withdrawals from rivers and lakes have
doubled since 1960, the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide has jumped
19 percent since 1959, and extinction of species has increased as much as 100 times
over the typical rate seen across earth’s history (Millennium Ecosystem Assessment
2005, Ecosystems and Human Well-being: Synthesis) (see Fig. 1.3.).
So what does this mean to us? The decline of these systems brings about an increasing
risk of disruptive and potentially irreversible changes, such as regional climate shifts, the
emergence of new diseases, and the formation of dead zones in coastal waters
(Millennium Ecosystem Assessment 2005). Another unforeseen consequence of this
decline is the exacerbation of poverty among the two-thirds of the world’s population who
desperately rely on the resources formerly produced by collapsing local ecosystems.
Furthermore, two separate reports, published by MEA 2005 (Millennium
Ecosystem Assessment 2005,) and the World Wide Fund for Nature (Living beyond

15 OUT OF 24
SERVICES OF THE
ECO SYSTEMS
HAVE BEEN
DEGRADED

–62%

Figure 1.2 The 2005 MEA was a comprehensive

analysis by 1360 scientists of 24 benefits or services
derived from ecosystems. After four years of consul-
tations and research, the results showed a 62 percent
decline in 15 out of 24 services.
4 GREEN ARCHITECTURE: OVERVIEW

ATMOSPHERIC CONCENTRATION OF CO2 (1000–2008)

400

PARTS PER MILLION 350

300

250
1000 1100 1200 1400 1700 1800 1900 2008
YEAR
Figure 1.3 Atmospheric CO2 has increased from a prein-
dustrial concentration of about 280 parts per million to
about 367 parts per million today. (Sources: Current and long term his-
torical data compiled by Scripps, Earth Policy Institute, ESRL/NOAA,Worldwatch)

our means: natural assets and human well-being: statement from the board) show that
human activity is putting such strain on natural resources that the ability of the global
ecosystem to sustain future generations can no longer be taken for granted. The Eco-
logical Footprint, a conservative measure of natural resource consumption, calculates
the total amount of land the world’s countries need to produce the resources they use
to absorb the waste generated from energy used, and to provide space for infrastruc-
ture (WWF 2008). According to this source, man has exceeded the earth’s ecological
capacity, and we have been living beyond our means since 1987 (see Fig. 1.4).

ECOLOGICAL CAPACITY VS. ECOLOGICAL FOOTPRINT 1960–2100

1.4
ECOLOGICAL FOOTPRINT
1.2

1.0

ECOLOGICAL CAPACITY OF EARTH

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0.0
1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2050 2100
YEAR
Figure 1.4 Since 1987, Ecological Footprint has exceeded the
earth’s biocapacity. The United Nations estimates that by 2100
humanity’s demand on nature will be more than twice the bios-
phere’s productive capacity. (Source: WWF, Global Footprint Network, 2008)
 HUMAN IMPACT ON THE NATURAL ENVIRONMENT 5

REDUCTION AND FRAGMENTATION OF HABITATS AND

LANDSCAPES
The expansion of man-made activities into the natural environment, caused by urban-
ization, recreation, industrialization, and agriculture have resulted in increasing reduc-
tion, disappearance, fragmentation, or isolation of habitats and landscapes. With the
extension of cultivation areas from preagricultural times to 1994, the changes are dra-
matic in terms of loss of forest, woodland, and grassland (see Table 1.1).
As a result, landscape uniformity has been altered, geomorphic processes have been
affected, and the quality and the quantity of some natural waters have been changed.
The nature of the entire landscape has been transformed by human-induced vegetation
changes. (Hannah, Lohse, Hutchinson, Carr and Lankerani 1994; Hannah, Carr and
Lankerani 1995; Goudie 2006). The spread of agriculture has transformed land cover at
a global scale. Even in the past decade, the cropland areas have quadrupled.
According to the 2005 MEA report, agricultural land has been expanding in about
70 percent of the world’s countries, while forest areas are decreasing in two-thirds of
those same countries. While there is a slight increase in forest area in the past 30 years
in industrial countries, we see a 10 percent decline in developing countries over the
same time period (Millennium Ecosystem Assessment 2005). Significant deforestation
in tropical forests has been documented for 1990 to 2000. The total loss of natural trop-
ical forests is estimated for this period at 15.2 million hectares per year (FAO 2001)
(see Fig. 1.5.).

MASS EXTINCTION OF SPECIES (PLANTS AND ANIMALS)

Although the extinction of plants and animals is a natural part of evolution, the num-
ber of species disappearing per year has increased dramatically since the 1800s and
directly correlates to population growth and the impact of man-made activities on the
environment. The 2008 Living Planet Report, co-prepared by the World Wildlife Fund

TABLE 1.1 ESTIMATED CHANGES IN THE AREAS OF THE MAJOR LAND

COVER AREAS BETWEEN PREAGRICULTURAL TIMES TO 1994

LAND COVER PREAGRICULTURE AREA PRESENT AREA PERCENT CHANGE

Total forest 46.8 39.3 –16.0%

Tropical forest 12.8 12.3 –3.9%
Other forest 34 27 –20.6%
Woodland 9.7 7.9 –18.6%
Grassland 34 27.4 –19.4%
Cultivation 1 17.6 1760.0%
Source: Modified from Meyer and Turner, 1994.
6 GREEN ARCHITECTURE: OVERVIEW

% LOSS OF BIOMES
100% LOSS BETWEEN 1950–2000
90%
LOSS BY 1950
80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
TEMPERATE FOREST
AND WOODLAND

