INTRODUCTION TO

ANATOMY
MVC Santiago M.D.
Objectives
Define anatomy and distinguish from physiology
Describe the divisions of anatomy
Discuss the anatomical organization of the human body
Discuss the different approaches in studying anatomy
Describe the orientation of the human body in the
anatomical position
Define basic anatomical terms, planes and sections.
Be familiar with the most commonly medical imaging
techniques
 What is Anatomy?

❑ Study of the STRUCTURE of the Human Body

❑ related to PHYSIOLOGY
❑ Physiology is the study of the FUNCTION of the human body
 Divisions of Anatomy

1. GROSS ANATOMY — the examination of

structures of the human body that can be
seen with the naked eye

2. MICROSCOPIC ANATOMY/HISTOLOGY – the study of

the minute structures of the human body such
as cells and tissues, that can only be seen
with the aid of a microscope
 Anatomical Organization

➢Cells
➢Tissues
➢Organs
➢Organ Systems
➢Organism
 Approaches to Study Anatomy

1. Regional Anatomy – study one region of the

body at a time and learn everything about the
region

2. Systemic Anatomy – study one body system at

a time

3. Clinical Anatomy - applied anatomy

 Regional Anatomy

❑topographical anatomy
❑is the method of studying the body’s
structure by focusing attention on a
specific part, area, or region
❑considers the organization of the
human body as major parts or segments
 Regional Anatomy
❑ also recognizes the body’s organization by layers:
- skin
- subcutaneous tissue
- deep fascia covering the deeper structures of
muscles
- skeleton
- cavities which contain viscera (internal organs)
❑ deeper structures beneath the body’s outer covering may
be studied and examined via surface anatomy which is an
essential part of the study of regional anatomy.
 Regional Anatomy

Surface anatomy
❑ is an essential part of the study of regional anatomy.
❑ provides knowledge of what lies under the skin and what
structures
are perceptible to touch (palpable) in the living body
❑ visualize structures that confer contour to the surface or are
palpable beneath it
 Regional Anatomy

Physical examination
is the clinical application of surface anatomy.

Palpation is a clinical technique, used with observation and

listening for examining the body.
 Systemic Anatomy
❑ is the study of the body’s organ systems that
work together to carry out complex functions
❑ The basic systems and the field of study or
treatment include the following organ system:
• Integumentary
• Skeletal
• Muscular
• Nervous
• Endocrine
• Cardiovascular
• Lymphatic
• Respiratory
• Digestive
• Urinary
• Reproductive
The Integumentary System (Skin)

Components: Skin, and structures

associated with it, such as hair,
fingernails and toenails, sweat glands,
and oil glands and the subcutaneous layer

Functions: Protects the body; helps

regulate body temperature; eliminates
some wastes; helps make vitamin D; and
detects sensations such as touch, pain,
warmth, and cold; stores fat and provides
insulation
The Skeletal System

Components: Bones and joints of the

body and their associated cartilages.

Functions: Supports and protects the

body; provides a surface area for
muscle attachments; aids body
movements; houses cells that produce
blood cells; stores minerals and
lipids (fats).
 The Muscular System

Components: Specifically refers

to skeletal muscle tissue, which
is muscle usually attached to
bones (other muscle tissues
include smooth and cardiac).
Functions: Participates in
bringing about body movements,
such as walking, maintains
posture, and produces heat.
The Cardiovascular System

Components: Blood, heart, and blood

vessels.
Functions: Heart pumps blood through
blood vessels; blood carries oxygen and
nutrients to cells and carbon dioxide and
wastes away from cells and helps regulate
acid–base balance, temperature, and water
content of body fluids; blood components
help defend against disease and repair
damaged blood vessels.
The Lymphatic System

Components: Lymphatic fluid,

lymphatic vessels, spleen, thymus,
lymph nodes, and tonsils; cells that
carry out immune responses (B cells,
T cells, and others).
Functions: Returns proteins and fluid
to blood; carries lipids from
gastrointestinal tract to blood;
contains sites of maturation and
proliferation of B cells and T cells
that protect against disease-causing
microbes.
The Nervous System

Components: Brain, spinal cord, nerves, and

special sense organs, such as the eyes and
ears.
Functions: Generates action potentials
(nerve impulses) to regulate body
activities; detects changes in the body’s
internal and external environments,
interprets the changes, and responds by
causing muscular contractions or glandular
secretions.
The Endocrine System
• Components: Hormone-producing
glands (pineal gland, hypothalamus,
pituitary gland, thymus, thyroid gland,
parathyroid glands, adrenal glands,
pancreas, ovaries, and testes) and
hormone-producing cells in several
other organs.
• Functions: Regulates body activities by
releasing hormones, which are
chemical messengers transported in
blood from an endocrine gland or tissue
to a target organ.
The Respiratory System

