TERM 1

Week 4 to 5 (Regular)
01 Jan 2024 - 14 Jan 2024

Junior College Year 1

A Levels Higher 2 (H2) Syllabus 9729

Chemistry
Mole Concept & Stoichiometry

Name

Class

School
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Subject content
The Mole Concept and Stoichiometry

Content

• Relative masses of atoms and molecules

• The mole, the Avogadro constant
• The calculation of empirical and molecular formulae
• Reacting masses and volumes (of solutions and gases)

Learning Outcomes

Candidates should be able to:

[the term relative formula mass or Mr will be used for ionic compounds]

(a) define the terms relative atomic, isotopic, molecular and formula mass

(b) define the term mole in terms of the Avogadro constant

(c) calculate the relative atomic mass of an element given the relative abundances of its isotopes

(d) define the terms empirical and molecular formula

(e) calculate empirical and molecular formulae using combustion data or composition by mass

(f) write and/or construct balanced equations

(g) perform calculations, including use of the mole concept, involving:

(i) reacting masses (from formulae and equations)

(ii) volumes of gases (e.g. in the burning of hydrocarbons)

(iii) volumes and concentrations of solutions

[when performing calculations, candidates’ answers should reflect the number of significant
figures given or asked for in the question]

(h) deduce stoichiometric relationships from calculations such as those in (g)

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Lesson 1: Complete concepts 1 to 3.
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Concept 1. Relative masses

➢ Masses at the atomic and molecular scale are very small and are inconvenient to report in
S.I. units (the kilogram).

➢ Therefore, we use a relative scale to represent the masses of atoms and molecules. The
scale chosen by the SI and the IUPAC compares against the mass of a carbon-12 atom.

The relative atomic mass (symbol: Ar) of an element is the average mass of an atom of the
1
element relative to 12 times the mass of a carbon-12 atom.

➢ The relative atomic masses, to 1 decimal place, can be found in the Periodic Table of
Elements in the Data Booklet.

➢ All relative masses have no units as they are ratios of masses.

➢ The word “average” is important in the definition due to the presence of isotopes (atoms
of same element with same number of protons but different number of neutrons). The Ar
takes into consideration the relative abundance of the isotopes on Earth.

➢ If we are only referring to one particular isotope, we use the term relative isotopic mass.

The relative isotopic mass (symbol: Ar) of an isotope is the mass of an atom of the isotope
1
relative to 12 times the mass of a carbon-12 atom.

➢ At the H2 level, unless extra information is given, the relative isotopic mass can be taken
to be equal to the mass number (total number of protons and neutrons) of the isotope.

Why are electrons not calculated

in the mass number?
Worked Example 1

Boron naturally exists as 18.9 % of 10B and 81.1 % of 11B. Calculate the relative atomic mass of
boron.

Solution
18.9 81.1
Ar(B) = × 10 + × 11 = 10.8 (1 d.p.)
100 100

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Conceptual Check

Question 2

A particular type of stainless steel has the following composition.

Element 55
Fe 57
Fe 52
Cr

Composition (%) 38 32 12

Based on the information, what is the relative atomic mass of iron?

38 32
Ar(Fe) = × 55 + × 57 = 55.9 (1 d.p.)
70 70

Question 3

The two stable isotopes of helium are shown below.

isotope of He relative isotopic mass

3
He 3.016 029 3
4
He 4.002 603 3

A particular source of helium has a relative mass of 4.002 595 9. Calculate the percentage of
He in the source.
3

Suppose there is x % of 3He present.

Then there is (100 – x) % of 4He present.

x 100 – x
100
(3.016 029 3) + 100 (4.002 603 3) = 4.002 595 9

x = 7.50 × 10–4

That is, there is 7.50 × 10–4 % (or 0.000 750 %) of 3He present in the mixture.

[Tutor’s note: this is from A Level 2014, with the context about hydrothermal vents removed.
Again, there is the use of more precise isotopic masses.]

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➢ Larger entities, like molecules and ionic compounds, also have relative masses.

The relative molecular mass (symbol: Mr) of a simple molecular substance is the average
1
mass of one molecule relative to 12 times the mass of a carbon-12 atom.

The relative formula mass (symbol: Mr) of an ionic substance is the average mass of one
1
formula unit of the substance relative to 12 times the mass of a carbon-12 atom.

➢ The Mr of a substance is the sum of the Ar of the constituent atoms.

