Semiconductor & Digital Electronics

Properties Conductor 28 Semiconductor 56 Insulator 119

Resistivity 10 − 10−8 Ωm
−2
10−5 − 106 Ωm 10 − 1019 Ωm
11

Conductivity 102 − 108 mho/m 10−6 − 104 mho/m 10−19 − 10−11 mho/m
Temp.
coefficient
of Positive Negative Negative
resistance
(𝛼)
Current Due to electrons and
Due to free electrons No current
holes
Energy band
diagram

Forbidden
≅ 0PV ≤ 3eV > 3eV
energy gap
Example Wood, plastic,
Pt, Al, Cu, Ag Ge, Si, GaAs, GaF2
Diamond, Mica

 Number of electrons reaching from valence band to conduction band : n =

Δ𝐸𝑔
AT 3/2 𝑒 − 2𝑘𝑇
 CLASSIFICATION OF SEMICONDUCTORS :

SEMICONDUCTOR
Intrinsic semiconductor Extrinsic semiconductor
(pure form of Ge, Si)𝑛𝑒 = 𝑛ℎ = 𝑛𝑖 N-type pentavalent P-type trivalent
impurity impurity
(p, As, S ets.) (Ga, B, In, AI)
donor impurity (𝑁𝐷 ) acceptor impurity
𝑛𝑒 ≫ 𝑛ℎ (𝑁𝐴 )
𝑛ℎ ≫ 𝑛𝑒

 MASS-ACTION LAW : 𝑛𝑖2 = 𝑛𝑒 × 𝑛𝑏

□ For 𝑁-type semiconductor 𝑛𝑒 ≅ 𝑁𝐷
□ For P – type semiconductor 𝑛ℎ ≅ 𝑁𝐴

CONDUCTION IN SEMICONDUCTOR

Intrinsic semiconductor p-type N-type

 𝑛𝑒 = 𝑛ℎ 𝑛ℎ ≫ 𝑛𝑒 𝑛𝑒 ≫ 𝑛ℎ
𝑗 = 𝑛𝑒 [𝑣𝑒 + 𝑣ℎ ] (current density) 𝑗 ≅ 𝑒 𝑛ℎ 𝑣ℎ 𝑗 ≅ 𝑒 𝑛ℎ 𝑣𝑒
1 1 1
𝜎 = 2 = 𝑒𝑛 [𝜇𝑒 + 𝜇ℎ ] (conductivity) 𝜎 = ≅ 𝑒 𝑛ℎ 𝜇ℎ 𝜎 = ≅ 𝑒 𝑛𝑒 𝜇𝑒
𝜌 𝜌

Intrinsic N-type p- type

semiconductor (pentavalent impurity) (Trivalent impurity)

Current due to
Mainly due to electrons Mainly due to holes
electron and hole

n 𝑒 = nn = nl nb << n𝑒 ( No ≈ ne ) nb >> n𝑒 ( N𝑗 ≈ 𝑛ℎ )

I = I𝑒 + Ih I≈I I ≈ Ih
Entirely neutral Entirely neutral Entirely neutral
Quantity of
Majority Electrons Minority Majority Holes Minority-
electrons and holes
Holes Electrons
are equal

P-N junction (At equilibrium condition)

Direction of diffusion current : P to N side and drift current : N to P side
If there is no biasing then diffusion current = drift current, So total current is zero
In junction N side is at high potential relative to the P side. This potential difference
tends to prevent the movement of electron from the N region into the P region. This
potential difference called a barrier potential.

