| | Sudha’s Student Friendly Textbook Series.... ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS-| For First Semmester B.E.Course RNSeT eT FREE SUPPLEMENT A Hand Book of Basic Concepts & Formulae in Mathematics with Illustrative Examples Dr.K.S.c. BEATING THE MEMORY Formulae, Properties & Re: to be remembered from all the chapters at a glance ytol as o8 ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS - I for the FIRST SEMESTER B.E. COURSE OF V.T.U Dr. K.S. CHANDRASHEKAR M.Sc.Ph.D Professor and Head of the Department of Mathematics National Institute of Engineering MYSORE - 570 008 coer ois In our endeavour to protect you agains counterfeit/fake books we have put a ologram and the unique special effect cover on some of our fast moving titles. The hologram and the wrapper displays a unique multi colour effect from different angles when tilted under single source of light. A fake hologram and wrapper does not give such a special effect. Phone : 22216177 SUDHA PUBLICATIONS No.1, Annadanappa Lane, Avenue Road Cross, Bangalore - 560 002ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS - I (FOR ISEMESTER) By Dr. K.S. Chandrashekar, M.Sc.,Ph.D. Published by M/s Sudha Publications, No.1, Annadanappa Lane, Avenue Road Cross, Bangalore - 560 002 Edition ; 2010-11 Copy Right: Dr. K.S.C. & Sudha Publications Rights Reserved : This book or part of the book cannot be reproduced in any form including xeroxing. Rs. 340/- 1oll9 Sog Typesetby : ALLKIND Flat No.204, Nandish Park Apts., Muthyal Nagar, Bangalore Printed at; SATHYANANDA PRINTERS: # 12, 4th Cross, Pipeline Road, Cholurpalya, Bangalore - 560 023.PREFACE Lam very happy to present this student friendly text book ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS-I on this auspicious day of Vinayaka Chathurthi. This self explanatory comprehensive book is in accordance with the VTU syllabus wef the year 2010-11. It also caters to the need of autonomous institutions in Karnataka and other technological universities in the country. Student requirement and aspirations are the prime factors kept in mind in the compilation of this book in a lucid way. Two of my conscious senior colleagues in the department Dr. D. Mamta and Ms. G. V. Pankaja have shouldered the responsibility in my effort to make this book error free. Lam highly thankful to them in this regard. Tam very much indebted to Mr. K.V. Balakrishna of M/s. Sudha Publications for the immense confidence in my authorship, continuously publishing my books for the last 14 years accepting all my suggestions. tematic approach by way of computer type setting work racing with the time by . Raghinandan and his team of Mls, Allkind is highly commendable. s 1 thank the printers for the quality offset printing. Lam confident that the esteemed readers will bestow the same kind of response as in the past. I will humbly receive all the comments and valuable suggestions from the community of readers. September 11th 2010 K.S.Chandrashekar Mysore - REWARD VTU students of the current scheme w.e.f 2010-11, scoring 125/125 in all four papers of Engineering Mathematics I to IV Semesters (10 MAT 11, 21, 31, 41) will be rewarded with a cash prize of Rs.7,500/- by the author. Please write to the author directly along with attested xerox copies of marks cards of all the four semesters. Achiever: Mr. Bharath M.V, a student from 2006 batch of E&C branch from PESIT, Bangalore, received cash prize during 2008.SYLLABUS RING MATH Code :10 MAT II IA Marks :25 Hrs/Week :04 Exam Hrs :03 Total Hrs 52 Exam Marks: 100 PART-A Unit-1: Differential Calculus - 1 Determination of n" derivative of standard functions (Illustrative examples). Leibnitz’s theorem (without proof) and problems. Rolle's theorem - Geometrical interpretation. Lagrange’s and Cauchy's mean value theorems. Taylor's and Maclaurin’s-series expansions of functions of one variable (without proof). [6 hours} Unit- 1: Differential Calculus - 2 Indeterminate forms - L’Hospital’s rule (without proof), Polar curves : Angle between polar curves; Pedal equation for polar cuves. Derivative of are length - concept and formulae without proof, Radius of curvature - Cartesian, parametric, polar and pedal forms. 17 hours} Unit-Ilf: Differential Calculus - 3 Partial differentiation : Partial derivatives, total derivative and chain rule. Jacobians - direct evaluation. Taylor’s expansion of a function of two variables-Ilustrative examples. Maxima and Minima for function of two variables, Applications - Errors and Approximations. [6 hours} Unit-IV: Vector Calculus Scalar and vector point functions - Gradient, Divergence, Curl, Laplacian, Solenoidal and Irrotational vectors. Yector Identities : div (9 4), Curl (¢ A’), Curl (grad ), div (Curl A), div(A x B) and Curl (Curl A). ion, unit vectors, scale factors, Expression for Gradient, Jindrical Orthogonal Curvilinear Coordinates - De orthogonality of cylindrical and spherical systems Divergence, Curl, Laplacian in an orthogonal system and also in cartesian, and spherical Systems as particular cases - No problems. (7 hours]PART -B Unit-V: Integral Calculus Differentiation under the integral sign-simple problems with constant limits: Reduction formulae for the integrals of sin" x, cos" x, sin" x cos" x and evaluation of these integrals with standard limits - problems. Tracing of curves in cartesian, parametric and polar forms - Illustrative examples. Applications - Area, Perimeter, Surface area and Volume. Computation of these in respect of the curves - (i) Astroid P3473 = WP (ii) Cycloid x =a(O-sin6), y =a(1-cos8) (iii) Cardioide: r = a(1 + cos 6) [6 hours] Unit-VI; Differential Equations Solution of first order and first degree equations ; Recapitulation of the method of separation of variables with illustrative examples. Homogeneous, Exact, Linear equations and reducible to these forms, Applications : orthogonal trajectories. {7 hours] Unit-VIl: Linear Algebra - 1 Recapitulation of Matrix Theory. Elementary transformations, Reduction of the given matrix to echelon and normal forms, Rank of a matrix, consistency of a system of linear equations and solution. Solution of a system of linear homogeneous equations (trivial and non-trivial solutions). Solution of a system of non- homogeneous equations by Gauss elimination and Gauss-Jordan methods. [6 hours] Unit-VIL Linear transformations. Eigen values and eigen vectors of a square matrix, similarity of matrices, Reduction to diagonal form, Quadratic forms, Reduction of quadratic form into canonical form, Nature of quadratic forms. {7 hours] Linear Algebra -2 Note: In the case of Illustrative Examples, questions are not to be set.CONT! PART-A Unit-l DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS-1....... wese . [1-78] 11 Successive Differen 1 111 Introduction... 6.6... eee 1 12 ones (Higher Order) detivatives oe 1 1.13. n' derivatives of some standard functions . . Lee 2 1.14 Leibnitz theorem for the 1" derivative of a product 9 1.2 Rolle’s theorem and Mean value theorems 1.21 Continuity and Differentiability 1.22 Rolle’s theorem and its geometrical interpretation . 1.23 Lagrange’s mean value theorem»... 0... eo 1.24 Cauchy's mean value theorem 2.20.0... 00000- 1.25 A general mean value theorem or Taylor’s theorem for a function of one variable 41 1.3 Expansion of functions (Taylor's and Maclaurin’s expansions) . . 36 Unit-Il DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS-2 ....... 2.1 Indeterminate Forms 2.11 Introduction... . 2.12 L'Hospital’s rule (Theorem) . 2.2 Polar curves 221 Introduction . . 2.22 Polar coordinates . 2.23 Angle between radius vector and tangent . on : 2.24 Length of the perpendicular from the pole to the tangent . . . 106 2.3. Derivative of are length Btn 2135 2.31 Introduction 135 2.32 Formulae connected with the derivative of arc length 135 24 Radius of curvature ............ . 135 241 Introduction sre - 135 242 Curvature and Radius of Curvature . «136 2.43 sion for the radius of curvature in the case roe a cartesian curve 137 244 1n for the radius of curvature in the case of a parametric curve . . 138 2.45 Expression for the radius of curvature in the case of a polar curve. 151 2.46 Expression for the radius of curvature in the case of a pedal curve ... . . 152 Unit-I1) DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS -3 arene 1163-254] 3.1 Partial Differentiation 3.11 Introduction... .3.13 Total differ 32 Jacobians 321 Introduction . 3.22 = Definition : 33. Taylor's theorem fora function of two variables . 331 Taylor's series of f(x, Y) 0-00 c eee eee : 3 Maxima & Minima fora function of two variables 341 Necessary & suffecient conditions for maxima or minima 35 Errors and Approximations 351 Introduction... 0.0... 6+ ee 352 Absolute, Relative and Percentage errors... « Unit-IV VECTOR CALCULUS 4.1 Vector Differentiation ©... 666 eee ee eee 411 Introduction 4.12 Basic concepts - Vector function of a single variable and the derivative of a vector... . . . 255 4.13. Scalar and Vector point functions : 414 Gradient, Divergence, Curl and Laplacian 415 Solenoidal and Irrotational vector fields . 4.16 VectorIdentities . 1.666602 ee ee eee 42 Orthogonal Curvilinear Coordinates (0.C.C) 421 Definitions oe ee a 4122 Scale factors of the cylindrical and spherical systems 4.23. Orthogonality of the cylindrical system 424 Orthogonality of the spherical s 4.25 ion for the arc length and volume element in O.C.C 4.26 sion for grad y (Ww )inOCC oo... 6. 427 Expression for div 4’ (V-A’) in O.C.C 428 Expression for curl 2 i VxA)inOCc. 