Conceptual Check

Question 4

Which statement is correct?

A The relative formula mass of the chlorine molecule is given by the following expression:

average mass of all chlorine molecules

1
the mass of one atom of carbon-12
12
B The relative isotopic mass of lithium-7 is given by the following expression:

average mass of all isotopes of lithium

1
the mass of one atom of carbon-12
12
C The relative atomic mass of oxygen is given by the following expression:

average mass of one atom of oxygen

1
the mass of one atom of carbon-12
12
D The relative molecular mass of a compound E is given by the following expression:

average mass of one atom of E

1
the mass of one atom of carbon-12
12
( C)

Fundamental Questions for Consolidation

1. Define the terms relative atomic mass, relative isotopic mass, relative molecular mass
and relative formula mass.
2. How do you calculate the relative atomic mass of an element given its relative
abundance (and vice versa)?

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Concept 2. The mole

THE AVOGADRO CONSTANT

➢ The mole is the S.I. unit for measuring amount of substance.

A mole of substance is the amount that contains 6.02 × 1023 particles of that substance.

The quantity 6.02 × 1023 mol–1 is termed the Avogadro’s constant, L.

number of particles
amount (mol) =
6.02 × 1023 mol–1

➢ The particle of interest could range from atoms, molecules, ions, formula units, electrons,
protons, neutrons etc.

➢ Note that the amount of any substance is proportional to its quantity.

Conceptual Check

Question 5

1. Fill in the blanks with the correct quantity.

1.5 mol of H2O molecules contains ………………………… number of water molecules;

………………………… number of hydrogen atoms;

2. State the particles of interest in each case.

(a) One mole of carbon consists of 6.02 × 1023 …………………… of carbon;

(b) One mole of sulfur trioxide consists of 2.41 × 1024 …………………… of SO3;

(c) Two mole of methane consist of 1.204 × 1024 …………………… of CH4;

(d) One mole of magnesium chloride consists of 6.02 × 1023 ……………………………. of MgCl2,

but 1.204 × 1024 of …………………………

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3. Find the amount of particles (on left) and its corresponding number of particles (on right).

(a) ……………… mol CO2 molecules = ………………………………… CO2 molecules

= 1.23 × 1022 oxygen atoms

(b) 0.0375 mol of Ag2SO4 = ………………………………… Ag+ ions

= ………………………………… ions

Question 6

Which of the following contains the same number of particles stated as Avogadro’s constant?
Place a tick beside those options.

No. number of particles in certain amount of substances √?

1 ions in 0.50 mol CO

2 molecules in 0.50 mol CO

3 formula units in 0.50 mol CO

4 atoms in 1.00 mol CO

5 ions in 0.20 mol CaCO3

6 ions in 0.50 mol CaCO3

7 molecules in 1.00 mol CaCO3

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Relating mass and amount of substance

The molar mass, M, is the mass of one mole of any substance.

mass (g) m
amount (mol) = -1 =
molar mass (g mol ) M

➢ The molar mass of a substance is obtained by the sum of the relative atomic masses of the
elements present in the substance.
➢ Note that the molar mass has units while relative molecular mass has no units.

Unit Conversion:

1 mg = 10–3 g
Conceptual Check 1 kg = 103 g

Question 7 1 tonne = 103 kg = 106 g

Calculate the mass of SO2 gas present if the molecules contain 3.0 × 1022 atoms of oxygen.

3.0 × 1022
number of SO2 molecules = 2
= 1.50 × 1022

1.50 × 1022
amount of SO2 = mol = 0.0249 mol
6.02 × 1023

mass of SO2 = [32.1 + 2(16.0)] × 0.0249 = 1.60 g

Question 8

Which statement about one mole of sodium metal is true?

A It has the same mass as one mole of 12C.

B It has the same number of atoms as 64.1 g of sulfur dioxide, SO2.

1
C It has the same number of atoms as 12 mol of 12C.

1
D It has the same number of atoms as 3 mol of water.

( D)
1
1 H2O molecule contains 3 atoms. Thus, 3 mol of H2O contains 1 mol of atoms.

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Question 9

Which one of the following dissociates into the same number of ions as atoms in 0.5 g of
hydrogen gas?