MIXED FORESTS

TROPICAL FORESTS

FLOODED GRASLANDS
AND SAVANNAS
TROPICAL GRASLANDS
AND SAVANNAS
TROPICAL CONIFEROUS
FORESTS

DESERTS

MONTANE GRASSLANDS
AND SHRUBLANDS

TROPICAL MOIST FORESTS

TEMPERATE CONIFEROUS
FORESTS
MEDITERRANEAN FORESTS

Figure 1.5 Conversion of terrestrial biomes. (Sources: Millennium Ecosystem

Assessment 2005, Ecosystems and Human Well-being: Current State and Trends ; UNEP/GRID-
Arendal Maps and Graphics Library (2008))

(WWF), Global Footprint Network, and the Zoological Society of London (ZSL),
states that the living planet index, which charts the populations of species of animals
and plants, has declined by a third over the past 35 years (WWF 2008) (see Fig. 1.6).
According to the Threatened Species Red List released by the International Union
for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) in 2008, 40.1 percent
of all species, approximately 19.2 percent of the animals and 20.9 percent of the plants
are classified as “threatened” (see Fig. 1.7). These threats are directly linked to the loss
of habitats due to destruction, modification, and fragmentation of ecosystems as well
as from overuse of chemicals, intensive farming methods, hunting, and general human
disturbance. The overall deterioration of global air and water quality, excavations, and
deforestation, add to the detrimental influence. Looking solely at species loss result-
ing from tropical deforestation, extinction rate forecasts climb as high as 75 percent
(Ehrlich 1985; Clark, Reading and Clarke 1994; Broswimmer 2002).
 HUMAN IMPACT ON THE NATURAL ENVIRONMENT 7

LIVING PLANET INDEX

1.0
INDEX

0.72

0.50

0.00
1970 1980 1990 2000 2005
YEAR
Figure 1.6 Global Living Planet index shows 28 percent
decrease in 4642 populations of 1686 species since 1970. (Source:
Millennium Ecosystem Assessment 2005, Ecosystems and Human Well-being: Synthesis)

THREATENED SPECIES WITH EXTINCTION

–4% FISHES

–5% REPTILES

–12% BIRDS

–20% MAMMALS

–29% AMPHIBIANS

–35% –30% –25% –20% –15% –10% –5% 0%

Figure 1.7 The 2008 Red List, prepared by the IUCN World
Conservation Congress shows at least 1141 of the 5487 mammals on
earth are known to be threatened with extinction. (Source: IUCN Red List, 2008)

POLLUTION AND CLIMATE CHANGE

Since Paleolithic times, humans have had some effect on the environment, and pollution has
always been a part of human history. As summarized in the Brief History of Green
Architecture, chapter 3, the rise and fall of all existing civilizations are connected to envi-
ronmental pollution and its subsequent consequences. However, any type of pollution,
whether of land, water, or air, before the twentieth century was more or less local. But begin-
ning in the early 1900s, especially after World War II, globalization, increasing population,
and the use of industrial processes created a new paradigm, in which our modern way of life
began to have a much greater collective impact on our surroundings than ever before.
Today, harmful emissions into the air and water from urban, industrial, and agricultural
sources affect over a billion people around the world by making resources either unusable
8 GREEN ARCHITECTURE: OVERVIEW

or unhealthful. The World Bank estimates that about 20 percent of health concerns in devel-
oping countries can be traced to environmental factors (WB 2007). Pimentel et al. study
reports the number could be higher (Pimentel, Tort, D’Anna, Krawic, Berger, Rossman,
Mugo, Doon, Shriberg, Howard, Lee and Talbot 1998) with 40 percent of deaths resulting
from exposure to environmental pollutants and malnutrition (WHO 1992; WHO 1995).

TOP TEN WORST POLLUTION PROBLEMS IN THE WORLD

In a joint report with Green Cross Switzerland in 2008, Blacksmith Institute produced
the first list of the “World’s Worst Pollution Problems: The Top Ten of the Toxic
Twenty,” an overview of the range of pollution threats which details the sources and
effects of pollution in the most polluted places around the world (see Table 1.2). The
20 major global pollution problems are directly associated with economic and tech-
nological factors of the regions. High levels of urbanization, poor or no infrastructure,
and lack of formal sector employment, as well as over leveraged governments, pres-
ent very dangerous conditions for human health, as people turn to informal and often
toxic sources of generating income (Blacksmith_Institute 2008).

TABLE 1.2 TOP TEN WORLD’S WORST POLLUTION PROBLEMS

Contaminated Surface Water

Groundwater Contamination
Urban Air Quality
Indoor Air Pollution
Metals Smelting and Processing
Industrial Mining Activities
Radioactive Waste and Uranium Mining
Untreated Sewage
Used Lead Acid Battery Recycling
Artisanal Gold Mining
Sources: Blacksmith_Institute and Green Cross joint report (2008).

Although each one of these issues has a devastating impact on the health of the envi-
ronment and its people, contaminated surface water, groundwater contamination,
urban air quality, and indoor air pollution are directly and/or indirectly related to archi-
tecture, and therefore, need to be addressed.
Contaminated surface water now affects one-third of the world, and almost five mil-
lion annual deaths in the developing nations are due to water-related diseases (Prüss-
Üstün, Bos, Gore and Bartram 2008).
Groundwater pollution is another major health issue connected to surface water con-
tamination. Groundwater makes up 97 percent of the world’s accessible freshwater
reserves and only 0.3 percent of it is useable for drinking (WB 2008). An overwhelming
 HUMAN IMPACT ON THE NATURAL ENVIRONMENT 9