429 Expression for Laplacian of y (V7 y)inO.CC ......-..- PART-B UNIT-V INTEGRAL CALCULUS <* ‘ 7 319-370] 5.1 Introduction 319 5.2 Differentiation under the integral sign 319 521 Leibnitz rule for differentiation under the integral sign... 319 5.3 Redu n Formulae (R.F) 531 Reduction formula for integral of sin"x oka ee ERD «333 5.32 Reduction formula for integral of cos" x... . Bes as eos 10855.33 54 5.5 Unit 61 62 63 6.31 6.32 6.33 6.34 6.35 6.36 6.37 64 641 65 6.6 Unit 7A 72 74 75 7.6 7.61 77 aa 772 81 8.2 8.3 84 8.5 8.51 8.52 Reduction formula for integral of sin” x cos" x tos a a 287 Tracing of curves... 0.2... eee . 353 Applications of Integral Calculus . . . 359 VL DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS (D.E) [371-478 Introduction . 371 Preliminaries . 371 Solution of D.E of fi irst fader and first egies . 374 Recapitulation of the method of separation of variables a 374 Homogeneous DE... . + a 377 Equations reducible to the btn pform. - ee ee 391 Exact D.E . 403 Equations reducible to the exact form a 41 LinearD.E 2.1... eee eee ee eee 425 Equations reducible to the linear form... . . . « 437 Orthogonal Trajectories. . 448 Orthogonal trajectories of cartesian and polar family of curves 448 Methods of solving the D.E at a glance 471 -472 Type of Recognition - A retrospect . VIL LINEAR A Introduction Elementary transformations (operations) aodaied Echelon form and normal form of a matrix. . « Rank of a matrix Perri rt Consistency of a system of linear equations . . . Solution of linear homogeneous equations = Solution of a system of non-homogeneous equations Gauss elimination method Gauss - Jordan method ith a matrix... . 485 Introduction seats . 537 Linear Transformations ..........-..++ saat Eigen values and eigen vectors of a square matrix, . = 543 Similarity of matrices and Diagonalisation of matrices . . . . = 555 Quadratic Forms ..........-5 bee . 570 Reduction of quadratic form into canonical form 572 Nature of the quadratic form . . 572SUCCESSIVE DIFFERENTIATION 1 ‘As weall know, the meaning of the word ‘successive’ is one after another or again and again. This topic deals with differentiation of a given function of a single variable again and again. It y = f(x) we know that uy = f"(x) is called as the derivative of y wat x Aswe have the objective of differentiating again and again this shall be called as the first derivative of y wrt x. Symbolically we write it as d ay y= a = Dy = f'(x), where D = 7, The derivative of the first derivative is called as the second derivative of y w.r.tx ie, | }=Peon= iret “(x), where D? £ or So, in general the derivative of the (n-1)"" derivative of y w.r.t x is called as the n derivative of y w.r.t x. Symbolically l= peptyy = {fe D (xy | 1" Thus y, = Dy = f(x) where D" = a epresents then" derivative E y of ¥ Wt x Yy, Vp. ++ are respectively called as the derivatives of order one, two, etc. y = f(x) is equivalent to yy =f!) (x) and this can be regarded as the derivative of order zero.z DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS - 1 Ifan expression represents then" derivative of a function obviously it must give firs derivative, second derivative ... corresponding ton = 1, 2, ....Now the question is, can we find the 1" derivative of any function? The answer is 110. The answer for this question is yes if only we are able to notice a sequential change from one derivative to the other. Suppose we have numbers 1, 4, 9, 16,... and try to guess the ni!" term, itis possible if only we re-write them as 12, 2, 32, 47....sothat the 2” term of the sequence is 1°. Similarly the numbers 1, 2, 6, 24, 120, ... should be put in the form 1!, 2, 31, 4!, 5... so that the i" term of the sequence is _n!. So we should havea sequence or create a sequence (by alternative representation) from one derivative to the succeeding derivative for deriving then!" derivative of a given function which definitely gives first, second, third, ... derivatives of the given function corresponding to. = 1, 2, 3.. ft We shall now proceed to derive the 1" derivatives of some standard functions. dy ax 2 Ax = Gh aad = ae di ‘ A tynty =. Bett Ys = yyw er) = we (We should notice the sequence a= al in yy a? in yy, a in yy... with the term fixed) Thus [y, = D"(e") = de® dix x We know that 7= (i) = a loga mx dmx ni yy =a, 0") = a”™ og a Gy me) = mloga-al dm vy = mloga » Ca") = mloga + mloga-a™ ie, Yy = (mtloga Pa”™ Ye B vy, = (mlogay* a!” and so on. Thus | y, = D" (a)SUCCESSIVE DIFFERENTIATION 3 We know that a= lS 3. y = al = (el0s@ ym = (ym logays ie, y=el* where b = mloga Hence y, = b'e'* [by result (1)] nee Thus | p"¢d"**) = (mloga)" d where 1 is a positive integer and nm > 1 t= = m(axtby a = m(m-1)(axtby"? a? Vy = m(m=1)(m=2) (axe by" a (It may be noticed that the factors of m és being accumulated according to the order of the derioative. Further the ending factor is m = (m—D) in respect of yy, (m—1)_ int respect of Yor (m2) in respect of y, ete. Obviously it must be [m—(-1)] in respect of 1 nm (m1) (m—2)... f= (1) 1 (Caxtby" at Thus | ¥,, Letus write y= (ax+by! y= 1axtby 2a = (1) N(axtby? sa 1)(-2)(axtby3 +a? = (-1P 2 (axtby> a (-1) (2) (-3) (axaby ta? = (-13 3(axtby tad Lyat(axtby Orta Thus |y = p"| — feild _ (axeby"t? axth4 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS - 1 - 1 nN * ax+h Yo =a(-1)(axtby? a =a (-1) W(axtby? a=a(ax+by! @(-1)(-2)(axtby3- a= a@(-1P8(axtby? 3 Similarly y, = a°(-1)3t(ax+by 4 (HE must be noticed that the expression for y, can be written as a! (—1)° 0! (ax+by }, since (~1)° = 1 = 0. With this it is convenient to notice the sequence in RHS corresponding EO Yi, Yor War Vyr s+) Yy =a" (HTY (n= 1) Carboy” (-1)"7 1 (n=1) ta" (ax+b)" Thus | y= D"[log(ax+b)] = y, = cos(axtb)-a [The successive derivatives will be — a sin(ax+b), —a cos(ax+b), atsin(ax+b) «nd soon. Its not possible to crentea sequence in this manner. Hence we need to put y, similar in (7/2 +0)) fo y by using the trigonometric allied angle formula that cos 0 = Thus y, = esin| Fearst | Now yy = acos| Frestt | a 2 1 1 \ or yy = asin 5 + (F+axeb ) vsin( 2 Srarth) Similarly y, = #sin| Thus | y, = D" [sin(ax+b)] = sin(n+ar+b)SUCCESSIVE DIFFERENTIATION 5 y, = —asin (ax+b). But —sinO = cos (7/2 +0) y= ncos[ Frente] Y= ~sin[ Bact) : 2 éog| = x By us| 2«[Fecz)] = #eos|2 Eyax +0] " 2 graxt| Similarly y, = a* cos 2 Thus | y, 2 = D"[eos(ax+b)] = a eon[ nF eareb) yy =e - beos(bx+e)+ac™ sin(bxtc), by applying product rule. I bcos(bx+c)+asin(bx+c)] i, oy, (The number of terms in the suc yy ete. if we proceed as it is. We have to plan fo put yy sintilar to the form of y. This is essive derivatives which is 2 in y, will become A in y,,8in possible by a special substitution) Let us take the substitution @ = rcos 8, b = rsin@ as itis possible to express the newly introduced variables y and 8 in terms of @ and 6 by simple elimination. (cos 2 a4sin20) = 7 Squaring and adding we get «+b? = Dividing we get b/a = tan Hence r = Va2+0? and 0 = tan”! (b/a) We shall use the substitution for the constants @ and b presentin the RELS of y, at only two places so that we can simplify. Thus in Ocos(bx+e)+rcosMsin(bx+c)] y, = re"'sin(0+bx-+e), where we have used the formulaDIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.- sin A cos B+cos A sinB = sin(A+B) (It can be seen that yy has assumed a form similar to that of y.) Differentiating again and simplifying as before we can obtain, Pe sin (2Otbx +e) Similarly y, = Pe™sin(30+bx +e) Thus é*sin(nO+bhxtc), where r= Va? +l and 0 = tan! (ba) Thus | py [e sin(bx+c)] = (Vie + J" sin[n tan! (b/a)+bx+e1 =U. ~bsin(bxte) +a" cos( bx +e), by product rule. ie, yy = &Lacos(bxte)—bsin(bxte)] rsin 8. ycos@,and b = Let us put a ase and tanQ = b. ie, r= Vi and 0 = tan | (b/a) Now, ¥, [7 cos 0 cos (bx +e)-rsinOsin(bxtc)] ie, = ré™cos(O+hx +e) where we have used the formula cos A cos B= sin Asin B = cos(A +B) Differentiating again and simplifying as before, Yo = Pe cos(2Otbx+e), Similarly y, = Pe cos (30+bx +e) Thus y, = Me™ cos(nO+bx4e), and 0 = tan”! (b/a). where r= Va + Thus | p* Le cos(bx+c)] = (Va +)" e™ cos| ntan”(b/a)+bx+e)ie, DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS -1 (21)"71 (n=) 12" (@=2,b=5in! (2x+5)" = log(2x+5) 0 yy, = or y= (x41)? (m=-2,a=1,6=1 in Fy) (x41) Vy = 1-2) (-3) (4). (2-4-1) (ee Y= CHV 2.3. 