A 0.2 mol H2SO4 B 0.125 mol HNO3

C 0.1 mol Al2(SO4)3 D 0.05 mol MgCl2

( C)

0.5 g of H2(g) contains 0.25 mol. Since 1 H2 molecule contains 2 H atoms, 0.5 g of H2(g) contains
0.5 mol of atoms.

Since 1 Al2(SO4)3 contain 5 ions, 0.1 mol of Al2(SO4)3 contains 0.5 mol of ions.

Relating volume and amount of gases

Avogadro’s law

Under the same temperature and pressure, equal volume of gases contains the same
number of particles (or number of moles).

volume of gas (dm3 )

amount (mol) =
molar volume (dm3 mol-1 )

➢ The molar volume (Vm) of a gas is the volume occupied by

1 mole of gas. Unit Conversion:

o At room temperature and pressure, r.t.p. (20 °C, 1 1 m3 = 103 dm3 = 106 cm3
atm), molar volume of any gas is 24 dm3 mol–1. 1 atm = 101325 Pa
o At standard temperature and pressure, s.t.p. (0 °C, 1
1 bar = 100000 Pa
bar), molar volume of any gas is 22.7 dm3 mol–1.
➢ Note that the amount of any gaseous substance is proportional to its volume at the same
temperature and pressure.

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Conceptual Check

Question 10

Which of the following contains the smallest number of stated atoms at room temperature
and pressure?

A oxygen atoms in 36 dm3 of NO2

B sulfur atoms in 36 dm3 of SO2

C carbon atoms in 33 g of CO2

D nitrogen atoms in 33 g of N2O

( C)

Question 11

For indoor air quality safety standards, the maximum safe tolerance level of carbon monoxide
gas is 6.00 × 10–4 m3 of carbon monoxide in 1 m3 of air. Given that a typical room measures 4
m by 4 m by 3 m, calculate the number of molecules of carbon monoxide present in the room
at this tolerance level at standard temperature and pressure.

volume of room = 4 × 4 × 3 = 48 m3

volume of CO = (6.0 × 10–4)(48) = 0.0288 m3

0.0288 × 103
n(CO) = 22.7
= 1.269 mol

number of CO molecules = 1.269 × (6.02 × 1023) = 7.64 × 1023

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Question 12

A volume of ethane, C2H6 at room temperature and pressure has a mass of 15 g. What is the
mass of an equal volume of propene, C3H6 at room temperature and pressure?
15
n(ethane) = 2(12.0) + 6(1.0) = 0.500 mol

By Avogadro’s law, since the volumes of ethane and propene are equal,

n(propene) = n(ethane) = 0.500 mol

mass of propene = 0.500 × [3(12.0) + 6(1.0)] = 21.0 g

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Concentrations of aqueous solutions

➢ A solution is a homogeneous mixture obtained when a soluble substance (known as solute)
is dissolved in a solvent.

The concentration of a solution is the amount of solute dissolved per unit volume of the
solution, usually expressed in mol dm–3.

amount (mol) = concentration (mol dm-3) × volume (dm3)

Conceptual Check

Question 13

The relative formula mass of iron(III) nitrate nonahydrate, Fe(NO3)3 ⋅ 9 H2O, is 404.0.

A solution of iron(III) nitrate is prepared by dissolving 12.7 g of iron(III) nitrate nonahydrate

in water, and making the solution up to 250 cm3 with deionised water.

Which expression below shows the total concentration of ions in this solution?
12.7 × 4 × 1000 12.7 × 13 × 1000
A B
404.0 × 250 404.0 × 250

12.7 × 13 × 250 12.7 × 4 × 250

C D
404.0 × 1000 404.0 × 1000

( A)

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Question 14

6.45 g of sodium thiosulfate pentahydrate, Na2S2O3 ⋅ 5 H2O, is dissolved in deionised water and
the volume is made up to 250 cm3 in a volumetric flask.

(a) What is the concentration of the sodium thiosulfate solution, Na2S2O3, in mol dm-3?

(b) What is the concentration of sodium ions in the solution in mol dm-3?

(c) If 40.00 cm3 of the solution is extracted and made up to 250 cm3 in another volumetric
flask using deionised water, what is the concentration of thiosulfate ions in the new solution
in mol dm-3?