number of people in developing countries rely heavily on groundwater, mostly from shal-
lowly dug wells. These can easily become polluted, primarily through human activities
(Blacksmith_Institute 2008).
Air pollution, indoor and outdoor, is another source of health problems. More than half
of the world’s population relies on unprocessed biomass fuel, such as wood, animal and
crop waste, and coal to meet their basic needs. Cooking and heating with such solid fuels
without exhaust systems leads to indoor air pollution. Every year this is responsible for the
death of 1.6 million people worldwide (WB 2007). Urban areas have an equally danger-
ous exposure to outdoor air pollution, even though national governments and multilateral
development organizations widely recognize the health hazards involved. The World
Health Organization estimated in 2007 that 865,000 deaths per year can be directly attrib-
uted to outdoor air pollution (WB 2007). As seen in the pollution demographics tables (see
Tables 1.3 and 1.4), most studies on the health effects of outdoor air pollution have focused
on urban environments of 100,000 plus persons, where the impact is considered to be most
severe, since people are routinely exposed to heavy concentrations of airborne pollutants.
However, not only does air pollution harm the environment, it also influences and
changes climate. The report of the Earth System Research Laboratory (ESRL) empha-
sizes the direct impact of air pollution on climate, including greenhouse gases such as car-
bon dioxide, sulfur, and nitrogen dioxide. Although these gases do not make up a large
percentage of earth’s atmosphere, even in small quantities they have a profound effect on
global climate. Greenhouse gases are mostly responsible for the increase in global surface
air temperature of about 0.6°C (1°F) over the past century, and scientists project that
much more warming will likely happen during the next century (ESRL 2009).

Guiyang, China 70 424 53

TABLE 1.3 AIR POLLUTION RATE IN THE WORLD. MANY OF THE WORLD’S
MOST POLLUTED CITIES ARE LOCATED IN CHINA AND INDIA, AND OTHER
DEVELOPING INDUSTRIALIZED COUNTRIES

PARTICULATE SULFUR DIOXIDE NITROGEN DIOXIDE

CITY MATTER (mg/m3 ) (mg/m3) (mg/m3)

Chongqing, China 123 340 70

Tianjin, China 125 82 50
Shenyang, China 101 99 73
Cairo, Egypt 169 69 ..
Kolkata, India 128 49 34
Delhi, India 150 24 41
Lucknow, India 109 26 25
Tehran, Iran 58 209 ..
Taiyuan, China 88 211 55
Guiyang China 70 424 53
(Source: Compiled from World Bank Statistics—World Development Indicators (WB 2007))
10 GREEN ARCHITECTURE: OVERVIEW

TABLE 1.4 AIR POLLUTION BY COUNTRY. URBAN POPULATION WEIGHTED

AVERAGE PM10 CONCENTRATIONS (MICRO GRAMS PER CUBIC METER) IN
RESIDENTIAL AREAS OF CITIES LARGER THAN 100,000

COUNTRY 2000 URBAN POPULATION 1999 PM10 CONCENTRATION

Sudan 5094060 246

Mali 1215170 194
Pakistan 37274140 180
Iraq 14833284 178
Uruguay 1473550 173
Niger 1150996 164
Chad 1430623 161
Egypt, Arab Rep. 21101690 152
Bangladesh 10585200 147
Kuwait 1638081 134
(Source: Compiled and modified from the World Bank Statistics –World Development Indicators (WB
2007), and World Bank Air Pollution in World Cities database (Wheeler, Deichmann et al. 2007))

In 2008, all indicators—atmospheric concentration of CO2, carbon emissions from

burning fossil fuels, and global land-ocean temperature at earth surface—showed steady
increases (see Figs. 1.8 and 1.9). The average atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration
reached 387 parts per million (ppm), up almost 35 percent since the industrial revolution

GLOBAL CARBON EMISSIONS FROM CARBON FUEL 1750–2009

8

7
BILLION TONNS OF CO2

0
1750 1800
1850 1900
1910 1920
1930 1940
1950 1960
1970 1980
1990 2000
2009
Figure 1.8 Global CO2 emissions have risen sharply since the Industrial
Revolution. (Source: ESRL, 2009)
 ARCHITECTURAL IMPACT ON THE NATURAL ENVIRONMENT 11

GLOBAL LAND-OCEAN TEMPERATURE 1800–2009

15

°C TEMPERATURE 14.5

14

13.5

13

12.5

12
1800
1810
1820
1830
1840
1850
1860
1870
1880
1890
1900
1910
1920
1930
1940
1950
1960
1970
1980
1990
2000
2009
Figure 1.9 Global land-ocean temperatures are in steady
increase since 1960. In 2009, global temperatures increased more
than 20 years average. (Source: GISS, 2009)

and the highest for at least the last 650,000 years (ESRL 2009). These recent figures
clearly indicate that man-made activities have weakened natural “sinks,” such as forests,
seas, and soils that absorb carbon.

Architectural Impact on the Natural

Environment
Architecture is a complex discipline that incorporates a variety of fields, including
design, planning, building construction, landscaping, engineering, and social sciences.
Therefore, it is difficult to sort out particular disciplinary areas or to pinpoint specific
issues that have an environmental impact. The environmental factors associated with
architecture are mostly holistic, far-reaching, and long-lasting, ranging from the
resources expended to construct the buildings (technology, materials, energy, water,
transportation), the waste produced during construction, the resources used by occu-
pants over the lifetime of the building, and finally the resources and waste involved with
demolition and recycling of the structure. Additionally there are the associated prob-
lems arising from the wider infrastructural issues including transportation, parking,
drainage, and provision of services, all of which make up the urban building scene.
From the environmental viewpoint, buildings account for nearly half of all energy
consumption and raw material use around the globe (Fig. 1.10). According to the 2008
12 GREEN ARCHITECTURE: OVERVIEW

TRANSPORTATION
1%

INDUSTRY
23%

BUILDINGS
76%

U.S. ELECTRICITY CONSUMPTION

(a)

