Q1) Allotropes: Same elements with different structure.

Example: Diamond and graphite.

Q2) Ionic Covalent
High Low
High Low
Soluble Insoluble
Good Bad/poor
Q3) (i) In solid, they don’t have free moving electrons & ions.
In solution, they have free moving electrons & ions.
(ii) Giant covalent: Large covalent bond that is strong.
Molecular covalent: Covalent molecule that has weak
covalent bond.
(iii) Carbon allotropes:
Diamond:
Accessories - shiny
Graphite:
Pencil – soft & slippery
(iv) 1) Graphite
2) Diamond
3) Graphite
4) Diamond
Q4) (i) Ion
(ii) Sodium bromide
 (iii) Solid
Q5) (i) Magnesium reaction with oxygen
2Mg + O2 → 2MgO [ionic]

(iii) Al + O2 → Al2O3 [ionic]

(v) CaBr2 [ionic]

(vii)NH3 [covalent]
(x) Al [Metallic]
CHAPTER 5: Chemical Nomenclature & Reaction Prediction

A. Chemical Nomenclature
1) Metallic bond compounds:
To name: Just say the metal’s name + the word “metal”
i.e. Al(s) the name is aluminum metal
*Metallic compounds are always in solid at room temperature
& pressure

2) Ionic Compounds
2.1 Ionic with Typical Metals (Metals from GI, II & GIII)
To name: say the metal name + non-metal name + the
suffix “-ide”
i.e. NaCl the name is sodium chloride
i.e. MgF2 the name is magnesium fluoride
i.e. NaNO3 the name is sodium nitrate
i.e. Ca3(PO3)2 the name is calcium phosphite
* poly-ions are also ionic compounds

2.2 Ionic with Transition Metal

To name: say the metal name + metal’s charge number in
roman + non-metal name + the suffix “-ide”
 i.e. FeCl3 the name is iron (III) chloride
i.e. CuO the name is copper (II) oxide
i.e. Ni3N4 the name is nickel (IV) nitride
Al2O3
Al charge is +3
Al+3 + O-2 → Al2O3

i.e. Ag2S the name is silver (I) sulfide

i.e. FeSO4 the name is iron (II) sulphate
i.e. Fe2(SO4)3 the name is iron (III) sulphate
Fe+3 + SO4-2

6 6
i.e. Ni(OH)2 the name is nickel (II) hydroxide
i.e. Ti(CO3)2 the name is titanium (IV) carbonate
3) Covalent compounds
To name: say the number of the first non-metal in Greek
number* + first non-metal name + say the number of the second
non-metal in Greek number + second non-metal name + the
suffix “- ide”
*if the first non-metal is only 1, do not need to say its Greek
number.
Greek number:
1 – mono 6 – hexa
2 - di 7 – hepta
3 – tri 8 – octa
4 – tetra 9 – nona
5 – penta 10 – deca

Example:
CO2 = mono Carbon dioxide
PCl5 = Phosphorous pentachloride
P2O5 = diphosphorous pentaoxide
Br2Cl = dibromine (or dibromo) monochloride
BrCl4 = Bromine tetrachloride
Dinitrogen Pentoxide = N2O5
Di-phosphor trioxide = P2O3
Chlorine tetrafluoride = ClF4
Carbon disulphide = CS2
B. Predict a chemical reaction

B.1 Metal + acid → salt + hydrogen gas

Example:
1) Magnesium metal reacts with hydrochloric acid, write the
chemical reaction.
Mg(s) + HCl(aq) → MgCl2(aq) + H2(g) [un-balanced]

Mg(s) + 2HCl(aq) → MgCl2(aq) + H2(g) [Balanced]

States in chemical:
(s) = solid
(l) = liquid (i.e. melted salt)
(g) = gas
(aq) = aqueous [with water] – salt in water
Diatomic molecules (molecules with two atoms):
They are normally gases (except noble gas).
H2, O2, Cl2, F2, N2; Br2
Difference in writing atoms and molecule:
MgCl2: 1 MgCl2 molecule that has 2 Cl atoms
2HCl: 2 HCl molecules that each has 1 Cl atom (total is 2)
B.2 Double displacement reaction (Most in IGCSE)
Example - write the balance chemical reaction for:
1) Sodium chloride reacts with magnesium hydroxide.
2NaCl + Mg(OH)2 → MgCl2(aq) + 2NaOH(aq)

If it’s difficult, break them

into ions and match

*Positive ion from the first compound, will find negative

ion from the second compound.
*Negative ion from the first compound, will find positive
ion from the second compound.

2) Hydrogen sulphate (sulphuric acid) reacts with sodium

carbonate.
Sulphate: SO4-2 Carbonate: CO3-2
H2SO4 + Na2CO3 → Na2SO4 + H2CO3 [wrong]
*H2CO3 is unstable, it will break into H2O & CO2
H2SO4 + Na2CO3 → Na2SO4 + H2O + CO2 [Correct]

3) Ammonium chloride reacts with aluminum hydroxide

3NH4Cl + Al(OH)3 → AlCl3 + 3NH4OH [wrong]
*NH4OH is unstable, it will break into H2O & NH3
3NH4Cl + Al(OH)3 → AlCl3 + 3NH3 + 3H2O [correct]
CHAPTER 6: Stoichiometry
Calculation in chemistry for chemical reactions.

A. Mole calculations
mole (n) = mass (gr) / molecular weight (gr/mole) = m/Mr
mole (n) = gas volume (dm3) / VRTP
*VRTP = constant of 24 dm3/mol/, when gas is
measured at room temperature & pressure.
mole (n) = liquid volume (dm3) x concentration (mol/dm3)
=VxC
mole (n) = X / L
* X is the number of particles (atom, ion, molecule)
* L is Avogadro’s number = 6.02x1023 particles/mole.
* So, 1 mole = 6.02x1023 particles.
B. Percentages
%Yield = (Actual mass / calculated mass) x 100
How much you actually produce over what you calculated.

%purity = (mass of pure substance/total mass) x 100

How pure is your substance.
 %composition in molecule =
[(#atom x atomic weight of atom)/Mr] x 100
i.e. NH3, how much % of N in ammonia?
%N = (1 x 14)/(14+1+1+1) x 100 = (14/ 17) x 100 = 82.35%

C. Empirical & Molecular Formula

Empirical Formula means the simplest formula of a compound
based on its elemental mole ratio.
Molecular formula means the actual formula of a molecule.
CHAPTER 7: REDOX REACTION

Reduction and oxidation (Redox).

Reduction:
- losing oxygen
i.e., MgO + HCl → MgCl2 + H2O
Mg lost its oxygen from this reaction
- gaining electron
i.e., F + e- → F-
- decrease in oxidation state (charge number)
i.e., F + e- → F-

Oxidation:
- gaining oxygen
i.e., Mg + O2 → MgO
- losing electron
i.e., Na → e- + Na+
- increase in oxidation state (charge number)
i.e., Na → e- + Na+
More terms to remember:
Reduction = Oxidator = Oxidizer = Oxidizing agent
Oxidizing agent is a substance that oxidize other, but itself get
reduced.

Oxidation = Reductor = Reducer = Reducing agent

Reducing agent is a substance that reduce other, but itself get
oxidized.

1.1 Writing Half-Reaction

A half reaction is a reaction that involves the receiving or losing
electron. When a few half-equations are sum up together, we will
have a full equation.

