Unit one-Microorganisms

Definition:

Technically a microorganism or microbe is an organism that is microscopic. Microorganisms

are very small organisms which are mostly unicellular with some multicellular organism.
There are five main groups of microorganism namely:
 Bacteria
 Protists (Protozoa)
 Some algae
 Some fungi
 Viruses
The study of microorganisms is called microbiology.
Lesson objectives: by the end of this section you should be able to:
• Name, describe and give examples of the different types of microorganism.
• Describe the structure of a bacterial cell.
• Describe the shapes of different types of bacteria.
• Classify bacteria as Gram-positive and Gram-negative

A. Protozoa, Fungi and Algae

Protozoa are unicellular organisms that lack a cell wall. Most of them are motile (able to move)
and include organisms such as Amoeba, Plasmodium, and Paramecium.
 Paramecium is a unicellular, microscopic, free-living organism. It is the most common
ciliates, characterized by the presence of cilia, nuclear dimorphism and unique type of
sexual reproduction (conjugation).
 Plasmodium is a genus of unicellular eukaryotes that are obligate parasites of vertebrates and
insects. They are causative agents of malaria
 Amoebae are protists that move using pseudopods and feed by phagocytosis. They are
widespread and mostly found in water, soil, and air.
 Euglena is a motile, single-celled (unicellular) organism that is commonly found in aquatic
habitats. Have Chloroplast: Contains the green pigment chlorophyll that helps them to produce
food using sunlight by photosynthesis
Most fungi are multicellular eukaryotic organisms. As eukaryotes, a typical fungal cell contains
a true nucleus and many membrane-bound organelles.
 The only unicellular fungi are the yeasts which includes brewer's yeast or baker's yeast
(Saccharomyces cerevisiae) as well as the yeast-like organism- Candida species that
causes thrush in humans (Candida is the agents of thrush, a common fungal infection).
o Thrush is a common yeast infection that can occur on different parts of the body.
o It is caused by a yeast overgrowth known as candida albicans. Vaginal thrush can
cause various symptoms including an itchy vagina or vulva, white vaginal
discharge and stinging or burning.
 Like animals, fungi are heterotrophs: They use complex organic compounds as a source
of carbon.
 As with animal cells, the fungal storage polysaccharide is glycogen rather than starch, as
found in plants.
 Fungi are mostly saprobes, organisms that derive nutrients from decaying organic matter.
 They obtain their nutrients from dead or decomposing organic matter, mainly plant
material.
  Nutritionally fungi can be saprophytic, symbiotic or parasitic. Fungi establish parasitic
relationships with plants and animals
 Some Fungi live on or in living organisms, as parasites. Others live on dead material as
saprobionts, organisms that digest their food externally and absorb the products.
 Their body is composed mycelium the collection of very fine strands/ individual
microscopic filament called hyphae. The hyphae are not ‘compartmentalized’ into cell
each is ‘multinucleate’ – the cytoplasm contains many nuclei
 Fungi have many commercial applications. The food industry uses yeasts in baking,
brewing, and wine making. Many industrial compounds are byproducts of fungal
fermentation. Fungi are the source of many commercial enzymes and antibiotics.

Bacteria
Bacteria are single-celled prokaryotic microorganisms that lack a nuclear membrane
 Bacteria do not contain membrane-bound organelles such as mitochondria or
chloroplasts, as eukaryotes do. Lack a true nucleus, mitochondria, chloroplasts, and the
other organelles present in eukaryotic cells, such as the Golgi apparatus and endoplasmic
reticulum.
 They are ubiquitous and have a remarkable capacity to adapt to changing environments by
selection of spontaneous mutants .They can live in different places in your body and on
your skin. While some types of bacteria are harmless or even beneficial, others can cause
infections and disease.
 Five characteristics of bacteria include being unicellular, prokaryotic, microscopic,
lacking a nucleus, and having a plasma membrane.
 There are three notable common traits of bacteria, 1) lack of membrane-bound organelles,
2) unicellular and 3) small (usually microscopic) size.
 Bacteria have characteristic shapes (cocci, rods, spirals, etc.) and often occur in
characteristic aggregates (pairs, chains, tetrads, cluster, etc.). These traits are usually typical
for a genus and are diagnostically useful.
Are there universal ways of classifying bacteria?
Bacteria can be classified two ways
 Based on their shape.
 Based on cell wall composition i.e. whether or not they are coloured by Gram’s stain.
Gram staining works by differentiating bacteria by the chemical and physical properties
of their cell walls.

Bacteria have characteristic shapes. Bacteria are classified into five groups according to their
basic shapes:
o Spherical (cocci round or ellipsoidal cells, such as Staphylococcus aureus or
Streptococcus, respectively)
o Rod shaped (bacilli such as Bacillus and Clostridium species
o spiral (spirilla), long, filamentous branched cells
o comma-shaped (vibrios such as Vibrio cholerae
o Corkscrew (spirochaetes such as Treponema pallidum.
They can exist as single cells, in pairs, chains or clusters (figure below).

Gram staining is an essential staining technique in microbiology that scientists have used for
hundreds of years. It’s named after Danish bacteriologist Hans Christian Gram, who first
introduced it in 1882, mainly to identify organisms causing pneumonia.
  This test gives two categories:
• Gram-positive – these bacteria are stained purple by Gram’s stain
• Gram-negative – these bacteria are stained pink by Gram’s stain
Because Gram’s stain produces different results with different types of bacteria, it is called a
differential stain

There are three general steps involved in a Gram stain test, including:

 Collecting the sample.