TRANSPORTATION
INDUSTRY
27%
25%

BUILDINGS
48%

U.S. ENERGY CONSUMPTION

(b)
Figure 1.10 Buildings are responsible for (a) 76 percent of
the electricity and (b) 48 percent of the energy consumption in
the United States. (Sources: American Institute of Architects (AIA) and
Architecture2030 2009)
 ARCHITECTURAL IMPACT ON THE NATURAL ENVIRONMENT 13

Buildings Energy Data book (USDE 2008), commercial and residential buildings
account for 39.7 percent of the energy consumed (residential 21.5 percent and
commercial 18.2 percent). They are responsible for 76 percent of the electricity used and
15 percent of the total water consumed (Architecture 2030 2009). Similar data was
reported by the International Energy Agency (IEA) in 2005, which estimated that build-
ings accounted for approximately 40 percent of worldwide energy use, equivalent to 2500
Mtoe (million ton oil equivalent) per year (IEA 2005). Studies carried out by the
Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) indicate that energy
consumption by the building sector in OECD countries has continually increased since
the 1960s (OECD 2003) and will continue to do so in the coming years, mainly due to
construction booms in Asia, the Middle East, and Latin America (UNEP 2006).
At the same time, the building and construction sector takes the largest share of nat-
ural resources, both for land use and for materials extraction. Buildings use 50 percent
of the world’s raw materials—many of which are nonrenewable resources—and they
are responsible for 36 percent of all waste generated worldwide (Graham 2002).
Buildings also account for one-third of greenhouse gas emissions (GHG) world-
wide, which will increase sharply as construction increases. Estimated at 8.6 billion
tons in 2004, building-related GHG emissions could almost double by 2030 to reach
15.6 billion tons under high-growth construction, according to the Intergovernmental
Panel on Climate Change (IPCC 2007) (see Fig. 1.11).

U.S. CO2 EMISSIONS BY SECTOR

800

700
MILLION METRIC TONS OF CO2

BUILDINGS
600

500
TRANSPORTATION
400
INDUSTRY
300

200

100

0
1960 1970 1980 1990 2000
YEAR
Figure 1.11 In comparison to other sectors, buildings are
the largest energy consuming and CO2 emitting sector.
(Sources: U.S. Energy Information Administration statistics (USDE 2008),
Architecture2030)
14 GREEN ARCHITECTURE: OVERVIEW

Although there are various, some even uncontrollable, reasons contributing to this unset-
tling scenario, three major factors seem to play important roles in environmental impact.

■ Overpopulation and resource (un)availability

■ Complex construction processes and life span of buildings
■ Technologies and materials

OVERPOPULATION AND RESOURCE (UN)AVAILABILITY

A growing population, the emergence of new towns, and the consequent need for hous-
ing, infrastructure services, and construction activities mean an increased demand for
resources. Over-population especially places competitive stress on basic life-sustaining
resources, such as food, shelter, energy, clean water, and clean air (Nielsen 2006). From
the beginning of human history to the turn of the nineteenth century, world population
grew to a total of one billion people. During the 1800s, population rose at increasingly
higher rates, reaching a total of about 1.7 billion people by 1900. According to the U.S.
Census Bureau, the world’s population in 2008 was 6.7 billion—quadrupled since the
turn of the twentieth century (U.S. Census Bureau 2008) (see Figs. 1.12 and 1.13). The

WORLD POPULATION GROWTH 7000 BC–2050 AD

10

8
BILLIONS OF PEOPLE

5
PROJECTED

2
1

0
7000 5000
BC 2000
BC 1 AD
BC 1000
1800
AD 1900
AD 2009
AD 2050
AD
AD
Figure 1.12 World population increased more than 600 percent
between 1800 and 2009 and is projected to increase by an additional
37 percent to 9.2 billion by 2050. (Sources: UN Population Division, 2006; U.S.
Census Bureau, 2008)
 ARCHITECTURAL IMPACT ON THE NATURAL ENVIRONMENT 15

REGIONAL POPULATION GROWTH 1800–2050

10

8
BILLIONS OF PEOPLE

PROJECTED
4
3

1 DEVELOPIN
G REGIONS
0 DEVELOPE
1800 D REGIONS
1850
1900
1950
2009
2050
Figure 1.13 Population ratio between developed and developing
regions is projected to reach 1/8 by 2050. (Sources: UN Population Division,
2006; U.S. Census Bureau, 2008)

United Nations projects that the world population will increase by 2.5 billion over the
next 41 years, from the current 6.7 billion to 9.2 billion by 2050. The projected increase
alone is equivalent to the total world population in 1950. Less developed countries, whose
population is projected to rise from 5.4 billion in 2007 to 7.9 billion in 2050 will proba-
bly see most of the increase (U.N. Population Division 2006).
In addition to depletion of natural resources, pollution, poverty, and malnutrition,
one of the major problems associated with or exacerbated by overpopulation is the
high-density urban settlements. The United Nations projects that by 2010, for the first
time, the urban population of the earth will outnumber the rural. In 1800 only 3 percent
of the world’s population lived in cities. In 1950, there were only 86 cities with a pop-
ulation of more than one million; today, there are 400, and by 2015, there will be more
than 550 (Davis 2006; U.N. Population Division 2006). This rapid urbanization means
that over the next 30 years developing countries are predicted to triple their population
size and account for 80 percent of the world’s urban population (see Fig. 1.14).
This being the case, the majority of this population, 60 percent, will live in
slums. Today over one billion people already live in slums, with this figure rising
by 25 millions a year, and only 1 percent of housing and urban aid is given to urban
slums (see Table 1.5). Although Asia presently has over half the world’s slum pop-
ulation (581 million), Africa is expected to exceed this percentage by 2020 (Davis
2006; U.N. Population Division 2006).
16 GREEN ARCHITECTURE: OVERVIEW