Example:
2Na + Cl2 → 2NaCl [Total of full reaction equation]
To balance half-reaction
The 2 half-equations are: equation we need to balance:
1) the atom
Cl2 + 2e- → 2Cl- 2) the total charge on the left
2Na → 2e- + 2Na+ and right

Make the electrons the same

and eliminate them
Prove the following reactions using their half-equations:
a) Mg + F2 → MgF2
Their half-reactions are:
Mg → Mg+2 + 2e-
F2 + 2e- → 2F-
Mg + F2 → Mg+2 + 2F-
Mg + F2 → MgF2 (proven)

b) 4Al + 3O2 → 2Al2O3 Do not write the number in front of the

compound first when writing the half-equation
Their half-reactions are:
Al → Al+3 + 3e-
O2 + 4e- → 2O-2
4Al + 3O2 → 2Al2O3 (proven)

c) 6Li + N2 → 2Li3N

Their half-reactions are:

Li → Li+ + e-
N2 + 6e- → 2N-3
6Li + N2 → 2Li3N
1.2 Determining Oxidation State (charge number)

NaCl;
The charge of Na here is (+1)
The charge of Cl here is (-1)
[Lose 1 and gain 1 electrons]
We know from
periodic table
Mg3N2;
The charge of Mg here is (+2)
The charge of N here is (-3)
[Mg lose 2, N gain 3]

Transition metal has more than 1 oxidation state or charge, so

we cannot determine its charge from periodic table. There’s a
method to find it.

Example:

FeCl3
Transfer the big number

What is the charge of Fe? (+3)

CrO2

What is the charge of Cr? (+4)

Cr2O3
What is the charge of Cr? (+3)

Exercise 1:
Find the oxidation state of the bolded atom in the following
compounds:

(i) Manganate Ion – MnO4-

(ii) Chromate Ion – CrO32-

(iii) Dichromate Ion – Cr2O72-

(iv) Ammonium Ion – NH4+

(v) Oxalate Ion – C2O42-

(vi) Antimonite Ion – SbO43-

1.3 Determining REDOX in a reaction

Exercise 2:
Show the redox reaction alongside with its oxidizer and reductor by
identifying their oxidation state (if any).

(i) Mg + 2AgNO3 → Mg(NO3)2 + 2Ag

Reduction/Oxidator: AgNO3
Oxidation/Reductor: Mg
(ii) Sn + 4HNO3 → SnO2 + 4NO2 + 2H2O

Reduction/Oxidator: HNO3
Oxidation/Reductor: Sn
(iii) PbO2 + H2SO4 → PbSO4 + 2H2O

Reduction/Oxidator: PbO2
Oxidation/Reductor: N/A
(iv) KMnO4 + H2C2O4 + H2SO4 → K2SO4+ MnSO4 + CO2 + H2O
 Reduction/Oxidator: KMnO4
Oxidation/Reductor: H2C2O4

(v) MnO2 + 2H2SO4 + 2NaI → MnSO4 + Na2SO4 + 2H2O + I2

Reduction/Oxidator: MnO2
Oxidation/Reductor: NaI
CHAPTER 8: ELECTROCHEMISTRY
Electricity basically is a moving/mobile/delocalized electron(s).
Conductor: Materials that can transfer electricity
Example: Metals

Insulator: Materials that cannot transfer electricity

Example: Plastic/rubber

There are two parts of this chapter:

8.1 Simple Cell
8.2 Electrolysis Cell

8.1 Simple Cell

e- e-

Definition: is a setup to produce electricity from a chemical

reaction.
Electrolyte got 3 types:
(i) Strong electrolyte:
is a substance that can ionize completely 100%.
(ii) Weak electrolyte
is a substance that cannot ionize completely <100%.
(ii) Non-electrolyte
Substance that cannot electricity.

Electrode, we have 2 types:

(i) Cathode (positive), here reduction reaction happens.
(ii) Anode (negative), here oxidation reaction happens.

In terms of electron:
Reduction – receive electron
Oxidation – giving electron
>> From here, electron flow from anode to cathode.

In the example above, Zn is (-) and Cu is (+).

But how we know which one is anode or cathode?
To know this, we need to know metal’s reactivity series.

Typical reactivity Series:

More reactive (Oxidation, -) Less reactive (reduction, +)

Li-K-Na-Ca-Ba-Mg-Al-Mn-Zn-Cr-Fe-Cd-Co-Ni-Sn-Pb-Sb-Bi-Cu-Hg-Ag-Pt-Au
Example #1: determine which metal is anode and cathode in the
following simple cell.
(i) Mg-Pt cell
Mg is anode, Pt is cathode – because Mg is more reactive than Pt
(ii) K-Al cell
K is anode and Al is cathode – because K is more reactive than Al
(iii) Ni-Cu cell
Ni is anode, Cu is cathode – because Ni is more reactive than Cu

When simple cell reaction occurs, we need to know what are produced at both
anode and cathode through a reaction. There are 2 rules in simple cell:
Rule#1: Metal (at oxidation state of 0) can only be oxidized.
Rule#2: Polyions [NO2-; NO3-; SO3-2; SO4-2 ; PO3-3; PO4-3] have no reactions.

Example #2:
Write the half-reaction equation at anode and cathode for simple cell using
Magnesium and Copper electrodes, in HCl electrolyte.

Step 1: Know what we have.

Here we have Mg(s), Cu(s), H+(aq) and Cl-(aq).

Step 2: Determine the anode and cathode.

Mg(s) is the anode (oxidation) and Cu(s) is the cathode (reduction).

Step 3: Write the half-reaction equation at both anode and cathode.

C (+) : 2H+ + 2e- → H2

(1) Metal (at oxidation state of 0) cannot have reduction reaction, because metal
likes to give electrons. So, copper has no reaction at cathode.
(2) Cathode is (+), so positive H+ will go to the cathode.

A (-): Mg(s) → Mg+2(aq) + 2e-

(1) We know that the anode is Mg(s). Anode is oxidation or give electron. So, can
a metal oxidise? Yes.

In conclusion, we will produce hydrogen gas at the cathode and the anode will
decrease in mass because the magnesium turns to ions.

Example #3:
Write the half-reaction equation at anode and cathode for simple cell using
Aluminium and lithium electrodes, in H2SO4 electrolyte

Answer:
Al is cathode and Li is anode.
C (+) : Al cannot be here, because it can only give electron. Reduction is receive.
SO4-2 also cannot be here, because it has no reaction (Rule#2)
Our only choice is H+.
Li cannot be placed here, because Li is an anode.
2H+(aq) + 2e- → H2(g)
A (-) : Li → Li+ + e-

Example #4:
Write the half-reaction equation at anode and cathode for simple cell using
Copper and Sodium electrodes, in Cu(NO3)2 electrolyte.

Answer:
Anode is Na. Cathode is Cu.
C (+) : Cu+2(aq) + 2e- → Cu(s)
Tips: In simple cell, when we do cathode, what goes to the cathode is the
cation from the electrolyte.
A (-) : Na(s) → Na+(aq) + e-

Example #5:
Write the half-reaction equation at anode and cathode for simple cell using copper
and Beryllium electrodes, in Ni3(PO4)2 electrolyte.

Answer:
Anode is anode. Cathode is copper.
C (+) : Ni+2(aq) + 2e- → Ni(s)
A (-) : Be(s) → Be+2(aq) + 2e-

Example #6:
Write the half-reaction equation at anode and cathode for simple cell using
Manganese and silver electrodes, in ZnCO3 electrolyte.

Answer:
Anode is Mn. Cathode is Ag. If the question doesn’t
tell you the transition
C (+) : Zn+2(aq) + 2e- → Zn(s) metal charge, always
write as +2
A (-) : Mn(s) → Mn+2(aq) + 2e-

Example #7:
Write the half-reaction equation at anode and cathode for simple cell using
Potassium and Chromium electrodes, in AlCl3 electrolyte.

Answer:
Anode is K. Cathode is Cr.
C (+) : Al+3(aq) + 3e- → Al(s) Do not write “gap” in
exam. Write as
A (-) : Cr(s) → Cr+2(aq) + 2e-
electrode potential

Determining the voltage produce in simple cell.

(1) In a simple cell, when the electrode potential (the gap between metal) in the
reactivity series is larger. We will produce more electricity.