 Processing the sample.
 Examining the sample.

The Gram staining process includes four basic steps, including:

1. Heat fix attach bacteria to slide
2. Applying a primary stain (crystal violet).
3. Adding a mordant (Gram's iodine).
4. Rapid decolorization with ethanol, acetone or a
mixture of both.
5. Counterstaining with safranin.

This difference in staining is due to the difference in structure of the cell wall of the different
bacteria. Gram-negative bacteria do not react to the Gram stain due to their thin peptidoglycan
layer and outer lipid layer. Gram-negative bacteria have much less peptidoglycan in their cell
walls. This is the part of the wall that absorbs the stain. They also have a membrane outside the
peptidoglycan cell wall, which Gram-positive bacteria do not have. This outer membrane
secretes endotoxins (a type of toxin that is a structural component of these bacteria) and is also
quite resistant to many antibiotics. This makes diseases caused by Gram-negative bacteria more
difficult to treat. Gram-negative bacteria, on the whole, cause more serious diseases, although
there are exceptions – the bacterium that causes tuberculosis is a Gram-positive bacterium.

1. What are bacterial cells like?

In the previous section, we said bacteria are found in every ecosystem – they are pretty well
everywhere around you – and everywhere inside you as well! There are ten bacterial cells
inside you for every one of your own cells. Most of these are found in the large intestine.

A. Cell Structure

 Prokaryotes have a nucleoid (nuclear body) rather than an enveloped nucleus and lack
membrane-bound cytoplasmic organelles. The plasma membrane in prokaryotes
performs many of the functions carried out by membranous organelles in eukaryotes.

B. Surface Structures

 Flagella: The flagella of motile bacteria differ in structure from eukaryotic flagella. A
basal body anchored in the plasma membrane and cell wall gives rise to a
cylindrical protein filament. The flagellum moves by whirling about its long axis. The
number and arrangement of flagella on the cell are diagnostically useful.
 Pili (Fimbriae): Pili are slender, hair like, proteinaceous appendages on the surface of
many (particularly Gram-negative) bacteria. They are important in adhesion to host
surfaces.
 Capsules: Some bacteria form a thick outer capsule of high-molecular-weight,
viscous polysaccharide gel; others have more amorphous slime layers. Capsules
confer resistance to phagocytosis.
All bacteria do have
 a cell wall (but it is not made from cellulose like plant cell walls and instead is made
from a substance called peptidoglycan, which makes it rigid)
 a cell membrane
 cytoplasm
 Ribosomes and DNA.

Important Chemical Components of Surface Structures

 Cell Wall Peptidoglycans: Both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria possess cell
wall peptidoglycans, which confer the characteristic cell shape and provide the cell with
mechanical protection.
o Peptidoglycans are unique to prokaryotic organisms and consist of a glycan
backbone of muramic acid and glucosamine (both N-acetylated), and peptide chains
highly cross-linked with bridges in Gram-positive bacteria (e.g., Staphylococcus
aureus) or partially cross-linked in Gram-negative bacteria (e.g., Escherichia coli).
The cross-linking transpeptidase enzymes are some of the targets for b-lactam
antibiotics.
o Teichoic Acids: Teichoic acids are phosphate polymers bearing a strong negative
charge. They are covalently linked to the peptidoglycan in some Gram-positive
bacteria. They are strongly antigenic, but are generally absent in Gram-negative
bacteria.
o Lipoteichoic Acids: Lipoteichoic acids as membrane teichoic acids are polymers of
amphiphitic glycophosphates with the lipophilic glycolipid and anchored in the
 cytoplasmic membrane. They are antigenic, cytotoxic and adhesins (e.g.,
Streptococcus pyogenes).
o Lipopolysaccharides: One of the major components of the outer membrane of Gram-
negative bacteria is lipopolysaccharide (endotoxin), a complex molecule consisting
of a lipid A anchor, a polysaccharide core, and chains of carbohydrates. Sugars in
the polysaccharide chains confer serologic specificity.

C. Cytoplasmic Structures

o Plasma Membrane: The bacterial plasma membrane is composed primarily of

protein and phospholipid (about 3:1). It performs many functions, including
transport, biosynthesis, and energy transduction.
o Organelles: The bacterial cytoplasm is densely packed with 70S ribosomes. Other
granules represent metabolic reserves (e.g., poly-β-hydroxybutyrate,
polysaccharide, polymetaphosphate, and metachromatic granules).
o Endospores: Bacillus and Clostridium species can produce endospores: heat-
resistant, dehydrated resting cells that are formed intracellularly and contain a
genome and all essential metabolic machinery. The endospore is encased in a
complex protective spore coat.

Surface Appendages

Two types of surface appendage can be recognized on certain bacterial species: the flagella,
which are organs of locomotion, and pili (Latin hairs), which are also known as fimbriae (Latin
fringes). Flagella occur on both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, and their presence
can be useful in identification. For example, they are found on many species of bacilli but rarely
on cocci. In contrast, pili occur almost exclusively on Gram-negative bacteria and are found on
only a few Gram-positive organisms (e.g., Corynebacterium renale).