Solutions
6.45
(a) n(Na2S2O3 ⋅ 5 H2O) = 2(23.0) + 2(32.1) + 3(16.0) + 5[2(1.0) + 16.0] = 2.599 × 10–2 mol

2.599 × 10–2
concentration of Na2S2O3 ⋅ 5 H2O = 0.250
= 0.104 mol dm–3

(b) [Na+] = 0.104 × 2 = 0.208 mol dm–3

(c) n(S2O32–) in 250 cm3 of diluted solution = n(S2O32-) in 40.00 cm3 of original solution
40.00
= ( 1000 )(0.104)

= 4.16 × 10–3 mol

[S2O32–] in diluted solution = 4.16 × 10–3 / 0.250 = 0.0166 mol dm–3

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Question 15

The recommended amount of free chlorine present in a swimming pool is that it should be
greater than 1 part per million. This means that there should be at least 1 molecule or ion of
free chlorine for every 1 000 000 molecules of water for it to be of an acceptable quality.

Calculate the concentration, in mol dm-3, of free chlorine in a solution describing as containing
1 part per million.

[Assume the density of water is 1.0 g cm-3.]

1 free chlorine in 1 000 000 H2O molecules

We can equivalently imply that 1 mol of free chlorine is found in 106 mol of water.

mass of water = 106 × (2 + 16) = 1.80 × 107 mol

volume of water = 1.80 × 107 cm3 = 1.80 × 104 dm3

1
[free chlorine] = = 5.56 x 10-5 mol dm-3
1.80 × 104

Fundamental Questions for Consolidation

1. List down the four formulae that relates amount of substance to number of particles,
mass, volume of gases and concentration of aqueous solutions, with their relevant units.
2. How do you calculate the mass of an element given the mass of a compound?
3. How do you perform calculations to find empirical formula? (What the headers for the
table used to calculate empirical formula?)

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Concept 3. Empirical and molecular formulas

➢ The empirical formula of a compound refers to the formula in the simplest whole number
ratio of the atoms of different elements present in one unit of the compound.

➢ The molecular formula of a compound refers to the actual number of atoms of each
element present in one unit of the compound.

molecular formula empirical formula

C4H10

C6H12O6

Na2O

➢ The percentage by mass of an element in a substance is calculated using:

Mr of element in a unit of compound

percentage by mass of an element = × 100%
Mr of a unit of compound

Worked Example 16

0.200 g of a hydrocarbon A (compound containing carbon and hydrogen only) is burnt in

excess oxygen, producing carbon dioxide and water only. The mass of carbon dioxide
obtained in this reaction is 0.5867 g.

If the relative molecular mass of A is 30.0, determine the molecular formula of A.

Solution

mass of C atoms in A = mass of C atoms in CO2

12.0
= × 0.5867 = 0.160 g
12.0 + 2(16.0)

mass of H atoms in A = mass of H atoms in H2O

= 0.200 – 0.160 = 0.040 g

element C H

mass in 0.200 g of A / g 0.160 0.040

0.160 0.040
amount / mol 12.0
= 1.333 × 10–2 1.0
= 4.00 × 10–2

simplest ratio 1 3

Therefore, the empirical formula is CH3.

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Let the molecular formula of A be (CH3)n.

n(12.0 + 3(1.0)) = 30.0

n = 2.

The molecular formula is C2H6.

Conceptual Check

Question 17

0.500 g of an organic compound X containing carbon, hydrogen and oxygen undergoes

complete combustion to give 0.6875 g of CO2 and 0.5625 g of H2O.

(a) Determine the empirical formula of X.

(b) If the relative molecular mass of X is 32.0, determine the molecular formula of X.

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Question 18

An oxide of lead has the name ‘red lead’ due to its appearance in the solid state. When ‘red
lead’ is heated, it loses 2.34 % of its mass as oxygen, and another oxide called ‘yellow lead’ is
left behind as a residue. ‘Yellow lead’ contains 7.17 % oxygen by mass.

(a) Determine the empirical formula of ‘yellow lead’.

In 100 g of ‘yellow lead’,

The empirical formula of ‘yellow lead’ is PbO.

(b) By determining the empirical formula of ‘red lead’, write a balanced equation for its
thermal decomposition.

If 100 g of ‘yellow lead’ is left behind as residue,

100
mass of ‘red lead’ initially = 100 × = 102.40 g
100 – 2.34

In 102.40 g of red lead,

‘Red lead’ has empirical formula Pb3O4.