4... ($1) (et 2), Here 1 = 1 (Observe that —1 isa connmon factor in all the n terms) BR ARK = 1 Gre 1)! (x+y? y= cos(4x43) «. y, = Aeos( Br 4x43) vos (2d, 8 Sli. FA) : ) y=sinox - y, — otsin (SE +6] so (a= 6, b= 0 in Fey (2 P cos3x ... (a= 2,b=3,0=0 in fy) y ¥, = (NTS )" 7 cos [ n tan”! (3/2) +3.x] ys &sinx (a@=1,b=1,c=0 in Fy) Yy = (ND e sin (nt tan” 14x) = (Te sin (22 +x ) y= logy (4x7~1) >> Itis importnt to note that we have to convert the logaritiun to the base e by the property, Thus log, (4x7-1) log, (2e-1) + log, (2x +1) y= a — 10 log, 10 m1" 1)" Mn=1) 12" | 1)" (2x41)" Yn ~ Tog, 10 |SUCCESSIVE DIFFERENTIATION 9 f y = cosh? 3x 3x 2 “) et [orsee42] [eo 4 (-6)" ee] > Thus y, = > yar 5 ae Thus y, = I {at e+ (-2 "2°" | oO : (1+c0s 2x) | Tus y, = [ows cos ( g aE, | oot +2 | 2 uf y = sin 8x - cos Sx 1 |sin (8x +5x) + sin(8x-5x)) = 5 (sin 13x +sin 3x) 1 > yas \ Thus, y,, = i {caay'sin( + 1a) +3 sn (42 + x} 114] 1 th forth jerivative of a product Statement: If u and wv are functions of x then DE (uo) = (ud), = HD, + Me ty Oy y FHC, Hy Py ag tere ty? Working procedure for problem 2 Inproblems, to find the 1" derivative of a given product involving polynomial P given p iB Poly functions like v, 7, (x41)? etc. we have to take them as the first function ‘u’ since D" (it) = u,, will become zero for some 1, with the result the process terminates at some stage 8 In some problems we have to use our discretion for getting the result in some specific form.10 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS - Let ou ros 4" We have Leibnitz theorem, (1), = Oy Hg, Hy By HG My Py ig bee tty? eo J m(n-1)(n=2) Wealso have »,, = D"(4*) = (log 4y"4* and u, = D(a3) = 32% ty = D(3x°) = 6x ; ty = D(6x) = 6, uy = D(6) = 0 Now applying Leibnitz theorem we have, Vy, =X) + (logy #40» 3x7 (log ay" ha¥ ptln=1)(n=2) 6 + 6x» (logay'~2 . # 6 + (log y"-3 Thus y, = (log4y"~3 - 4¥ | x9 (log 4)° + 3x? (log 4)? +3 (n—-1)x(log4)+(2-1)(1-2)} 2. s 6x } A 2 - LteesG) 2241 cPeosee) Panels | + 5D" (x7 cos 6x) Jos 1 py 42 ie, yh, = OD" (2? cosox) where m > 2 Now, let u and wv = cos 6x. Applying, Leibnitz theorem we getSUCCESSIVE DIFFERENTIATION: 1 -1 Wg | x2 (cos 6x), 11 = 2x - (COS6X), 1 + ute “a 2( cos 6x), “AL ) Wehave (cos 6x), = D" (cos 6x) = 6" ‘cos +6] y= 3 {? : Sto +6] +2nx é Neos n-1) 560] +n(n-1)- 8 os{ (n-2)5 +6] 2 oe ‘y {s6tem( T+] +12 nxcos { (1-1) 2+ 6x |+n(-1) cos | (1-2) 5 + 6x 2 2 Thus, ky Let w =a", 0 = log 4x x log 4x Applying Leibnitz theorem we have, uy, = x7 (log 4), #1 + 2x + (log ax , ee 2(1og 4x), Wehave (log 4x), = D" (log 4x) 2d ey (ey yy n= dt isi 7 _ ' n—2 om 1 Now y, = IPT re Oy ayy, (Dnt x a 4 n(n-1 EB =e er ye? Thus y,, = Aen tor ty t2n (e122)! yr? 4n(n-1)(-1)"3 (9-3) tf where n> 2 Since (n=3)! is valid only when 1 > 2, we claim that the above expression for y, isvalid for n > 2DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS 1 y = xe* sin3 x cos 2x ysx2 Bf sindxtsinx] y= 3 [D(x &* sin 5x )+D"(x - sinx) | a) We have to apply Leibnitz theorem separately for the two terms by taking u = x, vze °* sin 5x in the first termand w = x, 0 =e" sinx in the second term. Further we have, Thus 24 = (095 "sin (n tan! (5/2) + 5x) in the first term and 2, = (85 Y" sin (tan! (1/2)+¥) inthe second term =4 [x CBB" sin {arta (572) +5x] 72 a3 $e -(N29 "TE sin (n= 1) tan '(5/2)+ 5x} | 4 [OB ye sin {mtan7* (172) +x} tne OBE sin{ (nan (172) 4x4 | y= &* x sint2x =} [o"(20)-o(2e)] Applying Leibnitz theorem to each of the two terms we get, ie, 1 Uy a[ se jaf ED) og a 1p 2 ag 3x gaint Be 4 I -5[PC3re + - 2. (—BY Te * 3x ue GL t2nxen(n-1) | =(-3 yt"? = [9x7= ou x(n 1) ]SUCCESSIVE DIFFERENTIATION 13 5 y= logx Here neither of the functions is a polynomial and either of them could be the first function. letus take «= and v = logx Applying Leibnitz theorem we have, y, =e D" (log. x) +ne® DB"! (log x) n(a-1 2 D"~? ogx)+-+-+D" Ce) + logx 8 igo ene tel (n=2)! y" 1 y (-1)""'(n-1)! y= wee 4, aD) (-1)" 3-3)! 4o++log x wa j z i | 1 log x 1 1 >> Let y= °B* = log» y and let u = logs, v= 5 We have Leibnitz theorem, (0), = UDF HG yg HME My Dy gto yD Ql) Using these in (1) by taking appropriate values for n we gel,14 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS - 1 on(*e) = logx - \ n(n-1) [ oe S je, = log - esti = Gut logx+(-1y!-4 yvitl L nt Note: Also. Thus 4” | tose] _ (= 0" awl x >> Let y = x" logx itis important to take a note that the given function is involved with n and hence the "derivative y, = D" (2! log x) is to be viewed as follows, yy =D (xlogx); yy = D®( x7 logx); yy = D?(x7 log x) ec, n= 1,23... is tobe correlated both in LHS and RHS. Since we have to prove a result for positive integral values of 1, the method of mathematical induction is well suited Step-1: We shall verify the result when 1 = 1 LILS d 1 = D'(xlogx) = f (xtogx) = x ~ + log, RILS = U(logx +1) = logy +1 LIES = RIES => The resultis true whens = 1 Step-2: We shall assume the result tobe true for n = k, where kis any positive integer.SUCCESSIVE DIFFERENTIATION 15 p(x tog x) tflgett ag ty at a Step-3° We have to prove the result fora = k+1. DEI (s+ tog x) = DAL Dak Mog) | = ice Lichen. 166 | 7 J DEL x] ck 41) DL slog x | Q) Lot us consider the first term D*[ x* ] ie, DECAY Hog De) = bok! DB (ak) = k(k-1) 8-3, D (ak) = k(k-1) (k-2)48 Fete. DE (ak) = k(k-1)(k-2)-3 2a = D¥(x*) Kt Note : Remember D" (x) = nt Using, this result and (1) in the RLS of (2) we have pent = Ale(e1) [Adopt ep) Mog x 4 1} 5 z 1d Jo ipcastee ke, We(beT! loge tt yt i = (eA) loging ee) eae = ptm oe 1,1) ele: logs) = (e413! flogr +149 + tee 8) Comparing (1) and (3) we conclude that the result is true for = k4 1 Hence by the principle of mathematical induction the result is tue for any positive integer 7. Thus D"[ x" logs | = miftogette pts +n Remark : The fraction given in this example is sane as the preotous example. But we have te arrive at the result as directed tn the problenn16 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS - t > ¥,, = DY (x"logx) = D" 1) D(x" log x)} = ome : pent Hoga | =D" "(2 )e apt! (loge) ¥, = (1-1)! +ny,_,. This proves the first part Now Putting the valu for = 1, 2, 3..we get Ol+1 + yy = 1+logx = 1!(logx+1) ( a 8 = W42y, = 142 (1 +logx) ie, YW, = 2logx+3 = 2(logx+3/2) = 21 logxt+1+2 % rs fs 8 3 Yq = 21+ 243(2logx+3) " 1 6logx+11 = 6(logx+11/6) = 3t/logxy+14+442 e 5 273) Thus y, = ui(togeeregeze-et) 2°73 Me >> Observing that the desired resultis related toy, , , being the (1 +1)!" derivative, it will be convenient to first obtain vy and then differentiate 1 times. n eee » Consider y= x"logx +. y, = x" F4nx" Mog = x" hex Mogy Multiplying by x we get, vy, =A" tnx" loge = 2x" ny Now, D"(xy,) = D(a") +nD"(y) Applying Leibnitz theorem to LHS and using D" (4") = 11! we have, XD" (y,) tne 1D" (y,) = aleny, ie, VY yp tay, =altiry,, net > yy MOF yg =SUCCESSIVE DIFFERENTIATION 7 Note : The function involved in Examples - 8, 9, 10 is the same and different technique is ilopted in each problem to get the result as desired. 1 sin x »> y = tanx = cos x cos + = sinx and. differentiating i times we have, D" (cosx-y) = D"(sinx) Applying Leibnitz, theorem onto the L.H.S and making use of the standard formula inRIIS we get, cos sy, tig (= Sin), c08x)*¥, 9 1 Fite, (Sine) “Yeag Nig bens) Yyog tors = sin(nm/2+x) +) Here yy, yy y= are all functions of x24, (2), Yy yO» and y,, (0) is to be understood as the value of y,, when x = 0. In this context, observing the desired result weneed to putx = Oin(1}. sind = 0, cos = 1 Thus (1) now becomes, ¥,(O)="Cyy, 2 (OFC, y, 4 (O)— +++ = sin(nm/2) Standard type of prot snitz 1 Workir lure f 2 Given y as a function of x (explicit or implicit) we need to establish a relation involving ¥,,, 4%. aNd ¥,,0rY,,, 4+ ¥, andy, _, ele 2 Inorder to establish such a relation we have to first establish a relation involving Vos Vppy Or yy, yas the case may be by differentiating and simplifying judiciously. 2 Later we have to differentiate the relation so obtained 1 times and Leibnitz theorem has to be employed in differentiating a product involved in the relation. Observe the following D" (i) = Yygae DT) = Yar, BY? i) = Myr nv sles : Dh On) = y, De (Y) = Yar ete18 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS - 3 “>> yy = acos(logx) +bsin(logx) Differentiate w.r.t x 1 1 yy = —asin (log x)» {+b » cos (logx) «(we avoid quotient rule tofind y, => xy) = -asin (log x) +b cos (log x) fork Differentiating again wrt we have, xypt1 + wy = ~acos (logx) - +—bsin (log) or Pyytky, = ~ [0s (logx) +b sin (log x ] Thus xy, try, ty =0 Now we have to differentiate this result 1 times ie, D" (x7 yy) +D" (xy, )+D" (y) = 0 We have to employ Leibnitz theoreom for the first two terms. Hence we have, MOI=1) yp 2 ae {xe DY(y yen 1s DTT yy bey, xy ie, {27 Ypy gt 2B Yy ge FECA DD yt Yn yt NY | +My =O ie My, FMM EEEY, ~My ALY gg tM ty =O je + D" (yy) tn 2x + DY! (y+ Thus xy, Y. 2 - apt (2nt1)xy, FOP +1) y, = 0 n+SUCCESSIVE DIFFERENTIATION 19 oe tany=x > y=tan! 1 y= 5 or (14x*)y, = 1 14x? Differentiating again w.r-t x we have (14x? )y,+2xy, = 0 Now, differentiating this result r times we have, D"| (1+a*)y, |+20"[ xy, 1= 0 Applying Leibnitz theorem to each of the terms we have, 2 =i = {(14a2)D" (yyy 2x Dy) +2O—D. 9. pt? (yy A Ea 13 MY r2]x "(yj yen 1+ D" (yy) = 0 fe, [OF yyy gt 2a Myr HOP yy | +2{ 29, 1 tHYyf = 0 ie, Ct Dy gg t2OF DI LY, EOP ANDY, =0 Thus (147) y,,.+2(1+1) xy, ,,¢0(nt1)y, = 0 Note : The result of this example is related to the function y = tan” | x thick cart be given tr different versions as follows. if y= tant 15 Je si that (+7 yy, ot 2Ct+ xy, pte (rtd) y,, = 0 ~1(L+tane Put tan. Then y = tanv?| 22 i neny = tan 1=tan® ie, y= tan tan (w/440) = (1/4) +0 or y=(W/A)t tan x This gives y, = 0+ ton (ite )y, =1 14a ‘Then the result follows as in Problem - 13 a4 an] 2 ; fen show fat x (i) fo y= (P+) j9¢20rH Try, tN (MET) Y, = 020 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS - 1 aif atx a-x >> y= tan atan0 _ af aC +tand) ye san ae = 1 tan”! tan(m/440) = (n/4) +0 Thus (1/4) +0 where x/a = tan0 or 0 = tan! (x/a) Now or (P37) yy =a. Differentiating w.r.t x we get, (4x7 yy t2xy, = 0 a This part of the result is similar to the result in the first part of Problem - 13. as we have a? instead of 1. Proceeding on the same lines in applying, Leibnitz theorem to both the terms of (1) we can can obtain, « >> Bydata, cos”! (y/b) = wlog(x/n) -» log (a) = mloga (P47 )y, t2(nF1 xy, ytn(nt yy, = 0 = f= cos{ tlog(x/n)] or y= b- cos[ mlog(x/)] .