Typical reactivity Series:

More reactive (Oxidation, -) Less reactive (reduction, +)

Li-K-Na-Ca-Ba-Mg-Al-Mn-Zn-Cr-Fe-Cd-Co-Ni-Sn-Pb-Sb-Bi-Cu-Hg-Ag-Pt-Au

For instance:
Simple cell with Li-Na will produce less electricity, compare to Li-Fe simple cell.

Predicting Cell Voltage using Simultaneous Equation

We have the following voltages of 2 simple cells.
Li-Na simple cell = 0.5 V
Li-Fe simple cell = 2.0 V
So, Na-Fe simple cell what is the voltage?

Step 1: look at the first given cell and identify which is anode and which is
cathode.
Li-Na; the cathode is Na and Li is the anode.
So we can make an equation, (+Na) + (-Li) = 0.5 V

Step 2: look at the second given cell and identify which is anode and which is
cathode.
Li-Fe; the cathode is Fe and Li is the anode.
So we can make an equation, (+Fe) + (-Li) = 2.0V

Step 3: look at the questioned cell and identify which is anode and which is
cathode.
Na-Fe; the cathode is Fe and Na is the anode.
So we can make an equation, (+Fe) + (-Na) = ??? V

Step 4: solve
(-Na) + (+Li) = -0.5 V (times first equation with -1)
(+Fe) + (-Li) = 2.0V (No change, take it as it is.)
(+Fe) + (-Na) = 1.5 V

Example #8: Predict the voltage of the simple cell Fe-Cu, if we know the
following voltages; (1) Al-Fe is 1.0 V; (2) Al-Cu is 3.5 V

Ans:
2.5V

Example #9: Predict the voltage of the simple cell Na-Ag, if we know the
following voltages; (1) Na-Al is 0.85 V; (2) Ag-Al is 5.3 V
Ans:
(-Na) + (+Al) = 0.85 V
(+Ag) + (-Al) = 5.3
(-Na) + (+Ag) = 6.15 V

Application of Simple Cell

Simple cell can be used for hydrogen fuel cell.
Hydrogen fuel cell basically uses H2(g) and O2(g), to produce electricity.
The waste is only water.

So compared to combustion process that produces CO2 and H2O.

Combustion also produces energy. But energy production using simple
cell is more environmentally friendly.

Comparison between combustion and hydrogen fuel cell.

Combustion Hydrogen Fuel Cell

Produces CO2 and it is not Only produces water as the waste, so,
environmentally friendly environmentally friendly
Energy produced is less Energy produced is more
Combustion is cheap Fuel cell is expensive
Combustion is non-renewable Renewable
Combustion can cause acid rain Is a clean energy
8.2 Electrolysis Cell

Definition: Breakdown of ionic substances by using electricity.

Electrolysis also has 2 important things:
(1) Electrolyte
(2) Electrodes are metals;
Anode = positive = oxidation reaction.
Cathode = negative = reduction reaction.

Electrolysis has 3 types:

(a) Electrolysis using dilute electrolyte
(b) Electrolysis using molten electrolyte
(c) Electrolysis using concentrated/aqueous electrolyte.

(a) Electrolysis of Dilute Electrolyte

Dilute: Too much water (mostly the chemical is water only)
When we electrolyze dilute electrolyte, the half-reaction at anode
and cathode is ALWAYS the following:
Rule#1: Whenever
dilute electrolyte is
A (+): 4OH-(aq) → O2(g) + 2H2O(l) + 4e- electrolyzed, the
reaction is always this
C (-): 2H+ + 2e- → H2(g) at anode and cathode

(b) Electrolysis of Molten Electrolyte

When we electrolyze molten electrolyte, the half-reaction at anode
and cathode are followed by the opposite ions in the electrolyte.
Example: (l) this means molten

Electrolysis of NaCl(l) using carbon electrodes.

Two ions present: Na+ and Cl-
Cl at room temperature is gas
A (+): 2Cl-(l) → Cl2(g) + 2e-
C (-): Na+(l) + e- → Na(s)

Electrolysis of CuCl3(l) using carbon electrodes. Write the half

reaction equations.
Two ions present: Cu+3 and Cl- Anode is (+), negative
ion will react there
A (+): 2Cl-(l) → Cl2(g) + 2e-
Cathode is (-), positive
C (-): Cu+3(l) + 3e- → Cu(s) ion will react there

Electrolysis of Fe3N2(l) using carbon electrodes. Write the half

reaction equations.
A (+): 2N-3(l) → N2(g) + 6e-
C (-): Fe+2(l) + 2e- → Fe(s)

Electrolysis of NiO2(l) using carbon electrodes. Write the half

reaction equations.
A (+): 2O-2 → O2 + 4e-
C (-): Ni+4 + 4e- → Ni(s)

(c) Electrolysis of concentrated/aqueous electrolyte

This means that the electrolyte has enough water. So, water can
react depending on the condition. There are a few rules we need to
know for concentrated/aqueous.
Rule #1: Cation from group I, II, Al and Mn, will not be
reduced at the cathode. But H+ will following the reaction of;
2H+ + 2e → H2.

Rule #2: Anion from salts [NO2-, NO3-, SO3-2, SO4-2, PO3-3 and
PO4-3] will have no reactions at anode. But OH- will have the
reaction of; 4OH- → O2 + 2H2O + 4e-.

Example #1:
Using carbon electrodes, write the half-reaction equations for
concentrated NaCl(aq).
The ions that present are: Na+, Cl-, H+ and OH-
A (+): 2Cl-(aq) → Cl2(g) + 2e-
C (-): 2H+ + 2e → H2

Because we did not use Na+ and OH-, they can react forming
NaOH in the electrolyte.

Example #2:
Using carbon electrodes, write the half-reaction equations for
concentrated Mg(NO3)2(aq).
The ions that present are: Mg+2, NO3-, H+ and OH-
A (+): 4OH- → O2 + 2H2O + 4e-
C (-): 2H+ + 2e → H2

Example #3:
Using carbon electrodes, write the half-reaction equations for
concentrated CuBr2(aq).
A (+): 2Br- → Br2 + 2e-
C (-): Cu+2 + 2e- → Cu(s)

In aqueous/concentrated, normally we use carbon as the electrode.

This is because Carbon is not reactive (inert).
There are 3 inert elements that we need to know; carbon, platinum
and gold.
But sometimes we may use a reactive electrode (not inert).
Example of reactive electrodes are elements other than the inert
element.

Rule #3: when the electrode is not-inert (reactive), the

electrode will oxidize at the anode, but doesn’t affect the
cathode.
Example:
Write the half-reaction equations when aqueous CuCl3(aq) is
electrolyzed using copper electrodes.
A (+): Cu(s) → Cu+2(aq) + 2e-
C(-): Cu+3(aq) + 3e- → Cu(s)
Example:
Write the half-reaction equations when aqueous FeSO4(aq) is
electrolyzed using Nickel (III) electrodes.
A (+): Ni(s) → Ni+3(aq) + 3e-
C(-): Fe+2(aq) + 2e- → Fe
Example:
Write the half-reaction equations when aqueous NaNO3(aq) is
electrolyzed using Iron electrodes.
A (+): Fe(s) → Fe+2(aq) + 2e-
C(-): 2H+(aq) + 2e- → H2(g)
When we use a not-inert electrode, we can see that the metal is
reacting (Fe(s) → Fe+2(aq) + 2e-). What would happen to the iron
anode after some times? Explain.
Ans:
After some times, the iron anode will be lost in its mass (the mass
will decrease). This is because the iron anode oxidizes and form
ion. So, after some time we need to change/replace the anode.