COMPARISON BETWEEN FORWARD BASIC AND REVERSE BIAS

Forward Bias Reverse Bias

1 Potential Barrier reduces 1 Potential Bamier increase.

Width of depletion layer
2 Width of depletion layer decreases 2
increases.
3 P-N jn. provide very small resistance 3 P-N jn. provide high resistance
4 Forward current flows in the circuit 4 Very small current flows.
Order of forward current is milli Order of current is micro ampere
5 5
ampere. for Ge or ampere for Si.
Current flows mainly due Current flows mainly due
6 6
to majority carriers. to minority carriers.
7 Forward characteristic curves. 7 Reverse characteristic curve

Forward Resistance: Reverse Resistance :

8 𝛥𝑉1 𝛥𝑉2
𝑅1 = ≅ 100𝛺 𝑅𝑟 = ≅ 106 𝛺
𝛥𝐼𝑡 𝛥𝐿𝑟
Order of knee or cut in voltage
Breakdown voltage
Ge → 0.3 V
Ge → 25 V
9 Si → 0.7 V
Si → 35 V
Special point : Generally 𝑅r
𝑅r = 10 : 1 for Si
4
= 103 : 1 for Ge 𝑅f
𝑅f
 BREAKDOWN ARE OF TWO TYPES

Inner break down

Where covalent bonds of depletion layer, itself break, due to high electric field of very
high reverse voltage.

This phenomena take place in

(i) p – N junction having “ high doping”
(ii) p -N junction having thin depletion layer
Here P-N junction does not damage permanently "In D.C voltage stabilizer zener
phenomena is used":

Avalanche Break down

Here covalent bonds of depletion layers are broken by collision of "Minorities" which
acquire high kinetic energy from high electric field of very-very high reverse bias
voltage.
This phenomenon takes place in
(i) P - N junction having "Low doping"
(ii) P − N junction having thick depletion layer Here P − N junction damages
permanently due to abruptly increment of minorities during repetitive collisions.

APPLICATION OF DIODE
 Zener diode : It is highly doped p − n junction diode used as a voltage regulator.
 Photo diode : A p-n junction diode use to detect light signals operated in reverse
bias.
 LED : A p-n junction device that emits optical radiation under forward bias
conditions
 Solar cell : Generates emf of its own due to the effect of sun radiations.

HALF WAVE RECTIFIER

CENTER – TAP FULL WAVE RECTIFIER

FULL WAVE BRIDGE REACTIFIER

𝐼
RIPPLE FACTOR : 𝑟 = 𝐼𝑎𝑐
𝑑𝑐
 For HWR r= 1.21
 For FWR r = 0.48
𝑃𝑑𝑐 I2𝑑𝑐 𝑅𝐿
RECTIFIER EFFICIENCY: 𝜂 = = I2
𝑃ac rms (𝑅𝐹 +𝑅𝐿 )
40.6
 For HWR : 𝜂% = 𝑅
1+ 𝐹 𝑅0
𝑅1
 FWR 𝜂% = 81.2

FOR TRANSISTOR
𝑰𝑬 = 𝑰𝑩 + 𝑰𝑪

COMPARATIVE STUDY OF TRANSISTOR CONFIGURATIONS

1. Common Base (CB) 2. Common Emitter (CE) 3. Common Collector (CC)
CB CE CC
 Input
Low (100Ω) High (750Ω) 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑦 ℎ𝑖𝑔ℎ ≅ 750 𝑘Ω
Resistance
Output
Very High High Very High ≅ 750kΩ
resistance
(A or α) (A or β) (A or γ)
Current
Gain 𝐼𝑐 𝐼𝑐 𝐼𝐸
𝛼= <1 𝛽= <1 𝛾= >1
𝐼𝐸 𝐼𝐵 𝐼𝐸
𝑉𝑜 𝐼𝐶 𝑅𝐿 𝑉𝑜 𝐼𝐶 𝑅𝐿 𝑉𝑜 𝐼𝐶 𝑅𝐿
𝐴𝑣 = = 𝐴𝑣 = = 𝐴𝑣 = =
Voltage 𝑉𝐼 𝐼𝐸 𝑅𝑖 𝑉𝐼 𝐼𝐵 𝑅𝑖 𝑉𝐼 𝐼𝐸 𝑅𝑖
Gain 𝑅𝐿 𝑅𝐿 𝑅𝐿
𝐴𝑣 = 𝛼 ≅ 150 𝐴𝑣 = 𝛽 ≅ 500 𝐴𝑣 = 𝛾 <1
𝑅𝑖 𝑅𝑖 𝑅𝑖
P˙0 RL 𝑃0 𝑅L 𝑃0 𝑅L
Power Gain Ap = = 𝛼2 𝐴𝑝 = = 𝛽2 𝐴𝑝 = = 𝛾2
Pi Ri 𝑃𝑖 𝑅𝑖 𝑃𝑖 𝑅𝑖