() Differentiating wr.t x we get, 1 (a/n} = ~bsin[ log (a/n) | ” x yor —nb nlog (2/1) Differentiating w.r.t x again we get, 11 ryt yy = an + boos] mlog(x/ny | > Bydata y = ~-—=> V1+x fae yf =sint hi , for ; abentiatl or VP y = sin! x (we alwirys avoid denominator for convenient differentiation) Now, differentiating w.r.tx we get, Yat i ONT ex Differentiating, w.r.t x again we get, Aosrryntrry lay +1-yb=0 ie, (L4x?) yt 3xyty=0 or (147 )ytxy = Differentiating each term 1 times we have p'{ (14 yy, |F80" Dan perso L ~ L Applying Leibnitz theorem to the product terms we get ee 2 5 ndn-1) PLE), ot 2 Uag rt py 2 Wn fP SL EYner tH TT +y, = 0 ic, G42 )y .,t20xy,, try, -ny, t3xy,,,+3ny, +Y,=0 z m2 wal on on att nb Vy fe, (1437 74, 2 FCM BI Gt GP +2n41)y, = 0 Thus CLAN) yg HCZNF BIN EOE TY =022 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS - 1 we >> Bydata y = sinlog(x7+2x+1) 1 y= coslog(x°+2x+1) +5 + 2x42 P+Qed1 iv., vy = coslog (22 42x41)» —L5 a¢x41) (x41 2cos log (x2 4+2x+1) . g = (FH or (x41) y, = 2coslog (x7 +2x+41) Differentiating w.r.t x again we get (WHL) tly, = ~2sin log rah po2reD s or (x41 P yt (rei )y, =-4y or (x41 Py +(x tl) y, ay = 0 Differentiating each term 1 times we have, m*| (r+ Py, |e DY[Crt1)y, ]+4D" Ly] = 0 Applying Leibnitz theorem to the product terms we have, fo +P uy pot 20x41) yy, a 2 mn} +4 (241) Heyy th -1-y,l+4y, =0 ie, CFP tHCY, FY, RY, FOL), tay, +4y, = 0 Thus (x+1 f +(2n41) (x41) y, +0 +4) y, = 0 Yaa v y= (e-1)" Taking logarithms on both sides, ... (for convenience) logy = nlog (27-1)SUCCESSIVE DIFFERENTIATION 23 Differentiating w.r.f x we get 2x or = (*-1)y, =2nxy ead Differentiating again w.r.t x we get, (2-1) yy t2xy, = 2nQry,ty) Now differentiating each term i times we have, DM) (x7 L Applying Leibnitz theorem to the product terms we have, J n{a-1) , | 1) yy +20" [xy] = 20D" [xy ]+20d"Ly] CP =1)y, gt 2 wat | 12007 Unf +2{xy,,q¢n- Ley, b= 2nley, tnd Yq | #20, fen (1) FANNY EI FTV gp 1 $2 =20xy,,, +20 y, +20, ty (37-1) yp gt 28M gp Uy Py = 9 ie, (CP =D) HAN DD or (=x )y, hy 42 -2xy, ,,te(rtl)y, = 0 Note : Alternative version of the problem : 1, i y = (22-1)! show that y,, = A © satisfies the equaation ax BY 9 Ws nitndy=0 Gee ye ae >> We need to show that, 2, & d a=" 75 (4, 9-2 Gy Cy tm (nt Dy, = 0 ‘That is to show that, (1 ~ yf xy, +n (nt1)y, = 0 and this is equivalent to 0 (1-2 2-2 g te DY, This is the same result established in Problem - 17.24 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS - 1 ea >> ie., or Viewty, =1 Differentiating w.r.t x again we get Vier y= Qx-y or (1427 )y,txy, =0 dot eo 2 = c gtx y, = ave x on Now, o"| 4x2) y Peps] Zi Applying Leibnitz theorem to each term we get, 2 n(n-1) l [Oy ota 2s i PY 2 tn} | Varta dey, |=0 ‘ 2 2 By & ‘ = fe LED yg AAR KY HIP, — MY ALY, «1 HHY, = 0 Thus (1437) 9, ot ntl) xy, tH? y, = Note : Alternative version of the problem. The result of this problem also holds good if 1 y since log (x+V1+27) = sini} x y = sini MW 1 >> By data, y = e"s '* t preos "x n= YammySUCCESSIVE DIFFERENTIATION (1-2) y-xy- my =0 Now DY a=) FO" ed =0 Applying Leibnitz theorem to the product terms we have, {a-2ypy2t" (23) + oy gS ( 294} -{x “Ypyy tnd “ty fom Wy = fe (V=22) yp pp 2X Ip g HY Ey 2g IY Ey =O Thus (1-37) y,,.- (2m +1) xy, 4 - CP +m) y,, = 0 hn = sin timed y = cos t, prove that (1-2) gp (2n tL) xy, FOI IP )y,, = 0 >> Bydata x =sinf and y = cos mt x =sint = ¢ =sin”!xandy = cos mt becomes y = cos(msin™! x). Differentiating, w.r.t x we get or Vi-vy —msin(msin” !x) yy = -sin(msin !x) - Differentiating again w.r.tx we get, a : Vv Pt poe 2H = —mcos (msin or = (1=a2)yy-xyy=-mPy ot (1-%*)yy—xyy ty = 0 Note : This result is almost same as that of the previous example and proceeding on the same lines we can arrive at the destred result. Thus (1-37) y,,9-(2m+1) xy, 444(0 - 17 )y,, = 0. fp yl sy" = 2x, show that (2-1) y, 9+ (2n41) xy, pt OPP )y, = 0 >> Bydata, y/™4y = 2x 1/m mi or (yl P41 = 2x (y ie, oy ‘ an myDIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS - 1 Vn Am ie, (yl PF —2.x (y'") 41 = 0 which is a quadratic equation in y Ift = y' the equation assumes the form : P-2xt+1=0 We shall solve for f using the quadratic formula. _ ~(-2x) + W-22)- 1 t mg ee pe ote 1 ~ 2 tty ax VEST 3 yzleeap We now proceed to obtain a relation in y, yy, Yy yM" axa Ve-1 ‘Taking logarithms on both sides we get, logy = mlog[ x + Vi=1 | Differentiating w.r.t x we get, 1 1 1 = yy, =m: SS 1 1 + yt aaa 2 V1 [Wi7-1 + x] 1 ie., ~y=m = y [et Vit] VeF=1 Also if, y = [x-Vie=1 J" we obtain 1 =m_ yh Sees: W=1 Squaring and cross multiplying we get (2-1) 8 = wf Differentiating w.r.t x again we get, (27-1) 2, yt 2xy) = mP(2yy,) + i Thus or (27-1) yy +x — 9? y = 0, on dividing by 2y, . Now differentiating each term 1 times we have,27 SUCCESSIVE DIFFERENTIATION a pb" (PA) y [FD Lxy, 1m? DL] =0 Applying Leibnitz theorem to the product terms we get, {2D mat" + 2x Ye ED : 244} +{2 + Yparte sd ty Yn =0 fe PHT) Hy go FLAKY, gy EME IMy FEY GY Py = Thus (7-1) y, 49 ¢(241) 24,4, + CP — mF )y, = 0 we a(xt var (2-1) ty gg 24D) 2g yy >> Bydata, y = a(xt¥x=1 yt4b(x-Ve-1)" saen(xeVe?=1 "1 [use 2 b ay [1-1 — .2 +b. n(x-VP=1) { yer 2 an(x+Nxe—1 y"? om +bn(x-Ve—1 "7 aE 1 WP-1-x) i, he o = Ve=1y, =an(x+Ve-1)'-bn(x-Ve-1)" Differentiating again w.r.t x and simplifying as before we get, 1 P= + yt} —a— «2 Y, a2 21 24 71 an? (x4 Ve—1 J+ br? (x Ve 1" - Pi or (2 -1)y try ey Now, D"[(2-1)y, 14D" Ley] = Hy, Applying Leibnitz theorem to each term in the LHS we get, n(n-1 C21) pat 2 Ma eS > ayy} +2 att Tyg fom yy, = 028 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS - 1 ier PTY Hy gp ZA, ANY MARY 91 FY Vy = Thus (x7-1)y,,,+(241)xy,,, = 0 C=) 4,57 2n+1)xy, 457 yy = [0 when nis ¢ y, (0) = > > a [(n-2)° (n-4y > >> Bydatay = sin’! x 1 Y= or BY Differentiating w.r-t x we get | “Wt pee Bay 0 or Ca yyoay = 0 Differentiating 1 times by applying Leibnitz theorem we get, n(n-1 {0-2 ayaa (22) -Yyaat tte 2 -2r49}fe mart 1-y,| = 0 or (1-37) yy pg 2M MY EM Uy g 1, = 0 Thus (1-x")y,,.-(2n41) xy, ,,-my, = 0 Now putting x = Owe get y,,,9(0) = n?y, (0) @ In = 0:y,(0) = yy (0) = If n= 2:y,(0) = 2?y, (0) = Oetc. Thus ¥, (0) = O44 (0) = 0,%6(0) = 0 => y,(0) = 0 when » is even. Also y, = === and y,(0)=1 eo y= a 2 4 ioe 1 If n= 1in(1):y,(0) = 1?y, (0) If n= 3in(1):y5(0) = Fy, (0)SUCCESSIVE DIFFERENTIATION 29 if n = 5 in(1):y(0) = 5y,(0) Yy_2(0) = (HAP Hyg (0) y,(0) = (n= 2) yy 9 (0) Thus by back substitiution we get when n is odd, y, (0) = (1-2)? (n=4) +5? - 3? - 1? since y, (0) = 1 tan (logy ), find the value of (14x? yy, 4 +(2nx-1)y, tn (na) y, tan”! x >> Bydatax = tan(logy)=> tan”'x = logy or y =e Since the desired relation involves y,, , ¥, and y,,_ we can find y, and differentiate ntimes the result associated with y, and y. a a Consider ye * y= emt Ee or (it )y=y Differentiating times we have D"((1+7)y,] = D"Lyl Applying Leibnitz theorem onto LHS, we have, {242 DY (yen 2x DEG y) Ae 1). ie, (147) yg +20 XY, +O 1) Ig Ip = O Thus (1+x7)y,,,+(20x-1)y, tH (1-1) y,_ 4 = 0 2 osx, show that Uy, ¢QOV-4MY, (OVFZH(AN=1)¥y4-2(0) = 0 2 >> Bydata y =e? cosx a 2 yy = 2 (-sinx)+xe" ? cosx 2 ie, yy ee sine txy .-Q)30 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS - 1 Differentiating again, 2 2, =-|Peosxtxe @sinx [+f xy, ty % yty 2 fe, yp = —y-xe’ @sinxtxy, +y ie, yy = x(y,-xY) +xy, by using (1) or h-2xytry =0 (2) We have to now differentiate this relation 2 n times and in respect of second and third terms we have to employ Leibnitz theorem in the form, (10 Joy. = Hay #2Me My Bey. #2, Ma Boy Ho Fay? From (2) we have D*" (y,)-2D™" (xy, )+D™ (x7 y) = 0 Yon yg 2{xD™"(y, 420-1 Nyy} +{2D"(y)+2n- 2x - Dem (yy Rn) 2 precy} 2. fe Yong 2-28 Yom 41 ~ 4 Yay t2 Yay $48 Ya $2M(2N-1) Yo yg = 0 Now putting x = 0 throughout we get, Yo 42 (0-4 Yy, (0) +22 (2M-1) yy, (0) = 0 prove that x? y =n (+1) y & differentiate this result n_ times y >> Bydata,y = ax"*!+bx"" yy = a(t 1a" +b(-nyon! Yo = a(n41) nx" 4b(-m)(=n-1) xP? =n-2 "Va bn(n41)x or Yo = a(n41) nx Now Py =n(ntt)fax™ ee] ie., yy =n(ntlyy Differentiating this result 1 times we have DM (x? yy)—n(n+1)D"(y) = 0‘SUCCESSIVE DIFFERENTIATION 3 ( 1 ie, {yy got 22° Tyar t ened) ih a Py fe, yp IMA, gp THY MY Vy MYy, = 0 Thus 27 y,49+2"X Gy 44-20 Yy = 0 mt (mn)! Interpret the result for the cases m < nand nt = a. Hence show that 27. If y= (axtb)" show that if m >a y, = a (axtby D7 (x2 41)"] = 20! >> Bydata y = (ax+b)” where m>n Differentiating successively we obtain, y, = m(m-1)(m-2) [m-(n-1)]a"(ax+by"" ... (Result Fy) Multiplying and dividing by the term ( m ~n )! which is given by (m=n) (m=n=-1) (m=n=2)03 2-1 [- m > n= (m-n) > 0 and if (m—n) = k,a positive integer then Kea k(k-1) (k-2)--3-2-1] Thus y, = {m(m-1) (m-2)- m-(n-1)) = sana yore -1} Loman) Cm=n=1)3 2-1 a Cae y (m Combining all the terms in the numerator, the same represents the product of first m natural numbers which is m! a’ (ax+by"" .() Thus if m>n y, = Gann Nextif mt =n po" (ax+b)" | a (ax+b) y,, = nla" = constant, when m = 1 Thus if m =n, D"[ (ax+by" |= ata Also if m 0 Thus ifm > Bydataxty=1, «. y=1-x Letus take u = x" andv = y' = (1-x)" We shall find yy thyy** My gy My oy My ANG Dy, Vay + Vy oy Oy_yy 2, With the aim. to apply Leibnitz theorem for the product it». Consider « = x" and its successive derivatives are as follows. n-1 ytn? enx") 5 uy = n(n-1) etc uy =n(n-1)(n-2)03x7 = uy = (NA 1)(m=2)-3 2x =x u, = n(n-1)(m-2)-3 2-1 =H! Now consider v = y" where y = 1-x.SUCCESSIVE DIFFERENTIATION 33 vany y= vy =n(n-1)y"?(- 1) ete 9 = eR (HTY By = ty“ 12, a = WEC= 1)" We have Leibnitz theorem, D" (uv) = ua, Fe, My Pyg te, Ma M2 SMe Myatt Mya ty® D"(x"y") = x" - a1 bite, ax). aty(-1)"? 