Application of Electrolysis
(1) Refining (increase the purity of a metal)
(2) Electroplating (coat a metal with another metal)

Example:
(1) Write the half reaction equation at anode and cathode for the
electrolysis of aqueous CuSO4(aq) using copper electrode.
A (+): Cu(s) → Cu+2(aq) + 2e- Electroplating
C (-): Cu+2(aq) + 2e- → Cu(s) reaction

(2) Explain what happen to the anode after some time and what can
you suggest.
Its mass will decrease because it oxidizes and become ion.
Suggestion: to replace the Cu(s) with a new Cu(s)
(3) Explain why there is no change in copper’s concentration in the
electrolyte after some time.
A (+): Cu(s) → Cu+2(aq) + 2e-
C (-): Cu+2(aq) + 2e- → Cu(s)

because the Cu+2 that is produced at the

anode, will be equally used at the cathode.

CHAPTER 9: THEMOCHEMISTRY/ENERGY &

EQUILIBRIUM

9.1 Thermochemistry / Equilibrium

When a chemical reaction happens, energy can change between the
product and the reactants. The types of energy change:
a) Endothermic = Substance receives energy (the surrounding
temperature will decrease).
i.e., photosynthesis, A/C room

b) Exothermic = Substance releases energy (the surrounding

temperature will increase).
i.e., burning/combustion
In a chemical reaction, substance need to break their chemical
bond first, before a new product is formed. After the product
formed, energy will be released back.

So, when a chemical reaction happens:

1) Reactants will absorb energy to break their chemical bond
2) When product formed, energy is released.

*If the amount of energy absorbed is more than released, the total
reaction will be endothermic.
*If the amount of energy absorbed is less than released, the total
reaction will be exothermic.

So, the is an energy change (entalphy, ΔH) in reactant and

product. Thus, we can draw their energy level diagram.

Exothermic Endothermic
Ea (activation energy) = the minimum amount of energy needed for
a reaction to occur.

Calculate the amount of energy needed for a reaction to occur

The equation that we use is:
Total energy change (ΔH )=∑ bond energy of reactant−∑ bond energy of a product

*Σ means summation or total

Example:
2H2 + O2 → 2H2O
Sources of energy:
a) Non-renewable energy
The energy cannot be renewed, when it is used up, no more
energy is produced.
Example: Fossil Fuel
Types of fossil fuel:
(i) Natural gas / methane (gas form)
(ii) Petroleum (liquid form)
(iii) Coal / coke (solid form)

b) Renewable energy
The energy cannot deplete, it can be generated continuously.
Example: Solar, wind, hydro, bio-mass energy, Hydrogen fuel
cell and etc.
9.2 Equilibrium
Some reaction can go both forward and backward, we indicate this
reacting using the arrow of ⇌.
This type of reaction is called a reversible reaction.

Definition of equilibrium/reversible reaction: (1) a reaction that

goes forward and backward at the same rate, (2) with the products
& reactants are at the same/constant concentration.

For example:
N2(g) + H2(g) ⇌ NH3(g)
* nitrogen can react with hydrogen to form ammonia
* also, ammonia can break down back to hydrogen and nitrogen.

So, because, this reaction go forward and backward, we cannot

maximize the production of the product. So, this is a disadvantage.
But we can change the direction where the reaction goes. This
means we shift the equilibrium.
To shift the equilibrium, there are a few factors:
a) Concentration
Increasing the reactant concentration will shift the equilibrium
to the product.
Decrease the reactant concentration will shift the equilibrium to
the reactant (produce less product).
b) Pressure
If we increase the pressure = we decrease the volume
Equilibrium will shift the side that has less number of moles.
If we decrease the pressure = we increase the volume
Equilibrium will shift the side that has more number of moles.
c) Temperature
c1) Endothermic
If we increase the temperature, equilibrium will shift to the
product.
If we decrease the temperature, equilibrium will shift to the
reactant.
c2) Exothermic
If we increase the temperature, equilibrium will shift to the
reactant.
If we decrease the temperature, equilibrium will shift to the
product.
d) Catalyst
definition: a substance that is used to increase the rate of a
reaction, by lowing the activation energy & does not take part in
the reaction.
Catalyst only increases the rate, it does NOT shift the
equilibrium.
Example:
N2(g) + 3H2(g) ⇌ 2NH3(g) ΔH = (+)
Reactant has: 4 moles
Product has: 2 moles (less moles)
Suggest a way to generate more product in this equilibrium
reaction.
a) concentration
We should increase the concentration of N2 & H2.
b) pressure
We should increase the pressure of this reaction.
c) temperature
We should increase the temperature of this reaction.
d) catalyst
For this reaction the catalyst is iron (will learn this in chapter 17)
CHAPTER 10: RATE OF REACTIONS

10.1 Measurement of Rate

Rate of reaction: the speed in which the reaction happens.
To measure the rate of reaction we need to know the change in the
substance (volume or mass) with respect to time.

For example: Zn(s) + 2HCl(aq) → ZnCl2(aq) + H2(g)

To measure the rate of this reaction, we need to measure the
volume of hydrogen produced over a certain time interval (maybe
for every 5 s).

When we have the data of volume of gas versus time, we will get a
graph like this:
(i) At the beginning the curve’s gradient is very steep, because the
reaction occurs very fast as there are a lot of reactants.
(ii) the slope is smaller, the reaction is slower as the number of
reactants are decreasing over a certain time.
(iii) Flat line, this means the reaction has finished. No more change
in the number of products produced.

Measuring and calculating the rate of reaction:

To calculate the rate: (final volume/time*) = 40/5 = 8 cm3/min

*time we select the first time when the volume doesn’t change.
10.2 Factors That Affecting Rate of Reactions
These factors are:
a) Temperature
At high temperature, rate will increase, but why?
(i) particle has more energy (ii) particle move faster
(iii) this causes more successful collision between particles
(iv) the substance energy is higher than the activation energy.
b) Pressure & Volume
High pressure or low volume, causes the chances of particle to
successfully collide with each other more frequent.
c) Concentration
Higher concentration causes rate to increase. This is because
there are more particle per unit volume. So, chances of particle
to successfully collide with each other more frequent.
d) Surface Area
Higher surface area, causes particle to be in contact with each
other more frequent. So more successful collision.
i.e;
Powder has a higher surface area compared to a lump of sugar.

e) Catalyst
 Increases the rate of reaction by lowering action energy without
taking part in the chemical reaction.

10.3 Photochemical Reactions

Photochemical reaction: is a reaction that requires light to occur.
i.e.; photosynthesis

To increase the rate of reaction in photosynthesis or any reaction

that needs light, we need to increase the light’s intensity.

Catalyst in photosynthesis is:

(i) light
(ii) Chlorophyll
CHAPTER 11: ACIDS & ALKALIS
11.1 Concept & Definition
Acids: substances that have H+ ion. Because it has H+ ion, it can
donate its H+ ion. (what you should answer in exam is: a substance
that can donate its proton or H+).

Alkali/base: substances that do not have H+ ion. Because it doesn’t

have H+ ion, it can receive H+ ion. (what you should answer in
exam is: a substance that receives proton or H+).