Components: Lungs and air

passageways such as the pharynx
(throat), larynx (voice box),
trachea (windpipe), and bronchial
tubes within the lungs.
Functions: Transfers oxygen from
inhaled air to blood and carbon
dioxide from blood to exhaled air;
helps regulate acid–base balance of
body fluids; air flowing out of
lungs through vocal cords produces
sounds.
The Digestive System

Components: Organs of gastrointestinal

tract—a long tube that includes the
mouth, pharynx (throat), esophagus,
stomach, small and large intestines,
and anus; also includes accessory
organs that assist in digestive
processes, such as the salivary
glands, liver, gallbladder, and
pancreas

Functions: Achieves physical and

chemical breakdown of food; absorbs
nutrients; eliminates solid wastes.
The Urinary System

Components: Kidneys, ureters, urinary

bladder, and urethra.
Functions: Produces, stores, and
eliminates urine; eliminates wastes
and regulates volume and chemical
composition of blood; helps maintain
the acid–base balance of body fluids;
maintains body’s mineral balance;
helps regulate production of red blood
cells
The Reproductive System

Components: Gonads (testes in males and ovaries in

females) and associated organs (such as the uterine
or fallopian tubes, uterus, and vagina in females
and epididymides, seminal vesicles, prostate, ductus
deferenses, and penis in males).
Functions: Gonads produce gametes (sperm or oocytes)
that unite to form a new organism; gonads also
release hormones that regulate reproduction and
other body processes; associated organs transport
and store gametes; mammary glands produce milk.
 Clinical Anatomy

❑ emphasizes aspects of bodily structure and function

important in the practice of medicine, dentistry, and
the allied health sciences
❑ incorporates the regional and systemic approaches to
studying anatomy and stresses clinical application.
❑ exciting to learn because of its role in solving
clinical problems.
 Clinical Anatomy

Includes:
➢pathological anatomy - study of anatomical
changes caused by disease
➢radiographic anatomy - study of body
structures by different forms of radiation
 Anatomical Position

➢ refers to the body position as if the person were standing upright

with the following:
- head, gaze (eyes), and toes directed anteriorly (forward),
- arms adjacent to the sides with the palms facing anteriorly
- lower limbs close together with the feet parallel.
 Anatomical Planes

➢ are based on imaginary planes that

intersect the body in the anatomical
position
 Anatomical Planes
Median plane (median sagittal plane)
➢ vertical plane passing longitudinally
through the body, divides the body
into right and left halves
➢ defines the midline of the head, neck,
and trunk where it intersects the
surface of the body
 Anatomical Planes

Sagittal planes
➢ vertical planes passing through the body parallel to
the median plane.
 Anatomical Planes

Frontal (coronal) planes

➢ are vertical planes passing through the body at right
angles to the median plane, dividing the body into
anterior (front) and posterior (back) parts.
 Anatomical Planes

Transverse (horizontal) plane

➢ divides the body into superior (upper) and
inferior (lower ) portions
 Anatomical Planes
The main use of anatomical planes is to describe sections :

1. Longitudinal sections run lengthwise or parallel to the

long axis of the body or of any of its parts, and the term
applies regardless of the position of the body.
2. Transverse sections, or cross sections, are slices of the
body or its parts that are cut at right angles to the
longitudinal axis of the body or of any of its parts
3. Oblique sections are slices of the body or any of its parts
that are not cut along the previously listed anatomical
planes.
Terms of Relationship and Comparison

Superior - refers to a structure that is nearer the vertex, the

topmost point of the cranium
Cranial - relates to the cranium and is a useful directional term,
meaning toward the head or cranium.
Inferior - refers to a structure that is situated nearer the sole
of the foot
Caudal - is a useful directional term that means toward the feet
or tail region, represented in humans by the coccyx
Superior (cranial)

Inferior (caudal)
 Terms of Relationship and Comparison

Posterior (dorsal) - denotes the back surface of the body or nearer to

the back.
Anterior (ventral) - denotes the front surface of the body.
Rostral - is often used instead of anterior when describing parts of
the brain, nearer the anterior part of the head
Posterior (dorsall)

Anterior (ventral)
Terms of Relationship and Comparison

Dorsum - usually refers to the superior aspect of any part that

protrudes anteriorly from the body, such as the dorsum of the
tongue, nose, penis, or foot.
- also used to describe the posterior surface of the hand, opposite
the palm