1 te (m1)? EP (m1 nif, n(n-1)y"2(-1) +196 We know that 7 = tiery CECE D"(x" { =a (-ayttty ly ' 1 2-1 yt 2x yey Mey! } Reversing the order of the terms in R.H.S we have p" (xy!) = mila Ce, Pay (ig Peg +0, (Ng evey? + (tg easy Hae FEU yet) Remark : The problent can also be worked by the method of mathematical induction. er >> , show that y,,.,+2Xy,, +20 y,,_ yee y= (-2x) or y, =-2y Wehave, y, +2xy = 034 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS Differentiating this result n times we have, D" Ly, 1+2D" [ay] = 0 ie yar 2 {xy ytd Yount] 0 Thus 941429, +20y,_.=0 PO 8 “o> y = sinh (msinh ! x) y= cosh(msini x) or Ni+2° y= meosh(msinim!x) Differentiating w.r.t x again we get, 7 1 : ee Mise yy ta eB y, SAN Ci x) 2 avie ‘ 4x or (148?) yy tay, = Py Differentiating each term n times we have, D'td +) HIE D"Lxy, J-n? D"(y) = 0 Applying Leibnitz theorem to the product terms we get, n(n-1) (1427 )y, ,9+ me2x-y 4 4 Oe as, epics nly, |-mPy, =0 n+ Te Thus =P), 9+ 41) xy, AOR n? yy, = 0 is the required relation. ISE Find y, for the following functions. (1 and 2] VE cosx 1. y = xcos 3x cos 5x 2 y 3. If y= 276%, prove that Y_ = OP +2nxsir-nyet 4. If y = xlog li e a show that D"ySUCCESSIVE DIFFERENTIATION 35 5. Ify = (sin’ ! x)? prove that(1-37)y,—xy, = 2 and then apply Leibnitz theorem to differentiate the result n times. 6. Ify = sin(nsin’' x) prove that (a) (1-x")y)—xy, +m? (b) (1-x")y, Vy pg (2M41) XY, HOP My, = 0 7. Ay = coslog (x7 2.x +1), prove that (2-12 Y, pt AMEDD) yg HOP HAD, = 0 8 Ity=|x+Vt 2? |" show that, Cer yy, ot (2nd try, te 9. ity = [log (x4 Ve +0? oT. prove that (14x) y, 9+ (241 )xy, 1 tm yy, = O- Hence deduce that: =0 (ay = {Oe when, i even y = . ‘ (-1)"- 17.22.37... n?, when i is odd 10. Ify = acosh (log x”) +b sinh (log x"") show that Py, pg t(2Nt1) TY, FOP dy, = 0 (ai Bteos| SE + ar aw |+n ; Som { (m1) $8] | eax) 2"eos(en-1) 425) | Peos| (-2) p48 5 (1-37) yy pp (2M FL) NY, HIP Y, = 936 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS - 1 1.2| Rolle’s theorem and mean value theorems 1.21] Contin and Differentiability A function f(x) is said to be continuous ata point x = a if lim f(x) = f(a) where f(a) means, the value of f(x) at x =@ and it should not be infinite, indeterminate, imaginary. £Gx) = fla) -a A function f(x) is said to be differentiable at a point x = a if lim exists roa and is unique. A function f(x) is said to be continuous or differentiable in an interval if it is continuous or differentiable at each point of the interval. In simple words, we can say that f (+) is continuous in an interval if the graph of f(x) do not have any breaks in that interval. Differentiability accounts for the smoothness of the curve. Notes and Notations 1. Ifa function is differentiable then it is necessarily continuous but not conversely. That is, differentiability implies continuity. 2. If f(x) and g(x) are two continuous functions then k f(x), kg (x) [where k isa constant |. f(x) + @(X)f(2)-8 (x), F(x) / R(x) where (x40 forall xare all continuous functions. 3. Contmon functions like constant, any polynomial, sin x, cos.x, e*, sin x, cos hx etc, are continuous at all points. Also we can say that, log x is not continuous at x = 0, 1/(x-1) is not continuous at x = 1, tanx isnotcontinuousat x = n/2 etc. 1. [a, b] : Closed interval a, b: It includes ali the points between a & b including a & b. 2. (a, b) : Open interval a, b : It includes all the points between a & b excluding a & b, ie, x e[a,b] => aSxSb;xe (a,b) > acx(b) holds good if f(a)-k-a =f(b)-k-b or k(b-a) = f(b)-f(a) _ fb) -f(a) ec k b-a Hence if k is chosen as given by (2), then @ (x) satisfy all the conditions of Rolle’s theorem. Therefore by Rolle’s theorem there exists atleast one point ¢ in (a,b) such that ’(c) = 0 Differentiating (1) w.r.t.vwe have, (x) = f"(x)-k and 9’(c) = 0 yields f’(c)-k =0 ie, k= f'(c) -6) Equating the R.HLS of (2) and (3) we have 4) ‘This proves Lagrange’s mean value theorem. 1. The theorem can also be put in the following forms f(D)-Fla) = (b-a)fi(c) or f(b) =Fla)+(b-a)f'(e) ...6) 2. Further ifthe length of the intereal a, b] ish we have ba = h or b= ath, Alsoifweset 6 =F" = "=" wwe observe that 0 ties 0<6< 1. Now c=at+0h and b=ath. 3) becomes: between Oand 1. That is The theorem in tte form flath) = f(a)+hf’ (at+0h) (6) Let P = |a, f(a), Q = |b, f(b)| be any two points on the curve representing y =f (x).ROLLE'S THEOREM AND MEAN VALUE THEOREMS 39 _ fb)=fa) slope of PQ Ea a ‘As per the conditions of the theorem, the curve f(x) has no breaks in the interval including the end points and possesses tangents at all points within the interval Geometrically the theorem means that there exists atleast one point on the curve at which the tangent is parallel to the line joining the end points. In the above figure there are two points L and M at which the tangents are parallel to the line PQ Proof: Let us define a new function (x) = f(x)-kg(x) a) where kis a constant to be chosen suitably later. From the given conditions itis evident that (+) is also continuous in [4, b J, differentiable in (a, b) Further from (1) we have, g(a) = f(a) (a) 5 O(b) = f(b)-kg(b) (a) = 6(b) holds good if F(a)—kg (a) = f(b)-kg (hb) i, KI g(b)~g(a)) = f(b) - fla) x= fOb) =f) g(b)-g(a) Here ¢(b)#g (a). Because if g(b) = g(a) then g(x) would satisfy all the conditions of Rolle’s theorem and accordingly there must exist atleast one point ¢ in40 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS - 1 (a, ) such that ¢’(¢) = 0. This contradicts the data that g’(x) # 0 forall x in (ab) Hence if k is chosen as given by (2) then (x) satisfy all the conditions of Rolle’s theorem. Therefore by Rolle’s theorem there exists atleast one value cin (a, b) such that 6/(c) = 0 Differentiating (1) w.r.t. x we have, o/(x) = f(x) -kg'(x) and $/(c) = 0 yields Fi(c)-kg(c)=0 te f'(c)=kg’(c) _ Fides gi(e) Equating the R.H.S of (2) and (3) we have f(b)-fla) _ fC) &(b)- g(a) g'(e This proves Cauchy’s mean value theorem 1. We can deduce Lagrange’s mean value theorem from Cauclty’s mean value theorem Taking g(x) = x wehave g(a) =a, g(b) =b Alo g'(x) =1=>g"(c)=1 Hence ier mean value theorem becomes, (b)-f(a) wah 2, £0 Te yb This is Lagrange’s mean value theorem. "= 66) 2. We can also deduce Cauchy's mean value theorem from Lagrange’s theorem Let us take the format of Lagrange’s mean value theorem for f(x) and g(x) in the form by-f Epa fO guts fg b)-¢ ond RON aAOY «505 2) Dividing (1) by (2) we have, fby-f(ay _ FC) g(b)- g(a) g’(ey) This is Cauchy's mean value theorem provided =o =e where a We ensure the continuity of the given function / functions in the interval flr) = FCB) also has to be ensured for Rolle’s theorem > The derivative of the given function / functions must be found and we ensure differentiatiability in the interval. D We need to identify the value / values of ¢ belonging to the open interval satisfying the relevant theorem42 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS - 1 WORKED PROBLEMS >> f(x) =x is continuous in [-1, 1] & f’(x) = 2x exist for all values in (-1,1) f(-1)=(-1) =1and f(1y=P el f(-1)= fC) Hence all the three conditions of the theorem are satisfied Now consider f’(¢) = 0 thatis 2c = 0 or ¢ =0 ¢ = 0 (-1, 1) and hence Rolle’s theorem is verified Geometrically f(x) 2» isa parabola symmetrical about the y-axis passing through the origin and that the x-axis itself is the tangent to the curve at_x = ¢ = 0 Rolle’s theorem for the following 32.0 f(x) = 2 (1-2x427) = x?-2r + x4 f(x) is continuous in [0, 1] f(x) = 2x- 6x7 +429 Also f(0) =0=f(1) Hence all the conditions of the theorem are satisfied. sin (0, 1) Now consider f”(¢) = 0 ie, 2e- Ge? 4c? = 0 or 2c(1-3c +2e7) = 0 ie, 2e(20-1) (c-1) = 0 => 2 =0,2-1=0,c-1=0 e=0 c=1 c=l c= 1/2e (0, 1). Thus Rolle’s theorem is verified 33. f(x) = (2 42x) °° iscontinuous in [-2, 0] fix) = (02 42x)? (-1/2) 4 (2x42) °FROLLE'S THEOREM AND MEAN VALUE THEOREMS 43 ie, f°) 2 _ oy+4x +4) /2 f'(x)= (-7 42x44) 2 f’(x) exists in (-2, 0) Also f(-2) = 0 = (0) Hence all the conditions of the theorem are satisfied. Now consider f’(c) = 0 ~c/2 P4244) =0 From (1) we have 2 Since e'’* cannot be zero, we must have =O +244 =0 or 2 2+V4+16 a+ ee c=1-V5 = -1236 € (-2, 0). Thus Rolle’s theorem is verified. 34. f(x) = (x- a)” (x=b)T iscontinuous in [a,b] f(x) = (xa)? q(x—byt ep (xa! (x— by = (x-ayP! (x— byl! fg (x-a)tp(x—b)] f(x) = (x-ayPo! (xb! L(g tp) x—(qatpb)} a) f(x) existsin (a, b) Also f(a) =0 = f(b) ence all the conditions of the theorem are satisfied Now Consider f’(c) = 0 From (1), (e=a)P~! (e=by)1~ ! L(qgtp)e—(qatpb)] = 0 => c-a=0, c~b=0, (qtp)c—(qatph) =0 2% one p+q a, b are the end points. ¢ = ph-+qa/p+q is the x-coordinate of the point which divides the line joining [a, f(a) ], [b, f(b)] internally in the ratio p:q ity c=a,¢ © = pb+qu/p+q © (a,b). Thus Rolle’s theorem is verified.44 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS - 1 35. f(x) = & (sinx-cosx) iscontinuousin [1/4, 52/4] f' (x) = & (cosxtsiny)+e* (sinx—cos x) f(x) = 2e* sinx . A) f(x) isdifferentiable in (n/4, 50/4) f(m/4) = e™4 (sin n/4 - cosn/4) = 4 (1/ 0 f(sm/4) = &™*( sin5n/4 — cos 5/4) = &™4 (IND +12) = 0 f(m/4) = 0 = f(5m/4) Hence all the conditions of the theorem are satisfied. Now consider f’(¢) = 0 From (1) we have, 2e°sinc = 0. But & 40 sinc =0—>c¢=nm where n=0,1,2,... But ¢ = me (n/4, 52/4). Thus Rolle’s theorem is verified. Es : 36. is continuous in [ 0, 7/2] PX .2cos 2v—sin 2-20 _ (Cabs 2 2.