Types of Acid & Alkali:

a) Types of Acid
(i) Strong acid = acid that can dissociate (ionize) completely in
water (i.e.; HCl, H2SO4).
(ii) Weak acid = acid that can only dissociate (ionize) partially
in water (i.e.; HF, CH3COOH - vinegar).
b) Types of alkali
(i) Strong base = base that can dissociate (ionize) completely in
water (i.e.; NaOH, KOH).
(ii) Weak base = base that can only dissociate (ionize) partially
in water (i.e.; NH3 and NH4OH).
11.2 Acid & Alkaline Measurement
To determine if a substance is acid or alkali, we need a measurement
called “potential hydrogen” or pH.

pH ranges from 1 to 14:

(i) pH 1-3 = strong acid
(ii) pH 4-6 = weak acid
(iii) pH 7 = neutral solution
(iv) pH 8-10 = weak base / weak alkali
(v) pH 11-14 = strong base

Different Ways to measure pH:

a) Qualitative (by colors or cannot be counted) Observation
(i) Litmus paper
2 types of litmus paper, red and blue litmus paper.
- Red litmus paper in alkali, will turn blue
- Blue litmus in acid, will turn red
(ii) Liquid indicators
2 liquid indicators that you need to know in IGCSE:
- Methyl Orange
In acid it is red; in alkali it is yellow and in neutral it is orange
- Phenolphthalein
In acid it is colorless; in alkali it is purple and in neutral it is pink
b) Quantitative (by numbers) Observation
(i) Universal Indicator

How to use:
- dip a piece of the universal indicator paper into the solution
-Observe the color.
(ii) pH meter
How to use:
- dip a piece the pH meter
- the device will read the pH for you
(iii) By calculation

11.3 Reactions of Acid & Alkali

Reaction #1:
Metal + Acid → Salt + hydrogen gas
Mg(s) + 2HCl(aq) → MgCl2(aq) + H2(g)

Reaction #2 (Neutralization Reaction):

Acid + Alkali → Salt + water
HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) → NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
Reaction #3:
Acid + carbonates → Salt + carbon dioxide + water
HCl(aq) + Na2CO3(aq) → NaCl(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(g)

Reaction #4:
Alkali + ammonium salt → salt+ ammonia + water
NaOH(aq) + NH4Cl(s) → NaCl(aq) + NH3(aq) + H2O(g)

11.4 Oxides
Oxides = substance that is bonded to oxygen atom.

Types of Oxides:
a) Acidic oxide: They cannot react with acid, they are formed from
non-metal with oxygen (i.e.; CO2).
b) Basic oxide: They cannot react with base, they are formed from
metal with oxygen (i.e.; MgO).
c) Neutral oxide: They cannot react with acid and base (i.e.; CO &
NO).
d) Amphoteric oxide: they can react with both acid & alkali (i.e.;
Al2O3 and ZnO).

H/W
Topical Paper chapter 10a – Page 207 (Q1- Q5 question)
11.5 Salts & Their Preparations
Salt: is a compound that is formed between cation(s) and anion(s).
So basically, they are mostly ionic compounds.

Types of salt based on their solubility:

(i) Soluble salts = salts that are soluble or can dissolve in solvent
(ii) insoluble salts = salts that are insoluble or can’t dissolve in
solvent.

So, to know if the salt is soluble or insoluble, we need this table:

Salts preparation are different for soluble salt and insoluble salt:
(i) Preparing insoluble salt – by precipitation (i.e.; PbCl2)
- mix the two solutions (i.e.; Pb(OH)2 + HCl) Any two
compounds(aq) that can
produce PbCl2
- Stir until the reaction finishes
- Solid salt will be produced
- Use filtration (and filter paper) too separate
the solid
- Wash it with distilled water (water that has been boiled once)
 - Oven-dry the solid
- cool it to room temperature
*precipitation : producing a solid when 2 liquids are mixed.
(3-4 mark)
(ii) Preparing soluble salt by crystallization (i.e.; NaCl)
- mix the two solutions (i.e.; NaNO3 + HCl) Any two
compounds(aq) that can
produce NaCl
- Stir until the reaction finishes
- Heat the solution until crystallization point or saturation point
(until crystals starts to form or until the solution doesn’t
change in level), to remove water
- glass-rod test to test the formation of solid salt
- cool the solution until all crystals form
- Separate the crystal using filtration
- oven-dry the solid salt
- cool to room temperature
(5-6 marks)
11.6 Analytical Chemistry (Chapter 19)
Analytical chemistry requires us to test certain materials and identify the
correctly during an experimental investigation. The following tests are
what we need to know:
a) Metal Testing c) Cation Testing e) Water Testing
b) Gas Testing d) Anion Testing
a) Metal testing
Test name: flame test
Steps: - scoop a small amount of substance using a wire
- place it on top of a Bunsen burner
- observe the flame color.
If the color is:
(i) yellow = it has sodium metal
(ii) purple/lilac = it has potassium metal
(iii) green = it has copper (II) metal
(iv) red = it has lithium metal
(v) orange = it has calcium metal
(vi) white = it has aluminum metal
(vii) when the sample is colorless liquid and give blue flame = it is an
organic chemical/fuel.

b) Gas Testing
b1) Collecting Gas
b.2) Testing Gas
c) Cation Testing
d) Anion Testing
e) Water Testing
(i) CuSO4
If water is present, it will change color from white to blue.
(ii) CoCl2 paper
If water present, it will change color from blue to pink.

CHAPTER 12: TREND IN PERIODIC TABLE (PERIODICITY)

12.1 Group I – The Alkali Metals
12.2 Group VII - Halogens
12.3 Group VIII or 0 – Noble Gases
12.4 Trends Across Periods

12.1 Group I – The Alkali Metals

Description: - They have 1 electron valence
- They are very reactive (bcs, only need to lose 1 e-)
- At room temperature they are silvery-white solid
- They form colorless solution when dissolve in water
- They have low density (very light)
- They relative has lower boiling and melting point than
transition metals.
- They are good conductor of heat and electricity in solid &
liquid form.
Reactions of alkali metals:
(i) Alkali metal + water → alkali metal hydroxide + hydrogen gas
 2Na(s) + 2H2O(l) → 2NaOH(aq) + H2(g)
Observations: - Sodium metal will float and dissolve
- Sodium metal will fizz (Na very reactive)
- Bubbles (H2 gas produced)
- Smoke and flames (vigorous & explosive reaction)
(ii) Alkali metal + halogens → Salt
2Na(s) + Cl2(g) → 2NaCl(s)
(iii) Alkali metal + Oxygen gas → oxides
4Na(s) + O2(g) → 2Na2O(s)

12.2 Group VII – Halogens

Description: - Very reactive as they need only 1 electron
- they have 7 electron valences
- they have low boiling & melting points
- they are non-metals
- they have low density
- they are diatomic molecules [i.e., F2, Cl2, Br2]
- they are poor heat and electrical conductor
- their reactivity decreases down the group
- their color gets darker down the group
*F2 is yellow gas at room conditions
*Cl2 is green gas at room conditions
*Br2 is red-brown liquid at room conditions
*I2 is dark-brown liquid at room conditions
 *At2 is black solid at room conditions

Reactions of halogens – halogen displacement reaction:

A more reactive halogen (i.e., Cl2) can displace a less reactive halide (Cl-).

Examples:
F2(g) + 2HCl(aq) → 2HF(aq) + Cl2(g)
Cl2(g) + HF(aq) → no reaction (because Cl2 is less reactive than F-)

Uses of Cl2(g):
used for bleach and pesticide

12.3 Group VIII or 0 – Noble Gases

Description: - They are unreactive (inert)
- They have full electron valence (octet)
- Low melting and boiling points
- At room condition they are gases
- They have low density
- They are colorless
- They are monoatomic gases [i.e., He, Ne, Ar]
- they are poor electrical and heat conductor

Uses: He(g) is used for balloons

Ne(g) is used for neon lights
 Ar(g) is used as inert gas in lamps
Kr(g) is used as lasers
Xe(g) is used in radiotherapy (treat cancer)

12.4 Trends Across Periods

(i) Melting & boiling points
Across the period melting & boiling points increase from GI-GIV,
then decrease from GV to GVIII.
(ii) Reactivity
Reactivity decreases from GI to GIV, then increase from GV to
GVII.
(iii) Valence
The number of electron valence increases from GI to GVIII