Sole - is the inferior aspect or bottom of the foot, opposite

the dorsum, much of which is in contact with the
ground when standing barefoot
Terms of Relationship and Comparison

Superficial, intermediate, and deep

➢describe the position of structures relative
to the surface of the body or the relationship
of one structure to another underlying or
overlying structure.
Terms of Relationship and Comparison

External
➢ means outside of or farther from the center
of
an organ or cavity

Internal
➢ means inside or closer to the center
independent of direction.
Terms of Relationship and Comparison

Proximal and distal

➢are used when
contrasting positions
nearer to or farther
from the attachment of
a limb or the central
aspect of a linear
structure, respectively
 Terms of Laterality

Bilateral
paired structures having right and left part (e.g., the
kidneys)
Unilateral those occurring on one side only (e.g., the
spleen)
Ipsilateral;
Something occurring on the same side of the body as
another structure is the right thumb and right great
(big) toe
Contralateral means occurring on the opposite side of
the body relative to another structure; the right hand
is contralateral to the left hand.
Terms of Movement

Flexion
indicates bending or decreasing
the angle between the bones or
parts of the body.
flexion involves movement in an
anterior direction For most
joints (e.g., elbow)
Terms of Movement

Extension
indicates straightening or
increasing the angle between the
bones or parts of the body.
Extension usually occurs in a
posterior direction.
Terms of Movement

Flexion and extension of

forearm at elbow joint
and of leg at knee joint
Terms of Movement

Flexion and extension of

vertebral column at
intervertebral joints
Terms of Movement
Dorsiflexion
describes flexion at the ankle
joint, as occurs when walking
uphill or lifting the front of
the foot and toes off the
ground

Plantarflexion bends the foot

and toes toward the ground, as
when standing on your toes.
 Terms of Movement

Hyperextension (overextension)
Extension of a limb or part beyond the normal limit can
cause injury, such as “whiplash” (hyperextension of the
neck during a rear-end automobile collision).
Terms of Movement

Circumduction
is a circular movement that involves
sequential flexion, abduction,
extension, and adduction in such a
way that the distal end of the part
moves in a circle

Circumduction can occur at any joint

at which all the above-mentioned
movements are possible (e.g., the
shoulder and hip joints).
Terms of Movement

Rotation
involves turning or revolving a part of
the body around its longitudinal axis,
such as turning one’s head to face
sideways.
Terms of Movement

Medial rotation (internal rotation)

brings the anterior surface of a limb
closer to the median plane

Lateral rotation (external rotation)

takes the anterior surface away from the
median plane.
Terms of Movement

Pronation
rotates the radius medially so that the palm of the hand
faces posteriorly and its dorsum faces anteriorly.
Supination
Is the opposite rotational movement,
rotating the radius laterally and uncrossing it from the
ulna, returning the pronated forearm to the anatomical
position. When the elbow joint is flexed, supination
moves the hand so that the palm faces superiorly. (
Terms of Movement

Eversion
moves the sole of the foot
away from the median plane,
turning the sole laterally

Inversion
moves the sole of the foot
toward the median plane
(facing the sole medially).
Terms of Movement

Opposition is the movement by

which the pad of the 1st digit
(thumb) is brought to another
digit pad. This movement is
used to pinch, button a shirt,
and lift a teacup by the
handle
Reposition
movement of the 1st digit from
the position of opposition
back to its anatomical
position
Terms of Movement

Elevation
raises or moves a part
superiorly, as in elevating the
shoulders when shrugging

Depression
lowers or moves a part
inferiorly, as in depressing the
shoulders when standing at ease
 Radiologic Anatomy

❑ study of the structure and function of the body

using medical imaging techniques.
❑ an important part of clinical anatomy and is the
anatomic basis of radiology, the branch of medical
science dealing with the use of radiant energy in the
diagnosis and treatment of disease.
 Radiologic Anatomy

Most commonly used medical imaging techniques:

1. Conventional radiography (X-ray images).
2. Computerized tomography (CT).
3. Ultrasonography (US).
4. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI).
5. Nuclear medicine imaging.
Conventional Radiography
➢a highly penetrating beam of X-rays
transilluminates the patient, showing tissues
of differing densities of mass within the body
as images of differing intensities (areas of
relative light and dark) on the film or monitor
Conventional Radiography
➢Procedure: A single barrage
of x-rays passes through
the body, producing an
image of interior
structures on x-ray-
sensitive film. The
resulting two-dimensional
image is a radiograph
commonly called an x-ray.