(cos 2x - sin 2x) in fx) = = ) f(x) exists in (0, 1/2) Also f(0)=0=f(7/2) ~~ sind =0=sinz Hence all the conditions of the theorem are satisfied. Now consider f’(¢) = 0 We have from (1) 2(cos2e~sin2e) _ 4 = cos 2¢-sin fe, cos2¢ = sin2c or tan2c = 1 = 2c = n/4 n/8 € (0, 7/2). Thus Rolle’s theorem is verified.ROLLE’S THEOREM AND MEAN VALUE THEOREMS 45 >> The given f(x) iscontinuousin [a, 6] since O @-ab=0 ie, Vib (A tabje Remark : Consider the fiction f(x) =x in[-1, 1]. f(x) ts continuous in [-1. 1] f(x) = 3x? exists in (-1, 1), f(-1)#f(1). But fi(c) = 0 32 = 0 or ¢ = OE (=1, 1) Though ane of the conditions of the theorem is not satisfied have a value ¢ = 0€ (-1, 1) such that f/(c) = 0. Such situations are interpreted as follows When all the conditions of the theorent are satisfied definitely we will have atleast one value ic’ within the interval such that f’ Ce) = 046 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS - 38. We have Lagrange’s mean value theorem f(b)=fla) _ b-a fcc) 2 Here f(x) = logx ja = 1,6 f(x) iscontinuousin [1,¢] Also f’(x) = 1/x f(x) isdifferentiable in (1, ¢) Hence the theorem becomes =} ig, lopentogt 1 é =1 c But log 1 = 0, loge = 1 and hence we have or c= e-1=27-1=17€ (1, e). Thus the theorem is verified. 39, We have Lagrange’s mean value theorem FW)=FU) _ pay b-a The given f(x) is continuous in [(, 4] f(x) = (x-1)(x-2)(x - 3); 2 = 0, b = 4 by data f(b) =f(4)=3.2.1=6 and fla) = fio) 2e = sin’ | (2/n) c= (1/2)-sin'! (2/m)=0-345 ; But 1/2 = 1-57 Here ¢ = 0+345€ (0, 1-57). Thus the theorem is verified.48 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS 1 42. We have the theorem Aa fe) = file) -a F(x) = tan ly is continuous in [0, 1] f(x) = 1/14% existsin (0, 1) f(b) = f(1) = tan”1(1) = 2/4 ; f(a) = f(0) = tam 10 =0 the theorem becomes m4-0 1 1 T¥e or n(1+c 2 je, me c= V4- ayn ¢ =0-523 € (0,1). Thus the theorem is verified. =4-n or = (4-n)n 43. Find 0 of Lagrange’s mean value theorem for the function f(x) = e* in ( >> We have the theorem in the form f(b) = f(a)+(b =a) f' (at+0h) Q) f(x) =e is continuous in [0,1] f(x exists in (0, 1) Here @=0, b=1 -. f/(at0hy =f'(Oh) = e™ f(b) =flyse =e; f(a) =f(0) = =1 Hence (1) becomes, e=14(1-0)e%" ie, = eft But ok =b-a=1 2» ¢? =e-1 = 0 = log{e-1) ie, @ = log(e-1)=log, (27-1) = log, (1.7) =0.53<1 Verify Cauchy’s mean value theorem for the following functions 4, WD and Ve [0 16]ROLLE'S THEOREM AND MEAN VALUE THEOREMS 49 44. We have Cauchy's mean value theorem f(b)-f fle) — ~ = Ti =0, b=16 s(b)—g(a) gc) Let f(x) =Vx+9 g(x) = Ve ; 1 a POV=7EyF FMA a f(x) and g(x) arecontinuousin [0, 16], differentiable in (0, 16), g(x) 40 V xe (0, 16) Hence the theorem becomes fCI6)-F(0) _ 2Ne+o §(16)-g(0) 1/2ve ‘The value c = 3 € (0, 16). Thus the theorem is verified. 45. We have Cauchy’s mean value theorem f(b)-fla) ) - gm = P=g lal ete) where a = 3, b = 7 by data. f(x) =e gives f(x) =e 5 (x) =e F(x), g(x) are continuous in [3, 7], differentiable in (3, 7) g(x) #0 V xe (3,7) x gives g(x) Hence the theorem becomes FZ)=F(3) _ 3(7)-8) ie, ie, =e pce) oe! Pe 0 or x (ce c= 56 (3,7). Thus the theorem is verified.50 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS - 1 46. f(x) = logx. Let g(x) = f’(x) = Ux f'(x) = 1/x 3 g(x) = -1/2 Also a = f(x) and g(x) are continuous in [1, ¢], differentiable in (1, e) g’(x)40) VY xe(Le) We have Cauchy’s mean value theorem Leby=fla) _ g(b)~ g(a) g’(e) fle)-f(1) _ We ie AS ee s(e)-gQ) -142 | loge slog _ ‘ ie, = 1-6€(1,e) since e = 2.7. Thus Cauchy’s mean value theorem is verified. >> We have Cauchy’s mean value theorem, f(b)-fla) _ fe) B(b)- g(a) gi(c) Let f(x) =sinx ; g(x) = cosx f(x) = osx; g’(x) =-sinx f(x) and g(x) arecontinuous in [a, b differentiable in (a, b) -g/(x)#0 V xe (a,b) since Oc-a = b-c or 2 =atb ¢ = (a+b)/2 isthe arithmetic mean of a and b. ¢ € (a, b) Note : In order to find c we can also use the transformation forntulae. The sintplification is as followsROLLE’S THEOREM AND MEAN VALUE THEOREMS 51 2sin( °5* Joos From (1) - cote = — ~2sin( Pan Thus ¢ = (b+a)/2 >> We have Cauchy's mean value theorem, f(b)-fla)_ _ file) g(b)= g(a) aCe) lnlliasay Let f(x)= 1? j g(x) = 1x f(x) =-2748, g(x) =r F(x) and g(x) are continuous in [4, b], differentiable in (a, b) and g’(x)#0 V xe (a, 6). Hence the theorem becomes, Pie a—b/ab VP Wi? fy (x 2>0, we take F(x) = F(X) fy (2) ¢ COX) = fy) fy (2) and apply Lagrange’s mean value theorem for FE (x) and also for G(x) in the interval [ 0, x]52 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS - >> Case-(i) Let f(x) = x-log(1+x) f(xyet- eo Tex = Tay / since x>0, f'(x)>0 f(x) iscontinuous in [0, x | differentiable in (0, x) Applying Lagrange’s mean value theorem for this f(x) we have f(x) = f(O)+(x- O)f’(c) But f(0) = 0 f(x) =xf'(c). Also f’(c)>0 since ce (0, x) Hence f(x)>0. That is x-log(1+2x)>0 x>log(1+x) - (1) Case(ii) Let f(x) = log(1+x)-x+(97/2) Kae 1 d-t-xtx¢? 7 POD Tag = Te 14x “44+ Clearly f*(x)>0. Again applying the theorem in [0, x] we have f(x) =f(0)+xf’(c) But f(0) =0 Also f/(x)>0 => f%(e) > 0 since c€ (0, x) Hence wehave again f(x)>0 ie, log (1+x)-x4(x7/2)>0 log (1+x) > x-(x7/2) 2) ‘Thus by combining (1) and (2) we have x>log(1+x)>x-(27/2) >> We shall establish the equivalent form of the desired result, x > log(14x) > — ¥ > log(1+x) > 5 x > log(1+x) issameas Case-(i) of the previous problem. Now, let f(x) = log (14x) 73> +x gs az resi= a Oe 1ROLLE'S THEOREM AND MEAN VALUE THEOREMS 53 x (tay z Clearly f'(x)>0 since x>0. Also f(x) is continuous in [0, x] and differentiable in (0, x) Applying Lagrange’s mean value theorem for this f(x) in [0, x] we have, (4) =f(0)+ (4-0) fF" (c) But f(0) = 0 P= ey f’(x)>0 => f’(e) > 0 and hence f(x)>0 a ie, 14x)- 0 g(1 fe log (14x)-75 720 or log (1+x)>T45 Since we also have > _ (1 +x), combining these we get x a 1 ——- el a x > log( te) > ag or Teg alee i<2 >> Let f(x) = cosx-14(x7/2) f(x) = -sinx+x Since x>0, sinx0 + f’(x)>0 The function f(x) is continuous in [ 0, x], differentiable in (0, x). Hence by applying Lagrange’s mean value theorem for f(x) in [0, x] we have, f(x) = f(0)+(x-0)f"(e) But f(0)=0 -. f(x) =xf"(c). f’(x)>0 > f7(e)>0 Hence f(x)>0. Thatis, cosx-1+(37/2)>0 Thus cosx > 1-(27/2) o> Let f(x) ssi tx roy =F =2 f(x) iscontinuous in [4, b] and differentiable in (a, b). Applying Lagrange’s mean value theorem for f(x) in [a, b] we get whena mace = -a>-2 = 1-P>1-¢ 1 1 Hence == <> Q) Vi-? Vi-¢ Also c Let f(x) = sinx. By applying Lagrange’s mean value theorem for f(x) in (x, vt) we get, sin(x#h)—iRX pec). But f/(x) = cose sin(xt+h fh Thus sin(x+h)—sinx = heos¢ as required = cose >> Let f(x) = sinx and g(x) = cosx f'(x) = cosx and g’(x) = -sinx Applying Cauchy's mean value theorem we have,ROLLE'S THEOREM AND MEAN VALUE THEOREMS 55 sinb-sina cos ¢ sinb — sina = On cos b— cosa sine cos b — cosa inb- sina ‘Thus = cote as required cos a—cosb Verify Rolle's theorem for the following functions. 1 f(x) = sinx/e* in [0,7] 2. f(x) = x(x43)e7? in 3, 0] 3. f(x) = (x-a) [(x-a)(x-b) P in [a,b] Verify Lagrange’s mean value theorem for the following functions. 1 f(x) = logx in [ee] 5. F(x) = (4-2) (4+2) (4-3) in [1,4] 6 f(x) = pxtqxer in [a,b] Verify Cauchy’s mean value theorem for the following pairs of functions. 7 sinx and. cos x in [w/4, 30/4] 8. & and 1/e* in [a b] 9% F(x) and 2f’(x) in’ [a,b], where f(x) = Ve 10. Show that if 0 We need to find successive derivatives of the given y(x) and evalu: the given point x = @ for obtaining the Taylor's expansion and evaluate at x = 0 for obtaining the Maclaurin’s expansion. 2 To reduce the computational work we must prefer lo use indirect methods for obtaining various derivatives of the given function which we are familiar in the discussion of the topic ‘Srccessive differentiation’EXPANSION OF FUNCTIONS 5 >> Wehave Taylor's expansion about x = a given by y(x) = yayt (xa) (a) 4 {sou Yo (1) tu. By data, y(x) = log,x ; a@=1 y(1) = log, 1 = 0 . Differentiating y(x) successively we get, 1 2 4 WOday wo WO)=1 Fy) G yz (1) = 2 F 3 1 6 yy (8) => Yo(1)=-1 5 yy(r) =— 7 yyQ1) =-6 x x aylor’s series upto fourth degree term with @ = 1 is given by Leone vox) = yA) tOx-1)y, + FS yy 3 4 x=-1 yo LP +E yay + SS ya (w-1y (x-1)4 1) + 6. (2)+ 24 (-6) Hence , log, v=0+(x-1)1 ao 2 3 yeaah, EU 1 we have (ay 2 Thus log.x Now putting x = 1 log, (1.1) = (0.1) Taylor's expansion in powers of (1-1) is givenby 2 -1)2 vax) yA) (x-1)y, + FY wm) 3 (x-1) Se mes x-1)' ie , Yg (1+ y(1) = tan} 1 = 49/4 y = tan” 1 y,(1) = 5 + (We donot prefer direct differentiation )58 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS - 1 Wehave (1+x°)y, = 1 a We have to successively differentiate to obtain expressions involving yy, vy. and evaluate themat x = 1 Hence we have on differentiating (1), (14x? yyy +2ry, = 0 +2) Putting x = 1; yy (1) 42-1-5 = 0 S Yy(1)=-172 Differentiating (2) w.r.t x, we get, (143? )y, tay, +2y, = 0 +e) Putting x = 1; 2y,(1)-2+1=0 % Sine Differentiating (3) wart x, we get, (1a?) yy + 6.xy, + 6y, = 0 24) Pulling x =1; 2y,(1)+3-3 = 0 yy (1)=0 Substituting these values in the expansion we get ad sin (m/4 +h) ending poi hand hence deduce an approximate fsin 50°. >> We have by Taylor’s theorem, in Fath) = flayehf' (al+af”" (a)+ Taking a= 1/4, f(W/4th) = sin(n/4th) = f(x) = sinx or y(x) = sinx ke in hi ¥ (AA + W) = y (O74) + thy (LA) + 9 Yo (GA) + ar Mg (74) + ay Consider y(x)=sinx Sa) yy (2) = cosa th (WA) = v(t) =-sinw 5 yy (n/t) =- 4 (X) =— cosa yy (WA) 3-1EXPANSION OF FUNCTIONS 59 yy (2) = sinx yg (m4) = WANE Substituting these values in (1) we obtain 1 eo ie) ; = aie 2 sin(n/4+h) dplisn avait at | --Q) Tofind sin50° we have to take jt = 5° ie., hh = 5-(n/180) radians = 1/36 +0. 