CHAPTER 13 & 14 – METALS’ PROPERTIES, REACTIONS &

EXTRACTIONS
13.1 Properties of Metals
13.2 Reactions of Metals
14.1 Extraction of Metals
14.2 Uses & Application of Metals
13.1 Properties of Metals
Types of metals based on periodic table:
a) Typical Metals (GI, GII & GIII)
b) Transition Metals

a) Typical Metals
(i) Physical Properties
- They have lower density than transitions
- They have lower metal & boiling points than transitions
- They are good electrical & heat conductors
- They are silvery-white solid at room conditions
- They have lower density than transitions
- They are shiny & soft
- They are Malleable (can be bend to shape)
- They are ductile (can be drawn into wire)
(ii) Chemical Properties
- They can be easily oxidized (good reducing agent)
- They react vigorously in general
- Their oxidation state follows their group number
- They form colorless solution in water
b) Transition Metals
(i) Physical Properties
- They have higher density
- They have higher melting & boiling points
- They are good electrical & heat conductors
- They have higher density
- They are shiny & hard
- They are malleable (can be bend to shape)
- They are ductile (can be drawn into wire)
(ii) Chemical Properties
- They are difficult to be oxidized (good oxidizing agent)
- They react less or non-vigorously
- They have more than 1 oxidation states
- They can form colored solution or compounds
- They can form complex ions
- They can be used for catalyst

13.2 Reactions of Metals

(a) Metals + acids → salt + hydrogen gas
Mg(s) + H2SO4(aq) → MgSO4(aq) + H2(g)
(b) Metals + water → metal hydroxides + hydrogen gas
Mg(s) + 2H2O(aq) → Mg(OH)2 (aq) + H2(g)

(c) Competition between metals (a more reactive metal can

displace less reactive metal ion)
>> 2Na(s) + Mg(OH)2(aq) → Mg(s) + 2NaOH(aq)
>> Mg(s) + NaOH(aq) → no reaction (Mg is less reactive than Na)

(d) Reaction between metal and carbon-based substances (metal

that is more reactive than carbon, can displace carbon)
*GI, GII & GII – more reactive than C
*Transition metals are less reactive than C
Na(s) + CO2(g) → Na2O(s) + C(s)
Fe(s) + CO2(g) → no reaction

(e) Thermal decomposition (breakdown by heat)

(i) Thermal decomposition of metal carbonate
Any metal carbonate (except sodium) will thermally
decompose to metal oxide & carbon dioxide. Sodium
has no reaction.
i.e.;
CuCO3(s) → CuO(s) + CO2(g)
NaCO3(s) → no reaction
 (ii) Thermal decomposition of metal hydroxide
Any metal hydroxide (except sodium) will thermally
decompose to metal oxide & water. Sodium has no
reaction.
i.e.;
Cu(OH)2(s) → CuO(s) + H2O(g)
NaOH(s) → no reaction

(iii) Thermal decomposition of metal nitrate

Any metal nitrate (except sodium) will thermally
decompose to metal oxide nitrogen dioxide and oxygen
gas. Sodium nitrate it will decompose to oxygen gas
and sodium nitrite
i.e.;
Cu(NO3)2(s) → CuO(s) + NO2(g) + O2(g)
NaNO3(s) → NaNO2(s) + O2(g)

14.1 Extraction of Metals

Metals are extracted from ore.
Ores are rocks that contains metals.
Extraction of 3 different metals:
a) Extraction of Zinc
b) Extraction of Aluminum
c) Extraction of Iron

a) Extraction of Zinc
The ore of Zinc is called Zinc Blende (ZnS).

Extraction process of Zinc Blende;

Step 1: Roast/burnt Zinc blende in oxygen gas
ZnS(s) + O2(g) → ZnO(s) + SO2(g)
Step 2: Reduce Zinc Oxide with C or CO
ZnO(s) + C(s) → Zn(s) + CO(g)
ZnO(s) + CO(s) → Zn(s) + CO2(g)
*we can reduce ZnO using C, because Zn is less
reactive than C.

b) Extraction of Aluminum
The ore of aluminum is called Bauxite (Al2O3).
>> Aluminum is more reactive than C, so we cannot extract
aluminum the same way as Zn.
>> When a metal is more reactive than C, we extract it using
electrolysis in carbon electrodes.
In Al2O3(s) electrolysis:
>> Al2O3 is ionic compound and it has high melting and boiling
point. Hence, it is not cheap to melt it and make into molten form.
>> We need to mix it with cryolite (NaAlF4) to reduce the melting
point of Al2O3.
>> Write the half reaction at anode and cathode:
A(+): 2O2-(l) → O2(g) + 4e-
C(-): Al+3(l) + 3e- → Al(s)
>> At the anode we produce O2(g) & our anode
is carbon. What will happen to anode?
The carbon anode will decrease in mass, because the carbon
electrode reacts with O2(g) produced at the anode. So, we need
to regularly change the anode.

c) Extraction of Iron in Blast Furnace

The ore of iron is called Hematite (Fe2O3).
>> Iron is less reactive than C, so we can extract iron using C or CO.
>> However, Hematite typically has a lot of impurities, so we need
addition reactions to remove them.
>> Reactants that we need are; Hematite (Fe2O3), carbon, sand impurities
(SiO2) and CaCO3.
Extraction Steps:
Step 1: Combustion of carbon (to increase the temperature in the blast
furnace)
C(s) + O2(g) → CO2(g)
*
O2 came from the air, so it’s not pure oxygen
Step 2: Reduction of CO2 to from CO
CO2(g) + C(s) → 2CO(g)
Step 3: Reduction & Extraction of Hematite
Fe2O3(s) + CO(g) → Fe(l) + CO2(g)
*Fe is liquid because the temperature of the blast furnace is very
high
Step 4: Thermally decompose CaCO3
CaCO3(s) → CaO(s) + CO2(g)
Step 5: Impurities removal
CaO(s) + SiO2(s) → CaSiO3(l)
CaSiO3(l) this is called slag (calcium silicate)

>> From step 1-5, some waste gases (N2 & CO2) will be released to
the environment.
>> The final products of iron extraction are Fe(l) & CaSiO3(l). Fe(l) is
denser than CaSiO3(l). So, iron liquid will be below of CaSiO3(l).
>> Fe(l) to Fe(s) will be done through freezing process.
>> The iron we produce in this process is not completely pure, it
has carbon because in step 2 we use excess carbon.
>> Iron with high concentration of carbon is called Cast Steel or
Cast Iron.
>> To remove carbon impurities from iron, we need to react it with
oxygen gas in the following reaction:
Fe(s) + C(s) + O2(g) → Fe(s) + CO2(g)

14.2 Uses and Applications of Metals

a) Production of Alloy
b) Oxide Layers
c) Rust Prevention – Galvanization / Sacrificial Protection

a) Production of Alloy
>> Alloy is a mixture of metals.
>> Alloy is much harder than their individual metal composition,
they are normally used to construct building or any infrastructures.
>> Alloy in everyday life such as Stainless Steel – is an alloy made
from iron, nickel and zinc.
>> Brass is made from Zn and Cu

b) Oxide Layers
>> Some metals are beneficial because when they are in contact
with air (O2) and water, they will not rust (corrosion) by forming
strong protective oxide layer(s).
>> These metals are Aluminum and Zinc.
H/W Topical Pg. 212 Q9-15

c) Rust Prevention – Galvanization / Sacrificial Protection

*
Rust/corrosion: an oxidation process of a metal (iron) caused
by water, oxygen and salt (less likely).
*
Rust is most often happened when metal is at room
temperature or colder temperature. High temperature, releases
a lot of oxygen, so there is less oxygen for rust reaction to
happen.