2 Pb3O4 → 6 PbO + O2

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Concept 4. Stoichiometry
➢ Stoichiometry refers to the relationship between the amount of reactants and products
in a chemical reaction through the coefficients of the substances in a balanced chemical
equation.
7
C2H6 + 2 O2 → 2 CO2 + 3 H2O

➢ The numbers in front of each species are known as stoichiometric coefficients.

➢ These values are helpful in calculating the amounts of reactants and products involved in
the reaction.
➢ For example, in the reaction above, we see that 1 mole of C2H6 undergoes combustion in
air to give 2 moles of CO2. We say that CO2 is produced from C2H6 in a 2 : 1 stoichiometric
ratio.

Worked Example 19

Consider the following balanced equation describing a reaction:

3 CuO(s) + 2 NH3(g) → N2(g) + 3 Cu(s) + 3 H2O(l)

If 30 dm3 of NH3 is reacted at r.t.p., calculate the mass of Cu produced.

Solution
30
n(NH3) = = 1.25 mol
24

Since n(NH3) : n(Cu) = 2 : 3,

3
n(Cu) = × 1.25 = 1.875 mol
2

mass of Cu = 1.875 × 63.5 = 119 g

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Conceptual Check

Question 20

Diallyl sulfide, C6H10S (Mr = 114), can be isolated from garlic. It reacts with an excess amount of
oxygen to produce carbon dioxide, water and sulfur dioxide as the only products.

(i) Write a balanced equation for the reaction of diallyl sulfide with oxygen gas.
19
C6H10S + O2 → 6 CO2 + 5 H2O + SO2
2

(ii) Calculate the mass of carbon dioxide produced from the reaction of 0.100 g of diallyl
sulfide with excess oxygen gas.
0.100
n(C6H10S) = = 8.772 × 10–4 mol
114

n(CO2) = 8.772 × 10–4 × 6 = 5.263 × 10–3 mol

mass of CO2 = (5.264 × 10–3) × 44.0 = 0.232 g

Question 21

A solid X(s) undergoes thermal decomposition into Y(g) and Z(s) as follows.

X(s) → Y(g) + Z(s)

In an experiment, 4.90 g of X produced 596 cm3 of Y(g) and 3.81 g of Z(s) at room temperature
and pressure.

Which of the following is most likely the gas Y?

A CO B O2 C CO2 D NO2

( C)

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Question 22

Airbags in cars contain sodium azide, NaN3 and potassium nitrate, KNO3 only. On collision,
these airbags inflate rapidly due to the production of nitrogen. The nitrogen is formed in two
consecutive steps, according to the following unbalanced equations.

(i) Balance the following equations.

Step 1: …… NaN3 → …… Na + …… N2

Step 2: …… Na + …… KNO3 → …… K2O + 5 Na2O + …… N2

(ii) When a certain mass of sodium azide undergoes the reactions above, the airbags
inflated by 594 cm3, measured at standard temperature and pressure.

Calculate the mass of sodium azide that has reacted.

Let x mol be the amount of NaN3 reacted.

n(N2) produced by step 1 = 1.5x mol

n(Na) produced by step 1 = x mol

n(N2) produced by step 2 due to Na = 0.1x mol

total n(N2) produced by both steps = 1.5x + 0.1x = 1.6x mol

594
n(N2) produced = 22700 = 2.617 × 10–2 mol

Thus,

1.6x = 0.02617

x = 0.01635 mol

mass of NaN3 produced = (1.635 × 10–2) × (23.0 + 3(14.0)) = 1.06 g (3 s.f.)

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LIMITING AND EXCESS REACTANTS

➢ When carrying out chemical reactions, the reactants added may not be in stoichiometric
amounts.

➢ One or more reactants may be in excess, while one specific reactant not in excess is called
the limiting reactant, and is consumed completely in the reaction.

➢ The maximum or theoretical yield of a product is thus determined based on the limiting
reactant.

➢ When the question provides sufficient information to calculate the amount of two
reactants, consider if any reagent is excess or limiting.

Worked Example 23

Consider the reaction

2 C2H6(g) + 7 O2(g) → 4 CO2(g) + 6 H2O(l)

The reacting mixture contains 1 mol of C2H6 and 5 mol of O2.

Calculate the remaining volume of gas after the reaction is complete at room temperature
and pressure.

Solution

By the balanced equation, 1 mol of C2H6 reacts with 3.5 mol of O2. Since the amount of O2
present is 5 mol > 3.5 mol, this tells us that O2 is in excess by 1.5 mol. Therefore, C2H6 is limiting.