087 0.087 in the RLS of (2) we obtain, 0.7659 58. Qbtain Tuylor’s series expansion of log (cosx) about the point x = 1/3. upto the fourth degree tert >> Taylor's expansion of y (x) about x = 7/3 is given by . =1/3 vex) = y AB) 4(x—W8) y, (3) tEFBY y, (nS) 4 4 —n/3 x-n/3 + GaRBY y, (w+ ici J yy (1/3) +> eat) Let v(x) = log (cos x) y (1/3) = log[ cos (7/3) ] = log (1/2) = —log 2 - 1 e = Sex 78M ie, yy, =~ taney “yh (1/3) = ~tan(7/3) = -\o yy = sec x = -(1+tan?x) ie, Y= (typ) Wg (aA -[14(03"] =-4 Vy =~ 2, My 2 yg(W/3) = -2--NB- 33 yyy tyB] « yya/S) = -2[-NB--8 8 +16] = ~80 Substituting these values in (1) we have, Ls -n/3y og (ey = log (ena gr _ ny 6 8v3—60 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS - t Thus log (cosx) = ~log2— V3 (x-1/3)-2(x- 0/3)? (.-73)" YO) +x, (OFS, yy (O)+ We have y (x) y(0) = sin '0=0 a) ¥ 1 [Finding adopt the technigue of avoiding denominator by cross multiplying and squaring for avoiding square root]. We have y, (0) = 1. becomes very difficult through direct differentiation. Hence we shall Thus wehave (1-22) = 1 Differentiating now wrt. x, we get, (1-17) 24, tf (-2x) = 0. Dividing by 2y, we get (=? yy, -xy, = 0 Q) Now putting x= 0 wehave 1.y,(0)-0=0 yy(0) = 0 [Here yy, yy is to be understood as yy (2) yy (XJ) Now differentiating (2) w.r.t. x we obtain (1-37) ys typ (-20)- Lay ty 1] = 0 ie, (1=2")y,-3ry,-y, = 0 @) Puiting x= 0 wehave y,(0)-0-1 y, (0) =1 Differentiating (3) again w.r.t. x we obtain, (4-27) yy +95 (-28)-3 bay, typ 1] -yp = 0 - ie (- ¥y~ SxY— 4g = 0 w Putting x = 0 wehave ¥,(0)-0 -V=0 & My (9) =0 Differentiating (4) again w.r-t..x we have,EXPANSION OF FUNCTIONS 61 (1-37) yg yy (=2x)-5 Lay, Hy5 1 1=4y, = 0 ie., (1-37) y5-7xy4-9u = 0 eai(S) Putting x = 0 wehave y;(0)-0-9.1=0 ys (0) Substituting, these values in the expansion of (x) we have, 3 4 i x x 1 0+ 8 =H x a 6 24 * 120 Thus — sin” Expand sin”! y nr ascending powers of x upto the first three won vanishing terms, >> We have Maclaurin’s expansion, 3 4 x x (0) + ay ug CO) + My (0) tm W(x) = y(O)+xy, (0+ Let y= . y(O)=e=1 My “cosx or yy = yeosx . y,(0) = y(0)-cos0 = 1 Yp = ~y sin y+ 008 x+y, = yy(0)=041=1 thy = — (iy cosx ty, Sin) + (cos xy, —y, sine) = = ¥,—2y, sinxt+cosx- yy ~ (0) =-1-04+1=0 Yg =p - 2. OSX + SIN Y,)+(COSXY,—SiNX y5 ) 2y, Cosx—3sinxy, +c08.x- ys -0+0 y,(0) = -3 Thus by substituting these values in the expansion of y (x) we g 2 4A sinx xx eM sleet 562 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS - 1 bl. log(1+sinx) i powers of x by Maclaurin's theorem upto the term containing x >> We have Maclaurin’s expansion xe x Y(X) = YO) HAY, (O)+ ST Hy (0) + 57 Vg (0) +a ty (O) +... Consider y = log (1+sinx) * y(0) = log1 = 0 cos x 2= Oy=1 4 Te sinx mt®) ie, (1 +sina )y, = eos Gly Differentiating w.r.t.x we get, (1¥sinx)y,+cosx y, = —sinx Q) Atx=Owe get y,(0)+1=0 yy (0)=-1 Differentiating (2) again we get, (1+sinv) y,+2y, cos.x= yy, sin x = — cos x @) At x= 0 weget.y,(0)-2-0 = -1 y3(0)=1 Differentiating (3) again we get, (1 sinx)y, 408% y,+2(—y, sina +c08.x y,)~ (yy, cosx+sin.x yy) = sinx fe, (1+sinx) y,+3.cos xy, ~3y siny—y, cos. = sinx At y=0 weget, y,(0)+3-0-1=0 y,(0)=-2 Thus by substituting these values in the expansion we get 4 . x log (1 +sinx) = im 62. Expand log (sec x) he term containing x° using Maclanrin’s series Expaid log (see x) in ascending powers of x upto the first three non vanishing term 2 a 4 x x x >> w(x)=y(O) Fay, (0) 457 yy (O)+ Fug (O45 Hy (O)+.. w=log(secx) ~ y(0)=logl =0EXPANSION OF FUNCTIONS 63 tanx y= SEB ie, yystane (0) = 0 Wy sex + y(0)=1 Now y, = 1+tan?x = 1+ Differentiating this w.rt.x successively we have, a A ytoy=0 Y= 2 Ys tH) a gyda? Ys = 2 (Uy My + Yo Mat Yo Ya) = 2M Vg + OMY yg(0) = 0 Vg = 20h My tg Uy) FO My HIG) Ug = 2th Yet BUM, FO cy ge lS Substituting these values in the expansion of v(x) we get x6 wo 16 log (see ¥) Thus log (seex) 63. Expand tan”) (14) as far as the ter containing 3 3 >> W(X) = VCO) FY, (ODES Wy (OV + 3) Uy (OD F- Consider y= tan! (1 +x) ~ y(0) = tan" '(1) = w/d wy yy (0) = 172 ie, (a7 42042)y, = 1 ay Differentiating w.r.t.x, (x7 +242) yy F204 41) yy = 0 Q) At x = 0 weget 2y)(0)+2-(1/2) =0 Yy (0) = -172 Differentiating (2) w.r.t. x we have, (32 +2e +2) yy $2 (241) vy #2(K41) yy +2 = 064 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS - 1 (P4WHZ) ytd (etl yy ty, = 0 8) ie, 2)42-(12)=0 + y,(0)=172 At x= 0 weget, 2y,(0)44-(-1 Thus by substituting these values in the expansion of (x) we get, tan (lex) =F Let ues Thus +sinx yO) =1 ¥, = —sin x +cos x yy(0)=1 Yq = —cosx—sinx=—y it, yy=-y 4 yy(0) =-1 Uy = Vy i (OV =-1. yy =—4y vy, (0) =1 Thus by substituting these values in the expansion of (x) we get, a 3 4 ——— a (I+sin2x = 1+x-—--> Vivsindy = 14x -F 45 Remark : We hee nsed a teclurigue to simplify the giown function leading to a very simple form, there by the problem is completed easily. The usual procedure of squaring y (x) and differentiating thereon can also be done. >> Wehave (x) = yO) +x) (0) 5) yy (O)4 wy (O)+ Let y= log(1+x) 2. y (0) = log! = 1 “1 i: y, (0) = 1 Vo = 3 ¥,(0) = -1 1 T4x im 2 rae 2 2 v5 (0) = 4, (0) = -6EXPANSION OF FUNCTIONS 65 y= 24 4 exp Substituting these values in the expansion we get, Ys (0) = 24 4 2 3 log (1 #4) = Ox D4 (a1) 4 2435 -6)+5~.24- oa Thus log(1+x) = x—- (1) ie, Thus log VI¥x/1-x = x+(2°/3) + (99/5) 4-- >> y(x)= v0) Fy, (0)+E yy (OFT HCO) 4 (0) Let y = tan(n/4+x) “ y(O0) = tan(m/4) = 1 yy = sec? (n/Atxy = ity? yy (0) =2 Yo = WY, (0) =4 ty = 2m +497) * yy(0) = 2(444) = 16 Yy = 2CYYg+3.Y; Yo) yy(0)=2 (16424) = Substituting these values in the expansion of _y(x) we have, tan (1/44+x) = 14 raed ws 16434 80 10 yt Thus tan(m/4+x) = 142+ 2x7 +884 Oy66 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS 1 3 Uy (0) 4 a (04 >> w(x) = y(O)+xy, (0) FF Let y= logtan(n/44x) ; y(O) = log] =0 Also Differentiating w.r.t. x we get, tan (n/4+x) ie, (a) At x=0,1 y, (0) = 2 we y,(0)=2 Differentiating (1) wart. x we get, Byte yp =2%y, or wry =2ey, Q) Al r=0, yy(O0)+4=4 wy (0) = 0 Differentiating (2) w.r-t.x we get, Ys 42M, Yo = 20e yy el) 8) AL -¥=0, y,(0) +0 =2(044) yg (0) =8 Differentiating (3) w.r.t. x we get, Uy t Dy Vg t2HB = 2C yg tel yy ot 2elY) Wot ee) in, uy t2 uy Mgt 2 = 26 AB ot A) 4) At x=0, Wg (O)+2*K2Xx8 +0 2(8+0+8) yy (0) = 0 Differentiating (4) wart. x we gel, y : 2 Ug 2 Hy P2 Hy Yat 4a Wy = 2" Cy +3 Us + 343 +3Y; Y>) $2 yy yt Mt) At x= 0, yy(0) = 2(48)4+2-2(8+8) = 160 Substituting these values in the expansion of y (x) we have, 3 5 oe +99 log tan(m/4 +x) + 160+ Thus logtan(n/4+x) = 2x4EXPANSION OF FUNCTIONS 67 68. und i ph ur erin o> y(x) = y(O)4xy, (04% Tt wxsins 1 yetn= ny = 8% (ycosx+siny) » y, (0) =0 Aig wy = uf xveosx+sinx) Now yy = y(-xsinx+2cosx)+y, (x cosx +sinx) Hence y,(0) = 1(0+2)+0 sy (0) =2 Next, y, = y(-xeosx—3siny) +y, (-xsinx + 2c0sx) + yy (exsina +2 cos) +4, (xe0sx + sinx ) ie, Wy = y(-Xeosx~3sinx)+2y, (-xsinx +2. cosx) + yy (a cosx sin) Hence y,(0) = 0+040 2 yy (0) =0 Next yy = y(xsinx-4cosx)+y, (~x cos x—3sinx) + 2y, (~veosx-3 sin x) +2y, (=Xsinx+2¢08x) b yy (=a sinx +2 cos x) +, (x C08 x4 8iNx) Hence yy (0) =-44040484+4=8 yy (0) =8 Thus by substituting, these values in the expansion of y (x) we get, eine = 1 4y7 4 (09/3) +... 2 > yx) = yO) Fx (0) #55 Hy (0) + Let y =log( 1+) “ y(O0) = log,2 1% f, 1 vy wy @)=5 “1+ ie, (140), = 0) Differentiating wort x we get,68 (te tey At DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS - 1 x= S Q) 1 2yy(0)4+12 = 1 yy (0) = 1/4 Differentiating (2) wrt. x we get, Cte yg t2e wt y, =e x=0, At 2y,(O)+1/241/2 = 1 - 3) ys(0) = 0 Differentiating (3) w.r-t. x we get (te Jy +30 yg + 3e" yy te ¥, = At x= 0, 2y,(0)+3/441/2 (4) "e yy (0) =-1/ ‘Thus by substituting these values in the expansion of y(x) we get xf log(1-te) = 103,245 +75 — a9p > Maclaurin’s series is given by y(x) = yO) FX yy (0) +55 Y_ (0+ Consider y = y(¥) = xt 3 Yg(O) + ig ¥g (0) °° log(1+eosx) ; y(0) (0) =0 ie, (1+ cosx)y, = -sinx Differentiating wart x we have, -Q) (1+ cos.x) yy —sinx yy = — C08 At x= 0, we get 2y,(0)-0 = - ..Q) 1 yy(0) = -172 Differentiating (2) again w.r.t x we have (14 cosx)y,-sinx yy—[sinx y, +eosx Y, 1= ie, A (1 #008.) yy—2sinx yy — cos y, = sinx At x 0, we get 2y,(0)-0-0 = 0 (3) y(0) = 0EXPANSION OF FUNCTIONS 69 Differentiating (3) again w.r.t x we have, (1#cosx) y,—sinx y,-2[sinx y,+cosx yy] - [cosx y,~sinx y,] = cosx ie, — (1#c08x)yy—3sinx y,—3eosx yytsinx y, = cosx =) Yq ¥3 42 71 At x= 0, we get 2y,(0)-043/240=1 + y,(0) =-1/4 Thus the required Maclaurin’s series is given by xf 2 x log, (1+ cos.) = log, 2="y~ ge log (1+ cos. x) = log [ 2cos? (x/2)] y = log 2 +2 log cos (x/2) + -¥(O) = log, 2 Now y, = —tan(x/2) yj (0) =0 yy = -4 see (x/2) + y(0)=-172 Also yy =F 11 +tan? (2/2) =-Fa+w) 1 Ys = 5 (2 Wo) = Wy Ye y3(0) =0 Ve = -WW-B oe yg(0) = 1/4 Thus log(1+cosx) = log 2~ (27/4) ~ (44/96) --- 2 >> (8) = y (0) FY, (CO) +5) Hy (0) + Let y= at ~ y(0)=1 y, = @ loga = yloga sy, (0) = loga Uy = y,loga ty(0) = (logay? Vy = Yy loga yy (0) = (loga)? and soon Substituting these values in the expansion of y (x) we get, 2 2 x a= 4x log at > (loga)’ +37 (logay +...70 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS - 1 2 Exy i t st aero ! ' 1 #1 mA F >> yx) = yO) +x, (0) + ay Yo (0) + 5p ¥3 (0) + Let y = tan y ~ y(0)= tan'(0) =0 1 y= yj Oy=1 Tat J (+e jy,=1 a) Differentiating wort x we get, (14x?) y, +2xy, = 0 estes At x= 0 weget, (0) =0 wy (0)=0 Differentiating (2) again we get (1447) y, +2xy,+2xy,+2y, = 0 ie, (1427) iy, +2y, = 0 @) At x= 0 weget, y,(0) = =2 oy (0) Differentiating (3) again w.r-L, we get (1x7) yy +204, + 4ry, F4yy +2y) = 0 ie, (14 x" yyy + oxy, +6, = 0 + oll) At x= 0 weget, y,(0) =0 (0) = 0 Differentiating (4) again wart. x we get, (14a) yg + 2ryy + Oxy, + Oy, + OY, = 0 ie, (1#87 ys 8x, + yg = 0 a) 0) = 24 . Ys (0) = betituting these values in the expansion we have AL x =0 weget, Thus tan™ Pulling y= 1 weget tan!1=1-1+1/5- ie Wh =1-1/3+1/5—.. Thus m= 4(1-1/341/5-...EXPANSION OF FUNCTIONS 71 Note-1 : Expansion of functions ; he (i) al peed (ii) i ii) tan AS 4} (iv) sin | i} (4a ‘Those functions by the substitution x = tan 0 respectively become @) wAttan x Gi) Qtaw!x fii) 1/2+tan lx (ie) 2 tan Hence the work executed in the Problem - 72. has to be carried out for completing the problem ist the case of fonctions (i) to (fv) Note -2: Also in some cases we can venture to obtain a relation in y, Yj, Yy and apply Leibnitz theorem to differentiate the result n times to obtain a relation in terms of Y,.9 + Vey + Yy By knowing y(0) and y, (0) we can easity obtain y, (0), ¥,C0) by taking n=O, 0 For example in the case of y = tan”! x we have the relation { Refer Problem -13 ] (14x?) y, 9 t2Crtl)xy,,,teCrel)y, = 0 At x= 0, ¥,,9(0) =—m(n41)y, (0) @ Yat Wehave y(0) = 0, y,(0) = 1 where y = tare 2 Putting n = 0, 1, 2,3... inthe relation (1) we get, yy(0) = 0, yy (0) =-2y, (0) =-2, y,(0) =-6y, (0) = 0 yg (0) =—12y, (0) = (—12)(-2) = 24 ete. Note-3: We can adopt this method for Problem - 59, where y = sin” x72 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS - 1 or (1-2 )yj-ay=1 7 Atx=0, yj (0)=1 Differentiating w.r-t. x again we get, (1-2) yy -2xy, -xy,-¥ = 0 or (1-3?) yy-3xyy-y = 0; AE x= 0, y,(0)=0 Applying Leibnitz theorem we have, non we) afey, +n, /—Yy =O [2-2 rma O2 toe IG 2944 |-3 {Iyer ont Vy ANY, SIV, Vy, ie, ahaha one tee D221 y pp CARA) g OEE LY y= At r= 0 Yyyg(O)= (n+l), (0) yy (0) = 4°, (0) = 47 yy (0) = 9-yy (0) = 0 ys(0) = 16-y,(0) = 64ete. We have the expansion, 2 yx) = ¥(O) 4x, (0) + 5 yp (0) + Thus Remark ; We can as well apply Leibnitz theorem after finding a relationship involving yy, 80 that we obtain a relationship imvoloinrg. yf, po y(a) = (Oxy, (0) Fy (Ot 1 let y=ets" y(O) = 2, e or yy = (0) =aEXPANSION OF FUNCTIONS 73 Consider V1 — Vi-x y, se =ay at eh je, (1=x" yyy -xy, =a yy =a(ay) ie, (1-x")yy-xy, = Applying Leibnitz, theorem we have, n(n-1) net? qo ZY p13 41 f= )y, tm (-2x)y, tunel ty} = Yq ie (A=27 )y, Ont Lay, OP +a) y, = At x= 0, ¥,,9(0) = (+a) y,(0) ¥(0) = y(0) =a? ; ys (0) = (1 +a?) y, (0) = (14a? ya (0) = (44a? yy (0) = (4407) a (0) = (9407) y,(0) = (94a?) (14a? Jar ete. s by substituting these values in the expansion of y(x) we have, e +8) 4 ECE) 5 EOYs, >> uO) = yO) FX (OFF (OF... 2 y(9)=1 yee in ye yo)74 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS - 1 Consider (1437) y_and by applying Leibnitz. theorem we have, n(n-1 Cy tee GS By = Hy ie, (VF yg FOB X— VY, EHO DY =O At X= 0, Yq (0) = ¥,,(O)—M CIT) ¥, 1 (0) Hence we have, y(0) = ¥,(0)-O=1 Ys (0) = yy (0)-2y, (0) = yy(0) = y,(0)-6yp(0) = -1-6 = ~7 5 Ys (0) = yy (0)-12y,(0) = -7 +12 Substituting these values in the expansion of y(2) we have, tan y a e 7 ss 5 +395 Thus Note: Mactasirin’ found easily and i expansions of the finnctions sin.x, cos, sinh idvisible to remember them. They are as follows cosh x, cat be (@) sinx =3—7y (iii) sintx = x4 a> wx) = y(O)Fxy, (0) + We have f(x) = ‘sinx. Here y(0) assumes 0/0 form and we know that lim =~ =1 y(0) =EXPANSION OF FUNCTIONS 7 v, also assumes 0/0 form and we have to apply L’ Hospital's rule to find y, (0). The process becomes highly tedious as we proceed. Hence we try to make use of theexpansion of sin.x and since sin.x isin the denominator we cannot carry out any simplification. Hence we take the reciprocal of y and proceed as follows. 3g aw%. and Hee = ¥-eee ye and siny =x- 3+ 5-7 t 1 Now —= ¥ 1 ie a y tiating w.r.t. x we have, ae ox Scart () At x=0, —(0)=0 since y(O)=1 ~ y(O)=0. Differentiating (1) w-r-t.x we have, -1 2 a art 2) y y AL x =0, ~¥(0)40=-1/3 yy (0) = Differentiating (2) w.r-t.x we have, Sr aap euur ve BF niet shite an” al 1 6 6 3 x te, 5434 3M Yo- aM = ST +3) ie A gly ee At x=0, y(0)=0 Differentiating (3) w.r.L.a we have, (0) =0 Me Ses sehial2 y y a \ y76 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS - 1 At 0, ~yy(0)+6(19) = 1/5 or yy (0) = 23-15 = 7/15 yy (0) = 7/15 Substituting these values in the expansion of (x) we get, Sn gyhig hy siny 6 360° °"* >> We have Maclaurin’s series 2 3 yt V(X) = yO) +x (0425 yy (0) 4255 ¥, (0) 4 Brits CO) tee a) + aMa By data f(x) = v(x) y¥(0)=6 hey We differentiate this equation successively four times and evaluate atx = 0as follows. oy rey =e; 1-y, (041-0 =€ “yj (0) =e C yy te y, te™y = U5 yy (0) +20 = 0 (0) =- © yy + 3e* yy + 3c" y, Hey = Oy, (O)—Ge+3e = 0 + a (O) = 3e yg te yy + Ge" yy + de" yy te" y = 0 + 4 (0) = —4e Thus by substituting these values in (1) we have,EXPANSION OF FUNCTIONS 7 x 0 ten y (0) beconnes 5 wwhrich is indeterminate. We Note: ify = f(x) is of the formes i have to use the Maclaurin’s series of e given by 1+ so that s¥(O)=1 2,2 2, y 2° 6 "24 ( Similar to the previous problem ). 1 We consider T- 1+ and proceed to differentiate successively, 1. Expand tany aboutthe point x = 7/4. upto the third degree terms and hence find tan 46° 2. Show that Vy = V2 [14(x-2)/4-(x-2)°/924 (x-2)°/128...] Obtain the Mactaurin’s expansion of the following functions as indicated 3. cS" upto the fourth degree terms, 4. log (seex + tanx) upto the first three nen vanishing terms. 5. log(1+sir?x) upto the fourth degree terms 6 log (1 +tanx) upto the third degree terms. 7. sinx upto the fifth degree terms. +1) =x- s Nin 8 Show that: log (x 4¥3 24:6 7 and hence find the value of log, 2 correct to two decimal places 9. Show thatif x = sint, y = sinmt then 2-1) 3, m(nP-1) (mr -9) 3! at 5! " yx) = x= 10. Show that (sin! x)? = [Hint : Use the 1" derivative approach for problems 8 to 10. |78 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS - 1 ANSWERS -n/4y ; 1-035 4. x+ 2/6) + (99/24) 5. -(5x'76) 2 3 6. x-(4°/2)+(2x°/3) & xa? +(9°/9)-(2°/30)INDETERMINATE FORMS 79 Unit - II DIFFERENTIAL. CALCULUS - 2 1| Indeterminate forms 211] 1 Ifanexpression F(x) at x=a assumes forms like 0/0 , -/02 , 0X @ , w=, 0? , «? | 1” which do not represent any value are called indeterminate forms. The concept of limit gives a meaningful value for the function F(x) at x=a overcoming these indeterminate forms. The reader is familiar with the evaluation of limit mostly in the cases of 0/0 or without the involvement of differentiation, Few more indeterminate forms: <~<2 , x0, «9, 0° 1° can be reduced to the two basic indeterminate forms 0/0 and c»/eo, Then limit is found passing through a process of differentiation warranted by a very simple rule called L’ Hospital's (French Mathematician) rule which is established by using Cauchy’s mean value theorem, [242] L’ Hospital’s rule (Theorem) Statement: If f(x) and g() are two functions such that () lim) f(x) =0 and lim g(x) =0 ie, f(a) = xa ra g(a) (ii) f(x) and g/(x) existand g’(a)#0, then jim LC) _ lim ee) son SOQ) pga 87) Note : Extension of the theorem IF f(a) = 0 and g(a) = 0 then we have f(x) f(x) jim £02. © tim a wey andisoon xan 8 roa §80 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS - 2 2D The rule is applicable for the form 0/0. It can also be applied for the form °/e2 ein {M802 = in {44023} where f(x) 3 + and g(x) >be as x38 However while applying the rule in this case also, we follow the usual procedure of differentiating the numerator f(x) and the denominator g(x) separately. If the indeterminate form persists after applying the rule once, we can apply the rule repeatedly till we arrive at a definite value. Itis highly advisible to look for simplification at each stage. Problems have been bifurcated into four types and the procedure too has been explained separately in each type. 2 The following four standard limits and well known simple properties connected with limits can be readily used. sin . x tan x x tim SP = 1 Gi) bm =1 Gil) tim “Y* = 1 Gv) lim ay =! x30 F0n x30 x0 The rule can be applied directly in the case of forms 0/0 and e/ee.. In the cases of we and © x 0, wehave toemploy simple methods (taking L.C.M, using equivalent trigonometric expressions etc.) to simplify the given expression in bringing it to the form 0/0 or ©/= so that the L’ Hospital's rule can be employedINDETERMINATE FORMS 81 ' 1. Let k = lim 22 = Tog +s) (7) a x20 x / Applying L! Hospitals rule, kelim 2 ¢e ote (3) ae 2x 0 = lim = Seette'+ 11x) _O+1+141 _ 3 x30 2 2 2 Thus k= 3/2 2 Let k = lim aaa ae (7) Applying L’ Hospital's rule, oie a ee woo § C1 +x) 4log(1+x) (0 = lim ———- 3 *@_ eer roo xs-1/(14xP 4 1/ltx 4 1/ex OF1+1 2 Thus k= 1/2 3. Let k= lim (eCsins) 5 xon/2 (W/2-x)) p Applying L’ Hospital's tule, k= lim —S2*i0= yon72(W/2-x) a iin cotx (2 er Towr2(W2-x) (0 Now k Thus k vp 4 Let k= lim SOE iG x0 3 Applying L’ Hospital's rule, k= lim roo Thus k =log(a/b) *loga—b* log b ieee H 108) - loga—logh =log (a/b)82 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS - 2 ted Baa, (0 7 yop SIN — xX cos x {o Applying L’ Hospital's rule, i. cosh x~-1 coshx-1 (0 R= lim —t stim SS LG qn) COSX+ESINY = COSX yyy YSINK ( pasty aot i (2 cop Xeosx+sinx “"* (0 a cos hx 1 = li acon =i voy ~xsinx tos xteosx 2 Thus k= 1/2 (Note: We have applied the rule thrice in this example) o 0 Applying L’ Hospital’s rule, x* (L+logx) - a” loga (3) a o) = fF 6. Let k = lim ax p= 0 U1 toga) = a"loga a" _y a-a"” a" Thus k 7. Let x = lim log (x-7/2) [=] tanx ne Applying L’ Hospital's rule, (x= 9/2) cos? x (0 k= lim OS®) @ Jim “SF (0 yon? secx voi h — 2) 0) b= im =e 9 xon/2 Thus k=0