URBAN POPULATION GROWTH 1800–2050

10

8
BILLIONS OF PEOPLE

7
6
5

PROJECTED
4
3 RURAL
2
1
0 URBAN
1800
1850
1900
1950
2009
2050
Figure 1.14 Urban population has already exceeded rural and
is projected to increase 40 percent by 2050 (Sources: UN Population
Division, 2006; U.S. Census Bureau, 2008)

As the world population continues to grow, our natural resources are under increas-
ing pressure. This threatens our public health and social and economic development.
This is especially true in developing countries, where people consume resources much
faster than they can be renewed. According to a 2000 report published by the Johns
Hopkins Population Information Program (Hinrichsen and Robey 2000), living con-
ditions are worsening in every environmental sector—public health, food supply, fresh
water, coastlines and oceans, biodiversity, and climate change.

■ Public health. Contaminated, unclean water (along with poor sanitation and air pol-
lution) kills over 15 million people each year, many of whom live in developing
countries. Public health is also seriously threatened by heavy metals and other con-
taminants polluting our environment.
■ Food supply. According to a United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization’s
study, in over 60 percent of developing countries the population has been growing
faster than its food supply. This disparity has degraded over two billion hectares of
arable land.
■ Fresh water. The supply of fresh water is limited, but demand is increasing as the
population grows and use-per-capita rises. By 2025, the world population is pro-
jected to be eight billion, forcing people to cope with fresh water shortages. Soaring
demand is placing a tremendous amount of pressure on the world’s water resources,
resulting in disappearing rivers and dropping water tables. According to the 2007
World Bank report, nearly 70 percent of global water withdrawals from rivers,
 ARCHITECTURAL IMPACT ON THE NATURAL ENVIRONMENT 17

TABLE 1.5 POPULATION IN MEGACITIES IN THE

DEVELOPING WORLD IS EXPANDING *

CITY 1950 2004 2009

Mexico City 2.9 22.1 22.9

Seoul 1.0 21.9 23.9
Sao Paulo 2.4 19.9 21.1
Mumbai (Bombay) 2.9 19.1 22.3
Jakarta 1.5 16.0 15.1
Dhaka 0.4 15.9 13.1
Calcutta 4.4 15.1 16.0
Cairo 2.4 15.1 14.8
Manila 1.5 14.3 19.2
Karachi 1.0 13.5 15.7
Lagos 0.3 13.4 11.4
Shanghai 5.3 13.2 17.9
Buenos Aires 4.6 12.6 14.1
Rio de Janeiro 3.0 11.9 12.5
Tehran 1.0 11.5 12.5
Istanbul 1.1 11.1 12.5
Beijing 3.9 10.8 13.2
Bangkok 1.4 9.1 9.2
Gauteng 1.2 9.0 9.6
Kinshasa 0.2 8.9 8.6
*Developing world megacities (population in millions).
(Sources: UN-HABITAT Urban Info (2009); Davis 2006; Brinkhoff 2009)

lakes, and aquifers are used for irrigation, while industry and households account
for 25 and 10 percent, respectively. The 2000 U.S. Geological Survey (USGS)
study finds that the total water usage in buildings is 9.4 percent, and residential use
is almost three times more than the commercial buildings (see Table 1.6).
■ Coastlines and oceans. More than 50 percent of coastal ecosystems are under pres-
sure by high-density populations and urban dwellings. For instance, coastlines and
oceans are becoming increasingly more polluted. In addition, overfishing is reduc-
ing the number of fish catches within these areas.
18 GREEN ARCHITECTURE: OVERVIEW

TABLE 1.6 ACCORDING TO THE 2000 USGS SURVEY, BUILDINGS USE 9.4 PERCENT
OF THE FRESH WATER *

% OF TOTAL % OF TOTAL % OF TOTAL

YEAR ALL BUILDINGS WATER USE RESIDENTIAL WATER USE COMMERCIAL WATER USE

1985 31.26 7.8% 24.32 6.1% 6.94 1.7%

1990 33.58 8.2% 25.29 6.2% 8.29 2.0%
1995 35.67 8.9% 26.09 6.5% 9.58 2.4%
2000 38.34 9.4% 28.03 6.9% 10.31 2.5%
*Total use of water by buildings (billion gallons per day).
(Sources: Hutson, Barber, Kenny, Linsey, Lumia, and Maupin 2004; USDE 2008)

■ Biodiversity. The earth’s biodiversity is in imminent danger; human activities are forc-
ing numerous plants and animals into extinction. In fact, it is estimated that 65 percent
of all species are declining in numbers.
■ Global climate change. The planet’s surface is warming at an alarming rate, in large
part because of the building industry’s emission of greenhouse gases. If global tem-
peratures continue to increase as projected, sea levels would rise by several feet.
The result would be widespread additional climate change, followed by flooding
and drought. Agriculture production would be severely disrupted and/or curtailed,
placing additional pressure on the world’s food supply.

The depletion of resources is an inevitable result of overpopulation and its subse-

quent high-density housing needs. There is an unsustainable demand/resource ratio
on the earth’s natural resources, materials, and energy. Each year, three billion tons
of raw materials—about 40 to 50 percent of the total amount consumed by the global
economy—are used in the manufacturing of building products and their components
(Roodman and Lenssen1995; Anink et al. 1996). Furthermore, the global consump-
tion of key raw materials (such as steel, aluminum, plastic, and cement) is rising fast.
For example, over a 20-year period ending in 1994, the world consumption of cement
increased by 77 percent and plastic consumption increased by 200 percent, while the
world population increased by 40 percent (University of Minnesota, 1999).