Phase
difference
(between same phase Opposite phase same phase
output and
input)
For Audible For Impedance
Application For High Frequency
frequency Matching

TRANSISTOR CHARACTERISTICS

 Input resistance (𝒓𝟏 )

ΔV
(for CE) ( ΔlBE )
B 𝑣CE−constant
 Out tut resistance (𝒓𝟎 )
ΔV
(for CE) ( ΔlCE)
C 𝐼B −constant

Current amplification factor

ΔI
(for CE) 𝛽𝑎𝑐 = (Δl C )
B 𝑣CE−constant
 ΔI
(for CB) 𝛼𝑎𝑐 = ( ΔlC )
E 𝑉CB −constant

Applications of transistors

there are three regions of transistor operation :

□ cut off region *Active region *Saturation region

□ Transistor as Voltage amplifier
 To operate it as an amplifier we need to fix its operating voltage somewhere in
active region where it increases the strength of input ac signal and produces an
amplified output signal.
𝑉 𝑅
 Voltage gain 𝐴𝑉 = 𝑉0 = −𝛽𝑎𝑐 𝑅out
1 𝑖𝑛
 Power gain 𝐴𝑝 = 𝐴𝑣 × 𝛽𝑎𝑐

□ Transistor as a Switch
A transistor can be used as a switch if it is operated in its cut off and saturation states
only.

□ Transistor as an Oscillator
An oscillator is a generator of an ac signal using positive feedback
1
Frequency of oscillations if 𝑓 = 2𝜋√𝐿𝐶

□ Relation between 𝜶, 𝜷, 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝜸 :

𝛼 1
𝛽= , 𝛾 = 1 + 𝛽, 𝛾 =
1−𝛼 1−𝛼

SUMMARY OF LOGIC GATES

Name Symbol Boolean Truth Electrical Circuit diagram

expression table Analogue (practical
Realization)
OR 𝑦 = 𝐴+𝐵 A B Y
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1
AND 𝑦 = 𝐴. 𝐵 A B Y
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1
NOT 𝑦 = 𝐴̅ A Y
OR 0 1
Invert 1 0
 er
NOR 𝑦 = ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝐴+𝐵 A B Y
(OR + 0 0 0
NOT) 0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 0
NAND 𝑦 = ̅̅̅̅̅
𝐴. 𝐵 A B Y
(AND 0 0 1
+NOT) 0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0
XOR 𝑦 =𝐴⊕𝐵 A B Y DE MORGANN’S THEOREM
(Exclu 𝑜𝑟 0 0 0 ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑨+𝑩 =𝑨 ̅. 𝑩
̅ , ̅̅̅̅̅ ̅+𝑩
𝑨. 𝑩 = 𝑨 ̅
sive 𝑦 = 𝐴̅𝐵 + 𝐴𝐵̅ 0 1 1
OR) 1 0 1 OR AND NOT
1 1 0 A +0 = A A.0 = 0 A + 𝐴̅
XNOR 𝑦 = 𝐴⨀𝐵 A B Y A+1=A A.1 = A A . 𝐴̅ = 0
(Exclu 𝑜𝑟 0 0 1 A +A = A A.A = 0 𝐴̅̅ . A = A
sive) 𝑦 = 𝐴𝐵 + 𝐴̅. 𝐵̅ 0 1 0
̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑦 = 𝐴⨁𝐵 1 0 0
1 1 1