➢Contrast medium (solution

containing heavy elements
like barium) can be used to
view soft tissue organs.
Contrast x-rays are used to image:
- blood vessels (angiography)
- the urinary system (intravenous urography)
- gastrointestinal tract (barium contrast x-ray).
Computed Tomography
In this technique, a beam
of X-rays passes through
the body as the X-ray tube
and detector rotate around
the axis of the body.
Multiple overlapping radial
energy absorptions are
measured, recorded, and
compared by a computer to
determine the radiodensity
of each volumetric pixel (voxel)
of the chosen body plane.
Procedure: Computer-assisted radiography in which an
x-ray beam traces an arc at multiple angles around a
section of the body. The resulting transverse section
of the body, called a CT scan, is shown on a video
monitor.
Ultrasonography
➢ a technique that visualizes superficial or deep structures in the body by
recording pulses of ultrasonic waves reflecting off the tissues
➢A major advantage of US is its ability to produce real-time images,
demonstrating motion of structures and flow within blood vessels.
➢ a non-invasive procedure that does not use radiation, very helpful in
obstetrics and can yield useful information about the pregnancy, such as
determining whether it is intra-uterine or extra-uterine (ectopic) and
whether the embryo or fetus is living.
➢It has also become a standard method of evaluating the growth and
development of the embryo and fetus.
Procedure: High-frequency sound waves produced by a handheld
wand reflect off body tissues and are detected by the same
instrument. The image, which may be still or moving, is
called a sonogram and is shown on a video monitor.
The equipment is inexpensive, the technique is safer, and it
can be used to detect developing fetuses. Ultrasound is used
to study soft tissue and contrasting mediums can also used
to create better images.
Magnetic Resonance Imaging
➢ provides images of the body similar to those of CT scans, but MRI
is better for tissue differentiation.
➢ closely resemble anatomical sections, especially of the brain
Procedure: The body is exposed to a high-energy magnetic field,
which causes protons (small positive particles within atoms, such
as hydrogen) in body fluids and tissues to arrange themselves in
relation to the field. Then a pulse of radio waves “reads” these
ion patterns, and a color-coded image is assembled on a video
monitor. The result is a two- or three-dimensional blueprint of
cellular chemistry.
Nuclear medicine
➢ provide information about the distribution or
concentration of trace amounts of radioactive
substances introduced into the body.
➢Nuclear medicine scans show images of specific
organs after intravenous (IV) injection of a
small dose of radioactive material.
Nuclear medicine
➢ Positron emissiontomography
(PET) scanning uses cyclo-
tron-produced isotopes of
extremely short half-life that
emit positrons.
Nuclear medicine
➢ Single-photon emission computed
tomography (SPECT) scans are
similar but use longer lasting
tracers. They are less costly, but
require more time and have lower
resolution.
 Microscopic Anatomy

HISTOLOGY is the study of the tissues of the

body and how these tissues are arranged to
constitute organs.

Tissues have two interacting components:

1. Cells
2. Extracellular matrix (ECM)
 Light Microscopy

Bright-field microscopy
➢ the method most commonly used by both
students and pathologists, uses
ordinary light and the colors are
imparted by tissue staining

Fluorescence microscopy
➢ uses ultraviolet light, under which
only fluorescent molecules are
visible, allowing localization of
fluorescent probes which can be much
more specific than routine stains.
 Electron Microscopy

With wavelengths much shorter than those of

light, electron beams allow very-high-resolution
images at high magnification called
ultrastructural images.
Transmission EM sends an electromagnetically
focused beam of electrons at very high voltage
through ultrathin sections of tissue.
 Preparation of Tissues for Study

Fixation with chemical fixatives such as formalin preserves

tissue structure by cross-linking and denaturing proteins,
inactivating enzymes, and preventing cell autolysis or self-
digestion
Dehydration of the fixed tissue in alcohol and clearing in
organic solvents prepare it for embedding and sectioning
Embedding in paraffin wax or epoxy resin allows the tissue to
be cut into very thin sections (slices) with a microtome.
Sections are mounted on glass slides for staining , which is
required to reveal specific cellular and tissue components
with the microscope.
End of Lecture
References
❑ Clinically Oriented Anatomy by Keith
L. Moore, Arthur
F. Dalley, Anne M.R. Agur; 7th ed 2014
❑ Clinical Anatomy by Richard S. Snell ;
2004
❑ The Big Picture Gross anaotomy David
Morton, Kurt
Albertine , Bo Foreman ;2011
❑ High Yield Gross Anatomy 5th ed by
Ronald W. Dudek, Thomas M. Louis ; 2015