COMPLEX BUILDING CONSTRUCTION PROCESS AND LIFE

CYCLE OF BUILDINGS
Contrary to common belief, the term architecture does not refer simply to the end product.
It involves a long process with various stages, including: mining for resources, manufac-
turing, transportation of the materials and technology, building, maintenance, demolition,
and recycling (see Fig. 1.15). Every stage has its own activities, some more complex than
others, with various levels of environmental impacts.
 ARCHITECTURAL IMPACT ON THE NATURAL ENVIRONMENT 19

MINING-
MANUFAC/ TRANSP/ MAINT/LIFE
DRILLING- BUILDING DEMOLITION RECYCLE
DISTR. DISTR. CYCLE
EXTRACTING

Figure 1.15 The construction process.

The construction process starts with mining, drilling, and extracting the materials.
Excavating mineral ores for construction requires the stripping of topsoil and rocks.
This separation requires energy primarily from fossil-based resources, an activity that
can cause much greater harm than the benefits of excavation (Jackson 1996). The more
complex the process to obtain the product, the greater the amount of energy consumed.
This stage of the construction process is especially harmful for the relevant ecosystem,
as it initiates the destruction of existing settlements, plant and animal habitats, land
erosion, water pollution, and deforestation.
Manufacturing of construction materials requires more energy, produces waste, and
pollutes natural resources. The distribution and transportation of construction materi-
als and technology also impact the environment by using additional energy to trans-
port them from the manufacturing point to the point of assembly and building.
Construction activities necessary to complete a building contribute to air pollution,
including: land clearing, engine operations, demolition, burning, and working with
toxic materials. In fact, all construction sites generate high levels of pollutants, mostly
from concrete, cement, wood, stone, and silica. Construction dust, in particular, is a
serious issue. Although it is invisible to the naked eye, the dust penetrates deeply into
the lungs and causes a wide range of health problems, including respiratory illness,
asthma, bronchitis, and cancer (see Table 1.7).
20 GREEN ARCHITECTURE: OVERVIEW

TABLE 1.7 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS OF ARCHITECTURAL PROCESS

ACTIVITY ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS

Mining/drilling/extracting Deforestation; destruction of plant and animal habitat; existing

settlements; land erosion; water pollution
Manufacturing/assembly Energy consumption (impacts of producing energy); waste
generation
Transportation/distribution Energy consumption, CO2 emission; resource use (packaging)
Building CO2 emission; pollution and radiation from the materials and
technologies (exposed to chemical and climatic activities); pressure
and damage
Maintenance/life cycle Energy consumption, CO2 emission; resource use and replacement;
wear and tear; chemical contamination (material loss—from roofs,
pipes); water pollution
Demolition Chemical contamination; toxicity; environmental poisons
Recycle/waste Landfill decomposition; groundwater contamination; methane gas
production

As for the environmental impact and energy consumption, the most harmful stage of
the construction process is the maintenance and life cycle of the buildings. The life cycle
of a building is a long-lasting process after construction, which includes the performance,
durability and maintenance, energy use and consumption, water and waste management,
environmental human health systems, occupant well-being, renovation, recycle content,
resource limitation, and the life span of the building (see Fig. 1.16).
Because of the complexity and the life span of buildings, there is a consistent flow
of materials and technologies during the life cycle (Vogtlander 2001). The life span of
buildings is an important factor in this cycle and contributes directly on the buildings’
environmental impact. Depending on the category and building type, an average build-
ing life is approximately 35 to 50 years (Addington and Schodek 2005) but this num-
ber changes based on the category and purpose of the building (see Table 1.8). The
actual lives of buildings are affected by various external factors outside the control of
the original intentions (Fernandez 2005), and depend on a vast amount of natural
resources, including land, energy, and water. The majority of the environmental impact
and energy consumption takes place during this stage.
Building demolitions are often impacted by environmental concerns, such as exces-
sive CO2 emission, toxic materials, solid waste, nonrenewable landfill materials, and
health issues.
Most of the construction and demolition materials (e.g., lead-based paints, asbestos,
mold, wastes containing mercury, fluorescent bulbs, batteries) pose serious environ-
mental and health problems (Roodman and Lenssen 1995; Berge 2000). For both reg-
ulatory and economic reasons, recyclables (such as concrete, lumber, and brick) are
 ARCHITECTURAL IMPACT ON THE NATURAL ENVIRONMENT 21

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT

ENERGY CONSUMPTION
MINING/DRILLING

MANUFACTURING

TRANSPORTATION/
DISTRIBUTION

CONSTRUCTION

LIFE CYCLE

DEMOLITION

RECYCLE/WASTE
Figure 1.16 The majority of the environmental impact and
energy consumption takes place during the life cycle stage.

TABLE 1.8 CATEGORY OF DESIGN SERVICE LIFE FOR BUILDINGS

CATEGORY DESIGN SERVICE LIFE EXAMPLES

Temporary Up to 10 years Nonpermanent construction buildings; sales

offices,
bunkhouses temporary exhibition buildings
Medium life 25–49 years Most industrial buildings; most parking structures
Long life 50–99 years Most residential, commercial, and office buildings;
health and educational buildings; parking structures
below buildings designed for long life category
Permanent Minimum period, 100 years Monumental buildings (e.g., national museums, art
galleries, archives); heritage buildings

Source: CSA (R2001) Guideline on Durability in Buildings

typically separated from other solid waste. As their processing and disposal proce-
dures are minimal and inexpensive, most of these materials are salvaged and reused.
Other recyclables (such as steel, aluminum, copper, and glass) possess significant eco-
nomic value to specialty recycling and salvage facilities. Hazardous waste must be dis-
posed of in a separate landfill at a very high cost. This includes materials with high
levels of fossil fuel, chromium, or lead-based contaminants (Gockel 1994).
22 GREEN ARCHITECTURE: OVERVIEW