2 C2H6(g) + 7 O2(g) → 4 CO2(g) + 6 H2O(l)

initial amount / mol 1 5 0 0

change in amount / mol –1 –3.5 +2 +3

final amount / mol 0 1.5 2 3

There is a total of 3.5 mol of gases after the reaction is complete.

remaining volume of gas = 3.5 × 24

= 84.0 dm3

The change in amount should follow the same ratio as the stoichiometry.

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Conceptual Check

Question 24

A mixture of 15 cm3 of hydrogen and 20 cm3 of oxygen is ignited to give water vapour. What
is the volume of the remaining gaseous mixture?

By Avogadro’s law, 15 cm3 of H2 requires 7.5 cm3 of O2 for complete reaction. Since 20 cm3 of O2 is
present, therefore O2 is in excess.

2 H2(g) + O2(g) 2 H2O(l)

→

initial volume / cm3 15 20 0

change in volume / cm3 –15 –7.5 +15

final volume / cm3 0 12.5 15

total remaining volume = excess O2 + H2O(g) product

=12.5 cm3 + 15 cm3 = 27.5 cm3

Question 25

18.75 cm3 of liquid ethanol, C2H5OH, (density 0.80 g cm-3) reacts with 8.0 g of sodium to
produce sodium ethoxide salt, C2H5O–Na+ and hydrogen gas. Calculate the volume of
hydrogen gas produced, in cm3, at room temperature and pressure.

amount of ethanol = 18.75 x 0.8 / 46 = 0.326 mol

amount of sodium = 8/23 = 0.348 mol

Ethanol is limiting while sodium is in excess.

volume of hydrogen gas produced = 0.163 x 24000 = 3910 cm3 (3 s.f.)

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PERCENTAGE YIELD
➢ The theoretical yield of a product refers to the mass of product calculated from
stoichiometry based on the amount of the limiting reactant used.

➢ The actual yield of a product refers to the mass of product obtained experimentally,
which is usually less than the theoretical yield. This incomplete reaction could be due to
reversibility in reactions, undesirable side reactions, etc.

actual yield
% yield = × 100%
theoretical yield

Worked Example 26

Ethanol can react with ethanoic acid to yield ethyl ethanoate.

CH3CH2OH(l) + CH3CO2H(l) → CH3CO2CH2CH3(l) + H2O(l)

(a) In an experiment, 23.0 g of ethanol and 36.0 g of ethanoic acid were used for reaction.
Calculate the theoretical yield of ethyl ethanoate.

(b) If 30.0 g of ethyl ethanoate were obtained in the above experiment, determine the
percentage yield of the reaction.

Solution
23.0
(a) n(ethanol) =
2(12.0) + 6(1.0) + 16.0

= 0.500 mol
36.0
n(ethanoic acid) =
2(12.0) + 4(1.0) + 2(16.0)

= 0.600 mol

Since 0.500 mol of ethanol reacts with 0.500 mol of ethanoic acid, but 0.600 mol of
ethanoic acid is present, then ethanoic acid is in excess.

theoretical n(ethyl ethanoate) = 0.500 mol

theoretical yield of ethyl ethanoate = 0.500 × [4(12.0) + 2(16.0) + 8(1.0)]

= 44.0 g
30.0
(b) percentage yield = × 100 %
44.0

= 68.2%

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PERCENTAGE PURITY
➢ Composition of impure substances can be found by reacting it with reactants of known
amount.

➢ The percentage purity is expressed as a percentage of the actual mass of compound in the
impure sample by stoichiometric calculations based on a balanced chemical equation.

➢ We can thus determine the purity of the substance by using the formula:

theoretical mass
% purity = × 100%
impure mass

Worked Example 27

When 1.00 g of an impure sample of dolomite, CaMg(CO3)2 was completely dissolved in excess
hydrochloric acid, the carbon dioxide evolved was bubbled into aqueous calcium hydroxide
where 0.80 g of white insoluble solid was isolated. Calculate the percentage purity of the
dolomite.