Rust can be prevented in several ways:

(i) Paint it – paint is made out of oil, and oil is inert
(unreactive)
(ii) Galvanization or Sacrificial Protection
Sacrificing another metal (must be more reactive than
the main metal), to protect the main metal.
i.e., coating iron with aluminum.
Al is more reactive than iron, so Al will rust instead of
iron.
*because Al is more reactive (oxidation) than Fe,
electron flows from Al to Fe.
**Typically, metal is galvanized using Al or Zn, because
they can form a strong protective oxide layer.
CHAPTER 15 & 16 – NON-METALS EXTRACTION &
USAGES
15.1 Air & Its Composition
15.2 Extraction of Air
15.3 Water Purification
16.1 Haber-Bosch Process (production of ammonia)
16.2 Contact Process (production of H2SO4)
16.3 Pollution Control

15.1 Air & Its composition

The composition of air consists of:
(i) O2 gas – 21%
(ii) N2 gas – 78%
(iii) other gasses (i.e., CO2, other noble gases) – 1%

15.2 Extraction of Air

(i) Air is collected and then filtered to remove any small
impurities/dust particles.
(ii) Water vapor from air needs to be removed through evaporation
to prevent formation of ice
(iii) Carbon dioxide also needs to be removed through an
adsorption process by using carbon/catalyst, because CO2 also can
form solid at low temperature.
*adsorption is attracting particles onto the surface
(iv) compression (increase the pressure), this will liquefy (turns to
liquid) air, this also increases the temperature of the air
(v) expansion (decrease the pressure), this will significantly
reduce the air’s temperature, maintaining it at liquid.
(vi) Fractional distillation – separation by difference in boiling
points.

15.3 Water Purification

(i) Water is collected, then it is filtered to remove solid
impurities.
(ii) Coagulation, adding a coagulating agent (FeSO4) to group all
of the tiny or microscopic impurities (bacteria).
(iii) Floatation in a floatation tank. Floating the coagulated
impurities by blowing them with air onto the water’s surface.
(iv) Initial filtration using sand or carbon
(v) Chlorination. Not all bacteria are removed in coagulation part,
some stubborn bacteria remain. Chlorination, add Cl2, to kill
the remaining bacteria (the most important).
(vi) Fluorination. Addition of F2, to ensure the water is safe for
human’s teeth.
(vii) Storage and pump to household.

16.1 Haber-Bosch Process

This process is for the manufacture/production of ammonia (NH3).
The reaction is: N2(g) + 3H2(g) ↔ 2NH3(g)
The reaction conditions: - Using Fe(s) catalyst
- Pressure is 200 atm
- Temperature is 450oC

16.2 Contact Process

This process is for the production of sulphuric acid (H2SO4).
The reaction happens in a few steps:
(i) S(s) + O2(g) → SO2(g)
(ii) 2SO2(g) + O2(g) ↔ 2SO3(g)
Using V2O5(s) catalyst (Vanadium (V) oxide)
Pressure is 1 atm
Temperature is 450oC
(iii) SO3(g) + H2SO4(l) → H2S2O7(l)
(oleum)
(iv) H2S2O7(l) + H2O(l) → 2H2SO4(aq)
*H2SO4 is very strong acid and it can act as a dehydrating
agent (substance that is used to remove water).
 *When H2SO4 come across an organic substance, it can
dehydrate the organic substance to form carbon/coke.

16.3 Pollution Control

(i) In the contact process for the production of H2SO4, we saw that
we produce SO2 and SO3 acidic gasses. When they are released to
the environment, they can react with (rain) water to form Acid
Rain (H2SO4).
Impact of acid rain: - Infrastructure to corrodes / destroyed
- Skin cancer
- Kill aquatic life / plants

(ii) CO or CO2 pollution form combustion and blast furnace –

global warming and climate change. As CO2 blocks sunlight to
reflect back to the space.
(iii) NOx gasses also acidic in nature, they can react with (rain)
water to form Acid Rain (HNO3).

Controlling the pollutions:

(i) Flue Gas Desulphurization
Flue gas = SO2 and SO3 gases
De-sulphurisation = removal – of sulphur

We use Slake lime, calcium hydroxide, to remove SO2 and

SO3 gases:
 SO2(g) + Ca(OH)2(s) → CaSO3(s) + H2O(s)

CaSO3(s) is an important material to make gypsum.

CaSO3(s) + O2(g) + 4H2O(l) → 2CaSO4.2H2O(s)
(gypsum)
(ii) Catalytic Converter
Means = to convert harmful gas to gases that are less
harmful through catalyst.

Engine when combusting fuel in the engine, some types of

reactions could occur:
- Complete combustion = Producing CO2
- Incomplete combustion = producing CO [toxic]
- Fuels contains Nitrogen, when burnt they can produce NOx
gases [toxic]. (x in NOx can be any number)

2NO →
Pt
N2(g) + O2(g)
2CO(g) + O2(g) → 2CO2(g)
Concept of Fertilizers:
>>Fertilizers = Substance/chemicals that has a lot of nutrient and is
given to plants to accelerate their growth.
>>A good fertilizers must have at least one element from
“N, P or K”
>> i.e., KCl, HNO3, NH4Cl, KNO3

H/W Chapter 11 Pg. 240; Q1-Q3

CHAPTER 17 & 18 – ORGANIC CHEMISTRY &
POLYMERIZATION
17.1 Crude Oil & Fuels
17.2 Alkanes
17.3 Alkenes
17.4 Alcohols
17.5 Carboxylic Acid
17.6 Esters
18.1 Concept of Polymerization
18.2 Types of Polymerization
18.3 Biological Polymer

17.1 Crude Oil & Fuels

Fuels: substance that is used to generate energy. Nowadays, they
can come from non-renewable (fossil fuels) and renewable sources
(solar, wind, hydro, etc.).

Fossil fuel can come in three forms:

a) Coal - solid
b) Petroleum - liquid
c) Natural gas (methane) – gas
These fossil fuels come from 1 source, that is “crude oil”. It means
unprocessed oil generated deep underneath the earth. So, it needs
to be processed into something useful.

The process to turn crude oil to variety of useful products, is called

refinery through fractional distillation. Fractional distillation, is
separating substances based on the difference in their boiling
points. The illustration is:

Fractions’ behaviors from top to bottom:

(i) Boiling point increases
(ii) Viscosity (resistance to flow, higher = difficult to flow)
increases
(iii) Flammability (how easy the substance can be burnt)
decreases
 (iv) The color gets darker

17.2 Alkanes
>Alkane is one of hydrocarbons.
>Hydrocarbon is substance that has ONLY carbon and hydrogen
atoms.
>Alkane has the formula of: CnH2n+2
If n = 1 the alkane is CH4 Methane
If n = 2 the alkane is C2H6 Ethane
If n = 3 the alkane is C3H8 Propane
If n = 4 the alkane is C4H10 Butane
If n = 5 the alkane is C5H12 Pentane
If n = 6 the alkane is C6H14 Hexane
If n = 7 the alkane is C7H16 Heptane
If n = 8 the alkane is C8H18 Octane
>All of these alkanes have the same empirical formula, so they are
called a “homologous series”. They have some properties that we
need to know:
- They have the same empirical formula
- They have similar chemical reactions
- same functional group
Alkane Nomenclature
1) Draw the alkane structure
2) Find the longest carbon chain in the alkane
3) Number the longest chain so that any branches has the smallest
number
4) Name them.

Example:
C3H8 – Propane

C4H10-Butane

When alkane loses 1 H, we call it alkyl (methyl, ethyl).

 2-methyl-propane
Between these two structures, they have the same chemical
formula, but they have different structure. This is called
isomer.

2-methyl-3-methyl butane
2,3-dimethyl butane

3-ethyl hexane

2,2-dimethyl propane

2,4-dimethyl hexane
Reactions of Alkane
(i) Cracking = shortening a long chain carbon (long chain
hydrocarbon to short chain hydrocarbon).
- Thermal cracking (T>800oC)
- Catalytic cracking (T= ~550oC; with Ni catalyst)

Example:
C18H38 → C3H8 + C15H30
C18H38 → C18H36 + H2
C18H38 → C10H22 + C7H12 + CH4
*When we crack alkane, it can produce a mixture of alkane,
alkene and hydrogen

(ii) Name: Halogenation - (Type: substitution reaction)

Halogenation means, substitution of 1 hydrogen atom in an
alkane with 1 atom of halogen. The reaction must happen under
UV light.