TECHNOLOGIES AND MATERIALS

Materials, technology, and architecture have had a strong relationship from the very
early beginnings of construction. This relationship is almost inseparable and is one of
subordination. The material is merely the means of completing a building, and the act of
building requires a technology. The invention and use of these elements changed our
built environment, but we are only now learning that this connection has had ecological
consequences.
The technologies and materials for construction and then operation of buildings
have a disproportionate impact on the natural environment when compared to its role
in the economy. Although the construction sector represents only about 8 percent of
gross domestic product (GDP) in the United States, it consumes 40 percent of all
extracted materials, produces one-third of the total landfill waste stream, and accounts
for 39 percent of national energy consumption for its operation (Roodman and
Lenssen 1995). Raw materials for the building sector are extracted, processed, trans-
ported, fashioned in the construction phase, demolished, and recycled. As stated ear-
lier, all these stages imply a number of environmental impacts. In particular, the build-
ing industry is a heavy consumer of materials with high-embodied energy content,
such as aluminum, cement, and steel, the production of which usually depends on the
use of fossil fuels, resulting in CO2 emissions (UNEP 2006). Lightweight construction
materials, such as timber frames, usually have lower-embodied energy in comparison,
but because of massive harvesting of this material, 20 percent of the earth’s forests
have disappeared. Around the world, mining of copper, bauxite, and iron ore resources
for building materials continues, pouring large quantities of pollutants into nearby air
and water. All these trends are accelerating, and the damage they have done and may
do is often irreversible (Roodman and Lenssen 1995).
Throughout the entire construction process, fossil fuel–based energy consumption
is high. For example, the high temperatures necessary to produce steel, glass, and
brick require great amounts of fossil fuels. Transporting materials to a building site
burns yet more fossil fuels. It is not surprising then, that the amount of carbon diox-
ide in our atmosphere has risen approximately 30 percent since 1900, one-quarter of
which comes from fossil fuel combustion used to provide energy for buildings
(Roodman and Lenssen 1995).
As mentioned earlier, a completed building does not mean less consumption of
fossil fuel and energy, but rather more. According to the 1992 OECD report,
energy use in buildings from 1971 to 1992 was at an average 2 percent annually.
In 1992, total energy use in buildings had risen to 34 percent. This included
25 percent from fossil fuels, 44 percent from hydropower, and 50 percent from
nuclear power. Adding in the fuels and power used in construction, buildings con-
sume at least 40 percent of the world’s energy. They thus account for about a third
of the emissions of heat-trapping carbon dioxide from fossil fuel burning, and
two-fifth of acid-rain-causing sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides. Buildings also
contribute to other side effects of energy use—oil spills, nuclear waste generation,
river damming, toxic runoff from coal mines, and mercury emissions from coal
burning (OECD 1992; Roodman and Lenssen 1995).
 RESPONSIBILITY OF ARCHITECTURE 23

A survey of water use in buildings tells a similar story. An increase in water use is
lowering water tables and necessitating large projects that siphon water supply away
from agriculture. In addition, electric power plants use water as a coolant, which then
drains into rivers, carrying thermal and chemical pollution. These two uses contribute
about equally to buildings’ one-sixth share of global water withdrawals (Roodman
and Lenssen 1995; Gleick, Cooley, Katz and Lee 2007).
Steel production can be highly polluting; iron mining produces tailings that can leach
heavy metals into nearby streams; and open-hearth steel making can emit lead and
other poisonous heavy metals. According to 1992 U.K. data, the use of materials such
as steel, copper, aluminum, and concrete makes each square meter of floor space in a
large office building 2 to 4 times as energy intensive—and therefore approximately 2
to 4 times as pollution intensive as a house (Roodman and Lenssen 1995). Another con-
cern with materials is their potential impact on indoor air quality. Most bonding and
drying agents in carpets, veneers, particle board, plywood, and petroleum-based paints
emit health-threatening volatile organic compounds (Roodman and Lenssen 1995).
Finally, many modern buildings also create dangerous indoor environments for their
inhabitants. For example, “sick building syndrome” is reported to occur in 30 percent
of new or renovated buildings worldwide (Roodman and Lenssen 1995).

Responsibility of Architecture
Due to its role, volume, and impact, it is evident that architecture has a direct respon-
sibility to the immediate (city) ecosystem. As Graham (Graham 2002) points out,
every architectural artifact, regardless of its size—big or small (1) connects to the
earth; (2) depends on nature for resources; (3) causes environmental change; and (4)
affects both human and nonhuman life. Since part of the problem is architectural, so
should be the solution, such as designing based on sustainable and ecological princi-
ples; developing and using advanced green technologies and materials; and promoting
and demanding high-performance buildings. Some of these issues, such as ecological
design have been around for decades. Others have been proposed and promoted, but
sporadically rather than consistently.
Architecture’s main responsibility is not to pick and choose the “best” solution but
to incorporate all options that might generate workable solutions. There is no single
formula of what and how much to use. Clearly, there is an urgent need of a new way
of thinking and designing. In order to fully address its responsibilities, architecture
should abandon old methods, technologies, and materials and push for a new para-
digm shift. The design objectives should be based on sustainable, ecological, and per-
formance criteria rather than trends and aesthetics; be environmentally conscious
rather than market-driven; and be inherently resourceful rather than globally destruc-
tive. Briefly described, the responsibility of green architecture includes:

■ Smaller buildings. Unlike Mc-Mansions, smaller buildings are economically feasi-

ble, efficient, and require low maintenance. Because of their compact size, smaller
24 GREEN ARCHITECTURE: OVERVIEW

buildings use less material, need less energy, and produce less waste. Architects
should focus on small, yet functional and ecologically sensitive buildings by con-
serving space and preserving the environment.
■ Sustainable materials and technologies. Architects should focus on using durable,
low-maintenance, recyclable, and economical materials and technologies. Constant
breakdowns, wear-and-tear, and replacement of materials and technologies will
make buildings unsustainable. Using abundant, local elements—if possible—with
little to no transportation costs is highly preferable. Architects should also consider
elements that are easily dismantled and reused or recycled at the end. They can be
salvaged, refurbished, or remanufactured, including saving materials and technolo-
gies from disposal and renovating, repairing, restoring, or generally improving the
appearance, performance, quality, functionality, or value.
■ Ecological materials and technologies. Materials and technologies should consist
of low-emission, nonpollutant elements with low manufacturing impacts.
Ecological materials should facilitate a reduction in polluting emissions from
building maintenance and should not be made from toxic chemicals. Architects
should focus on clean burning technologies by excluding the components such as
substances that deplete stratospheric ozone and associated with ecological damage
and health risks, including mercury and halogenated compounds, and HCFCs
(hydrochlorofluorocarbons). Additional ecological technologies such as storm-
water and wastewater systems that reduce surface water and groundwater pollution
should be incorporated.
■ Sustainable resources. Buildings should rely on sustainable resources, such as
energy and water, focusing on supplying their own gray water and power. Such
buildings may operate entirely off the power grid, or they may be able to feed
excess energy back into the grid. Solar, thermal, and wind—if available—powers
are the usual alternatives. Buildings should also consider the proximity to and from
water resources, supplies, and existing waste management systems. Architects
should also consider the climatic conditions for their favor and benefit from them,
such as sun, wind, and water. Residential and daylight-needing buildings should not
be designed in sun-trapping/blocking areas (i.e., in between buildings, etc.). The
buildings should be accessible to public transportation (and bicycle paths) to reduce
private vehicle use, to save energy, and to reduce air pollution.
■ Sustainable environments. One of the main responsibilities of any architect is to
create sustainable environments that are protective, healthy, habitable, and promote
social and institutional networks. Buildings should provide protective environments
where the occupants feel safe and secure against the various elements such as natural
causes, built environments, and people. Building should also provide healthy and habi-
table environments for people; designed to maximize productivity by minimizing
operator fatigue and discomfort; and should be free from physical and psychological
effects of buildings such as sick building syndrome.
■ Resource ecology. By taking ecological issues into account, architects should
design and construct buildings in the right places and in the right way, for the
benefit of both the occupants and the ecological resources. The reduction of the
 RESPONSIBILITY OF ARCHITECTURE 25

natural resource consumption should be targeted right from the start, at the design
stage. The calculation and control activities should focus on the building’s natural
resource use, such as water, energy, landscape, and waste management. Soil type
and groundwater conditions must be taken into consideration before the building
is designed and constructed. The type and stability of soil should be taken seri-
ously, not only because of the building damage but also potential problems to the
soil ecology such as erosion, pollution, sedimentation, and various forms of soil
degradation.
■ Environmental ecology. One of the main responsibilities of architects is to respect
the ecology of the environment, and to design the buildings in a way not to pollute
the environment and harm the ecosystem. Faulty and poorly designed and/or installed
building infrastructure systems, such as inadequate gray water and sewage pipes,
stormwater management, and drainage systems, can contribute to drainage, flood-
ing, and soil and groundwater pollution. Architects should make sure to provide
proper drainage systems which collect runoff from impervious surfaces (e.g., roofs
and roads) to ensure that water is efficiently conveyed to waterways through pipe
networks. Designs should promote minimizing water usage and providing water-
efficient landscaping. The materials, technologies, and the type of energy used in
the buildings should be selected from nonpollutant elements, such as alternative
energy resources and low-VOC building products.
Architects should also implement global stewardship principles by acting locally
and thinking globally. Use local resources as much as possible by reducing the
embodied energy of the building products, and by considering global ecological
consequences of their actions. Land selection, biodiversification, and building ori-
entation should be integrated into the design before the building is constructed.
Avoid changing the ecosystems for the sake of building landscape and/or orienta-
tion, such as cutting off plants or creating artificial ecosystems, which might con-
tribute to erosion and flooding. Instead, buildings should contribute to the environ-
ment by absorbing sun rays and stabilizing the soil.
■ High-performance materials and technologies. The materials and technologies
used in buildings should be efficient, effective, and productive. The material effi-
ciency can be achieved by using recycled elements with minimal waste or adding
engineered components, such as engineered lumber and I-joists. Technological effi-
ciency should apply to the entire building cycle, including water and energy effi-
ciency. These elements should also be effective by producing desired results and
productive such as changing and storing the energy and water.
■ Resource performance. A building’s resource performance is determined by the
contribution to the resources of the location. Buildings should perform as eco-
nomic, ecological, and environmental contributors by various different ways. The
location and function of the building should contribute to the economic viability in
the area by creating jobs, enhancing property values, and bringing other businesses
into the area. The material and technological elements of the building should also
be used in a way to reduce the environmental impact of the building such as absorb-
ing sun rays and CO2 emission from the atmosphere.
26 GREEN ARCHITECTURE: OVERVIEW

■ Environmental performance. Buildings should be physically, functionally, and

socially adaptable to the environment and perform according to environmental
changes. Changes in climate, social patterns, or trends should not end the building
life cycle but give birth for different uses for the building. The functional and envi-
ronmental quality of the building should also be considered as the main design
objective.