CaMg(CO3)2 + 4 HCl → CaCl2 + MgCl2 + 2 CO2 + 2 H2O

CO2 + Ca(OH)2 → CaCO3 + H2O

Solution
0.80
n(CaCO3) =
40.1 + 12.0 + 3(16.0)

= 7.992 × 10–3 mol

= n(CO2) reacted
1
n(CaMg(CO3)2) = × (7.992 × 10–3)
2

= 3.996 × 10–3 mol

mass of CaMg(CO3)2 = (3.996 × 10–3) × [40.1 + 24.3 + 2(12.0) + 6(16.0)]

= 0.7369 g
0.7369
percentage purity = × 100 %
1.00

= 73.7 %

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BURNING OF HYDROCARBONS (EUDIOMETRY)

➢ A hydrocarbon is an organic compound that contains only carbon and hydrogen atoms.

➢ A method to deduce the molecular formula of the hydrocarbon is to subject it to complete

combustion (using excess oxygen gas) and perform calculations based on the volume of
gas remaining.

➢ The balanced chemical equation for combustion of a hydrocarbon CxHy is:

y y
CxHy(g) + (x + 4) O2(g) → x CO2(g) + 2 H2O(l)

➢ Recall that Avogadro’s Law states that the amount of gas is proportional to its volume
under the same temperature and pressure. Hence, the stoichiometric analysis can be
performed based on gas volumes instead of amount (mol).

➢ Under room temperature and pressure, water exists in the liquid state and will not be
considered in analysis of volume of gases.

➢ After the reaction is complete, the remaining gases will be a mixture of the excess oxygen
gas used and the product carbon dioxide gas.

➢ Usually, these gases will be passed through a base (e.g. NaOH(aq) or KOH(aq)) to remove
the acidic carbon dioxide gas. The decrease in the volume gives the volume of carbon
dioxide gas present in the gaseous mixture.

OH–(aq) + CO2(g) → HCO3–(aq)

➢ Based on the volumes of gases that reacted and produced by the reaction, one should be
able to deduce the values of x and y, giving the molecular formula of the hydrocarbon.

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Worked Example 28

10 cm3 of a gaseous hydrocarbon, CxHy, was burnt in 130 cm3 of oxygen. The total volume of
the mixture after combustion was 120 cm3. When the resultant gaseous mixture was passed
over aqueous potassium hydroxide, the volume decreased by 20 cm 3. All volume
measurements were taken at room temperature and pressure.

Determine the molecular formula of the hydrocarbon.

Solution
y y
CxHy(g) + (x + 4) O2(g) → x CO2(g) + 2
H2O(l)

Initial volume / cm3 10 130 0 -

Change in volume / cm3 –10 –(130 – 100) = –30 +20 -

Final volume / cm3 0 120 – 20 = 100 20 -

 Stoichiometric ratio 1 : 3 : 2 -

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Conceptual Check

Question 29

In an experiment, 20.0 cm3 of a gaseous hydrocarbon, CxHy, was exploded with 200 cm3 of
oxygen. When cooled to room temperature, the volume of the gases collected was 160 cm 3.
When the gases were passed through aqueous sodium hydroxide solution, the volume
decreased to 100 cm3.

What is the molecular formula of the hydrocarbon? (All the volumes were measured at r.t.p.)

Hence x = 3
y
3+ =5 ⇒ y=8
4

Hence, the formula of the hydrocarbon is C3H8.

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Question 30

AxOy, a gaseous oxide of an element A, gives an acidic gas AO2 on combustion with excess
oxygen. When 10 cm3 of AxOy is burnt in 40 cm3 of excess oxygen, the total volume of gas after
cooling to the original temperature is unchanged. On shaking with excess aqueous potassium
hydroxide, the volume is reduced to 20 cm3. All volumes are measured at the same
temperature and pressure.

Determine the value of x and y.

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Question 31

20.0 cm3 of a hydrocarbon was exploded with an excess of oxygen. A contraction of 50.0 cm3
occurred. On treating the resulting mixture with excess sodium hydroxide, a further
contraction of 80.0 cm3 occurred. All volumes were measured at room temperature and
pressure. Deduce the molecular formula of the hydrocarbon.

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Fundamental Questions for Consolidation

1. Write down the equation representing the complete combustion of hydrocarbon CxHy
under room conditions.
2. Explain why volume of gases can be used to deduce stoichiometric ratios instead of
using amount of substances.
3. What contributed to the decrease in volume of gas during the reaction?
4. How do you use the ‘ICF’ table to deduce the molecular formula of the hydrocarbon?
5. What is the purpose of passing the resultant gas mixture (after the reaction) over a
strong base such as NaOH(aq)?