Example:
CH4 + Cl2 →
uv
CH3Cl + HCl
Methane chloromethane

uv
CH3Cl + Cl2 → CH2Cl2 + HCl
 Chloromethane dichloromethane

Naming halogeno-alkane: alkane that has halogen

1-chloro-propane

2-chloro-propane

2,2-dichloro propane

2-chloro-3-methyl-butane
NOT 3-methyl-2-chloro-butane
(follow alphabet)

Functional group
(iii) Name: dehydrogenation - (Type: elimination reaction)
Dehydrogenation means the process of removing hydrogen
from alkane. The catalyst that we use here is platinum (Pt) at
high temperature (need not know the temperature).
17.3 Alkenes
> Alkene is a hydrocarbon with carbon that has double bond. In the
hydrocarbon, there must be at least 1 double bond to be grouped as
alkene.
> chemical formula for alkene is CnH2n.
> However, alkene start with C2H4, NOT CH2, no such thing as
CH2.
> examples: ethene, propene, butene, etc.

Propene C3H6:

*the longest carbon chain has 3 carbon in both structures AND the
double bond is at the same number. So, both of them are the same.
*As long as the longest carbon chain has the same number of
carbon and the double bond is at the same number, the molecules
are the same.
*double bond must have the smallest number, followed by any
branch.

Butene C4H8:

But-1-ene
 But-2-ene 2-butene

*Both of the top drawings have the chemical formula of C4H8. But
they have different structure = we call this isomer.

Name the branch first then the longest chain

>> 2-methyl-propene

>> 2-methyl-but-1-ene

>> 2-methyl-but-2-ene

>> 2,2-dimethyl-propene

*only put the number for the longest alkene chain, when the
longest alkene chain has at least 4 carbon.
 >> 2,3-dimethyl-pent-2-ene

>> 3-ethyl-hex-2-ene

>> 2-chloro-3-methyl-but-2-ene

Reactions of alkene
(i) Name: Alkene hydrogenation (Type: addition reaction)
Addition because we are adding atom(s) into the hydrocarbon
 >> Addition reaction of alkene will produce alkane.
>> Using high temperature.

*The reason we need high temperature is to break the double bond.

(ii) Polymerization reaction

Polymer = macromolecular = is a long chain molecule.
Example: plastics, food container, plastic bags, etc.

Alkene can go through a polymerization reaction with it self.

Example:
(iii) Name: hydration reaction (type: addition reaction)
Hydration: adding water (H-OH)
Conditions: Temperature at 570oC
Pressure 60-70 atm
Catalyst H3PO4
Reversible reaction

Example:

17.4 Alcohols
Alcohol is a family of hydrocarbon that contains OH group.
Naming: Methanol, ethanol, propanol, butanol, etc…
Formula: CnH2n+1OH

Propanol – C3H7OH

Prop-1-ol Prop-2-ol
Propan-1-ol Propan-2-ol

2-methyl-prop-1-ol

2,3-dimethyl-but-1-ol OR
2-methyl-prop-2-ol
2,3-dimethyl-butan-1-ol

Reactions of Alcohol
(i) Fermentation (the formation of alcohol from sugar with the help
of yeast as the catalyst).

C6H12O6 → 2C2H5OH + 2CO2

(glucose) (ethanol) (carbon dioxide)

So alcohol can be made using 2 methods, (1) fermentation of sugar

and (2) hydration reaction of alkene. We need to see the difference.

Fermentation Hydration
The reaction is very slow The reaction is very fast
Alcohol produced is not pure Alcohol produced is pure
Sustainable & renewable not sustainable & renewable
Much cheaper More expensive

(ii) Oxidation of alcohol

The oxidizing agent that we need to oxidize alcohol is
KMnO4, potassium manganate (VII) in acidic condition.
Example: oxidation of ethanol.

Carboxylic Acid
- Ethanoic acid
 Propanoic acid

17.5 Carboxylic Acid (Alkanoic acid)

Carboxylic acid is made from the oxidation of alcohol. Naming of
carboxylic acid is:

Number of carbons Name Formula

1 Methanoic acid HCOOH
2 Ethanoic acid CH3COOH
3 Propanoic acid C2H5COOH
4 Butanoic acid C3H7COOH
5 Pentanoic acid C4H9COOH
6 Hexanoic acid C5H11COOH

The organic molecule is characterized by the existence of -COOH

group, the chemical formula is: CnH2n+1COOH, where n starts from
0.

17.6 Esters (alkyl alkanoate)

>> Ester is made by reacting alcohol with carboxylic acid, this
reaction is called esterification reaction.
>> The molecule is characterized as an ester, when the molecule
has the group -COO- group

Conditions: It needs dilute H2SO4 as the catalyst

 It is a reversible reaction
Pressure at 1 atm
Temperature 27-35oC (about room temperature)

Naming of Ester (Alkyl alka-noate):

Methyl methanoate

Ethyl methanoate
It is NOT methyl ethanoate
 Propyl ethanoate

Methyl ethanoate

Esterification (alcohol + carboxylic acid) reaction:

Reaction between methanol and ethanoic acid to form methyl
ethanoate.

18.1 Concept of Polymerization

Polymer = is a long chain macromolecular structure that consists
of repeating units of monomer.
Monomer = is a single unit of a polymer.

Example #1:
In Polyethene, the monomer is ethene.

Example #2: find the monomer Find the

repeating
pattern !!!
Example #3:
make the polymer structure (with 2 units) from but-2-ene
18.2 Types of Polymerization
Polymerization type: (i) Addition polymerization
(polymerization reaction that occurs
when the reactants are the same).
i.e., ethene to polyethene
*We need double bond to happen.
(ii) Condensation polymerization
(polymerization reaction that occurs
when the reactants are the different,
small molecules like water and HCl
will be released).
*We need functional group to happen.

Condensation Polymerization:
Because we are connecting or combining two different molecules
to create polymer, the two molecules can link in two ways:
(i) amide linkage (ii) ester linkage
(i) Condensation polymerization by amide linkage.
Amide linkage is:

Example (nylon):
(ii) Condensation polymerization by ester linkage:

*remember that ester is made from alcohol + carboxylic acid.

Example (polyester - clothes):

The two types of polymerization (Addition & condensation) are to
produce synthetic polymer (man-made). Another type of polymer
is called biological polymer.

18.3 Biological Polymer

(i) Carbohydrate
Typically, the glucose structure looks like:

> Carbohydrate is the polymer; the monomer of carbohydrate

is called glucose.

> Human body cannot digest carbohydrate; it needs to be

changed to glucose using an enzyme called amylase (in saliva).

> Glucose is called a mono-saccharide because it only has 1

sugar unit (because the structure has only 1 box).

> If we have 2 sugar units (2 boxes), this is called di-

saccharide.
*Saccharide means sugar.

> If we have more than 2 sugar units (many boxes), this is

called poly-saccharide. This can be made by combining a few
of mono-saccharides molecules (through condensation
polymerization):
 > Carbohydrate is broken down using amylase. However,
when in the lab, we can’t use amylase.
> So, we use 1 mol/dm3 HCl + heating to breakdown /
hydrolyze carbohydrate to glucose.

H/W – Topic: Hydrocarbon, Page 320

(ii) Protein
Protein is a polymer, comes from the monomer called amino
acid. The basic skeletal structure of amino acid is:

Same like carbohydrate, protein cannot be digest and

processed in the body. It must be broken (hydrolysed) to its
monomer using water and an enzyme called protease.

In laboratory, protein can be broken down (hydrolysed) to its

monomer by heating it with 6 mol/dm3 of HCl(aq).