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Moles, Stoichiometry, Redox Summary

Relative Masses

➢ The relative atomic mass (Ar) of an element is defined as the ratio of the average mass of
1
one atom of the element to 12 of the mass of an atom of the 12C isotope.

➢ The relative isotopic mass of a particular isotope is defined as the ratio of mass of one
1
atom of the isotope to 12 of the mass of an atom of the 12C isotope.

➢ The relative molecular mass (Mr) of a covalently bonded substance is defined as the ratio
1
of the average mass of one molecule of the substance to of the mass of an atom of the
12

C isotope.
12

➢ The relative formula mass of an ionic compound is defined as the ratio of the average
1
mass of one formula unit of the compound to 12 of the mass of an atom of the 12C isotope.

➢ Note that relative masses do not have units.

Question 1

Naturally occurring silicon is a mixture of three isotopes, 28Si, 29Si and 30Si. The relative atomic
mass of silicon is 28.109, and the total percentage abundance of two of the isotopes is 7.8%.

What could be the relative abundance of each of the three isotopes?

[Ans: 92.2% 28Si, 4.7% 29Si, 3.1% 30Si]

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The Mole Concept

Number of Particles Mass of Substance

number of particles mass (g)
amount (mol) = amount (mol) =
6.02 × 10 mol
23 –1
molar mass (g mol-1 )

Concentration (Aqueous Solutions) Volume of Gases

amount (mol) = conc. (mol dm-3) × vol. (dm3) volume of gas (dm3 )
amount (mol) =
molar volume (dm3 mol-1 )

Question 2 [Deducing Empirical Formula]

Ascorbic acid contains C, H and O. Combustion of 5.24 g of ascorbic acid yields 7.86 g of CO2
and 2.14 g of H2O. The molar mass of ascorbic acid is 176.0 g mol-1.

Determine the molecular formula of ascorbic acid.

[Ans: C6H8O6]

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Stoichiometry

➢ Stoichiometry refers to the relationship between the amount of reactants and products
in a chemical reaction through the coefficients of the substances in a balanced chemical
equation.
actual yield
% yield = × 100%
theoretical yield

theoretical mass
% purity = × 100%
impure mass

Question 3 [Excess & Limiting Reagents]

4.60 g of sodium was added to 9.40 g of water in an open beaker, and a violent reaction takes
place.
1
Na(s) + H2O(l) → NaOH(aq) + 2 H2(g)

What is the mass of the mixture in the beaker after the reaction is complete?

[Ans: 13.8 g]
4.60
n(Na) = 23.0 = 0.200 mol

9.40
n(H2O) = = 0.522 mol
2(1.0) + 16.0

Since 0.200 mol of Na reacts with 0.200 mol of H2O, and 0.522 mol H2O is present, we
conclude that H2O is in excess and Na is limiting.

Since n(H2) : n(Na) = 1 : 2,

1
n(H2) produced = 2 × 0.200 = 0.100 mol

mass of H2 produced = 0.100 × 2(1.0) = 0.200 g

mass left behind = 4.60 + 9.40 – 0.200 = 13.8 g

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Combustion of Hydrocarbons
y y
Cx Hy (g) + (x + ) O2 (g) → xCO2 (g) + H2 O(l)
4 2
➢ In such experiments, excess oxygen gas is always used to ensure complete combustion.
➢ At room temperature, complete combustion of hydrocarbons usually results in a
contraction of total volume:
change in vol. = change in vol. of CxHy + change in vol. of O2 + change in vol. of CO2
➢ Passing the remaining gases through NaOH(aq) or KOH(aq) removes acidic CO2(g).
contraction in vol. after passing through KOH = volume of CO2(g) produced
➢ Compare vol. of CxHy reacted : vol. of CO2 produced to find x.
➢ Compare vol. of CxHy reacted : vol. of O2 produced to find y.

Question 4

20 cm3 of gaseous hydrocarbon CxHy was completely burnt in 100 cm3 of oxygen gas. After
cooling to room temperature, the volume of the gaseous mixture was 80 cm 3. Subsequently,
the residual gas was passed through potassium hydroxide and the resultant volume was 20
cm3. All gas volumes are measured at room temperature and pressure.

What is the formula of the hydrocarbon CxHy?

[Ans: C3H4]

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